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Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
Larger cells (2-200um) Extremely small cells less and 2.0um
DNA is linear DNA is circular
Nucleus present-(DNA is inside) No nucleus-DNA is free in cytoplasm
No cell wall in animal cells, cellulose cell Cell wall made of polysaccharides but
wall in plants and chitin cell wall in not cellulose or chitin
fungi
Many organelles, mitochondria present Few organelles, no mitochondria
Large ribosomes Smaller ribosomes
Example Human liver cell Example E.Coli bacterium
Protein Transport
1. Transcription occurs when changing DNA to mRNA, where the mRNA leaves
the nucleus via pores in the nuclear envelope.
2. Proteins are made on ribosomes
3. The ribosomes sometimes attach to the rER where the protein made moves
through making the 3-D shape en route. (ribosomes on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum make proteins that are excreted or attached to the
cell membrane, whereas the ribosomes which are free in the cytoplasm make
proteins which stay in the cytoplasm)
4. Vesicles pinch off the rER, these contain the proteins.
5. Then they are transported to the Golgi apparatus where the vesicle fuses
with the flattened sacs of the Golgi apparatus; here the proteins may
undergo further processing/moulding.
6. Vesicles containing the modified protein pinches off the Golgi apparatus, to
be transported around the cell. Such as extracellular enzymes will be moved
to the cell membrane ready to be excreted.
Cell organisation
Cut the tip from a growing root, should be about 5mm long.
Place the root tip on a watch glass, and add a few drops of
hydrochloric acid
Add a few drops of stain so the chromosomes become darker, so are
easily seen. Schiffs reagent
Warm the watch glass, by passing it slowly through a Bunsen burner
Place the root tip on a microscopic slide, and use a mounted needle to
break it open to spread the cells thinly
Add a few more drops of stain then place a cover slip on it
Squash the cover slip down gently
Warm the slid again for a few seconds to intensify the stain
Now look at the different stages of mitosis under a light microscope
Production of a gametes
In animals the male gamete is sperm, and in female it is an egg cell (ova). In plants
the male gamete is pollen grains, and the female gametes are ovules.
Gametes contain only half the normal amount of chromosomes, so in one gamete in
humans it will be 23.
Genetic variation:
Crossing over of chromatids is when before the first division of meiosis the
homologous pairs of chromosomes come together and pair up, two of the
chromatids in each pair twist around each other. The twisted bit breaks off
their original chromatid and rejoins onto the other chromatid recombining
their genetically material. The point where the chromatids break is called
the chiasmata.
1. Sperm is deposited high up in the vagina, near the cervix. Once there the
sperm makes its way up the cervix and uterus and into one of the two
oviducts fertilisation occurs.
2. The sperm swims towards the egg cell in the oviduct.
3. Once the sperm contacts the zona pellucida of the egg cell, the acrosome
swells and bursts, releasing digestive enzymes, these digestive enzymes
digest the zona pellucida, so it can reach the cell membrane of the egg cell.
4. Once the sperm head fuses with the cell membrane, this causes a cortical
reaction occurs, which is when the egg cell releases cortical granules in a
space between the cell membrane and the zona pellucid.
5. The chemicals from the cortical granules make the zona pellucid thicken,
making it impenetrable to other sperm cells.
6. Once the nuclei fuse the tall is discarded.
A flowering plant:
1. A pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower. The grain absorbs water and
splits open.
2. A pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain down the style. There are three
nuclei in the pollen tube. One tube nucleus at the tube tip and two male
gamete nuclei behind it that digest surrounding cells, making a way through
for the pollen tube to go.
3. When the tube reaches the ovary, it grows through the micropyle, and into
the embryo sac within the ovule.
4. In the embryo sac, the tube nucleus disintegrates and the tip of the pollen
tube bursts releasing two male nuclei
5. One male nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to make a zygote. This divides
by mitosis.
6. The other male nucleus fuses with two other nuclei called polar nuclei,
which is at the centre of the embryo sac. This produces a ell with a large
nucleus. This provides a large food store, called the endosperm.
7. So a double fertilisation has taken place.
Cell differentiation
Stem cells are unspecialised and they can develop into any type of cell.
Totipotency which is when it has the ability to produce all cell types including the
specialised cells in an organism and extra-embryonic cells.
The second type is Pluripotency which has the ability to produce all the specialised
cells, but not extra-embryonic cells.
Totipotency cells are only available in very early stages of the embryo in humans.
When there are only 8 cells, this occurs after three divisions.
Five days after conception, a hollow ball of cells called the blastocyst forms. The
outer cells of the blastocyst form the placenta. The 50 or so cells inside this form
the tissue of the developing embryo, these are known as pluripotent embryonic
stem cells.
Multipotent stem cells are those which still have the capacity to give rise to
different cell types, such as neural stem cells.
1. Stem cells all contain the same gene, but not all of them are expressed
because some are switched off.
2. Under the right conditions some genes are activated and others inactive.
3. mRNA is only transcribed from the active gene.
4. The mRNA from the active genes is then translated into proteins.
5. These proteins modify the cell- they determine the cell structure and control
cell processes.
6. Changes to the cell produced by these proteins causes the cell to become
specialised. These changes are difficult to reverse.
Plants also have stem cells, and are found in places where the plant is growing. All
of the cells are totipotent
Some stem cell treatment already exists, such as treatment for leukaemia, where
bone marrow transplants are given. Scientists are researching treatments for
injuries such as: spinal cord injuries, and heart disease. The treatments can save
many lives, and also improve the quality of lives for many people.
There are two methods from where stem cells can come from, these are Adult stem
cells and embryonic stem cells.
To help these arguments many authorities have been set up. These include looking
at the proposals of research to see if it should be allowed. This ensures that any
research involving embryos is carried out for a good reason. The licensing and
monitoring centres involved in embryonic stem cell research. There are many
guidelines which are involved. They also provide evidence and advice to
governmental officials. There are no ethical objections to a person using
multipotent stem cells derived from adults. In the UK the HFEA regulates research
on human embryos.
Different genes are switched on and off. Such as the b-galactosidase which is an
enzyme, it breaks down the carbohydrate lactose when it is presented in the
surroundings. When lactose is not present in the environment a lactose repressor
molecule binds to the DNA, this prevents the transcription of the b galactosidase
gene.
Discontinuous variation is when individuals are in a specific category, and will fall
into only one category, these can be things like sex, eye colour and blood group.
Some characteristics are controlled by only one gene, and are called monogenic,
these tend to show discontinuous variations.
Most traits are polygenic which is when they are controlled by a number of genes
are different loci. When one gene is affected by another it is known as epistasis.
Some characteristics are only influenced by genotype such as blood group, but
some are influenced by the environment and genotype. Some of these include
Height, monoamine oxidase A, Cancer and animal hair colour.
Height
Since 1850 the human population has on average got 8cm taller. This can be due
to many reasons such as:
Hair colour
In animals they make melanin using the enzyme Tyrosinase. This is the first step
along a chemical pathway. Some animals have light hair in the summer and dark
in the winter this is due to a temperature trigger.
MAOA
Cancer