After studying this chapter, you will be able to: Keeps the tires in firm contact with the
firm contact with the road, even
Identify the major parts of a suspension system.
Describe the basic function of each suspension
system component.
Explain the operation of the four common types
of springs.
Compare the various types of suspension systems.
Explain automatic suspension leveling systems.
Correctly answer ASE certification test questions
requiring a knowledge of suspension system con-
struction and design.
The suspension system allows a vehicle's tires and
wheels to move up and down over bumps and holes in the
road. It makes the vehicle ride more smoothly over rough
roads. The suspension system consists of a series of arms,
rods, ball joints (swivel joints), bushings, and other parts.
The suspension system works in unison with the
tires, unibody or frame, wheels, wheel bearings, brake
system, and steering system to provide a safe and com-
fortable means of transportation.
This chapter will summarize the most important parts
of a basic suspension system and introduce the most
common suspension system designs. It will also prepare
you to better understand information on the diagnosis and
repair of suspension systems presented in Chapter 68.
Study carefully!
Functions of a Suspension System
A suspension system has several important functions:
Supports the weight of the frame, body, engine,
transmission, drive train, and passengers.
Provides a smooth, comfortable ride by allowing
the wheels and tires to move up and down with
minimum movement of the vehicle body.
Allows rapid cornering without extreme body roll
(vehicle leans to one side).
1280
after striking bumps or holes in the road.
Prevents excessive body squat (body tilts down in
rear) when accelerating or heavily loaded.
Prevents excessive body dive (body tilts down in
front) when braking.
Allows the front wheels to turn from side to side
for steering.
Works with the steering system to help keep the
wheels in correct alignment.
As you will learn, a suspension system uses springs,
swivel joints, dampening devices, movable arms, and
other components to accomplish these functions.
Tech Tip!
Chassis stiffness is a primary factor affecting the
quietness and smoothness of a vehicle's ride-
the stiffer the chassis, the better. Chassis hertz is
a measurement of the stiffness of a vehicle's
structure. A high-hertz chassis (25 hertz, for
example) is stiffer and stronger than a low-hertz
chassis.
Basic Suspension System
Before discussing suspension system components in
detail, you should be able to visualize each major part
and understand how it functions in relation to the other
parts. As each part is introduced, look at Figure 67-1.
Control arm-movable lever that fastens the
steering knuckle to the vehicle's body or frame.
Steering knuckle-provides a spindle or bearing
support for the wheel hub, bearings, and wheel
assembly.
Ball joint-movable connection that allows the
control arm to move up and down while allowing
the steering knuckle to swivel from side to side.

(body
Frame~
inner
structure)
Control
arm Control
bushingarm /
Figure 67-1. Elementary parts of a suspension system. Study
the basic motion of the components.
Spring-supports the weight of the vehicle; per-
mits the control arm and wheel to move up and
down.
Shock absorber or damper-keeps the suspension
from continuing to bounce after spring compres-
sion and extension.
Control arm bushing-sleeve that allows the con-
trol arm to swing up and down on the frame.
Independent and Nonindependent
Suspension Systems
Suspension systems may be grouped into two broad
categories: independent and nonindependent. Both can
be found on today's cars and trucks.
Independent Suspension
Independent suspension allows one wheel to move
up and down with minimal effect on the other wheels.
Look at Figure 67-2A. Since each wheel in an indepen-
dent suspension system is attached to its own suspension
unit, movement of one wheel does not cause direct move-
ment of the wheel on the other side of the vehicle.
Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1281
Other wheel
A
not affected
Wheel pushed
up by bump
I
B
Figure 67-2. Comparison of independent and nonindependent
suspension systems. A-Independent suspension allows one
wheel to roll over a bump with minimal effect on the other
wheel. B-Nonindependent suspension causes the action of
one wheel to tilt and affect the other wheel.
There are many types of independent suspension sys-
tems, many of which will be discussed later in this chapter.
Independent suspension is widely used on modem vehicles,
especially passenger cars.
Nonindependent Suspension
Nonindependent suspension has both the right and
left wheels attached to the same solid axle. When one tire
hits a bump in the road, its upward movement causes a
slight upward tilt of the other wheel. Hence, neither
wheel is independent of the other, Figure 67-2B.
Understeer and Oversteer
Understeer means that the vehicle is slow to respond
to steering changes in a turn. The rear tires retain traction,
but the front tires may slip on the road surface due to lack
of downforce or other factors.
Oversteer basically means that the rear tires try to
skid around sideways in a sharp or hard turn. The front
tires retain traction, but the rear tires skid.
Suspension systems are designed to balance over-
steer and understeer. The perfect suspension system will
provide neutral steering-all four wheels have equal
traction in turns.
1282 Section 11 Suspension, Steering, and Brakes

Lateral Acceleration made of fiberglass. Although leaf springs were once used
Lateral acceleration is the amount of side force a on front suspension systems, they are now limited to the
vehicle can handle before its tires lose traction and skid rear of some cars. An exploded view of a leaf spring
assembly is given in Figure 67-5.
in a sharp turn. It is measured in units of gravity, or
A monoleaf spring is made of a single, thick leaf,
"g-force" usually on a skidpad (round or circular driving
which is usually made of reinforced fiberglass. Multiple-
course). The higher the "g's" the better. Passenger cars
leaf springs have several thin steel leaves sandwiched
can attain a lateral acceleration of about 1.0 g, while race
together.
cars can produce more than 3.0 g's in turns.
Each end of the leaf spring has an eye (cylinder
Independent suspension systems generally obtain
shaped hole), which holds a bushing. The front spring eye
higher lateral acceleration than nonindependent designs.
normally bolts directly to the frame structure. Two large
They are able to keep all four tires in full contact with the
U-bolts secure the axle or axle housing to the leaf
road surface better than older, heavier, solid-axle designs.
springs. A shackle fastens the rear leaf spring eye to the

Suspension System Springs

Suspension system springs must jounce (compress)
and rebound (extend) as a vehicle travels over bumps and
holes in the road surface. They must support the weight
of the vehicle while still allowing suspension travel
(movement). The most common types of springs are the
coil spring, leaf spring, air spring, and torsion bar. See
Figure 67-3.

t
A Front
disc brake

Front suspension

Figure 67-3. Suspension system springs. A-Coil spring.

B-Leaf spring. C-Air spring. D- Torsion bar.

~'1

7
t>-, ....

Coil Spring <jji#t'1l'

A coil spring is a length of spring-steel rod wound Rear drive
into a spiral. It is the most common type of spring found in assembly Drum
modern suspension systems. Coil springs may be used on brake
both the front and rear of the vehicle. See Figure 67-4.
Rear suspension
Leaf Spring
Figure 67-4. Both the front and rear of the vehicle may use coil
A leaf spring is commonly made of flat plates or springs. They are the most common springs used on passenger
strips of spring steel that are bolted together. A few are cars and light trucks. (Audi)
 Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1283

Air Spring
Shock An air spring is typically a two-ply rubber cylinder
absorber that is filled with air. End caps are formed on the air
Spring
spring for mounting. Air pressure in the rubber cylinder
bushing gives the unit a spring action, similar to that of a coil
spring. Refer to Figure 67-7.
An air spring is lighter than a coil spring. This gives
jShaCkle it the potential to produce a smoother ride than a coil
spring. Special synthetic rubber compounds must be used
so the air spring can operate properly in cold weather.
Low temperatures tend to stiffen rubber.

Tie plate

Figure 67-5. Exploded view of simple leaf spring assembly.

(DaimlerChrysler)

vehicle's frame and allows the spring to change length

when bent. Insulators are placed between the springs to
prevent squeaks and rattles.
Leaf spring windup is a condition that causes the
rear leaf springs to flex when driving or braking forces
are applied to the suspension system. The twisting and
distortion of the spring can cause body squat and dive,
Figure 67-6.

-~ ~Frame

Figure 67-7. Air springs are used on some late-model cars. They
are especially adaptable to automatic leveling systems. (Ford)

Acceleration torque
reaction

Torsion Bar (Spring)

Braking torque
reaction
Figure 67-6. Leaf spring windup is a problem when leaves
support driving axle. Torque tends to twist the springs. (Ford)
A torsion bar is made of a large spring-steel rod. One
end of the torsion bar is attached to the frame. The other
end is fastened to the suspension system control arm. See
Figure 67-8.
Up-and-down movement of the suspension system
twists the torsion bar. It then tries to return to its original
shape, moving the control arm back into place.
1284 Section 11 Suspension, Steering, and Brakes
\,t
-'I/
Figure 67-8. The torsion bar is twisted with control arm move-
ment. The bar resists twisting action and acts like a conven-
tional spring. (Moog)
Spring Terminology
There are several terms relating to springs that you
should understand. A few of the most important ones are
discussed in the following section.
Spring rate refers to the stiffness, or tension, of a
spring. The rate of a spring is determined by the weight
needed to bend and compress it.
Sprung weight is the weight of the parts that are sup-
ported by the springs and suspension system. Sprung weight
should be kept high in proportion to unsprung weight.
The unsprung weight is the weight of the parts that
are not supported by the springs. The tires, wheels, wheel
@~
-1-_--~~ ...-e--~
~ Conlm' .om "conlm'
bushing
Figure 67-9. Study the basic parts of a control arm. Bushings fit into the inner ends of the arm. A ball joint fits into the outer end of
the control arm. The ball joint is connected to the steering knuckle. (Fiat)
bearings, steering knuckles, and axle housing would be
considered unsprung weight.
Unsprung weight should be kept low to improve ride
smoothness. Movement of a high unsprung weight
(heavy wheel and suspension components) would tend to
transfer vibration to the passenger compartment.
Suspension System Construction
Now that you have been introduced to suspension
system basics, we will cover the construction of each part
in detail.
Control Arms
A control arm holds the steering knuckle, bearing
support, or axle housing in position as the wheel moves
up and down. Look at Figure 67-9.
The outer end of a control arm contains a ball joint;
the inner end contains bushings. A rear suspension con-
trol arm may have bushings on both ends.
Control arm bushings act as bearings, allowing the
arm to swing up and down on a shaft bolted to the frame
or suspension unit. Bushings may either be pressed or
screwed into holes in the control arm.
Strut Rod
A strut rod fastens to the outer end of the lower con-
trol arm and to the unibody or frame. It keeps the control
arm from swinging toward the front or rear of the v~hicle.
See Figure 67-8.
__
.om
~
Seal~ ~
 Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1285

The front of the strut rod contains rubber bushings Lube plug
that soften the action of the rod. They permit a controlled
amount of lower control arm front-to-rear flex while
allowing full suspension travel.

Ball Joints
Balljoints (short for ball-and-socket joints) are con-
nections that allow limited rotation in every direction.
They connect the outer ends of control arms to the
steering knuckle. See Figures 67-9 and 67-10.
Since the ball joint must be filled with grease, a
grease fitting and a grease seal are normally placed on the
joint, Figure 67-11. The end of the stud on the ball joint
is threaded for a large nut. When the nut is tightened, it
draws the tapered stud into the steering knuckle or Upper ball joint Lower ball joint
bearing support, creating a force fit.
Figure 67-11. A ball joint is simply a ball in a socket. The ball
stud is free to move in all directions. This allows the control arm
Shock Absorbers
and steering knuckle to move up and down freely. (Buick)
Shock absorbers limit spring oscillations (compres-
sion-extension movements) to smooth the vehicle's ride.
Without shock absorbers, the vehicle would continue to
bounce up and down long after striking a dip or hump in the
road. This would make the ride uncomfortable and unsafe.
Figure 67-12 shows the basic parts of a shock
absorber. They include a piston rod, rod seal, piston, oil

Seal
assembty

Piston/valving
Piston/valving
assembly
assembly

Diaphragm
"

Pressurized
Drive gas chamber
Hub and axle shaft
wheel
bearing Lower
assembly mount

Figure 67-12. Basically, a shock absorber is a piston operating

'- Lower ball joint
Figure 67-10. Cutaway view shows the ball joints, steering
knuckle, and driving hub for a front-wheel-drive vehicle. Study
the construction of the parts. (DaimlerChrysler)
inside an oil-filled cylinder. Valves cause the oil to flow from one
side of the piston to the other at a controlled rate. This produces
dampening action that restricts spring oscillations. Gas-pres-
sure dampened shocks operate like conventional oil-filled
shocks. Gas is used to keep oil pressurized, which reduces oil
foaming and increases efficiency on rough roads. (Pontiac)
1286 Section 11 Suspension, Steering, and Brakes

chamber or reservoir, compression cylinder, extension Compression Extension

cylinder, and flow control valves. Most shocks are filled
with oil. Some are filled with air or gas and oil.
Whether the shock is compressed or extended, the oil
causes resistance to movement. The piston rod tends to
drag slowly in or out. This dampens spring and suspen- Restriction
Piston rod B Inner
seal
valve
Extension
orifice
cylinder
valve spring
Piston
Extension rod
sion system action.ports
head
Piston
Compression
Reservoir
head orifice valve
ports
Extension Replenishing
spring
ABypass
Compression
One end of the shock absorber connects to a suspen-
Restriction
sion component, such as a control arm. The other end of
the shock fastens to the vehicle's body or frame. In this
way, the shock rod is pulled in and out and resists sus-
pension system movements.
Shock absorber operation is illustrated in Figure
67-13. Shock absorber compression occurs when the
vehicle's tire is forced upward upon hitting a bump.
Shock absorber extension is the outward movement of
the piston and rod as the control arm moves down. This
occurs right after a compression stroke or when the tire
encounters a hole in the road.

Gas-Charged Shock Absorbers

Gas-charged shock absorbers use a low-pressure gas
to help keep the oil in the shock from foaming. Refer
back to Figure 67-12.
Usually, nitrogen gas is enclosed in a chamber sepa-
rate from the main oil cylinder. The shock piston operates
in the oil. The gas maintains constant pressure on the oil
to stop air bubbles from forming.
control arm and the strut are needed to support the front
Self-Leveling Shock Absorbers
wheel assembly. Look at Figure 67-14.
A self-leveling shock absorber uses a special design
that causes a hydraulic lock action to help maintain
in Figure 67-15. They include:
normal vehicle curb height.
A valve system in each shock retains hydraulic pres-
sure when the shock is compressed near its minimum
length setting. This hydraulic lock action helps keep the
shock rod at the same length with changes in force or
curb weight. This tends to help keep the vehicle level
under varying conditions.
Adjustable Shocks
Adjustable shock absorbers provide a means of
changing shock stiffness. Usually, by turning the shock
outer body or an adjustment knob, you can set the shock
soft for a smooth ride or stiff for better handling.
Some electronic (computer-controlled) suspension
systems automatically change shock dampening stiff-
ness. These are discussed later in this chapter.
Strut Assembly
A strut assembly consists of a shock absorber, a coil
spring (most types), and an upper damper unit. The strut
often replaces the upper control arm. Only the lower
Figure 67-13. Cutaway view of shock absorber in action.
A-Compression stroke forces the piston down in the cylinder.
Oil is forced into the upper area of the shock. B-Extension
stroke causes oil to be pulled back into the lower area. Note the
valve action. (Gabriel)
The basic parts of a typical strut assembly are shown
Strut shock absorber-piston operating in an oil-
filled (or oil and gas) cylinder to prevent coil
spring oscillations.
Dust shield-metal shroud or rubber boot that
keeps road dirt off the shock absorber rod.
Lower spring seat-lower mount formed around
the shock body for the coil spring.
Coil spring-supports the weight of the vehicle
and allows suspension action.
Upper spring seat-holds the upper end of the
coil spring and contacts the strut bearing.
Strut bearing-ball bearing that allows the
shock-and-spring assembly to rotate for steering
action; only used on the front of the vehicle.
Rubber bumpers-jounce and rebound bumpers
that prevent metal-to-metal contact during
extreme suspension compression and extension.
Rubber isolators-prevent noise from transmit-
ting into the body structure of the vehicle.
 Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1287

Rod nut

Bumper Ball bearing

Frame cross member

Isolator Rubber bumper

Coil spring

Dust boot

Strut shock
absorber assembly

Valve

Spindle

Lower
Bushing control arm

Figure 67-14. Study the parts of this strut assembly closely. This is one of the most modern suspension systems and is commonly
used on today's vehicles. (DaimlerChrysler)

----------- Strut rod nut

~\

Strut shock absorber

Figure 67-15. Exploded and cutaway views of a strut. Note the strut bearing, which allows the front wheel, steering knuckle, and
strut to revolve for steering action. (DaimlerChrysler)
1288 Section 11 Suspension, Steering, and Brakes

Upper strut retainer-secures the upper end of

the strut assembly to the frame or unibody.
Strut rod nut-hex nut that holds the shock
absorber rod in the upper strut retainer.
Damper unit-shock that fits inside coil spring to
prevent excessive jounce and rebound.
A strut shock absorber is similar to a conventional
shock absorber. However, it is longer and has provisions
Frame brackets
(brackets or connections) for mounting and holding the
and bushings
steering knuckle (front of vehicle) or bearing support
(rear of vehicle) and spring. Figure 67-16. The sway bar attaches to both control arms.
When the car rounds a corner, its body tends to lean to one
Sway Bar (Stabilizer Bar) side. This bends the bar. As a result, the bar lessens sway, or
body lean, in turns. (Moog)
A sway bar, or stabilizer bar, is used to keep the body
from leaning excessively in sharp turns. The sway bar is
made of spring steel. It fastens to both lower control arms
and to the frame. Rubber bushings fit between the bar and
Track Rod (Lateral Control Rod)
the control arms. Brackets and bushings are used to A track rod, also known as a lateral control rod, is
secure the bar to the frame. Sway bar links connect the sometimes used on rear suspension systems to prevent
sway bar to the control arms. See Figure 67-16. side-to-side axle movement during cornering. The track
When a vehicle rounds a comer, centrifugal force rod is almost parallel to the rear axle. One end of the rod
makes the outside of the body drop and the inside of the is fastened to the axle; the other end of the rod is fastened
body rise. This twists the sway bar. The bar's resistance to the frame or body structure on the opposite side of the
to this twisting motion limits body lean in comers. vehicle, Figure 67-17.

Bar-to-axle
through
bolt

Figure 67-17. A track rod is commonly used on the rear axle to prevent side-to-side movement. Note how the rod connects to the
frame and axle. (DaimlerChrysler)

Jounce Bumpers
Jounce bumpers are blocks of hard rubber that keep
the suspension system parts from hitting the frame or
body when the car hits large bumps or holes.
If you drive over a large hump in the road too
quickly, you will hear the suspension arms hit the jounce
bumpers with a loud bang or thud. This warns you that
the tires are leaving the road surface.
Long-Short Arm Suspension
A long-short arm suspension uses control arms of
different lengths to keep the tires from tilting with sus-
pension action. The upper control arms are shorter than
the lower control arms. See Figure 67-18.
If the control arms were the same length, the front
tires would pivot outward at the top when the vehicle hits
a bump. This would cause undue tire scuffing and wear.
Short upper
control arm
Tire and wheel
remain in alignment
during up-and-down motion
Figure 67-18. Long-short arm suspension has different length
control arms. This helps keep the steering knuckle in alignment
with suspension travel. (Lexus)
Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1289
Torsion Bar Suspension
A torsion bar suspension is a suspension system that
contains torsion bar springs instead of coil springs. Most
torsion bar suspensions allow easy adjustment of curb
height (distance from road up to specific point on car).
By turning an adjustment bolt, you can increase or
decrease the tension on the torsion bar. This will either
raise or lower the frame and/or body of the vehicle. A tor-
sion bar suspension was shown in Figure 67-3.
MacPherson Strut Suspension
A MacPherson strut suspension uses only one
control arm and a strut assembly (spring, damper, and
shock absorber unit) to support each wheel assembly,
Figure 67-19. Note that the modified strut suspension
has the coil spring mounted on top of the lower control
arm, not around the strut.
A conventional lower control arm attaches to the
frame and to the lower ball joint. The ball joint holds the
control arm to the steering knuckle or bearing support.
The top of the steering knuckle or bearing support is
bolted to the strut assembly. The top of the strut is fas-
tened to the reinforced body sh'ucture, Figure 67-20.
MacPherson strut suspension is the most common
type of suspension found on late-model cars. It may be
used on both the front or rear wheels. It reduces the
number of parts in the suspension system, lowering the
unsprung weight and smoothing the ride, Figure 67-21.
Pickup Truck Suspension Systems
Pickup trucks use numerous suspension system
designs: long-short control arm; MacPherson strut; solid
axle; and twin axle, or twin I-beam, suspension. The
control arm and strut types are basically the same as
those used on passenger cars, but are heavier and
stronger. Figure 67-22 shows a twin-axle, or twin
I-beam, suspension.
A four-wheel drive truck can have a solid axle
housing and differential in the front. The steering
knuckles are mounted on the axle housing so that they
will swivel left or right for cornering.
Rear Suspension Systems
Rear suspension systems are similar to front suspen-
sion systems, but they normally do not provide for
steering. With a rear-wheel-drive vehicle, the rear axle
housing may be solid, resulting in nonindependent sus-
pension. However, rear swing axles and independent sus-
pension can also be used.
1290 Section 11 Suspension, Steering, and Brakes

Coil spring
around strut Spring on lower control arm Coil spring around strut
A (front-wheel drive) B (modified MacPherson strut) c (rear-wheel drive)

Figure 67-19. MacPherson strut suspensions. A-Coil spring around strut, front-wheel drive. B-Modified strut has the coil spring
mounted on control arms. C-Same as A, but without front-wheel drive. (Moog)

Nonindependent Rear Suspension

Figure 67-23 shows a typical rear suspension setup
for a rear-wheel-drive vehicle. It has a solid axle housing
and vertically mounted shock absorbers. Note how the
coil springs are mounted between the axle housing and
frame of the vehicle.

Dead Axle
A dead axle is a term used to describe a solid rear
axle on a front-wheel-drive vehicle. Since the front
wheels transfer driving power to the road, the rear axle is
simply a straight, or solid, axle, Figure 67-24.

Semi-Independent Suspension
Semi-independent suspension means that the right
and left wheel are partially independent of each other.
Front-
This type suspension uses a flexible axle, Figure 67-24.
drive
axles When one tire hits a bump, its control arm moves up.
Since the axle can flex or twist, the effect on the other tire
is minimized.

Independent Rear Suspension

Many new cars use independent rear suspension. As
Figure 67-20. MacPherson strut suspension. (Honda) with front suspension, independent suspension increases
 Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1291

Strut assembly

Lateral
links

Lower
control
arm

Front suspension Rear suspension

Figure 67-21. Compare struts for the front and rear of a vehicle. (Subaru)

ride smoothness. This type of suspension can be used

with either a front- or rear-wheel-drive vehicle.
Refer to Figures 67-25 through 67-27. They show typ-
ical suspension system designs used on modern vehicles.

Suspension Leveling Systems

Figure 67-22. Twin I-beam suspension is used on a few pickup
trucks. (Ford)
A suspension leveling system is used to maintain the
ride height and vehicle attitude (height ratio between
front and rear of body) with changes in the amount or dis-
tribution of weight in the car. For example, if weight is
added in the trunk, the suspension leveling system keeps the
springs from compressing and lowering the body height.
There are two classifications of suspension leveling
systems: manual and automatic.

--------------------------------------------- ---
1292 Section 11 Suspension, Steering, and Brakes

Coil Stabilizer
spring bar

Figure 67-23. Solid axle housing rear suspension for rear-wheel-drive vehicle. Study the parts. (Ford)

Automatic Suspension Leveling System

Automatic suspension leveling systems use air
shocks or air springs, height sensors, and a compressor to
maintain curb height. System designs vary.
Figure 67-28 shows an automatic suspension lev-
eling system that uses air shock absorbers. A height
sensor is connected to the frame and to the axle housing.
If load changes, the sensor can turn the compressor on,
increasing pressure in the air shocks to counteract the
increased load. It can also bleed air out of the shocks to
./ counteract decreased load.
Figure 67-29 shows an automatic air suspension
system that uses air springs and height sensors on all four
wheels. A microcomputer uses information (electric sig-
nals) from the sensors to operate the air compressor.

Electronic Height Control System

Figure 67-24. The term dead axle generally refers to a solid
axle that does not drive wheels. (Saab)
Manual Suspension Leveling System
A manual suspension leveling system uses air
shocks and an electric compressor to counteract changes
in passenger and luggage weight. A manual switch is
used to activate the compressor to alter air shock pressure
and body height.
An electronic height control system uses height sen-
sors and an electronic control module to control the oper-
ation of a small electric air compressor, which maintains
the correct ride height. This system is used on the rear of
the car to compensate for loads placed in the trunk or for
the weight of passengers in the back seat. The main parts
of the electronic height control system include:
Height sensor-lever-operated switch that reacts
to changes in body height and suspension
movement.
 Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1293

Stabilizer
bar

Bushings

Figure 67-25. Top and side views of a trailing-arm independent rear suspension. Note the location of the bushings, the spring, and
the shock absorber. (Toyota)

Coil
spring

Figure 67-26. This rear drive axle uses a differential that is mounted on the frame. Swing axles extend out to the drive wheels. Note
the trailing arms and the other components. (Mercedes Benz)

Compressor assembly-motor-powered air pump Air shocks-air-filled shock absorbers that act on
that produces pressure for the system. the suspension system to alter ride height.
Pressure lines-air hoses that connect the com- Sensor link-linkage rods that connect the height
pressor to the air shock absorbers. sensor to the suspension.
1294 Section 11 Suspension, Steering, and Brakes

Upper control
arm

Sway bar

control
Upper
arm \ Lower
control
arm

Figure 67-27. This double wishbone suspension system is a long-short arm design. Note how the lower trailing arms have been
lightened by forming holes in them. This improves ride smoothness. (Honda)

Solenoid valve-solenoid-operated air valve that

Figure 67-28. Major parts of suspension leveling system.
Basically, the height sensor triggers the air pump. The air pump
operates the air shocks to maintain the correct vehicle height.
(DaimlerChrysler)
can release air pressure from the system.
Suspension control module-small computer
that operates the solenoid valve by responding to
signals from the height sensor.
When the car body is at a normal riding height, the
electronic height control system is off. Air pressure in the
shocks is adequate to keep the car body the correct dis-
tance from the road surface. The height sensor does not
feed current to the control module.
If the trunk is loaded with heavy luggage, the weight
of the luggage will compress the rear air shocks. This will
lower the ride height. When the car is started, the height
sensor will be activated by the action of the sensor link
and the sensor switch will close. The signal from the
height sensor prompts the suspension control module to
energize the compressor. The compressor will pump
more air pressure into the rear shock absorbers, extending
the shocks and raising the car body.
When the specific ride height is reached, the height
sensor switch will open to turn off the compressor. This
restores the vehicle to the correct ride height, even with
extra weight in the trunk.
 Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1295

Air compressor Failure warning

vent solenoid light

Rear air
Open door springs
sensor and height
switch sensor

Figure 67-29. Suspension leveling system using air springs. Study the parts. (Ford)

When the weight is removed from the trunk, the car
body will rise. The height sensor switch will then be
moved in the other direction by the link. This closes
another set of contacts in the switch, energizing the pres-
sure release solenoid valve. Air pressure is then expelled
from the rear shocks until the body drops down the cor-
rect ride height.
Electronic Suspension System
An electronic suspension system uses various sen-
sors, a computer, and shock absorber actuators to control
ride stiffness. It is designed to increase comfort and
safety by matching suspension system action to driving
conditions, Figure 67-30.
Although exact designs vary, the major components
of a typical electronic shock absorber system include:
Steering sensor-detects steering wheel rota-
tional direction and speed and feeds data about
vehicle direction to the computer.
Brake sensor-usually, the brake light switch is
used to report when brakes are applied.
Acceleration sensor-usually, the throttle posi-
tion sensor is used to detect when car is acceler-
ating rapidly.
Mode switch-dash-mounted switch that allows
the driver to choose the desired shock action or
ride stiffness.
Electronic control module-small computer that
uses sensor inputs to control the shock actuators.
Shock actuators-solenoid-operated valves that
control fluid flow inside the shock absorbers.
If a car is being driven on curving country roads, the
driver might switch to a stiff setting with the mode
switch. The electronic control module would then ener-
gize the shock actuators to close or restrict the shock
absorber valves to increase dampening action. This
would stiffen the ride and make the car comer better.
If driving on a rough highway, the mode switch
might be moved to a soft setting. The electronic control
module would then energize the shock actuators to open
the valves more. This would soften the ride by allowing
easier shock movement.
Under hard braking, the brake sensor would send a
signal to the electronic control module. The control
module could then stiffen the shocks to prevent the front
of the car from diving.
With rapid turning or cornering, the steering sensor
could also signal the electronic control module. The
module could then stiffen the shocks to prevent excess
body roll, or lean, in turns.
Figure 67-31 shows one type of shock actuator. Note
how it uses a solenoid and a small DC motor to act upon
the shock absorber control rod. The control rod can be
moved up or down to control fluid flow resistance and
shock stiffness or dampening.
1296 Section 11 Suspension, Steering, and Brakes

Shock actuators
Stop light switch

Throttle position
sensor

Neutral start
switch
A Test connector

Selector switch Shock actuator

Shock actuator
I - - - - - Sensors - - - - - ,
I I Suspension
I I control Shock actuator
I Speed sensor
I computer
I
I Shock actuator
Steering sensor
I
I
I
I Stop lamp switch
I
I
I Neutral start switch TEMS indicator
I
I (AfT vehicle)
I
I
ECU
: Throttle position sensor I
L I
B

Figure 67-30. A-This electronic suspension system automatically adjusts shock stiffness to match driving and road conditions. For
instance, it will produce a soft, smooth ride when traveling down a straight highway. However, it will stiffen shock dampening when
cornering on a country road. B- This block diagram shows how various sensors feed electrical data to the suspension control com-
puter. The computer can then energize the shock actuators to modify ride stiffness and shock action. (Toyota)

Some cars use air shocks or air bags instead of
hydraulic shock absorbers. The operation of these sys-
tems is similar.
One type of electronic shock absorber system uses a
sonar sensor to detect changes in road conditions. The
sensor, which is mounted at the front of the vehicle, pro-
duces sound waves. These waves bounce off the road and
back into the sensor. The sensor's output signal is
determined by the amount of time needed for the waves
to strike the road surface and bounce back. The computer
uses the output signals from the sonar sensor to deter-
mine proper ride stiffness. If, for example, there is a dip
in the road, the sound waves will take longer to return to
the sensor. This will cause the sensor to modify its output
signal. The computer analyzes the sensor's output signals
and adjusts shock action as necessary.
 Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1297

Electric Active suspension compared to the cheetah

motor

Solenoid

Pinion gear

Sector gear

Shock absorber
piston rod
Power
Figure 67-31. This shock actuator uses small electric motor transmission
and a solenoid to move the shock piston rod in and out. Piston
rod movement alters shock dampening action.

Active Suspension System

An active suspension system uses computer-
controlled hydraulic rams instead of conventional springs
and shock absorber actuators to control ride characteris-
tics, Figure 67-32.
The hydraulic rams support the weight of the car and
react to the road surface and driving conditions. An active
suspension system is similar to an electronic shock
absorber system, but it is more complex.
Basically, pressure sensors on each hydraulic ram
provide the main control for the system. They react to
suspension system movement and send signals to the
computer. The computer can then extend or retract each
ram to match the road surface. A hydraulic pump pro-
vides pressure to operate the rams, Figure 67-33.
Pressure control valves are located on each ram. By
opening and closing these valves, the computer can
adjust the pressure of the rams and the resulting height of
each corner of the vehicle.
For example, if one side of the vehicle travels over a
bump in the road, the pressure sensors can instantly
detect a rise in pressure inside the ram as the tire and
wheel push up on the suspension and the hydraulic ram.
Instead of the vehicle's body rising with spring action,
the computer can release enough ram pressure to allow
the suspension to move up over the bump without
causing body movement. Then, as the tire travels back
down over the bump, the sensor detects a pressure drop in
the ram and the computer increases ram pressure so the
tire follows the road surface.
Figure 67-32. Fully active suspension is called "intelligent sus-
pension" because a computer is used to control the hydraulic
system. (Infiniti)
The active suspension system can make a car feel as
if it is floating on a cushion of air. It can theoretically
eliminate most body movement as the car travels over
small dips and bumps in the road. It can also help keep
the body level under various driving conditions. During
hard braking, it can keep the front of the body from
diving and the rear from rising, thus improving action.
In turns, the active suspension system's ability to pre-
vent body roll (lean) can make the car stay level to increase
cornering ability. It can tilt the vehicle's body against a
turn to improve handling. It can also be used to lower the
body for highway driving aerodynamics and to raise the
body for added ground clearance during city driving.
Many auto manufacturers are experimenting with
active suspension systems of this type. We may see them
in the future, at first on more exotic sports cars, but
someday on everyday passenger cars.
1298 Section 11 Suspension, Steering, and Brakes
To other
sensors
Computer
Pressure
sensor
Pressure
control
valves
Hydraulic
ram
reservoir
Causes C vehicle.
~ pressure
rop
ressuri rise
auses
Figure 67-33. This simplified illustration shows the major com-
ponents of an active suspension system. A pressure sensor on
the hydraulic ram reacts to the up-and-down movement of ram
and the resulting pressure changes. If pressure in the ram rises
when the wheel hits a bump in the road, the sensor signals the
computer. The computer can quickly react to release ram pres-
sure so the suspension moves upward with the wheel. As the
wheel travels down on the other side of the bump, the sensors
make the computer increase ram pressure so that the suspen-
sion travels back down to the original road surface.
Highway History
The Ford Model-T was the first mass-produced
passenger car. Affectionately called the "Tin Lizzie,"
this vehicle was first introduced in 1908. It was
deemed "the car for the multitude" and was an instant
success. Henry Ford developed this car and suc-
ceeded in building one of the largest automobile-
manufacturing companies in the world.
Summary
The suspension system allows the tires and
wheels to move up and down over bumps and
holes in the road surface.
Chassis stiffness is a primary factor affecting how
quiet and smooth a vehicle drives-the stiffer the
chassis, the better.
Independent suspension allows one wheel to
move up and down with little effect on the other
wheels.
Nonindependent suspension has both the right
and left wheels attached to the same solid axle.
Lateral acceleration is the amount of side force a
vehicle can handle in a sharp turn or curve before
its tires lose traction and skid.
Suspension system springs must jounce (com-
press) and rebound (extend) with bumps and
holes in the road surface.
A control arm holds the steering knuckle, bearing
support, or axle housing in position as the wheel
moves up and down.
A strut rod fastens to the outer end of the lower
control arm and to the frame. It keeps the control
arm from swinging toward the rear or front of the
Ball joints (short for ball-and-socket joints) are
connections that allow limited rotation in every
direction.
Shock absorbers limit spring oscillations (com-
pression-extension movements) to smooth the
vehicle's ride.
A strut assembly consists of a shock absorber, a
coil spring (most types), and an upper damper
unit.
A sway bar, also called stabilizer bar, is used to
keep the body from leaning excessively in sharp
turns.
Jounce bumpers are blocks of hard rubber that
keep the suspension system parts from hitting the
frame or body when the vehicle hits large bumps
or holes.
A long-short arm suspension uses control arms of
different lengths to keep the tires from tilting with
suspension action.
A MacPherson strut suspension uses only one
control arm and a strut assembly (spring, damper,
and shock absorber unit) to support each wheel
assembly.
A dead axle is a term used to describe a solid rear
axle on a front-wheel-drive vehicle.
A suspension leveling system is used to maintain
a constant vehicle attitude (height ratio between
front and rear of body) as the amount or distribu-
tion of weight in the vehicle changes.
To maintain correct ride height, an electronic
height control system uses height sensors and an
ECM to control the operation of a small electric
aIr compressor.
 Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1299

An electronic shock absorber system uses various Pressure lines Brake sensor
vehicle sensors, an electronic control module, and Air shocks Acceleration sensor
shock absorber actuators to control ride stiffness. Sensor link Mode switch
Solenoid valve Electronic control
An active suspension system uses computer-con-
Suspension control module
trolled hydraulic rams instead of conventional
module Shock actuators
suspension system springs and shock absorbers.
Electronic suspension Active suspension
system system
Important Terms Steering sensor

Suspension system Self-leveling shock

Body roll absorber Review Questions-Chapter 67
Body squat Adjustable shock
Please do not write in this text. Place your answers
Body dive absorbers
Chassis stiffness on a separate sheet of paper.
,-Strut assembly
Chassis hertz Strut shock absorber 1. List eight functions of a suspension system.
Independent Dust shield 2. List and explain the six major parts of a suspen-
suspensIOn Lower spring seat sion system.
Nonindependent Upper spring seat 3. __ suspension allows one wheel to move up
suspensIOn Strut bearing and down with a minimum effect on the other
Understeer Rubber bumpers wheels.
- Oversteer Rubber isolators
4. The most common type of suspension system
Neutral steering Upper strut retainer spring is the __ spring.
Lateral acceleration Strut rod nut
(A) leaf
Skidpad ~Damper unit (B) coil
Suspension system Sway bar (C) aIr
spnngs Stabilizer bar
(D) torsion
Jounce Sway bar links
Rebound Track rod 5. A(n) __ fastens the rear of a leaf spring to
the car frame.
Travel Lateral control rod
Coil spring Jounce bumpers 6. Define the phrase "leaf spring windup."
Leaf spring Long-short arm 7. How does a torsion bar work?
~ Eye suspensIOn 8. The __ weight of a car is the weight of the
Shackle Torsion bar suspension parts not supported by the springs.
Insulators Curb height
9. A strut rod is used to keep the steering knuckle
Leaf spring windup - Macpherson strut
from swiveling. True or False?
Air spring suspensIOn
Torsion bar Modified strut 10. Why are ball joints needed?
Spring rate suspensIOn 11. Summarize the basic operation of a conven-
Sprung weight Dead axle tional shock absorber.
Unsprung weight Semi-independent 12. What is the advantage of gas-charged shocks?
Control arm suspensIOn
13. List and explain the eleven major parts of a strut
--Control arm bushings Suspension leveling
assembly.
Strut rod system
Ball joints Attitude 14. The __ is used to keep the car body from
Shock absorbers Manual suspension rolling or leaning excessively in turns or comers.
Oscillations leveling system (A) strut rod
Shock absorber Automatic suspension (B) jounce bumper
compressIOn (C) track rod
leveling systems
Shock absorber Electronic height control (D) sway bar
extension system 15. Describe a MacPherson strut suspension.
Gas-charged shock Height sensor
absorbers - Compressor assembly
1300 Section 11 Suspension, Steering, and Brakes

6. Technician A says a ball joint allows control

ASE- Type Questions arm movement. Technician B says a ball joint
allows steering knuckle movement. Who is
right?
1. Technician A says an automotive suspension
(A) A only.
system supports the weight of the engine.
(B) B only.
Technician B says an automotive suspension
(C) Both A and B.
system supports the weight of the transmis-
(D) Neither A nor B.
sion. Who is right?
(A) A only. 7. Technician A says the control arm bushing
(B) B only. allows the suspension system control arm to
(C) Both A and B. swing up and down on the vehicle frame.
(D) Neither A nor B. Technician B says the control arm bushing
allows the control arm to move from side to
2. All of the following are functions of an auto-
motive suspension system, except: side on the suspension system damper. Who is
(A) helps provide a smooth ride for passengers. right?
(B) keeps tires in firm contact with the road. (A) A only.
(C) allows the front wheels to turn from side (B) B only.
to side for steering. (C) Both A and B.
(D) allows the body to tilt when heavily (D) Neither A nor B.
loaded. 8. Technician A says that in an independent sus-
3. Technician A says an automotive suspension pension system, movement of one wheel does
not cause direct movement of the wheel on the
system works with the steering system to
help keep the wheels in correct alignment. opposite side of the vehicle. Technician B says
Technician B says an automotive suspension that in a nonindependent suspension system,
movement of one wheel does not cause direct
system works independently of the steering
system and has no effect on wheel alignment. movement of the other wheel on the opposite
Who is light? side of the vehicle. Who is right?
(A) A only. (A) A only.
(B) B only. (B) B only.
(C) Both A and B. (C) Both A and B.
(D) Neither A nor B. (D) Neither A nor B.
9. Technician A says an independent suspension
4. All of the following are basic components of
system has both the right and left wheels
an automotive suspension system, except:
attached to the same solid axle. Technician B
(A) sway bar.
(B) strut. says a nonindependent suspension system has
both the right and left wheels attached to the
(C) internal control shaft.
(D) stabilizer bar. same solid axle. Who is right?
(A) A only.
5. Technician A says a suspension system's con- (B) B only.
trol arm fastens the steering knuckle to the (C) Both A and B.
shock absorber. Technician B says the control (D) Neither A nor B.
arm fastens the steering knuckle to the frame.
10. Technician A says a coil spring is the most
Who is right?
common spring used on modem automotive
(A) A only.
suspension systems. Technician B says a leaf
(B) B only.
spring is the most common spring used on
(C) Both A and B.
modem automotive suspension systems. Who
(D) Neither A nor B.
is right?
(A) A only.
(B) B only.
(C) Both A and B.
(D) Neither A nor B.
 Chapter 67 Suspension System Fundamentals 1301

11. Technician A says coil springs are used on 15. Technician A says the term "dead axle" is used
either the front or the rear of an automobile. to describe a solid rear axle on a front-wheel-
Technician B says coil springs are only used drive vehicle. Technician B says the term
on the front of an automobile. Who is right? "dead axle" refers to a solid rear axle on an
(A) A only. independent suspension system. Who is right?
(B) B only. (A) A only.
(C) Both A and B. (B) B only.
(D) Neither A nor B. (C) Both A and B.
12. Technician A says a torsion bar fastens to the (D) Neither A nor B.
vehicle's frame. Technician B says a torsion
bar fastens to the suspension system control
arm. Who is right? Activities-Chapter 67
(A) A only. 1. Prepare an overhead transparency (or trans-
(B) B only. parencies) showing the basic parts of a suspen-
(C) Both A and B. sion system. (You can trace and/or enlarge
(D) Neither A nor B.
Figure 67-1 onto the transparency material and
13. Technician A says most automotive shock label the parts.) Use the transparency to explain
absorbers are filled with oil. Technician B says to the class the function of each part of the
most automotive shock absorbers are fIlled system.
with air. Who is right? 2. Examine vehicles in the shop and identify the
(A) A only. type of suspension in each.
(B) B only.
3. Join a discussion on the merits of different sus-
(C) Both A and B.
(D) Neither A nor B. pension systems.

14. Technician A says an automotive strut

assembly normally consists of a shock
absorber, a coil spring, and an upper damper
unit. Technician B says an automotive strut
assembly normally consists of a shock absorber,
a coil spring, and a control arm. Who is right?
(A) A only.
(B) B only.
(C) Both A and B.
(D) Neither A nor B.