Sie sind auf Seite 1von 8

AS level biology

Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

The organelles found inside a Eukaryotic cell are:

Organelle Description Function


Nucleus A large organelle surrounded by Chromatins is made from
a nuclear envelope (double proteins and DNA. The pores
membrane) which contains allow substances to move
many pores. The nucleus between the nucleus and the
contains chromatins and are cytoplasm. The nucleolus
often a structure called makes ribosomes
nucleolus
Lysosome A round organelle surrounded Contains digestive enzymes,
by a membrane with no clear these are kept separate from the
internal structure cytoplasm by a surrounding
membrane but can be used to
digest invading cells or to break
down worn out components of
the cell.
Vesicles A small fluid-filled sac, which is Transport substances in and
in the cytoplasm, it is out of the cell and between the
surrounded by a membrane organelle.
Ribosomes A very small organelle that floats The site where proteins are
free in the cytoplasm or is made
attached to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic There are two types of The smooth ER synthesises and
Reticulum endoplasmic reticulum these are processes lipids
smooth ER (due to no The Rough ER folds and
ribosomes) and the rough ER, processes proteins that have
which is covered in ribosomes been made at the ribosomes
Golgi A group of fluid filled flattened It processes and packages new
Apparatus sacs. Vesicles are often seen at lipids and proteins. It also
the edge of the sacs makes lysosomes
Centrioles Hollow cylinders, containing a Involves with the separation of
ring of microtubules chromosomes during cell
division
Mitochondria Are double bound membrane, The site of aerobic respiration,
the inner one is folded to form and is where ATP is produced.
cristae and inside that is the They are very active and require
matrix. It contains enzymes a lot of energy
which are used for respiration
There are many differences between Eukaryotes and prokaryotes,:

Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
Larger cells (2-200um) Extremely small cells less and 2.0um
DNA is linear DNA is circular
Nucleus present-(DNA is inside) No nucleus-DNA is free in cytoplasm
No cell wall in animal cells, cellulose cell Cell wall made of polysaccharides but
wall in plants and chitin cell wall in not cellulose or chitin
fungi
Many organelles, mitochondria present Few organelles, no mitochondria
Large ribosomes Smaller ribosomes
Example Human liver cell Example E.Coli bacterium

Protein Transport

1. Transcription occurs when changing DNA to mRNA, where the mRNA leaves
the nucleus via pores in the nuclear envelope.
2. Proteins are made on ribosomes
3. The ribosomes sometimes attach to the rER where the protein made moves
through making the 3-D shape en route. (ribosomes on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum make proteins that are excreted or attached to the
cell membrane, whereas the ribosomes which are free in the cytoplasm make
proteins which stay in the cytoplasm)
4. Vesicles pinch off the rER, these contain the proteins.
5. Then they are transported to the Golgi apparatus where the vesicle fuses
with the flattened sacs of the Golgi apparatus; here the proteins may
undergo further processing/moulding.
6. Vesicles containing the modified protein pinches off the Golgi apparatus, to
be transported around the cell. Such as extracellular enzymes will be moved
to the cell membrane ready to be excreted.

Cell organisation

Cell In a multicellular organism cells are specialised for a particular


function
Tissue A group of specialised cells, working together to carry out one
function. E.G muscles cells working together to form muscle
tissue
Organs A group of tissues working together to carry out one function.
E.G muscle, nerve and epithelium work together in the heart
Organ systems A group of organs working together to carry out a particular
function, E.G the circulatory system.
Genes are expressed through master genes. Such as in fruit flies once the main
body segment have been determined, the cells in each segment become specialised
for the appropriate structure, (Wings Antennae) The master genes control the
development of each segment. These genes were discovered by looking at
mutations. The master gene produces mRNA which is translated into signal
proteins. These proteins switch on the genes responsible for producing the proteins
needed for the specialisation of the cell in each segment.
The Cell cycle and Mitosis

The cell cycle consists of a period of cell growth


and DNA replication called interphase and a
period of cell division called mitosis.

Interphase is sub divided into three separate


growth stages These are called G,S and G2.
Mitosis is used for growth, repair and asexual
reproduction.

Interphase Synthesis of new cell components such as organelles and


membranes and new DNA. DNA synthesis only occurs during the
S stage
There is no interphase for the first few divisions of a human
embryo. By the end of this stage, the cell contains enough
cytoplasm, organelles and DNA to form two new cells.
1. Prophase The chromosomes condense
The centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cell and
start to form a network of protein fibres called spindles.
The nuclear envelope breaks down freeing chromosomes
2. Metaphase The chromosomes (each with two chromatids) line up
along the middle of the cell
They become attached to the spindle by their centromere
3. Anaphase The centromeres divide, separating each pair of sister
chromatids.
The spindles contract, pulling chromatids to opposite ends
of the cell. Centromeres first.
4. Telophase The chromatids reach the opposite poles on the spindle
The chromatids uncoil and come long and thin again.
The nuclear envelope forms around each group of
chromosomes, so there are two nuclei.
The cytoplasm divides and there are now two daughter
cells that are genetically identical to each other
Mitosis is finished and the start of interphase begins.

Root tips and observing mitosis

Cut the tip from a growing root, should be about 5mm long.
Place the root tip on a watch glass, and add a few drops of
hydrochloric acid
Add a few drops of stain so the chromosomes become darker, so are
easily seen. Schiffs reagent
Warm the watch glass, by passing it slowly through a Bunsen burner
Place the root tip on a microscopic slide, and use a mounted needle to
break it open to spread the cells thinly
Add a few more drops of stain then place a cover slip on it
Squash the cover slip down gently
Warm the slid again for a few seconds to intensify the stain
Now look at the different stages of mitosis under a light microscope
Production of a gametes

In animals the male gamete is sperm, and in female it is an egg cell (ova). In plants
the male gamete is pollen grains, and the female gametes are ovules.

Gametes contain only half the normal amount of chromosomes, so in one gamete in
humans it will be 23.

1. The DNA replicates so there are two identical


copies of each chromosomes called chromatids
2. The DNA condense to form double armed
chromosomes, made from two sister chromatids
3. The chromosomes arrange themselves into
homologues pairs, so 1 will match up with 1.
4. First division the homologues pairs are
separated, halving the chromosomes number.
5. Second division the pairs of sister chromatids
are separated
6. Four new gametes that are generically different
are produced.

Genetic variation:

Crossing over of chromatids is when before the first division of meiosis the
homologous pairs of chromosomes come together and pair up, two of the
chromatids in each pair twist around each other. The twisted bit breaks off
their original chromatid and rejoins onto the other chromatid recombining
their genetically material. The point where the chromatids break is called
the chiasmata.

Independent assortment of chromosomes is when the four daughter cells


formed from meiosis have completely different combinations of
chromosomes.
Fertilisation

Fertilisation is where male and female gametes fuse.

In mammals fertilisation occurs in the oviduct, and in flowering plants it occurs in


the embryo sac.

1. Sperm is deposited high up in the vagina, near the cervix. Once there the
sperm makes its way up the cervix and uterus and into one of the two
oviducts fertilisation occurs.
2. The sperm swims towards the egg cell in the oviduct.
3. Once the sperm contacts the zona pellucida of the egg cell, the acrosome
swells and bursts, releasing digestive enzymes, these digestive enzymes
digest the zona pellucida, so it can reach the cell membrane of the egg cell.
4. Once the sperm head fuses with the cell membrane, this causes a cortical
reaction occurs, which is when the egg cell releases cortical granules in a
space between the cell membrane and the zona pellucid.
5. The chemicals from the cortical granules make the zona pellucid thicken,
making it impenetrable to other sperm cells.
6. Once the nuclei fuse the tall is discarded.

A flowering plant:

1. A pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower. The grain absorbs water and
splits open.
2. A pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain down the style. There are three
nuclei in the pollen tube. One tube nucleus at the tube tip and two male
gamete nuclei behind it that digest surrounding cells, making a way through
for the pollen tube to go.
3. When the tube reaches the ovary, it grows through the micropyle, and into
the embryo sac within the ovule.
4. In the embryo sac, the tube nucleus disintegrates and the tip of the pollen
tube bursts releasing two male nuclei
5. One male nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to make a zygote. This divides
by mitosis.
6. The other male nucleus fuses with two other nuclei called polar nuclei,
which is at the centre of the embryo sac. This produces a ell with a large
nucleus. This provides a large food store, called the endosperm.
7. So a double fertilisation has taken place.

Cell differentiation

Stem cells are unspecialised and they can develop into any type of cell.

Totipotency which is when it has the ability to produce all cell types including the
specialised cells in an organism and extra-embryonic cells.

The second type is Pluripotency which has the ability to produce all the specialised
cells, but not extra-embryonic cells.
Totipotency cells are only available in very early stages of the embryo in humans.
When there are only 8 cells, this occurs after three divisions.

Five days after conception, a hollow ball of cells called the blastocyst forms. The
outer cells of the blastocyst form the placenta. The 50 or so cells inside this form
the tissue of the developing embryo, these are known as pluripotent embryonic
stem cells.

Multipotent stem cells are those which still have the capacity to give rise to
different cell types, such as neural stem cells.

How stem cells work:

1. Stem cells all contain the same gene, but not all of them are expressed
because some are switched off.
2. Under the right conditions some genes are activated and others inactive.
3. mRNA is only transcribed from the active gene.
4. The mRNA from the active genes is then translated into proteins.
5. These proteins modify the cell- they determine the cell structure and control
cell processes.
6. Changes to the cell produced by these proteins causes the cell to become
specialised. These changes are difficult to reverse.

Totipotency can be demonstrated by plant tissue culture

Plants also have stem cells, and are found in places where the plant is growing. All
of the cells are totipotent

1. A single cell is taken from a growing area on a plant.


2. The cell is placed in some growth medium that contains nutrients and growth
hormones. The growth medium is sterile, so microorganisms cant grow and
compete with a plant cell.
3. The plant cell will grow and divide into a mass of unspecialised cells. If the
conditions are suitable, the unspecialised cells will differentiate into
specialised cells.
4. Eventually the cell will grow and differentiate into an entire plant.
Stem cells in Medicine

Some stem cell treatment already exists, such as treatment for leukaemia, where
bone marrow transplants are given. Scientists are researching treatments for
injuries such as: spinal cord injuries, and heart disease. The treatments can save
many lives, and also improve the quality of lives for many people.
There are two methods from where stem cells can come from, these are Adult stem
cells and embryonic stem cells.

Adult stem cells Embryonic stem cells


These are obtained from the body These are obtained from early
tissue of an adult, such as bone embryos
marrow. Embryos are created in a
They can be obtained in a very laboratory using IVF, and are
simple operation, with very little fertilised outside the womb.
risk involved. But there is quite a Once the embryo are 4-5 days
lot of discomfort for the person. old, stem cells are moved and the
Adult stem cells arent as flexible embryo is destroyed.
as embryonic stem cells are they Embryonic stem cells can develop
are pluripotent and can only into all type of specialised cells.
develop into a limited range of But there are ethical implications,
cells. such as it is a genetically unique
person, so it has the right to have
a chance in this world.

How society makes decisions about the use of stem cells.

There are many for and against arguments.

To help these arguments many authorities have been set up. These include looking
at the proposals of research to see if it should be allowed. This ensures that any
research involving embryos is carried out for a good reason. The licensing and
monitoring centres involved in embryonic stem cell research. There are many
guidelines which are involved. They also provide evidence and advice to
governmental officials. There are no ethical objections to a person using
multipotent stem cells derived from adults. In the UK the HFEA regulates research
on human embryos.

Different genes are switched on and off. Such as the b-galactosidase which is an
enzyme, it breaks down the carbohydrate lactose when it is presented in the
surroundings. When lactose is not present in the environment a lactose repressor
molecule binds to the DNA, this prevents the transcription of the b galactosidase
gene.

Eukaryotes: genes in uncoiled, accessible regions of the eukaryote DNA can be


transcribed into messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the section
of DNA adjacent to the gene to be transcribed. This section is known as the
promoter region. Only once the enzyme has become attached to the DNA will the
transcription proceed. The gene remains switched off until the enzyme attaches to
the promoter region successfully. ``
Variance

Continuous variation is when individuals in a population vary within a range with


no distinct categories; these can be things like height, mass or skin colour.

Discontinuous variation is when individuals are in a specific category, and will fall
into only one category, these can be things like sex, eye colour and blood group.

Some characteristics are controlled by only one gene, and are called monogenic,
these tend to show discontinuous variations.

Most traits are polygenic which is when they are controlled by a number of genes
are different loci. When one gene is affected by another it is known as epistasis.

Some characteristics are only influenced by genotype such as blood group, but
some are influenced by the environment and genotype. Some of these include
Height, monoamine oxidase A, Cancer and animal hair colour.

Height

Since 1850 the human population has on average got 8cm taller. This can be due
to many reasons such as:

Taller men have more children, resulting in a gradual change


Greater movements of people have lead to less inbreeding
Improved health, especially in protein
The end of child labour has allowed more energy to be put into growth.

Hair colour

In animals they make melanin using the enzyme Tyrosinase. This is the first step
along a chemical pathway. Some animals have light hair in the summer and dark
in the winter this is due to a temperature trigger.

MAOA

Monoamine oxidase A is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of


neurotransmitters in the brain involved in the regulation of behaviour. It has been
found that in some individuals they have a rare mutation of the MAOA gene, where
no enzymes are produced; these people portray a very aggressive behaviour.

Cancer

It is the uncontrolled division of cells that leads to a lump of cells (tumours)


forming. It is made up of both an environmental and genetic threshold.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen