Sublevel Caving Todays Dependable Low-Cost Ore Factory
G Bull1 and C H Page2
ABSTRACT
Much of the theory upon which the Sublevel Caving (SLC) method is
based was developed in Scandinavia many years ago. It was based mainly
on bin theory and ellipsoid of draw configurations derived from
sandbox models. In many cases, classical SLC layouts influenced by
these early theories obtained relatively poor results. Early dilution entry,
low tonnage factors and low recoveries were commonly experienced.
SLC soon gained the reputation of being a high dilution, low recovery
and development intensive method. This led to SLC falling into disfavour
generally, other than as a pillar reclamation method used at the end of the
life of mines.
More recently a number of mines, notably those in Australia, have
adopted SLC as a primary extraction method and have achieved good
recovery results. The reason for the better results is believed to be an
outcome of modifications in some of the basic design parameters and
operational procedures. This has led to questions being raised regarding
the original bin theory assumptions and classical SLC layout designs.
1. MAusIMM, Technical Director, SRK Consulting, 25 Richardson
Street, WestPerth WA 6005.
2. Corporate Consultant, SRK Consulting, Suite 800 580 Hornby
Street, Vancouver, BC V6C 3B6, Canada.
FIG 1 - Schematic view of sublevel caving.
MassMin 2000 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
It is clear that the fragmentation and flow characteristics occurring in a
choke blast situation (compaction of waste, variable size and shape of
fragmentation throughout the ring) conflicts significantly with the
assumptions of regular loose flow of uniform, fine grained, material in a
bin. Interactive versus independent draw conditions can also materially
effect the outcome of a SLC operation.
The good results obtained more recently can only be explained by
using new models of behaviour, which have to a large extent been
borrowed from block caving. If these models are correct, they point to a
number of design and operational changes that can be applied to improve
the effectiveness of SLC.
This paper discusses the factors that may not have been fully
considered in early SLC design and modelling. It emphasises the
importance of delayed dilution entry as a primary objective of sound SLC
design and provides a basis for efficient SLC design and operation.
INTRODUCTION
The apparent contradiction of SLC is a slice of broken material
being drawn relatively clean while being surrounded by broken
waste (Figure 1). It seems to defy logic, but experience shows it
is possible. When a ring is blasted (typically 1000 2000
tonnes), the first part is drawn clean. Waste from above and
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G BULL and C H PAGE
behind the ring then starts to come into the draw point and a
mixture of ore and waste is drawn. The proportion of waste
increases until shut-off is reached. When draw from each ring is
stopped at shut-off point, some ore will be left behind. This
remnant ore mixes with the previous ore/waste in the cave and
this dilution material increases in grade as the cave matures.
Dilution is any material (barren or mineralised waste and
remnants of ore from previously drawn rings) that is not part of
the current fired ring. The objective is to keep the waste out of
the draw point for as long as possible, but to try and make the
most out of zones of higher grade dilution. For this reason it is
very important that a practical, common sense model of how, or
why, SLC works is agreed. This model will then be the basis for
determining critical design and operating aspects of SLC. The
basis for any SLC model is as follows:
The overlying rockmass must be able to cave freely and/or a
large volume of broken material or introduced fill material
must occur immediately above the ore to be mined. This
broken material provides confinement to keep each
consecutive blasted ring of ore in place at the draw point.
When ore is drawn from the blasted ring it is replaced by the
broken waste rock from above or behind the ring (this
dilution material may carry grade).
Because the waste and the ore are moving downward towards
the draw point mouth, some mixing occurs. This mixture
determines the grade of the material being drawn at the draw
point.
The layout design and operational effort should be directed at
extracting as much of the ore as clean as possible, delaying
the appearance of waste/dilution and thereafter keeping the
ratio of dilution material to ore as low as possible for as
long as possible.
As dilution entry point, quantity and value of the diluting
material affect the economics of the operation, it is important to
be able to predict, with confidence, these parameters in order to
calculate the ore reserves and planned tonnage and grade factors.
This calls for an understanding of the material flow mechanisms
in a SLC situation, which can be obtained from SLC design
theory, current SLC mining practice and ideas borrowed from
block caving experience.
Besides the large iron ore mines in Sweden that have used
SLC as a primary mining method with apparent success for more
than three decades, more recently a number of mines in Australia
have adopted SLC as a primary extraction method and have
achieved good results through improved layouts and better draw
management. This has led to questions being raised regarding the
original bin theory assumptions and classical SLC layout
designs. Classical theory and practice have dilution entry
typically at between 20 40 per cent of ring tonnage draw and
high cumulative dilution (20 40 per cent), with grade factors
typically around 60 per cent, giving resultant low recoveries.
More recent operations using improved layouts claim to have
achieved dilution entries in the 40 per cent 70 per cent range,
lower cumulative dilution (15 30 per cent), higher tonnage
factors, with grade factors in excess of 80 per cent and recoveries
around the 100 per cent level.
The focus of this paper is, therefore, to examine and discuss
the changes in SLC design and draw management that have
contributed towards the improved operational results. Emphasis
is placed on the importance of delayed dilution entry and
interactive draw in producing superior results.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SLC METHOD
The SLC method functions on the principle that the ore is
fragmented by blasting, while the overlying host rock fractures
and caves in under the action of mining induced stresses and
538 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
gravity. It is a top down method, with ore being extracted level
by level working downwards through the orebody. The caved
waste rock from the overlying rock mass fills the void created by
ore extraction. Figure 1 is a schematic view through a SLC mine.
The orebody is divided into sublevels at regular vertical
spacings. A network of production drifts are developed across the
full width of the orebody footprint at pre determined horizontal
spacings. These drifts connect on one end to a slot drift and on
the opposite end to a footwall (perimeter) drift which in turn
connects via an access cross-cut to the main decline. The
perimeter drift has a series of cross-cuts leading off it to ore
passes. The ore passes end on a gathering level where the ore is
transferred to the crusher and thereafter, conveyed or hoisted out
of the mine. Where ore is trucked directly to surface from
production levels, ore passes and crosscuts are exchanged for
stockpile bays.
The volume of ore immediately above each sublevel
production drift is drilled with long holes in a fan or ring pattern.
The drilling is undertaken as a separate operation, and completed
well before blasting and loading commences (usually several
months ahead). Blasting commences on the hangingwall or far
end of the orebody and retreats towards the footwall or near side.
A slot is blasted first and thereafter the rings or fans of
production holes are fired and loaded out in succession. Ore
extraction normally retreats on an approximately straight front,
or series of panels each with a straight front, so that adjacent
cross-cuts can be operated simultaneously. Production blasting
and loading can take place on a number of sublevels
simultaneously provided that the each successive level lags
behind the level above by a distance not less than one to two
times the vertical difference between the sublevels.
Breaking the ore by blasting removes the dependency on
natural fragmentation as the mechanism for ore breakage
shared by most other methods of caving.
As mining advances downwards, level by level, through the
orebody, the interface between the caved and solid rock above
will move up toward the surface as the cave back constantly
cracks up and fails providing rock to fill the void made by
extraction of the ore. Passive support for the walls of the void
created by removal of the ore in SLC operations is provided by
the caved overlying material which functions as backfill.
Provided that the orebody is not too deep seated, after sufficient
ore is extracted the cave will propagate through to the surface.
After this has occurred, with further ore extraction, the broken
material is drawn down, reducing confinement on the upper parts
of the cave walls, causing further failure of the cave walls. This
process goes on until the orebody is depleted and the cave walls
stabilise.
Advantages of SLC
The following is a list of a few of the important practical
advantages SLC has over other bulk mining methods:
Top down and low capital: It is a top down approach to
mining which means that the mine can get into production
earlier than most other mining methods and at substantially
less initial capital outlay.
Flexible: It can deal with changes in the outline of the
orebody identified by information gained during mine
development. This feature enables sublevel caving to access
ore in the deposit where other bulk mining methods may
have more limited opportunities.
Selective: If low-grade or barren zones are encountered the
bulk of this unpay ground can be left behind, loading out
only the swell material. The ring pattern in such waste
zones can be altered to create coarse fragmentation, to reduce
dilution effects on subsequent levels.
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Rock factory: In large deposits where conditions permit,
development, production drilling, blasting and loading are
carried out on separate levels or independent areas and are
operations that are conducted independently of each other.
Each different type machine ideally has several work areas
available to operate in at any point in time. These factors
allow SLC to be a continuous repetitive operation that can
maintain an efficient mining process. It may be likened to an
industrial factory process where optimum utilisation of
personnel and machinery is possible.
Low-risk: Very little ore is at risk at any one time (a few
hundred to a few thousand tonnes in an individual ring).
Lost ore can be recovered by overdraw on the next level
down.
Safe: All work is carried out in well-supported drifts.
CLASSICAL AND IMPROVED SLC THEORY
The knowledge base for SLC is comparatively small as relatively
few mines use the method. Most of the available SLC theory,
generally found in mining handbooks and journals, comes out of
Scandinavia and is many years old and mostly based on sand box
model studies and classical bin theory. Application of the old
or classical theory in the design and operation of SLC mines
over the years gained SLC a reputation for being a method that is
development intensive and high in dilution.
Janelid (1968) and Cox (1967) quote the following facts and
figures:
ore from development = 15 20 per cent of total production;
ore loss = 15 20 per cent;
waste dilution = 15 30 per cent (for iron ore 15 30 per
cent by weight and 35 50 per cent by volume); and
height between sublevels is 7-15 m and rings drilled
vertically.
However, good results from some recent Australian operations,
and the changes the Scandinavians are making (high-level
intervals) show that much improved results are possible with this
method. These more recent results show the following:
ore from development reduced to as little as seven per cent of
total production (level intervals typically 20 30 m);
cumulative dilution between 15 24 per cent;
metal recoveries between 90 per cent 100 per cent; and
dilution entry points in excess of 50 per cent.
It must be stated, though, that data on draw behaviour is
difficult to come by and in situations where dilution carries
relatively high grades it is difficult to assess true dilution. Here,
dilution refers to the material that is drawn which is not part of
the current blasted ring. So the determination of true dilution
from quoted results is difficult. Some of the Australian SLC
mines quote very high recoveries and grade factors but these
figures are not always adjusted for the grade in the diluting
material. A related problem is that many mines judge themselves
against a reserve grade which already includes an estimate for
mining dilution. However, the metal being recovered with respect
to the tonnages being milled indicate that the improved SLC
operations are a lot more efficient than their earlier classical
predecessors.
The main differences between the classical and improved
SLC layouts may be seen by comparing Figure 1 (the classical
SLC layout) with Figure 2 (the improved SLC layout). These
differences are also shown in Figure 3. Essentially, in the
improved layout, drill holes are shorter and side holes flatter.
Most notable is that interactive draw is not possible in classical
layouts as the draw cones on any particular level do not intersect.
In the improved model interactive draw is possible.
MassMin 2000 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
The classical SLC model
The classical model of SLC (Kvapil, 1982,1992) was based on
ellipsoids of motion and isolated draw, taking place at individual
draw points. Even where straight lines of draw points were
worked simultaneously, the layout did not permit interaction of
draw columns to take place. Further problems associated with
this model are that it ignores differences in fragmentation,
material types, the significant weight of the rockmass within the
cave that compacts the cave material immediately above and
adjacent to production draw points, and the compressing action
of the blast which also further compacts the waste behind the
blasted ring.
The conventional draw curves that most designers have used in
the past are shown in Figure 4 (Kvapil, 1982). Although this
figure shows dilution entry at around 50 per cent, conventional
design typically has dilution entering at low extraction
percentages (20 40 per cent) giving rise to the reputation of
SLC being a high dilution method. It is agreed that in certain
circumstances (ie drawing coarsely fragmented ore beneath a
blanket of very fine waste material) dilution can enter very
quickly (ten per cent of draw) and soon flood the draw point.
However, with improved designs in many, more recent,
operations the results show that dilution may enter at much
higher draw extractions (well over 50 per cent) giving improved
grade factors. The information used to justify this claim is scarce
and not well documented, but the improved model described
below is based on the belief that delayed dilution entry is
possible and appears to be the basis for some significant changes
from the conventional model of SLC.
The critical aspects of the improved SLC model
SLC Mines in Australia were breaking many of the classic rules
but achieving better results than suggested by the classic theory.
The new theory presented herein is based on observations from
these mines in conjunction with experience from block caving
operations. The improved model is a common sense approach
and is a reasonable basis for identifying the more critical aspects
of SLC design. Many of the fundamental aspects of the
classical theory remain important but there are some new ones
and some with a different emphasis in the improved model.
While some aspects are more significant than others in
contributing to the overall results, what is clear is that the
following are critical in achieving better results:
Interactive Draw: The improved layouts permit interactive
draw to take place from a series of adjacent draw points that
are retreated in a straight line. As material is drawn
simultaneously or in rotation (taking a few buckets at a time
from each) from these draw points, zones of low density are
created between adjacent draw columns, which increases the
width of the column of moving material and allows the rock
to flow at much lower angles than is the case when draw
points are drawn in isolation from its neighbours (Figure 5).
In turn, this smoothes out the draw down profile of the
ore/waste interface and delays dilution entry (Figure 6).
(Draw data from two Australian mines showed large
differences in extraction results between isolated and
interactive draw). Interactive draw appears to be the single
most significant factor affecting SLC performance.
Loosened ore and compacted waste: Compacted waste
material does not flow as readily as loose freshly blasted
material. Sandbox modelling carried out by classical
theorists could not and did not take into account the
compacting effect of the blast. The weight of the rock within
the cave compacts the waste material and the action of the
blast further consolidates this material immediately behind
the ring. This more dense material will not flow as freely as
the freshly blasted ore that has been loosened by the blast.
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G BULL and C H PAGE
FIG 2 - SLC improved layout.
Temporary arching of the coarse material: Early research,
testing various size and shape particles in draw models
(McCormick, 1968), showed that the larger the fragment size
the wider the ellipsoid of draw became. What the classical
model failed to recognise (or researchers failed to identify)
was the fact that the fragmentation size within a radial
pattern (ring) blast generally varies from coarser towards the
toe end and finer towards the collar end of holes (Figure 7)
and that the coarser material forms wider arches than the
finer material. The wider temporary arching of the coarser
fragments allows loosening of the finer material below,
which makes it flow more readily. Then, interactive draw
limits the time this temporary arching takes place and the
legs of the arch are loosened and fall in. This prevents or
minimises the occurrence of major hang-ups and large voids
into which surges of dilution may flow. The loosened ore,
initially the fine fraction followed by the coarser fragments,
is drawn preferentially to the compacted waste thereby
delaying dilution entry and maximising ore recovery.
Conversely, where independent draw is practiced, the
temporary ore arches hold up longer and allow dilution
from behind the ring to surge into the void, causing
premature dilution entry and reduced ore recoveries.
Differential fragmentation: Finer fragmented material
flows more readily than coarse material. Dilution should be
coarser than the ore (fine material can flow through coarse
material). If ore is finer than the waste it will be drawn
preferentially delaying dilution entry. Drill and blast design
can control the fragmentation of ore.
540 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
Draw coverage: The wider the draw point development the
easier it is for the ore to flow into the draw point and the
more even the ore/waste interface draw down, provided the
draw point is worked across its full width.
High-grade dilution: Having a mineralised envelope above
and around the extraction volume ensures that dilution
carries grade and therefore improves grade factors. In
vertical, or very steeply dipping orebodies, a strategy of
delayed draw on the first few levels sets up a thick
high-grade dilution blanket that ensures high recoveries
throughout the life of mine. This finer blasted ore impedes
the flow of the coarser waste rock through the blanket to the
draw points. Unless very carefully controlled over-drawing
on the footwall side is practiced, this delayed draw strategy is
not recommended in less steeply dipping orebodies as the
high grade dilution material tends to drag on the footwall
side and may be cut off by waste from above.
Dilution entry: The aim should be to preserve the
high-grade dilution blanket as long as possible to keep pure
waste well away from an active draw point. Also, by having
draw drifts as close as possible will lower the height of the
interaction zone and improve interactive draw which in turn
delays dilution entry (Figure 8). For block caving, Laubscher
(1994) established that the dilution entry point was related to
draw column height and height of interaction. A similar
relation exists for SLC.
Ground support: Ground support is installed primarily to
maintain the integrity of the brow. The brow has to remain
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 SUBLEVEL CAVING TODAYS DEPENDABLE LOW-COST ORE FACTORY
FIG 3 - Comparison of classical and improved SLC layouts.
stable for the short period of draw and subsequent charging
up of the next ring. The support intensity will be much more
than that required for normal tunnel stability since it has to
accept the ring blast damage and has an extra degree of
freedom.
Blasting: The blasting must break the rock to the right
fragmentation (uniform and not too fine) and without causing
excessive damage, especially to the next row of holes. It
should be sufficient to loosen the ore and compact the waste.
Powder factors are generally more than 30 per cent greater
than for unconfined blasting. Getting the right amount of
explosive to the toe end of holes is critical.
The overall objective for the SLC operation is delayed dilution
entry. The items discussed above are very important when
considering the layouts, conditions, equipment and procedures
that will achieve or promote ideal draw conditions.
IDEAL LAYOUTS
Everything in underground mining is a compromise between
ideal layouts and what the orebody will allow you to do. In the
case of SLC the compromise is one of:
having smaller sized and wider spaced development
(horizontally and vertically) in an attempt to lower operating
costs, but in doing this, suffering loss of tonnes and grade
through potentially earlier dilution entry and a lower grade
factor; or
MassMin 2000 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
having more closely spaced, wider drifts to delay dilution
entry and achieve better grades, but spending more on
support and operating costs.
Clarity is required about what the compromises are and their
likely consequences. Often mining engineers focus on immediate
development costs and are quick to conclude that less
development is cheaper. In doing so they often overlook the
effects this may have on head grade (which is mostly a function
of planned and unplanned dilution) and loss of production. In
other words, insufficient thought is given to the things that can go
wrong that are brought about by non-ideal layouts. So it is vitally
important to remember that dilution and production surety are
the two most important engineering considerations and this must
feature strongly in mine layout design considerations.
There are a number of aspects that must be considered:
Longitudinal versus transverse layouts: This decision is
dependent on a number of factors such as: major stress
magnitude and direction, dip and plunge of the orebody,
orebody dimensions, and the frequency and orientation of
major structures. As these vary from mine to mine no single
prescription can be given. The following are more general
comments.
1. Transverse layout: This allows for more draw points
and therefore more production flexibility. Tramming
distances are shorter. Easier to ventilate than
longitudinal layout, as main return raises are normally
placed on the footwall or near side. Also cross-cuts are
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G BULL and C H PAGE
shorter and therefore ventilation ducting losses are less.
Ore pass layout simpler and shorter hauling distances
on crusher transfer level. Long faces are more
relaxed and can be less stable; but if the face is
retreated in steps of panels consisting of say five
cross-cuts each, the stability problem will be
minimised.
2. Longitudinal layout: Longer tramming distances.
Less production drives therefore less flexibility. More
development and more complex layouts for ore passes
and collection level development. Ventilation layouts
more complex and requires very long ventilation ducts.
If cross-cuts were used to allow for tramming to the
footwall or near side, complicated cross-over blasts
would be necessary.
Size and shape of production drifts: The drifts should be as
wide as possible to ensure good draw coverage. They should
be as low as possible to allow for pillar wall stability and
shorter muckpiles that enable easy access for charging. Also,
have flat back drifts to widen the zone of moving material.
This is an area of compromise as the stability of square
brows is open to question and if arching the
corners/shoulders results in more stable development then
stability might take precedence.
Drift spacing: Place production drifts as close together as
possible. This is important in order to achieve interactive
draw conditions (Figure 8). The spacing is dependent on
pillar size and shape and loads. Pillar loads are high in the
abutment areas and low beneath the cave.
FIG 4 - Kvapils conventional model draw curves (modified graphics).
542 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
Level interval: This is dependent on drilling accuracy (hole
deviation). Common sense suggests that the closer together
the levels are the less likely that something will go wrong.
Level interval has a significant affect on development cost
per production tonne. With the improvements in drill
technology the industry is rapidly increasing the level
interval. Intervals of 20 30 m are quite common now.
Ring burden: In the past, the ring burden has been related to
dig depth. This is doubtful though, as no buckets can dig
anywhere near the back of a muckpile. The burden is
dependent on the hole size, ring pattern and powder factor.
The powder factor should be in the range of 0.9 - 1.1 kg/m3.
The blast must minimise the incidence of freezing (an
ever-present danger with choke blasting) and must ensure
loosening of ore and compaction of waste. Overburdening
is the common cause of ring freezing and damage to the
next row of holes. The design limits on the burden are
probably around 3 m.
Hole size: The largest possible holes are more economic,
more accurate (so level intervals can be increased), are less
likely to be closed (less re-drills) and can have larger burdens
making it easier to access next ring of holes for charging. But
they can do more damage to the next row of holes and can
cause severe back-break affecting the collars of the next ring.
Sticky ANFO or emulsion can be used to charge larger hole
diameters but the limit is probably 115 mm.
Ring pattern: Fragmentation and damage are both
determined by the ring layout. The hole spacing should be
larger than the ring burden by a ratio of at least 1.3:1 at the
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 SUBLEVEL CAVING TODAYS DEPENDABLE LOW-COST ORE FACTORY
FIG 5 - Draw points pulled independently or interactively.
toes of the holes. The ring pattern is also influenced by the
rockmass conditions. In coarse blocky ground, smaller
diameter closer spaced holes may be necessary to control
fragmentation.
Ring inclination: Incline the ring towards the cave by 10 -
20 to adjust the shape of the moving material so that more
ore and less waste is included in the mobile envelope.
Inclining the rings also shields the draw point from the waste
above and reduces the vertical pressure on the ore allowing it
to loosen up more easily with draw. A further advantage is
that it reduces the amount of back-break to the brow and
makes it easier to access the next ring for clean outs and
charging (Figure 9). There is very little information
documented on ring inclination and the affect of different
angles, but inclinations of 10 - 20 are quite common.
Dilution blanket: Provided the dilution blanket carries
good grades, keep it as thick as possible to keep pure waste
well away from active draw points, and to keep grade factors
high. The dilution blanket can be drawn down towards the
end of the life of the mine at marginal cost.
Short hauls: Keep haulage distances for LHD as short as
possible. Ore passes are cheap in terms of cost per tonne
compared to additional hauling costs, so have more well
placed ore passes and shorter hauls.
Continuous development: Avoid having cross-cuts in
combination with drives (this would only occur in
MassMin 2000 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
longitudinal layout), as it is very difficult to bring the rings
through an intersection. In such cases multi-ring blasts are
often necessary and there is a high frequency of freezing
with multi-ring blasts in choke conditions.
Slots: A free-face is needed before ring blasting can start.
There are essentially four types of slot: (1) individual slot
with a slot raise at the end of each drift; (2) continuous slot
for a number of adjacent drifts with a slot raise at one end;
(3) slashing along the axis of the drift, or (4) slashing
along a perpendicular slot drift.
MATTERS THAT CAN GO WRONG AND WHY
THIS HAPPENS
Before discussing the ideal conditions under which to operate
SLC it is first useful to consider what can go wrong. The
emphasis should be on achieving late dilution entry and high
production rates per draw point.
The items that have been identified as contributing to the
success of the improved SLC model can also detract from the
results if they are not managed correctly. The areas that most
commonly go wrong are listed below:
Brow failure: Wedge failures in the draw point brow cause
uneven narrow draw. Wedge failure or back-break also allows
muck to rill out further than planned making it difficult to
charge the next ring of holes. Shear failure of the brow area
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G BULL and C H PAGE
due to high horizontal stress will damage the holes making it
difficult to charge and can necessitate reaming out of the
collars.
Fines loss: This happens particularly where free gold, or
other mineral, occurs and blasting causes excessive
proportion of fines. Size of hole and type of explosive
contribute to the amount of fines.
Pillar failure: High stresses, vertical structures running
parallel to the pillar walls, or pillars that are too small can
contribute to pillar failure. This may necessitate high support
costs to remedy the problem. In highly stressed ground,
development that is too far ahead can also suffer pillar wall
failure due to unnecessarily long time exposures.
Bridges: When toe end of holes remain unbroken, bridges
form (Figure 10). As it is bad practice to draw the draw point
to a void, bridges can remain undetected until they have
grown larger over a series of rings and thickened until they
are down to the brow. Bridging allows waste to flow around
the bridge and cut off the ore remaining in the solid
bridge. If bridging is serious it may require re-slotting to
re-establish normal operations.
Walls: Walls are said to occur when the waste stands up
as a wall and does not flow down filling the void made by
ore extraction. This may be the result of over compaction or
the presence of sticky material. A Wall may also result
when double rings are fired with the front ring freezing.
Double ring blasts are not recommended.
FIG 6 - More even draw down of ore/waste interface with interactive draw.
544 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
Ring freezing: Rings may freeze due to blasting problems
such as overburdening, or result from a delay in operations
where the caved rock has compacted and over-consolidated,
leaving no expansion space for the ring to break into (Figure
11). If a draw point has been left to stand for a long period of
time and it is essential to loosen the ground by drawing off a
few buckets of material prior to blasting the next ring.
Ribs between draw points: Unbroken toes on the side of
the ring leaves unbroken ore between the drifts (Figure 12).
This is a result of too large a spacing of the toes of side holes
and/or incompletely drilled (or blocked) holes.
Oversize fragmentation in pillar area: Hole deviation,
misfires or incompletely charged holes especially in the toe
end of the holes passing through the pillar area can cause
significant oversize. This slows or interrupts the draw process
and affects production rate. If the large rocks cause hang-ups
it can result in premature dilution entry as waste surges into
the void or waste fines flow down through the coarse ore
(Figure 13). The coarse ore is cutoff by the waste and lost
into the cave.
Wedge failure within the cave: Large, Steeply dipping
continuous structures day-lighting on the top of the pillar and
along the face of the retreating panel may result in
large-scale wedge failure or sliding on the structure. This
would shear drill holes and necessitate re-drilling and use of
sleeves to bridge gaps when charging.
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FIG 7 - Fragmentation profile through typical ring blast.
Overhangs: Dipping ore, or domains of strong rock that
result in an overhang geometry, with delayed caving, can
result in significant stresses being induced due to the
overhang. This can result in crushing of development and/or
loss of holes. This may happen where the retreat is from the
footwall to the hangingwall of an inclined orebody, which
makes this retreat direction undesirable.
Incomplete slots: If the production drift starts with a slot
that is not open to full height the rapid formation of bridges
and ribs can occur. This would require re-slotting to be
undertaken to get the area into production.
Loss of holes: Drilling too far ahead and stress changes or
relaxation can result in deterioration of drill holes (shearing
or crushing). Daylighting of structure can cause block
movement and cut-offs, loose material can rill into
break-through holes and blasting damage from the previous
ring can cause hole loss.
Unplanned overcharging: Where high stresses have caused
dog-earing of blast holes or opening of joints/structures and
the hole volume has increased overcharging of holes may
occur unless sleeves are used. Overcharged holes usually
result in excessive damage to the next row of holes.
Delayed or no caving: If the plan area undercut by the initial
production level is insufficient to cause caving of the
overlying rockmass to occur, an airblast risk could develop if
the matter is not correctly managed. Contingency plans, such
MassMin 2000 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
as: increasing the undercut area, assisted caving through
blasting or hydro-fracturing, or use of introduced fill
materials will have to be considered.
Ideal layouts for SLC have been reviewed and what can go
wrong and why this happens during operations has been
discussed. As mentioned earlier, mining methods are a
compromise between what looks good on paper and what the
orebody will accommodate. Determining what the orebody will
allow is a technical consideration. Achieving what the planning
promises to deliver is a matter of management. The ideal
layouts are a result of the technical considerations and things
that can go wrong are minimised through good operational
management. A combination of a sound technical basis and
good operational management should indicate the ideally
achievable conditions for SLC.
IDEAL CONDITIONS FOR SLC
What the orebody will allow you to do is a function of mining
difficulty. Geometry, rock mass characteristics, major structures,
stress conditions, grade distribution and rate of mining
collectively determine what the degree of mining difficulty will
be for a particular orebody. For SLC these conditions should
ideally be as follows:
Strong rock: This enables the use of small pillars (small
dimension between drifts), which allows good draw coverage
and interactive draw that contributes to delayed dilution
entry.
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G BULL and C H PAGE
FIG 8 - Effects of draw point spacing on improving draw characteristics.
Competent rock: This is determined by degree of jointing
and formation of unstable wedges. Competent rock implies
few joints and strong joint surfaces (little infilling, irregular
and rough surfaces), allowing for wide backs in production
drifts. Where the presence of joints may cause wedge failures
in one direction and not in the other, a decision may be made
to align development in the favourable direction.
Few major structures: If there are few major structures this
will prevent massive wedges and/or hole cut-offs through
relaxing and opening of the structures.
Steep dip: Keeps the low-grade dilution source further away
from the current draw points so most of the dilution comes in
over the top of a mixture of ore and waste from caving at
much higher levels than the current extraction level.
Mineralised waste: It is a distinct advantage with caving
operations to have the orebody surrounded by a mineralised
envelope, especially if the grades in this zone are only just
submarginal.
Massive deposit: The orebody should present a sufficiently
large footprint to ensure high production rates. Most dilution
comes from the boundary between ore and waste - the more
massive the deposit the smaller the proportion of material
from the boundary. The development yield (ore recovered per
waste development) is higher for massive deposits.
Fragmentation: Ideally the caving waste rock fragmentation
should be coarser than that of the blasted ore. The frequency,
546 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
condition and orientation of joints and structures, the
presence of micro-fractures and the intact rock strength will
all affect fragmentation. A competent rock mass is usually
the most suitable as larger, widely spaced blast holes will
still result in good ore fragmentation but the caving waste
will be very coarse. This results in blasted material being
finer than the caved waste and a relatively even
fragmentation for the ore with a minimum of both oversize
and fines.
Dry conditions: Dry roadways minimise tyre wear and a dry
cave prevents accumulations of saturated fines/mud within
the cave and the inherent risk of mud rushes. So the ideal is a
minimum of groundwater and a positive drainage program
ahead of the cave face.
No puggy or muddy material: Ideally there should be an
absence, or a minimum, of very weak or rapidly weathering
material (especially clays or other puggy materials) to avoid
problems of mud rushes. Also undesirable are sticky cave
materials with poor flow characteristics and over-compaction
of the waste, which form walls and hang-ups.
Caving: The overlying rockmass must be able to cave freely
when undercut over the mining footprint. Cavability is a
function of rock mass conditions and the associated hydraulic
radius (where hydraylic radius = area of footprint/perimeter
of footprint) required to initiate, and sustain, caving (Figure
14). Massive orebody footprints generally provide a
sufficiently large hydraulic radius that caving is usually not
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 SUBLEVEL CAVING TODAYS DEPENDABLE LOW-COST ORE FACTORY
an issue. However, as the occurrence of voids can be an
issue, through delayed draw and controlled draw, choke
conditions must be maintained at all times. Caving is seldom
an issue when starting immediately below an open pit,
however, if the SLC starts well below surface then adequate
footprint must be available to cause the overlying rock to
collapse.
PROCEDURES AND PROCESSES TO MAXIMISE
SLC EFFECTIVENESS
Although mining engineers would like to have ideal mining
operations, mining is never ideal and compromises are
inevitable. There are a number of processes and procedures that
can be used to help overcome the possible consequences of
making various compromises and to enhance the effectiveness of
SLC.
There are a number of ways in which design (technical) and
attention to detail (management) can be used to reduce
uncertainty and maximise the effectiveness in sublevel caving,
including:
Development excavation
As the size and shape of the production excavations has a large
impact on operational efficiencies it is important that these drifts
Fig 9 - Inclining rings to give better production results.
MassMin 2000 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
are mined to specification. The excavation process can cause
considerable damage through over-break, making cross-cuts less
stable and more difficult to support. Therefore, care must be
taken in the design and management of the development
excavation process, including:
Perimeter holes sufficiently close to cut a regular profile and
allow for post-splitting.
Perimeter holes to be charged with smooth blasting agents
(definitely not ANFO) and timed to effect a post-split. If
necessary the next row of holes may also have to be
cautiously charged (again avoiding ANFO).
Hole spacing to allow good breaking angles for all holes (at
least right-angled triangles). This reduces confinement and
minimises damage through back break.
Ensure correct timing of shots to prevent out-of-sequence
detonations.
Use tested and proven standard drilling patterns. Do not let
jumbo operators individualise their patterns. Variations may
introduce unnecessary errors.
Mark the patterns in detail on the face for the jumbo operator
to follow.
Ensure jumbo operators use auto-parallelism wherever
possible and keep the look-out angle on perimeter holes to
the minimum necessary.
547
G BULL and C H PAGE
Ground support
In SLC the support installed in production crosscuts has two
primary functions:
to protect personnel and equipment; and
to provide support of the brow to facilitate optimum
operating conditions (draw profile and access for charging).
The support has to work when the brow has freedom to move
and has to resist strong blasting disturbance.
Support requirements for the two above functions can be quite
different. Establish whether precautionary or structural support is
required. Precautionary support can be split sets and mesh,
whereas structural support would normally include grouted bolts
with strong plates (length of bolts between 2.4 m and 3.0 m),
increasing support intensity through use of straps and/or
fibrecrete (reinforced shotcrete). The structural support is
generally concentrated at the brow position although, under
certain circumstances the walls may need more support than the
backs. In high stress conditions (abutment areas) bolting and/or
cables with strapping might be required to hold pillar walls. Use
of mesh as an areal support in production drifts should be
avoided if possible, using fibrecrete instead, as the cutting of
mesh at blast time and removal and handling of mesh in the draw
muck pile is difficult and slows down production. Mesh causes
problems on grizzlys, in the crusher and at conveyor transfer
points. A point worth noting is that collaring of blast holes is far
easier and more accurate when fibrecrete/shotcrete is used, and
hole accuracy in SLC is very important.
FIG 10 - Formation of bridges.
548 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
The objective of the support is to retain brow shape, maintain
stable collars, reduce back-break and produce safe charging
conditions.
Ring blasting
The objectives of ring blasting include: no misfires or partially
charged holes (that cause bridges, ribs or frozen rings), loosening
of the ore and compaction of the waste, good fragmentation that
aids mass flow conditions and high productivity, and limited
damage to brows and next row of holes.
Spacing and burden: The blast layout is designed to
minimise oversize that interrupts or slows draw. Oversize is a
function of draw point width, LHD bucket size and grizzly
dimensions. Shifts in fragmentation distribution are achieved
with varying the burden and spacing of holes: finer
fragmentation is obtained using smaller burdens and larger
spacings and longer delays (50 millisec or greater between
holes). The burden cannot be too small or difficulty will be
experienced in accessing the next row of holes for charging.
This requires a compromise to be reached.
Drill and blast pattern: The lower side holes should be
flattened as much as possible, but not too low that they
choke and misfire and create ribs (ie not less than 50). This
is done to reduce the length of the longest central holes and
minimise the amount of drilling through the damaged pillar
zone (Figure 15). The problem with relieving the flatter holes
MassMin 2000
 SUBLEVEL CAVING TODAYS DEPENDABLE LOW-COST ORE FACTORY
FIG 11 - Freezing of blasts.
is reduced by interactive draw. Rustan (1982) showed that
the limiting flow angle (a) can be roughly calculated:
a = 45o + i / 2
Where i = friction angle, determined by fragmentation,
rock strength, cohesion, degree of packing of rock and is a
measure of the friction between the pieces of rock. Dry
conditions (less cohesion) and interactive draw (loosening)
will lower the angle.
Hole deviation: Minimising hole deviation/deflection is
critical. This necessitates larger diameter tube drilling rather
than smaller diameter rod drilling. Extra expense for stiffer
drill assemblies (tubes), laser set-up, good roadbed to assist
with set-up, will always pay dividends. As mentioned earlier,
starting holes through fibrecrete/shotcrete also increases
collaring accuracy. Hole should be surveyed for deviation
and any hole more than three per cent off line should be
re-drilled. Hole checking is critical, particularly to avoid the
occurrence of bridging.
Charging pattern: This must minimise sympathetic
detonations, damage to the brow and damage to the next ring.
This is achieved by keeping charging density in all parts of
the ring pattern to below 1.5 times the design powder factor.
Powder factor at critical toe end of ring should not be less
than 0.9 1.0 kg/m3. Ideal powder factor for SLC is between
0.9 - 1.1 kg/m3. The uncharged collar lengths should not be
less than 0.6 - 0.8 times the burden. If ledges are formed then
cautiously blast the brow area with decoupled charges. The
blast must be able to create swell by compacting the choke.
MassMin 2000 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
Timing of blast holes: There should be no overlaps in
timing of holes, allowing individual detonations with good
free faces to break into. Delays should be sufficiently long
(not less than 50 ms between holes) to get separation and
movement.
Draw control
The objective of draw control is to draw as much ore and as little
waste as possible. In other words, to maximise the draw before
dilution enters the muckpile, to delay dilution entry as long as
possible and to quickly correct anything that contributes to early
dilution entry. The objective is achieved by giving attention to the
following:
Interactive draw: Ensure that panels of 4 - 6 draw points are
retreated in a straight front and are drawn simultaneously.
Draw between 50 150 tonnes from a draw point (always an
even number of bucket loads so that loader operator draws
evenly from both sides of the draw point) and then move to
the next drift. In vertical or very steep orebodies, draw equal
amounts from all drifts and rotate from draw point to draw
point to ensure interactive draw conditions are maintained.
Interactive draw is the single most important factor affecting
SLC performance. In inclined orebodies, it may be advisable
to over-draw the footwall draw points and under-draw the
hangingwall side to get optimum ore recovery and minimal
hangingwall waste dilution.
549
G BULL and C H PAGE
FIG 12 - Solid ribs due to toes of side holes not breaking.
Even draw: Draw from right across the muck pile, do not
draw continually from one side and do not draw around
hang-ups or large blocks in the muckpile. Loader operator
should aim to take alternate loads from opposite sides of the
draw point.
Prompt secondary breakage: As soon as oversize is
encountered, if it cannot be quickly loaded away to a
breaking bay, have it broken in the draw point. Do not delay
in removing or breaking up the oversize and do not attempt
to continue drawing around the oversize, or disruption to
interactive draw and even draw will occur.
Break hang-ups instantly: All forms of hang-ups, whether
they are a result of very large oversize, bridges or ribs, should
be immediately broken with hang-up drilling equipment.
Hang-ups are not self-correcting and ignoring them by
simply blasting the next ring usually makes the problem
worse. Where extraction is interrupted for any length of time,
the blasted ore (and waste) are likely to settle and compact,
causing draw problems later. Total ore extraction from any
blasted ring should be completed before any planned long
interruptions.
Production control: Production planning engineers will
calculate the available tonnage and required tonnage factor
for each blasted ring. The tonnage factor should take into
account any ore left from the level above, especially if a high
grade dilution blanket has been created and is being
550 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
maintained above draw levels. A bucket sheet should be
issued to the loader operator that tells the operator how many
buckets he can draw from a draw point before detailed
visual/assay sampling takes place (this will be related to the
desired tonnage factor). It is common to use load cells and
electronic monitoring systems to measure the mass and
quantity of loads taken from any draw point.
Visual checking: Geologists or draw control personnel
should inspect muckpiles regularly (at least twice per shift)
to assess proportions of fresh ore, old ore and waste in the
muckpile. In many instances old ore from above, but not
broken in current ring, may not be able to be distinguished
from freshly broken ore.
Shut-off: If drawing to a shut off value, careful checking
must take place from approximately 90 per cent draw to
ensure that grade of muckpile is above shut-off value. Then
pull to whatever extraction results in shut-off. If a dilution
blanket is being preserved for final extraction, then a set
tonnage factor will be applied and the draw point stopped for
blasting of the next ring when this percentage of draw is
reached. When mining to a shut off value, use marginal
costing to continually adjust the shut-off value/grade and
check that predicted average grade is being achieved. Early
dilution entry and high dilution grades can result in very high
extractions and recoveries over 100 per cent but at a low
average grade.
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 SUBLEVEL CAVING TODAYS DEPENDABLE LOW-COST ORE FACTORY
Monitoring draw: It is most important that the draw is
continually monitored by the geology or draw control
personnel (once every two to four hours during draw) to
check the point of dilution entry and how the proportion of
dilution changes with extraction. Dilution is anything that
was not in the freshly broken ring. This monitoring can only
be done effectively if fresh and old ore material can be
distinguished and, if not, then simply distinguish between ore
and waste, if this can be done. All draw information should
be recorded so that, over time, a draw control database can be
established and used for future draw estimation and grade
control purposes. Use is made of a draw nomogram to
calculate tonnage and grade to shut off (Figure 16). The
nomogram is initially generic but with time and monitoring
feedback it will become real and representative of local
conditions. Therefore, monitoring is essential.
Grade control: Mineral characteristics and distribution can
influence recovery, particularly where a significant
proportion of mineral reports in the fines in which case
higher losses can be expected. Fines generation is largely
controlled by the geotechnical characteristics of the
rockmass, drill hole diameter and type of explosives used.
Regular muck pile sampling should be undertaken and
grades/values reconciled against planning figures. Over
drawing can quickly reduce grade factors.
FIG 13 - Oversize in the pillar area due to poor drill and blast.
MassMin 2000 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
Floor conditions
Cross-cut floor conditions should be dry and smooth with
effective and rapid drainage. This can be achieved by laying an
engineered road base (compacted gravel surface) kept in good
condition by regular grading.
Excavation repairs
Watch ground conditions and effect repairs as soon as possible
before it deteriorates to becoming a major problem. Pay
particular attention to walls. If repairs are becoming frequent
increase the support density. Rehabilitation of development is
expensive, unsafe and interrupts production.
Drilling ahead
Drill ahead as far as possible (have at least three six months
drilling stocks), but if re-drilling becomes a major interference
with progression of the blasting face then drilling might have be
done on a just-in-time basis. Where major structures are
intersected by production drifts, leave rings either side of the
structure for just-in-time drilling. This will reduce the loss of
holes due to potential relaxation and opening of structure.
551
G BULL and C H PAGE

FIG 14 - Stability diagram (Laubscher, 1994).

552 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000 MassMin 2000

 SUBLEVEL CAVING TODAYS DEPENDABLE LOW-COST ORE FACTORY
FIG 15 - SLC drilling layouts.
EVALUATION (BUDGETING AND FORECASTING)
In a well-designed and efficiently managed operation, what will
SLC deliver? Like all mining methods, the costs per unit are easy
to calculate. The difficulty is in predicting the productivity per
unit (primarily the production rate per draw point) and the head
grade. The latter is a function of planned and unplanned dilution,
which in turn is dependent on the point of dilution entry, the
degree of mixing, and the dilution grade. To add to this difficulty,
there are very few SLC operations worldwide and the results of
one Australian operations seem to be too good. However, this
should not detract from what is potentially a very productive and
cost-effective method. It is a method that can deliver the lowest
cost-to-metal under certain circumstances. In spite of the lack of
good data, estimations and predictions must still be made.
With regards to grade prediction, a key element is to fully
utilise the benefits of interactive draw. A suggested draw model
is illustrated in Figure 16. This has been based on models
developed for block caving (Laubscher, 1994) and from previous
experience with SLC operations. The model shows the
proportion of ore (below the line) and dilution (above the line) as
the extraction increases (along the x-axis). For example, on the
50 per cent dilution entry curve, at an extraction of 80 per cent
the material drawn consists of 62 per cent fresh ore and 38 per
cent dilution material. It can be seen that very high extractions
can be achieved dependent on the shape of the curve and the
grade of the ore as well as the grade of the dilution material.
MassMin 2000 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
Ideally we should also have a model that estimates the grade of
the dilution material, which is a mixture of waste, mineralised
waste and ore left behind from each recovered ring. A
methodology to estimate the contents of the dilution bin is
illustrated in Figure 17. Dilution bin is a label given to the
accumulation of dilution material (ie material not sourced from
the current rings being blasted and drawn) that is available to be
drawn as dilution and which gathers immediately above the level
containing the rings of ore being extracted. While the material in
the dilution bin at any point in time will generally be a mixture
of coarse and fine fragments, as the mine gets deeper and as the
cave matures, the fine material within the cave will migrate
preferentially down through the coarse material, forming the
larger proportion of the contents of the dilution bin. What the
model illustrates is a dilution bin that represents the average
grade of the mixture of pure waste, mineralised waste and the ore
left from each recovered ring.
The amount of ore that is left behind after each ring is drawn
to shut-off will depend on the effectiveness of the draw process.
Less effective draw, say the 30 per cent dilution entry curve in
Figure 16, will leave more ore from the current ring unextracted.
But as more and more of the remnant ore enters and is mixed in
the dilution bin, the grade of the bin may increase. This will also
depend on the grade of the waste that is entering the bin from
above.
553
G BULL and C H PAGE
FIG 16 - Draw nomogram for calculation of extraction tonnage and grade.
What happens in practice is that less effective draw can result
in very large extractions (more mixing of ore and waste but the
resulting mixture still above shut-off grade). Very high recoveries
of the mineable metal can be achieved (well over 100 per cent)
but at lower overall grade factors.
The dilution bin representation in Figure 17 will therefore
depend on the actual in situ resource grade, shut-off grade, the
extraction factor and the grade of the dilution before the ring was
drawn. This bin is progressively topped up with waste from
above and ore from below (remnant ore from drawn rings).
Figures 16 and 17 are simplistic representations of what will
occur in practice, but they do give a reasonable first estimate and
illustrate the sensitivity of the results to the efficiency of the draw
control and the presence of mineralised waste.
It must be remembered that the models are initially common
sense but with time will become real if a cave is correctly
monitored and data fed back to fine tune the models. Monitoring
is essential in this regard. This methodology was used on a recent
project and allowed reasonable sensitivities to be run. The results
from the model agree reasonably well with the achievements of
two other existing operations as can be seen in Figure 18.
However, neither of these operations (Mine A and Mine B) are
technically or operationally ideal. The curves for Mines A and B
are for all draw conditions (interactive and independent) and
from both longitudinal (narrow) as well as transverse (wider)
areas. Also, the three Kvapil lines (constructed from Kvapil
1982 draw curves) represent what classical theory would
554 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
consider as being good, average or bad results. Therefore, it is
believed that a well-engineered and operated SLC in ideal
circumstances (geometry and rockmass conditions) can deliver
better results than predicted by the model.
Cut-off grades are determined by examining the cost-to-metal.
The costs used are the full operational costs including capital.
The shut-off grade should be continually re-estimated using
marginal costs to ensure that the grade is sufficient to make a
contribution to depreciation and amortisation. It is not advisable
to use marginal costing for development and stope boundary
planning as the metal price is not normally known this far in
advance. It is much better to work to a strategic cost-to-metal.
Hedging programs may change the cut-offs and shut-offs but
should not change the common sense approach of planning on
cost not on revenue.
To estimate production rate, the draw point is used as the key
operational indicator. The number of available draw points will
determine the overall production rate. To determine the required
number of production drifts, one must estimate the time required
for each dependent operational element at the draw point. This
includes drilling, charging, blasting, brow repairs, re-drilling,
mucking and any secondary breakage and hang-up clearance.
One must also consider the influence of keeping the face flat and
achieving interactive draw. With all of these conflicting activities,
it is difficult to estimate the long-term production rate from a
set (or face) of interacting draw points.
MassMin 2000
 SUBLEVEL CAVING TODAYS DEPENDABLE LOW-COST ORE FACTORY
FIG 17 - Mechanics of dilution bin formation.
The experience at SLC operations where conditions are
reasonable and the plans and procedures are appropriate is
possibly 500 - 600 tonnes/day for each draw point.
Clearly, the haul distance should be kept as short as possible.
In longitudinal retreat this conflicts with minimising the number
of access cross-cuts.
Although the fragmentation from SLC is usually very good,
there may be problems with grizzlies, ore passes and chutes. The
production LHDs should be as large as possible. The
fragmentation, road conditions and haul distances should be such
that a LHD should be capable of at least 25 - 35 buckets per
operating hour assuming a straight run into the muckpile and the
bucket is filled in a single movement. A large LHD will require
some four to five draw points to keep it supplied with broken
muck. If interactive draw is also considered and the draw is
across a group of four to five draw drifts then at least ten draw
points may be required per LHD (five for loading, five for
drilling, hole clean-outs and charging). If trucks are being
loaded, then there might be only one LHD operating in a
face/panel. In such a case, the production rate will be a function
of buckets per hour for that LHD.
The overall maximum production rate of any mining method is
very difficult to estimate on paper, but typical rates-of-fall
through the deposit under good conditions for a large SLC
operation would be in the region of 65 m per year.
MassMin 2000 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000
CONCLUSION
In the past many people have considered SLC to be a
development intensive, high dilution, and low-recovery mining
method. However, results from recent operations, where the
new SLC model has been applied, tend to contradict this
assumption. The clear advantage of SLC is that it is a very
predictable factory type method with high production potential,
reasonable costs, top-down approach (low up-front capital and
quickly into production) and very little ore at risk at any one time
(a few thousand tonnes in an individual ring).
Currently, most massive deposits are either block caved or if
they will not cave readily they are open stoped with cemented
fill. Sublevel stoping is generally not considered, or if
considered, rejected based upon dilution and recovery concerns.
The response being that recovery will be higher and dilution
lower with a filling method. This is partially correct but
recoveries are usually well below 100 per cent and the dilution
often runs at over 15 per cent. A mature SLC can achieve
recoveries in excess of 100 per cent and grade factors well over
80 per cent (the proportion of pure waste is less than 20 per
cent). This assumes that there is mineralised waste around the
ore (not unusual) and that the dilution grade steadily increases.
The latter is the expected attribute of SLC which must be
maximised. In addition, SLC can be very productive in terms of
rate-of-fall through a deposit. It is generally double that which
can be achieved with filling methods.
555
G BULL and C H PAGE

FIG 18 - Comparison of cumulative dilution.

In a recent project, SLC was shown to exhibit very superior REFERENCES

economics over the more conventional methods. Recoveries of
over 100 per cent, grade factors over 80 per cent, and operating
costs less than $9/t were achieved.
Only a very few orebodies are ideally suited to SLC. They
need to be:
strong and competent,
have a large footprint with a very steep dip, and
preferably have mineralised waste
If these conditions apply, the only methods that can compete
on a cost-to-finished-metal basis are possibly block caving and
partial extraction.
For SLC the major future advances are with (1) interactive
draw, (2) the understanding of what contributes to the success of
the method, and (3) ensuring that this success is achieved.
Cox, J A, 1967. Latest developments and draw control in sub-level
caving, Trans IMM, Sect A, Vol 76, ppA149-A159.
Janelid, I, 1968. Sub level caving: how to use it, what are the advantages,
problems, World Mining, September, pp76-78.
Kvapil, R, 1982. The mechanics and design of sublevel caving systems,
Underground Mining Methods Handbook (Ed: W A Hustrulid),
pp880-897, (SME).
Kvapil, R, 1992. Sublevel caving, SME Mining Engineers Handbook, 2nd
Edition (Ed: H L Hartman),Chapter 20.2, pp1789-1814, (SME).
Laubscher, D H, 1994. Cave mining state of the art, The Journal of the
South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, October:279-293.
McCormick, RJ, 1968. How wide does a draw point draw?, E/MJ,
June:106-117,
Rustan, A, 1982. Compendium in sublevel caving operation, Division of
Mining and Rock Excavation, University of Lule, February.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the management of SRK Consulting
for the opportunity to publish this paper and for encouragement
given along the way. The excellent graphics are kindly produced
by Kerry King Graphics.

556 Brisbane, Qld, 29 October - 2 November 2000 MassMin 2000