Typical compositions for steel are indicated below.

The actual composition depends on class and

grade.

Steel C Cr Mn Mo Ni P S Si

0.14 - 0.30 -
AISI 1018
0.20 0.90

0.36 - 0.60 -
AISI 1040
0.44 0.90

0.90 - 0.30 -
AISI 1095
1.04 0.50

0.20 - 0.70 - 0.20 - 0.15 -

AISI 4023 0.035 0.040
0.25 0.90 0.30 0.30

0.35 - 0.70 - 0.20 - 0.15 -

AISI 4037 0.035 0.040
0.40 0.90 0.30 0.30

0.18 - 0.40 - 0.70 - 0.08 - 0.15 -

AISI 4118 0.035 0.040
0.23 0.60 0.90 0.15 0.30

0.38 - 0.80 - 0.75 - 0.15 - 0.15 -

AISI 4140 0.035 0.040
0.43 1.10 1.00 0.025 0.30

0.56 - 0.80 - 0.75 - 0.15 - 0.15 -

AISI 4161 0.035 0.040
0.64 1.10 1.10 0.25 0.30

0.38 - 0.70 - 0.60 - 0.20 - 1.65 - 0.15 -

AISI 4340 0.035 0.040
0.43 0.90 0.80 0.30 2.00 0.30

0.17 - 0.70 - 0.70 - 0.15 -

AISI 5120 0.035 0.040
0.22 0.90 0.90 0.30

0.38 - 0.70 - 0.71 - 0.15 -

AISI 5140 0.035 0.040
0.43 0.90 0.90 0.30

0.18 - 0.40 - 0.75 - 0.15 - 0.40 - 0.15 -

AISI 8620 0.035 0.040
0.23 0.60 0.90 0.25 0.70 0.30

0.38 - 0.40 - 0.75 - 0.15 - 0.40 - 0.15 -

AISI 8640 0.035 0.040
0.43 0.60 1.00 0.25 0.70 0.30

0.56 - 0.40 - 0.75 - 0.15 - 0.40 - 0.15 -

AISI 8660 0.035 0.040
0.64 0.60 1.00 0.25 0.70 0.30
Typical cement, sand and gravel mixtures

Commonly used cement, sand and gravel mixtures:

Ratio
Application
Cement Sand Gravel

Normal loads, no rebar - not

1 3 6
exposed

Normal foundations and walls -

1 2.5 5
exposed

Basement walls 1 2.5 4

Waterproof basement walls 1 2.5 3.5

Light duty floors, drive ways 1 2.5 3

Steps, driveways, sidewalks 1 2.25 3

Reinforced roads, buildings,

1 2 4
walls - exposed

Retaining walls, drive ways 1 2 3.5

Swimming pools, fence posts 1 2 3

Light duty floors 1 1.75 4

Watertight, reinforced tanks

1 1.5 3
and columns

High strength columns,

1 1 2
girders, floors
The American National Standards Institute - ANSI - is a private, non-profit organization that
administers and coordinates the U.S. voluntary standardization and conformity assessment
system.

ANSI provides a forum for development of American national standards from organizations as
ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers
NFPA - National Fire Protection Association and more,

and serves as a coordination point for national distribution of international standards issued from
organizations as
ISO - International Organization for Standardization,
DIN - Deutsches Institut fr Normung eV,
IEC - International Electro technical Commission and others.

Many of committees are chaired and sponsored by engineering societies such as

ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers and
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping applies to the following building services:
Condensing water
Water for heating and cooling
Steam and condensate
Vacuum
Compressed air and nontoxic nonflammable gases

The working pressure and temperature limits of B31.9 can be summarized to:

Service Temperature Limits Pressure Limit

maximum 366oF (186oC),

Steam and condensate 150 psig (1000 kPa)
minimum 0oF (-18oC)

maximum 200oF (93oC),

Air, gases and vapors 150 psig (1000 kPa)
minimum 0oF (-18oC)

maximum 250oF (121oC),

Nonflammable Liquids 350 psig (2300 kPa)
minimum 0oF (-18oC)
Maximum temperature and pressure ratings of flanges conforming dimensions ASME B16.5 Pipe
Flanges and Flanged Fittings - and materials specification ASTM A-105 Specification for Carbon
Steel Forgings for Piping Applications - temperature in Fahrenheit and pressure in psi.

Gage Pressure (psi)

Flange Class
Temperature
(oF)
150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500

< 100 285 740 990 1480 2220 3705 6170

200 260 675 900 1350 2025 3375 5625

300 230 655 875 1315 1970 3280 5470

400 200 635 845 1270 1900 3170 5280

500 170 600 800 1200 1795 2995 4990

600 140 550 730 1095 1640 2735 4560

650 125 535 715 1075 1610 2685 4475

700 110 535 710 1065 1600 2665 4440

750 95 505 670 1010 1510 2520 4200

800 80 410 550 825 1235 2060 3430

850 65 270 355 535 805 1340 2230

900 50 170 230 345 515 860 1430

950 35 105 140 205 310 515 860

1000 20 50 70 105 155 260 430

There are four basic types of cast iron
white iron
gray iron
ductile iron
malleable iron

White Cast Iron

Characterized by the prevalence of carbides, impacting

high compressive strength
hardness
good resistance to wear

Gray Cast Iron

Characterized with graphite in the microstructure, giving

good machinability
good resistance to wear and galling

Ductile Cast Iron

Gray iron with small amounts of magnesium and cesium which nodulates the graphite, resulting
high strength
high ductility

Malleable Cast Iron

White cast iron heat-treated to improve

higher ductility

Flanges - Ratings in Classes and Pressure Numbers (PN)

Flange Class 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500

Flange Pressure
20 50 68 100 150 250 420
Number, PN

A recommended identification color scheme of piping systems based on ANSI A13.1 Standard for
Pipe Identification are indicated below:
 Classification Color Field and Legend

Flammable or Explosive Black text on Yellow

Fluids background

Chemically Active, Toxic Black text on Yellow

Inherently Hazardous or Corrosive Fluids background
Materials
Extreme Temperatures or Black text on Yellow
Pressures background

Black text on Yellow

Radioactive background

Liquid or Liquid
WhiteText on Green
Admixture, Potable background
Water, Feed water ...
Inherently Low
Hazardous Materials
Gas or Gaseous
White Text on Blue
Admixture, Compressed background
air ..

White Text on Red

Fire Quenching Materials Water, Foam, Co2, .. background

Size of Letters

Outside Pipe or
Size of Letters
Covering Size
(in)
(in)

3/4" to 1 1/4" 1/2"

1 1/2" to 2" 3/4"

2 1/2" to 6" 1 1/4"

8" to 10" 2 1/2

> 10" 3 1/2"

Piping and Equipment Identification Labels

Abbreviation and letter - label coloring based on ASME A13.1 - 2007 Scheme for the Identification
of Piping Systems:

Label Colors
Label Abbreviation System, Pipe Contents
(Background - Text)

CHWR Chilled Water Return Green - White

CHWS Chilled Water Supply Green - White

CWR Condenser Water Return Green - White

CWS Condenser Water Supply Green - White

FOR Fuel Oil Return Yellow - Black

FOS Fuel Oil Supply Yellow - Black

HPC High Pressure Condensate Blue - White

High Pressure Steam (above

HPS Blue - White
125#)

HWR Hot Water Heating Return Green - White

HWS Hot Water Heating Supply Green - White

LPC Low Pressure Condensate Blue - White

Low Pressure Steam (below

LPS Blue - White
25#)

MPC Medium Pressure Condensate Blue - White

Medium Pressure Steam

MPS Blue - White
(above 25# - below 125#)

PCR Pumped Condensate Return Blue - White

ACID Acid Waste Orange - Black

BR Brine Water Orange - Black

FIRE Fire Suppression Water Red - White

HAZ Hazardous Waste Orange - Black

 DI or RO High Purity Water Green - White

DCW Potable Cold Water Green - White

DHW Potable Hot Water Supply Green - White

DHWR Potable Hot Water Return Green - White

NG Natural Gas Yellow - Black

LN2 Nitrogen (liquid) Black - White

Med Air Medical air Yellow - Black

CO2 Carbon dioxide Gray - White

He Helium Brown - White

N2 Nitrogen Black - White

N2O Nitrous oxide Blue - White

O2 Oxygen Green - White

Med Vac Medical?surgical vacuum White - Black

WAGD Waste anesthetic gas disposal Violet - White

Yellow and White

Lab Air Laboratory air
checkerboard - Black

White and Black

Lab Vac Laboratory vacuum checkerboard - Black
boxed

IA Instrument air Red - White

CFHE Chemical Fume Hood Exhaust Purple - White

BCE Biosafety Cabinet Exhaust Purple - White

RE Radioisotope Exhaust Yellow - magenta

ETOE ETO Exhaust Purple - white

ASME A13.1 - 2007 Scheme for the Identification of Piping Systems - is intended to establish a
common system to assist in identification of hazardous materials conveyed in piping systems and
their hazards when released in the environment -concerns identification of contents of piping
systems in industrial and power plants - recommended for the identification of piping systems used
in commercial and institutional installations and in buildings used for public assembly

NDT - Non Destructive Testing

Nondestructive testing - NDT - use test methods to examine an object, material or system without
impairing its future usefulness. Non-destructive testing is often required to verify the quality of a
product or a system. Commonly used techniques are
AET - Acoustic Emission Testing
ART - Acoustic Resonance Testing
ET - Electromagnetic Testing
IRT - Infrared Testing
LT - Leak Testing
MT - Magnetic Particle Testing
PT - Dye Penetrant Testing
RT - Radiographic Testing
UT - Ultrasonic Testing
VT - Visual Testing (VI - Visual Inspection)

AET - Acoustic Emission Testing

Acoustic Emission Testing takes advantage of the sharp sound that PCCP emits when it breaks or
slips to identify areas of active distress within a construction. AET can be used to verify the
structural integrity of pressure vessels, spheres, high temperature reactors and piping, coke
drums, above ground storage tanks, cryogenic storage tanks and more. The inspection is
executed externally and shut-down of the process may often not be necessary.

ART - Acoustic Resonance Testing

After an impact a specimen will vibrate in certain characteristic modes and frequencies that can be
measured by a microphone or laser vibrometer. Acoustic sonic and ultrasonic resonance analysis
is a non-destructive testing technique that allows testing of a wide range of test objects. Typical
detecting faults are cracks, cavities, detached layers, material inconsistencies, hardness deviation
in materials.

ET - Electromagnetic Testing

Electromagnetic testing is the process of inducing electric currents and/or magnetic fields inside a
test object and observing the response. A defect in the test object may be detected where
electromagnetic interference creates a measurable response.

IRT - Infrared Testing

Infrared testing is a technique that uses thermography, an infrared imaging and measurement
camera, to see and measure infrared energy emitted from an object. Can be used to heat
development, lack of insulation, thin walls in constructions and more.

LT - Leak Testing

Techniques used to detect and locate leaks in pressure containment parts, pressure vessels, and
structures. Leaks can be detected by using liquid and gas penetrant techniques, electronic
listening devices, pressure gauge measurements or soap-bubble tests.

MT - Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic particle testing is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material
and then dusting the surface with iron particles. The surface will produce magnetic poles and
distort the magnetic field in such a way that the iron particles are attracted and concentrated
making defects on the surface of the material visible.

PT - Dye Penetrant Testing

The dye penetrant testing can be used to locate discontinuities on material surfaces. A highly
penetrating dye on the surface will enter discontinuities after a sufficient penetration time, and after
removing the excess dye with a developing agent, the defects on the surface will be visible.

RT - Radiographic Testing

Radiographic testing can be used to detect internal defects in castings, welds or forgings by
exposure the construction to x-ray or gamma ray radiation. Defects are detected by differences in
radiation absorption in the material as seen on a shadow graph displayed on photographic film or a
fluorescent screen.

UT - Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional
measurements, material characterization, and more.

VT - Visual Testing (VI - Visual Inspection)

Visual testing or inspection offers a wide range of options to secure proper system or product
quality.

Stainless Steels Classifications

Stainless steels are in general grouped into

martensitic stainless steels
ferritic stainless steels
austenitic stainless steels
duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels
precipitation-hardening stainless steels

Alloying metallic elements added during the making of the steel increase corrosion resistance,
hardness, or strength. The metals used most commonly as alloying elements in stainless steel
include chromium, nickel, and molybdenum.

Stainless steels are available in the form of

plate
sheet
strip
foil
bar
wire
pipes
tubes
Stainless steels are a iron-based alloy containing at between 10.5% to 30% Cr. Stainless steel
achieve its stainless characteristic through the formation of an invisible and adherent chromium-
rich oxide surface film.

Other alloying elements added to improve the characteristics of the stainless steel include nickel,
molybdenum, copper, titanium, aluminum, silicon, niobium, nitrogen, sulphur, and selenium.

Carbon is normally in amounts from 0.03% to more than 1.0% in some martensitic grades.

Selection of stainless steels are in general based on

corrosion resistance
fabrication characteristics
availability
mechanical properties for specific temperature ranges
product cost

Since stainless steel resists corrosion, maintains its strength at high temperatures, and is easily
maintained, it is widely used in items such as automotive and food processing products, as well as
medical and health equipment. The most common US grades of stainless steel are:

TYPE 304

The most commonly specified austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class) stainless steel,
accounting for more than half of the stainless steel produced in the world. This grade withstands
ordinary corrosion in architecture, is durable in typical food processing environments, and resists
most chemicals. Type 304 is available in virtually all product forms and finishes.

TYPE 316

Austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class) stainless steel containing 2%-3% molybdenum

(whereas 304 has none). The inclusion of molybdenum gives 316 greater resistance to various
forms of deterioration.

TYPE 409

Ferritic (plain chromium stainless category) stainless steel suitable for high temperatures. This
grade has the lowest chromium content of all stainless steels and thus is the least expensive.

TYPE 410

The most widely used martensitic (plain chromium stainless class with exceptional strength)
stainless steel, featuring the high level of strength conferred by the martensitics. It is a low-cost,
heat-treatable grade suitable for non-severe corrosion applications.

TYPE 430

The most widely used ferritic (plain chromium stainless category) stainless steel, offering general-
purpose corrosion resistance, often in decorative applications.