The Emotional Intelligence Profile of Academics in A Merger

Education and Urban Society
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The Emotional Intelligence Profile of Academics in a Merger Setting

Jacobus G. Maree and Riette J. Eiselen
Education and Urban Society 2004; 36; 482
DOI: 10.1177/0013124504265862
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10.1177/0013124504265862
EDUCATION
Maree, EiselenAND
ARTICLE / EMOTIONAL
URBAN SOCIETY
INTELLIGENCE
/ August 2004
OF ACADEMICS
THE EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
PROFILE OF ACADEMICS IN A
MERGER SETTING
JACOBUS G. MAREE
University of Pretoria
RIETTE J. EISELEN
Rand Afrikaans University
In the past perceived cognitive potential, more than any other factor, was viewed as a predictor for
a stable life and future success. The concept of “emotional intelligence” (EI), however, provides
a useful instrument to describe the intricate configuration of interrelated factors that play a role in
predicting a person’s success in life. Using the merger between the former Pretoria Teacher’s
Training College and the University of Pretoria as a backdrop, the research reported in this article
attempts to establish the emotional intelligence profiles of academics in a merger setting. The
qualitative section of the research involves a study of the literature on certain aspects of the phe-
nomenon “emotional intelligence”, whereas the quantitative part of the research involves the ad-
™
ministration of the BarOn EQ-i measure to 53 participants who have all been involved in the
above-mentioned merger. The results of the study provide statistical evidence of how a drastic
life-changing event, such as a “merger” between two higher education institutions, may hamper
the actualization of academics’intellectual potential. The research accentuates the importance of
timeous and continued assessment of the ongoing functioning and well-being of academics who
have been involved in a merger and it underlines the need for tailor-made training programs that
may help improve the emotional skills and functioning of such academics.
Keywords: emotional intelligence and merger (setting)
The concept of “emotional intelligence” has emerged from the growing

realization that there are a number of other additional factors besides cogni-
tive performance that play a role in a person’s life success. For many years
psychologists, teachers, and the public alike have been focusing on the intel-
lectual potential of individuals. In the past, perceived cognitive potential,
more than any other factor, has been seen as a predictor of a stable life and
future success. It has, however, been established that despite an individual
having the intellectual potential to succeed, he/she may experience difficulty
dealing with emotional issues, have poor interpersonal relationships, and be
ineffective in his/her decision making. These observations, among others,
EDUCATION AND URBAN SOCIETY, Vol. 36 No. 4, August 2004 482-504

DOI: 10.1177/0013124504265862
© 2004 Corwin Press, Inc.
482

Maree, Eiselen / EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF ACADEMICS 483
have led to the realization that humans require more than purely intellectual
abilities to exist and survive as both physical and spiritual beings. An intri-
cate configuration of interrelated factors plays a role in predicting success in
life. The concept of “emotional intelligence” provides an extremely useful
instrument to describe this configuration of factors. As a result, extensive
research is currently being conducted in the various fields of intelligence and
also with regard to the concept of “emotional intelligence” (Goleman, 1996,
pp. 36-39). The term emotional intelligence represents a move away from an
exclusive focus on cognitive processes and abilities, based on the fact that
even intellectually “weak” individuals often progress through life success-
fully and purposefully. General intelligence, which includes emotional as
well as cognitive intelligence, facilitates a more comprehensive and holistic
approach with which to assess individuals (Brady, 1998, p. 19).
THE NEED FOR THE STUDY
Two primary factors prompted the present study. On one hand, the impor-
tance of the EI concept in 21st-century research is accepted as a given.
Although, for many years, social-emotional education considerations were
regarded as “soft” and dismissed as unimportant and not really scientifically
based, over the past 5 or so years “the interlinkage of cognitive and emotional
skills and behavioural functioning” has received due recognition (Cohen &
Sandy, 2003, p. 44). The findings of the present study may therefore be bene-
ficial and applicable to current management practices in a variety of tertiary
settings, especially in an urban context. On the other hand in South Africa,
recent government plans to change the academic landscape of higher educa-
tion in South Africa through strategies that include institutional mergers,
have affected in various ways the staff that are involved (Becker et al., in
press). When the former Pretoria Teacher’s Training College (Normal Col-
lege of Pretoria or Onderwyskollege Pretoria NCP/NKP) was incorporated
into the University of Pretoria in 1999 to 2001, it soon became clear that the
process of incorporation was experienced as a most traumatic and severely
disruptive event in the lives of (especially) former staff attached to the NCP
Onderwyskollege Pretoria (Becker et al., in press). Many staff members
experienced the process of merging as an act of betrayal by top management
and expressed the view that the administration and supervision of the
incorporation had been handled in a most insensitive manner.
In light of the aforementioned, it was decided to allocate funding toward
financing the administration of the The BarOn Emotional Quotient–

484 EDUCATION AND URBAN SOCIETY / August 2004
Inventory™ (The BarOn EQ-i™) as part of a strategy in group and team devel-
opment to
• evaluate the ongoing functioning and well-being of staff at these critical stages
of transformation;
• function as an instrument to gauge the impact and effectiveness of the current
organizational change and restructuring (i.e., before and after organizational
changes);
• create tailor-made guidelines to improve the emotional skills and functioning
of employees in the newly constituted and augmented Faculty of Education at
the University of Pretoria; and
• identify and benchmark those factors that have been shown to be directly
related to continued success within an academic environment.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The general problem statement of this study can be formulated as follows:

What are the emotional intelligence profiles of academics in a merger set-
ting? The study, however, also attempts to further investigate and understand
the relatively new concept of emotional intelligence and an attempt will be
made to correlate the EIs of various sex and age groups in a tertiary setting
after a merge between institutions has taken place.
ELUCIDATION OF KEY CONCEPTS
The term intelligence quotient (IQ) will be discussed first.
IQ
Phares (1992, p. 182) classifies intelligence theories in three main classes,

namely (a) definitions that emphasize adjustment to the learner’s environ-
ment, (b) definitions that focus on the learner’s ability to learn, and (c) defini-
tions that emphasize abstract reasoning ability and the ability to use a wide
series of symbols and concepts, including verbal and numerical symbols.
This classification largely agrees with that of Van den Berg (1995), according
to whom the following themes figure prominently in the definition of

intelligence: the ability to adjust to new situations, the ability to learn, the
ability to handle abstract relationships and symbols, and the ability to solve
new and divergent problems.
Naglieri and Reardon (1993, p. 128) define the concept of intelligence
from an information-processing perspective as “one’s ability to attend, pro-
cess information, and utilize those processes to solve problems.”
Sternberg’s (1984) triarchic model of intelligence implies that intelli-
gence develops and evolves through dynamic interaction between individu-
als and their environment. According to him, intelligence is relative to a cer-
tain particular context and it is impossible to measure intelligence
(objectively). Furthermore, intelligence is a most dynamic (metastable) trait.
Interaction between individuals and their environment inevitably has an
impact on their intelligence. A child who develops late, a psychologist who
experiences an “off day,” fluctuating home and other circumstances, emo-
tional factors—these are all examples of circumstances that may affect the
measurement of IQ on a specific day and that confirm the fact that this score
should be interpreted with great care.
From the above, it should be clear that, regardless of what one’s view of
intelligence actually comprises, IQ alone does not account for the variance in
achievement and, indeed, the degree to which individuals deal with everyday
life problems. In fact, researchers have long been interested in identifying
other contributing factors instead of merely relying on a solitary IQ score.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI)
Salovey and Mayer (1990) note that intelligence should be redefined to

include a person’s capacity to monitor his or her own and others’emotions, to
discriminate between these emotions and to use this information to guide his
or her thinking and actions. Passow and Schiff (1989, p. 5) contend that
researchers will have to “attend to another dimension of giftedness: the
development of caring, concerned, compassionate, committed individuals
who develop and use their giftedness for society’s behalf as much as for self-
fulfillment.”
According to Brady (1998, p. 3), there has been a move toward a more
inclusive definition of intellectual functioning, mainly “as a result of the lim-
ited predictability of cognitive potential in determining success in life.”
There has been a move toward a more inclusive definition of intellectual
functioning. This shift has given rise to the definition of the concept of emo-
tional intelligence. Brady (1998, p. 19) aptly states that the concept of

emotional intelligence represents “a move away from an exclusive focus on

cognitive processes, in the examination of the ability of an individual to
navigate life successfully and purposefully.”
A few years before the phrase “emotional intelligence” (EI) was officially
coined, Hoffman, Wasson, and Christianson (in Newell, 1989, p. 98) pro-
vided the following checklist as a yardstick to identify gifted underachievers:
A typical underachiever has a high IQ but shows a discrepancy between
expected and actual performance, is inconsistent in accomplishing goals, dis-
plays impaired levels of self-confidence, reveals feelings of inferiority,
blames others for his or her own troubles, and provides evidence of with-
drawal. This checklist already supplies ample proof that a measured high IQ
alone does not “guarantee” satisfactory achievement.
Many definitions of the concept EI have been proposed during the past
few years. Mehrabian (2000, p. 134) for instance states that the term is widely
used to explain “individual differences associated with life success that are
not specifically measured with traditional intelligence measures.” Goleman
(1996, p. 34), on the other hand, defines EI as the ability “to motivate oneself
and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay gratifica-
tion; to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to
think; to empathize and hope.” Kapp (2000, p. 152), on the other hand,
defines emotional intelligence as “that part of the human spirit which moti-
vates us to perform, which gives us energy to demonstrate behaviours such as
intentionality, persistence, creativity, impulse control, social deftness, com-
passion, intuition and integrity.” Goleman (1996, p. 34) maintains that EI is
indeed more powerful than IQ when it comes to predicting achievement and
success in life. Kapp (2000) concludes that emotional intelligence provides
people with the capacity for a positive outlook and it also facilitates the
ability to trust other people and to do one’s best.
Lam and Kirby (2002, p. 132) are of the opinion that emotional intelli-
gence involves perceiving, understanding, and regulating emotions:
• Perceiving emotions consists of recognizing and interpreting the meaning of

various emotional states as well as their relation to other sensory experiences.
• Understanding emotions involves the comprehension of how basic emotions
are blended to form complex emotions, how emotions are affected by events
surrounding experiences, and whether various emotional reactions are likely in
given social settings.
• Regulating emotions encompasses the control of emotions in oneself and in
others.

It was, however, Mayer and Salovey (1993), Goleman (1996), and BarOn
(1996) who, to a greater or lesser extent, supplied satisfactory proof of the
positive correlation between emotional intelligence and adequate achieve-
ment. Mayer and Salovey (1993, p. 433) define emotional intelligence as “a
type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own
thinking and actions.” Salovey and Mayer (1990, pp. 185-211) state that
emotional intelligence entails both inter- and intrapersonal intelligences.
According to Cherniss and Goleman (2001), “emotional intelligence” refers
to the abilities to recognize and regulate emotions in ourselves and in others.
This description suggests four major EI domains: Self-Awareness, Self-
Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management.
In summary then, BarOn (1996), Salovey and Mayer (1990, pp. 185-211),
and Cherniss and Goleman (in press) all (directly or indirectly) state that
emotional intelligence entails both inter- and intrapersonal intelligences.
Although different authors emphasize different aspects of emotional intelli-
gence, it can be safely stated that the following categories of emotional intel-
ligence are (to a greater or lesser extent) stressed in their different working
definitions of the concept of emotional intelligence:
Emotional self-awareness or an awareness of one’s own emotions. This implies

the ability to observe, recognize, and understand one’s own emotions, to react
appropriately to these emotions and to be able to identify causes of certain
emotions, to appropriately acknowledge feelings when they occur and to un-
derstand how one’s feelings affect the people around you.
Self-regulation (managing or regulating one’s emotions). This entails one’s abil-
ity to control or handle (most of) one’s emotions so that they are appropriate.
This also entails the ability to understand and identify situations that can cause
certain emotions to occur as well as to be aware of the factors that may underlie
such emotions. In the event of negative emotions arising (anxiety-provoking
situations), one should be able to let certain emotions go (switch to other, less
anxiety-provoking emotions) and to use emotions effectively. This also in-
cludes finding ways to handle fears and anxieties, anger, and sadness (Young,
1996, p. 2).
Self-motivation or self-efficacy is potentially the most effective aspect of EI. This
includes the ability to channel emotions in the direction of a goal and to focus
one’s enthusiasm, self-confidence, and concentration on the achievement of
goals. This also implies that words are followed by actions, and that time limits
are set for the achievement of certain goals. Obviously postponing the gratifi-
cation of short-term needs in favor of longer-term needs and stifling impulses
are important aspects of self-motivation (Young, 1996, p. 2).
Relating well (empathy with, or acknowledgement of the emotions of others).
This aspect includes the ability to communicate well with others, to be sensi-

tive to the feelings, concerns, and needs of others, and to realize that various
people react differently in the same situation. This also implies that one should
be able to react appropriately to the subtle signals that others send out, and to
realize that encountering people who are hard to communicate with is a given
fact of life.
Emotional mentoring (coping with, handling, or managing relationships). Al-
though one is unable to control the emotions of others, one should be able to re-
alize when they are experiencing negative emotions (e.g., anxiety or distress)
and to reach out and (try to) help such persons (to manage their emotions). Es-
tablishing, promoting, and retaining sound relationships (not only with others,
but also with oneself) is a crucial aspect of EI. This aspect comprises social
skills and competence (Young, 1996, p. 2).
A WORKING DEFINITION OF EI
The term emotional intelligence was coined by Dr. Reuven BarOn in 1985
to describe his approach to assessing this aspect of general intelligence.
Broadly speaking, emotional intelligence addresses the emotional, personal,
social, and survival dimensions of intelligence, vitally important in daily
functioning. This less cognitive part of intelligence is concerned with under-
standing oneself and others, relating to people, and adapting to and coping
with our immediate surroundings. These factors increase our ability to be
more successful in dealing with environmental demands. EI is tactical and
immediate, and as such reflects a person’s “common sense” and ability to get
along in the world (BarOn, 1996, p. 1; BarOn in Van Rooyen, 2002, p. 19).
In summary, EI is the “street smarts” in a person, reflecting on one’s abil-
ity to deal successfully with other people, one’s feelings, and one’s everyday
social environment. By dealing with these pressures successfully, one will be
better able to positively influence one’s overall well-being (Van Rooyen,
2002).
MEASURING INSTRUMENT: THE

BARON EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT–INVENTORY™
Based on 17 years of research by Dr. Reuven BarOn and tried out on many
thousands of individuals worldwide, the BarOn EQ-i™ is the first scientifi-
cally developed and validated measure of EI.

™
WHAT DOES THE BARON EQ-I MEASURE?
The BarOn EQ-i™ consists of 133 items and takes approximately 30 min-
utes to complete. It is based on the most comprehensive theory of EI to date
and renders an overall EI score as well as scores for the following five com-
posite scales and 15 subscales:
Intrapersonal Scales: Self-Regard, Emotional Self-Awareness, Assertiveness, In-

dependence and Self-Actualization;
Interpersonal Scales: Empathy, Social Responsibility and Interpersonal Relation-
ship;
Adaptability Scales: Reality Testing, Flexibility and Problem Solving;
Stress Management Scales: Stress Tolerance and Impulse Control; and
General Mood Scales: Optimism and Happiness.
These important areas of emotional intelligence are measured with the aid
of four validity indices and a sophisticated correction factor.
™
USES OF THE BARON EQ-I
The BarOn EQ-i™ (J. De Beer, personal communication, 2003) can be

employed in many ways and in a variety of settings. It is appropriate for use in
corporate, clinical, educational, medical, and research settings. Potential
users of the EQ-i include human resources professionals, organizational
development consultants, career counselors, guidance counselors, psycholo-
gists, psychiatrists, physicians, and social workers. The BarOn EQ-i™ can be
used by organizations for screening as part of the recruiting process to aid in
identifying potentially successful employees. It can also be employed in
identifying those emotional and social skills that are important to develop in
employee training programs, team building, and enhancing managerial com-
petencies at work.
The BarOn EQ-i™ can be used in a variety of settings. It is particularly
appropriate in corporate, educational, counseling, medical, and research
environments. The following is an indication of the way in which the BarOn
EQ-i™ can be used in different settings.
CORPORATE SETTING
• Assist in hiring emotionally intelligent and potentially successful personnel.

• Supplement other sources of information—other tests or an interview.

• Identify and benchmark those factors that have been shown to be directly
related to success in specific jobs.
• Evaluate the ongoing functioning and well-being of current staff at critical
stages of employment or change.
• Function as an instrument to gauge the impact and effectiveness of organiza-
tional change and restructuring (i.e., before and after organizational changes).
• Create tailor-made training programs to improve the emotional skills and func-
tioning of employees and the company.
• Use in group and team development.
COUNSELING OR CLINICAL SETTING
• Assess a patient’s general degree of emotional well-being, potential for emo-

tional health, and present psychological well-being.
• Map out areas that need further exploration and attention.
• Formulate clear therapeutic goals.
• Decide on when to terminate therapy and/or evaluate the successfulness of the
therapy or an intervention program.
• Predict an individual’s ability to benefit from substance abuse rehabilitation.
• Examine prisoners under consideration for parole.
RESEARCH SETTING
The BarOn EQ-i™ can also be used as a comprehensive measure of emo-

tional intelligence and can be applied for research in educational, medical,
clinical, and particularly in business and management science research.
RELIABILITY OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
The following reliability coefficients were reported for the total emotional
quotient and the composite scales for a South African population (Swart,
1997, pp. 79-80):
Total emotional quotient = 0.94

Intrapersonal Scale = 0.91
Interpersonal Scale = 0.81
Adaptability Scale = 0.81
Stress Management Scale = 0.80
General Mood Scale = 0.83

A reliability coefficient of 0.75 indicates a good level of reliability. As can

be seen from Swart’s study, good reliability coefficients were reported for the
15 content scales, the total emotional quotient and composite scales. This
indicates that the BarOn EQ-i™ can be used for the purpose of the current
study.
APPLICABILITY OF THE BARON

EQ-I™ IN URBAN SOUTH AFRICA
The BarOn EQ-i™ was recently used to assess 300 corporate executives
employed in a variety of different leadership positions throughout North
America (BarOn, 2003). In addition to this, the leadership abilities of partici-
pants were also assessed. A very strong correlation between EI and leader-
ship was established (Canonical R of .80), implying that “at least 64% of
effective leadership is based on emotional and social intelligence” (BarOn,
2003, p. 8). Clearly this finding has major implications for corporate settings
in urban 21st-century South Africa, where the emphasis on providing strong
and responsible leadership is ever-growing. Staff retrenchments place an
enormous strain on leaders to deal with potentially volatile situations effec-
tively, whereas affirmative action demands the training of newly recruited
leaders to fit into foreign surroundings adequately and to provide responsible
leadership to employees. The BarOn EQ-i™ provides an exciting opportunity
for equipping leaders in a corporate setting with essential EI-skills, including
committal to their organizations (social responsibility), a positive attitude
(happiness), the ability to handle stress (stress tolerance), and to control their
emotions (impulse control) (BarOn, 2003).
Opening any newspaper, listening to any news broadcast or watching TV
on any given day in 21st-century South Africa will attest to the escalating dif-
ficulty currently being experienced with regard to promoting emotional
wellness in any urban context in South Africa. Health profession workers
(including psychiatrists and psychologists, including the first author of this
article), will testify that colleagues from all walks of life are finding it
increasingly difficult to manage their careers, lead a normal family life, and
in general, strike a balance between the two and enjoy emotional wellness.
Contemporary research indicates that the use of the BarOn EQ-i™ could be
used to extremely good effect to facilitate psychological wellness. BarOn,
Handley, and Fund’s (in press) research has provided a clear indication that

this instrument could be used to facilitate better adaptation to a new social

environment and, indeed, become part of that environment (flexibility), set
goals and strive to achieve these goals (self-actualization), succeed in keep-
ing perspective on matters (reality-testing), and especially, deal with the
stress that is generated from being involved in functioning on a daily basis
(stress tolerance).
Sjölund’s research (BarOn, 2003) revealed that the EIs of employees in a
corporate setting improved significantly after attending a workshop on EI
(whereas the total EQ score increased by 9, p < .0005, scores in 9 out of the 15
subscales increased significantly). BarOn (2003) points out that the two EI
competencies that increased most after the workshop were emotional aware-
ness and empathy and that these two scales are considered by many as the two
single most important aspects of emotional and social intelligence. A number
of other studies, recently conducted in an urban, corporate setting, support
these findings (BarOn, 2003).
Schools in 21st-century South Africa are experiencing the same turbulent
times as corporate settings; racial integration in schools does not always take
place without growing pains. This is especially the case in urban settings,
with the number of learners applying to enroll at certain schools often placing
an almost unbearable strain on existing resources. After extensive research
on instruments suitable for assessing emotional and social competence in
pre-primary and primary schools, Stewart-Brown and Edmunds (2003) have
come to the conclusion that the measurement of social and emotional compe-
tence of children is practical and viable in the near future. The Youth Version
of the BarOn EQ-i™ was identified as one of the instruments with the most
relevance for the emotional competence of older children and could (accord-
ing to these two authors) be used to “assess practitioner/teacher and school/
class emotional and social competence with the aim of helping teachers with
this aspect of their development” (Stewart-Brown & Edmunds, 2003, p. 30).
Zins, Elias, and Greenberg (2003) refer to the major challenges faced by pro-
fessionals in South Africa and elsewhere in the world, including the AIDS/
HIV endemic, violence, poverty, the challenges posed by technological
advances, the unstable political situation, and the mass media’s (negative)
influence on persons’behavior. In conjunction with the aforementioned chal-
lenges, however, exciting opportunities become evident to impact positively
on the lives of people, especially children, who will be the leaders of tomor-
row. This necessitates the introduction of social and emotional learning pro-
grams in schools, especially in an urban context.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Two supplementary approaches, quantitative as well as qualitative, have

been implemented in the current research. The qualitative section of the study
involves a study of the literature concerning certain aspects of the phenome-
non of EI. The quantitative part of the research involves the administration of
the BarOn EQ-i™ measure to 53 participants.
PROCEDURE
Prior to the administration of the test, testees were allowed to ask ques-
tions about it. The test administrators (Jopie van Rooyen & Partners, who
hold the exclusive rights to the distribution of the test in South Africa)
assured the testees that their responses would be treated with extreme confi-
dentiality and that their anonymity would at all times be safeguarded. The test
administrators next explained to the participants how to complete the ques-
tionnaire. On average, the completion of the test took 35 minutes. In view of
the fact that the questionnaire may have aroused questions and anxieties,
testees were encouraged to make an appointment with the test administrators
to discuss their feelings and questions. Testees were assured that general
feedback on the results would be provided within one month. Feedback was
subsequently provided approximately 5 weeks after the initial assessment
and testees’questions were handled professionally by the test administrators.
Testees received their reports in sealed envelopes.
ETHICAL ASPECTS
Permission to conduct the research, to publish the research results, and to

incorporate the above case studies in this article, was obtained from the aca-
demics involved. For the purposes of confidentiality, all recognizable data
have been carefully disguised or omitted. Ethical measures to ensure the
research participants’ well-being were implemented throughout the study.
Due to the extremely sensitive nature of the information, the firm of Jopie van
Rooyen and Partners was contracted to provide feedback to each research
participant, which allowed for no deception by the researchers. In fact, the

researchers were at no stage privy to the results. The research findings were
released in an accurate and scientifically accountable manner.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The limitations of this study can be summarized as follows:

The range/scope of the study was limited because only one institution was
involved. Due to the high costs involved in the administration and scoring of
the BarOn EQ-i™ measure, inter alia, it was decided, to limit the current
research to one institution only.
The possibility of inference or generalization was likewise limited,
because the one single institution study is not representative of the full popu-
lation of academics who were involved in mergers.
The subjective interpretation of the researchers can also be seen as limit-
ing the study, as the results may well be interpreted differently by other
researchers.
The staff members participating in this study cannot be considered a ran-
dom sample of the faculty and hence generalization cannot be made. The rea-
sons why some staff members decided not to participate remain unknown.
However, in terms of their EI scores, nonparticipants may very well differ
from those who participated in terms of their EQ scores.
Irrespective of these limitations, a description and discussion of the scores
obtained by the participants is valid, especially in terms of those participants
who obtained unusually low scores in the various dimensions. Theoretically,
all dimensions are normally distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard
deviation of 15. Scores below one standard deviation from the mean (i.e.,
lower than 85) may therefore be indicative of possible problem areas within
the faculty.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE
A total of 53 (i.e., 19 or 35.8% male and 34 or 64.2% female) staff mem-

bers participated in the study by completing the EI test. Of these, 56.6% (30)
were younger than 45 at the time the test was conducted.

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Total EQ score
Figure 1: Box-and-Whisker Plot of Total Emotional Intelligence Scores
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) (Kinnear & Gray,
1997) was used in analyzing the data. Frequencies, minima, maxima, means,
standard deviations, and correlations, were used to describe the samples and
independent sample t tests were used to explore group differences.
RESULTS
The total EI scores of the participants ranged between 42 and 122 with a
mean of 96.08 (SD = 15.38). The distribution of the total EI scores is slightly
negatively skewed (shown in the box-and-whisker plot: see Figure 1) and
there is one outlier value (42). Of the 53 participants (20.8%), 11 obtained a
total EI score of less than 85.

TABLE 1
Minimum, Maximum, Mean (M), and Standard Deviation (SD)
of Each of the Five Dimensions of the EI
Variable Minimum Maximum M SD Skewness
Stress management (sm) 46 131 93.43 19.065 – .470

Adaptability (adap) 45 124 95.96 15.178 – .522
Intrapersonal (ip) 34 119 96.85 17.631 –1.492
General mood (gm) 67 123 97.02 13.548 – .761
Interpersonal (ip) 70 125 102.04 11.139 – .333
DESCRIPTION OF THE FIVE EI DIMENSIONS
Table 1 shows the minimum, maximum, mean (M) and standard deviation
(SD) of each of the 5 dimensions of the EI (i.e., Intrapersonal, Interpersonal,
Adaptability, Stress Management and General Mood) in increasing order of
the mean. The table shows that the lowest mean score was evidenced for
Stress Management whereas the highest mean score was in terms of
Interpersonal.
The distribution of all of the dimensions of the EI is negatively skewed
mainly due to the presence of outlier values (atypically low values) (see
Figure 2).
As a further investigation of the scores obtained, the number (and percent-
age) of participants obtaining a score below 1 standard deviation of the mean
(i.e., below 85) on each of these dimensions is shown in Table 2. In addition,
Table 2 also shows the number (and percentage) of participants within 1 stan-
dard deviation of the mean (i.e., with scores between 85 and 115) and above 1
standard deviation (i.e., above 115).
Of particular interest is the fact that 15 of the 53 participants (i.e., 28.3%)
obtained a score of less than 85 for Stress Management, whereas only 2 par-
ticipants (3.8%) obtained a similar score for Interpersonal.
For all dimensions, except Interpersonal, the percentage of participants
below 1 standard deviation of the mean exceeds the corresponding percent-
age above 1 standard deviation of the mean. This is particularly true for Stress
Management and General Mood.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBDIMENSIONS

OF EACH EI DIMENSION
Each of the five dimensions of the EI consists of a number of sub-

dimensions. Table 2 shows the minimum, maximum, mean (M), standard

Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Adaptability
Stress management
General mood
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Figure 2: Box-and-Whisker Plots of the Dimensions of the EI
deviation (SD), and skewness of each of these subdimensions. All of these

subdimensions have a negative skewness.
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EI
To explore the extent to which the various dimensions of the EI are related,
the Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were calculated (see
Table 4). The correlation between Stress Management and Interpersonal is
not significantly different from 0 (p value = .169 > .1). All other correlations
are, however, significantly different from 0 (p values < .05). These correla-
tions ranged from a low of 0.293, between Interpersonal and Intrapersonal, to
a high of 0.742 between Adaptability and Intrapersonal.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GENDER AND AGE GROUPS

IN TERMS OF TOTAL EI AND ITS DIMENSIONS
To ascertain whether the two gender groups differ significantly in terms

of any of the 5 dimensions of the EI or the total EI score, independent

TABLE 2
Number and Percentage of Participants Below,
Within and Above 1 Standard Deviation of the Mean
Dimension Below 85 Between 85 and 115 Above 115
Intrapersonal (ip)
n 9 39 5
% 17.0 73.6 9.4
Interpersonal (ip)
n 2 46 5
% 3.8 86.8 9.4
Adaptability (adap)
n 10 37 6
% 18.9 69.8 11.3
Stress management (sm)
n 15 33 5
% 28.3 62.3 9.4
General mood (gm)
n 10 42 1
% 18.9 79.2 1.9
TABLE 3
Descriptive Statistics of Each of the Subdimensions
of the Five EI Dimensions
Minimum Maximum M SD Skewness
Intrapersonal
Self-regard (sr) 51 118 97.13 15.34 –1.068
Emotional self-awareness (es) 53 124 103.00 15.59 –.945
Assertiveness (as) 45 126 94.58 16.71 –.749
Independence (ind) 30 124 92.06 19.07 –.999
Self-actualization (sa) 39 124 101.06 18.09 –1.415
Interpersonal
Empathy (emp) 66 128 106.49 13.10 –.857
Social responsibility (soc_r) 68 124 103.36 12.65 –.620
Interpersonal relationships (ir) 64 122 100.09 11.92 –.397
Adaptability
Reality testing (rt) 57 129 97.81 15.79 –.248
Flexibility (flex) 59 128 95.85 17.04 –.321
Problem solving (ps) 48 122 96.72 14.64 –.952
Stress management
Stress tolerance (st) 54 128 96.04 17.85 –.248
Impulse control (ipc) 48 127 92.81 18.47 –.353
General mood
Optimism (opt) 59 121 96.81 14.91 –.750
Happiness (hap) 64 120 98.13 13.12 –.580

TABLE 4
Correlations Between the Dimensions of the EI
Stress General
Interpersonal Adaptability Management Mood
Dimension (ip) (adap) (sm) (gm)
Intrapersonal (ip) .293 .742 .498 .676

Interpersonal (ip) .357 Not significantly
different from 0 .440
Adaptability (adap) .683 .644
Stress management (sm) .575
sample t tests were carried out. No significant differences were evidenced

(p values > .1 in all cases). The same holds true for the two age groups (i.e.,
younger than 45 and 45 or older). Hence, although these results should be
interpreted with caution due to the fact that the sample was not randomly
selected, there does not seem to be any speculative evidence that one of the
gender groups or alternatively one of the age groups differs significantly
from the other in terms of mean scores on any of the dimensions of the EI or
the total EI score.
Based on the results obtained from the individual t tests, the decision was
taken not to explore groups’differences further by means of multivariate pro-
cedures, such as MANOVA.
DISCUSSION
Despite the limitations of this study (as pointed out earlier) the fact that the
total EI scores of the participants ranged between 42 and 122, with a mean of
96.08, nevertheless seem to support the Sternbergian observation that the
interaction between individuals and their environment inevitably has an
impact on their emotional intelligence (Sternberg, 1984). As such, the results
also seem to confirm Hoffman, Wasson, and Christianson’s view of “gifted
underachievers” (in Newell, 1989, p. 98), because although the 53 partici-
pants may very well all have higher than normal IQs, their EI-scores suggest
that they may experience—perhaps because of their involvement in the
merger—a discrepancy between their expected levels of achievement and
their actual performance. Moreover, the statistical analysis we offer in
Table 1 and 2 (see earlier) appears to corroborate Hoffman, Wasson, and
Christianson’s opinion that “gifted underachievers” display impaired levels
of self-confidence as well as feelings of inferiority. The same statistical

analysis also seems to bear out Goleman’s (1996, p. 34) and Kapp’s (2000, p.
152) explanations with regard to our ability to control impulses, to regulate
our moods, and to keep distress from swamping our ability to think.
The fact that 11 of the 53 participants (i.e., 20.8%) obtained a total EI
score of less than 85 and that 15 participants (i.e., 28.3%) obtained a score of
less than 85 for Stress Management is educationally and psychologically sig-
nificant. Although they may have the intellectual potential to succeed, if
more than one fifth of the participants in this study obtained a total EI score
below one standard deviation of the mean, and also scored less than 85 for
Stress Management in particular, it provides further proof of the positive cor-
relation between emotional intelligence and adequate achievement that was
first pointed out by Mayer and Salovey (1993), Goleman (1996), and BarOn
(1996). It also substantiates the exigency for creating tailor-made training
programs to improve the emotional skills and functioning of these 11 staff
members in particular.
The descriptive statistics of each of the subdimensions of the five EI
dimensions offered in Table 3 are likewise informative. Even a cursory com-
parison of the mean scores for the subdimensions of (a) self-regard (97.13),
(b) assertiveness (94.58), (c) independence (92.06), (d) reality testing
(97.81), (e) flexibility (95.85), (f) problem solving (96.72), (g) impulse-
control (92.81), and (h) optimism (96.81) seems to reveal educationally sig-
nificant support for the conclusion reached by Becker et al. (in press) that
“the impact of incorporation on the self-image and self-worth of College staff
was definitive. . . . The emotional lives of the College staff passed through a
veritable “see-saw” experience.”
The fact that the lowest mean scores were achieved in the subdimensions
of independence and impulse-control probably deserves special mention.
These scores seem to suggest that former college staff may have observed
and experienced an external locus of control during the merger event and saw
the occurrence as completely beyond their control. Furthermore, the low
score for impulse-control may suggest that destructive thoughts may have
been harbored by colleagues. Because no one needs to be reminded of the
dire consequences of destructive behavior by disgruntled employees in
retrenchment settings (a most unfortunate, but sadly, far too regular occur-
rence in the Republic of South Africa), it is suggested that managers take par-
ticular note of this finding. Indeed, when questioned on their opinion regard-
ing the overall results, the test administrators expressed their utmost concern
about these levels and their destructive potential.
Of particular interest is the fact that 46 of the 53 participants (i.e., 86.8%)
obtained a score of between 85 and 115 for the interpersonal dimension, with
a mean score of 102.04. These statistics provide further evidence for BarOn’s

belief (in Van Rooyen, 2002, p. 19) that emotional intelligence addresses the
emotional, personal, social, and survival dimensions of intelligence that are
all vitally important in daily functioning. In particular, these statistics would
suggest (at least in the case of the incorporation of the former
Onderwyskollege Pretoria into the University of Pretoria) that despite the
traumatic and depressing circumstances, “social survival,” through the abil-
ity to communicate well with others, to be sensitive to the feelings, concerns,
and needs of others and to cope with, handle, or manage relationships,
remains of paramount importance. By pointing out the emotional distance
and communication gap that was perceived to exist between top management
and the rest of the staff, Becker et al. (in press) also allude to this inference:
“An important part of incorporation is the role of corridor gossip and rumour.
Gossip creates illusions, shapes perceptions of actions, builds solidarity, and
influences personal choices, dispositions and emotions.” The above-men-
tioned statistics furthermore seem to underscore the overriding importance
for staff who are involved in a merger to make sure that they at least get on
well with each other at all costs and that they experience a sense of security,
belonging, and solidarity.
In summary then, this article attempts to provide, for the first time, statisti-
cal evidence of how a drastic life-changing event, such as a “merger”
between two higher education institutions, may hamper the actualization of
academics’ intellectual potential. If nothing else, our research accentuates
the importance of timeous and continued assessment of the ongoing func-
tioning and well-being of academics who have been involved in a merger.
Furthermore it should be clear that the introduction of tactical and timeous
intervention programs could facilitate an enhanced ability to deal with envi-
ronmental demands (such as coping with the effects of a merger), to adapt to
and to cope with (even radical) changes in a person’s environment.
The literature overview presented in this study implies that persons can be
guided by means of therapy or via formal training programs to enhance their
self-efficacy. Various programs are already available that will render the phi-
losophy of emotional intelligence accessible (O’Neil, 1996, p. 11; Pasi,
1997, p. 41). In such programs, the focal point should be the becoming aware
of emotions and the effective regulation of these conscious emotions, based
on motivated, self-oriented coping strategies. The development of such pro-
grams serves as relevant research foci for future studies. Clearly the results of
this study underline the urgent need for tailor-made training programs to
improve the emotional skills and functioning of academics in a merger set-
ting. Furthermore, organizations have every reason to expect a significant
return on their investment in facilitating the emotional intelligence of their
employees (Katie, 2002).

Becker et al. (in press) appropriately indicate how the incorporation of the
former Onderwyskollege Pretoria into the University of Pretoria could be
seen, in many ways, as a silent frontier battle, where the combatants groped
hungrily for the whispers and lies that drifted in from the other side. By
reporting the results of the BarOn Emotional Quotient-Inventory™ that was
administered to 53 staff members who had all been subjected to the trauma
and disruption of this particular merger, our article seeks to add to the limited
but growing literature on the impact that mergers in higher education may
have on the personal and emotional experiences of the staff who live through
such processes.
The notion of EI tampers with the boundaries of our operational knowl-
edge of what constitutes successful or unsuccessful human endeavor. It chal-
lenges our existing appreciation of the intellectual potential of human beings.
This article suggests that in changing circumstances, such as a merger set-
ting, the timeous introduction of a course (or series of workshops) in emo-
tional intelligence could significantly improve academics’ ability to better
deal with change, adapt to and cope with changing surroundings. Managers
at all levels should take cognizance of not only the cognitive, but especially,
the noncognitive needs of employees and introduce mechanisms (such as
courses in EI) to help them deal more successfully with colleagues, their own
feelings, their everyday environment, and indeed, their overall well-being (J.
De Beer, personal communication, 2003).
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Kobus Maree is a professor at the University of Pretoria. His areas of expertise revolve around
educational psychology, mathematics education, and research methodology, with special
emphasis on (the career facilitation needs of) the gifted disadvantaged in South Africa. A NRF-
rated researcher and editor of the journal Perspectives in Education, his publications are numer-
ous and he is a respected authority on educational psychology who received the South African
Medal for the Promotion of Excellence on Education in 2002. In 2004, he was awarded Excep-
tional Achiever status at the University of Pretoria. His publications include the Study Orienta-
tion Questionnaire in Mathematics (SOM) and the textbooks Lifeskills and Career Counselling
(2002) (coedited by Dr. Liesel Ebersöhn) and Outcomes-Based Assessment (2004) coedited by
Professor Billy Fraser).
Riette J. Eiselen obtained a BSc (cum laude) in mathematics and mathematical statistics in 1975
and a BSc(Hons) (cum laude) in mathematics in 1977 from the University of Pretoria. In 1984,
she was appointed as junior lecturer in the Department of Statistics at UNISA and was promoted
to lecturer in 1986 and to senior lecturer in 1995. In 1994, she obtained an MSc (cum laude) in
statistics from UNISA. Since 1998, she has been head of the Statistical Consultation Service
(statkon) at Rand Afrikaans University. She has authored or coauthored several articles, most of
which are in the field of education.


The Emotional Intelligence Profile of Academics in A Merger

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Education and Urban Society

The Emotional Intelligence Profile of Academics in a Merger Setting

The online version of this article can be found at:

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Keywords: emotional intelligence and merger (setting)

The concept of “emotional intelligence” has emerged from the growing

EDUCATION AND URBAN SOCIETY, Vol. 36 No. 4, August 2004 482-504

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THE NEED FOR THE STUDY

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The general problem statement of this study can be formulated as follows:

ELUCIDATION OF KEY CONCEPTS

The term intelligence quotient (IQ) will be discussed first.

Phares (1992, p. 182) classifies intelligence theories in three main classes,

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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI)

Salovey and Mayer (1990) note that intelligence should be redefined to

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emotional intelligence represents “a move away from an exclusive focus on

• Perceiving emotions consists of recognizing and interpreting the meaning of

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Emotional self-awareness or an awareness of one’s own emotions. This implies

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MEASURING INSTRUMENT: THE

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Intrapersonal Scales: Self-Regard, Emotional Self-Awareness, Assertiveness, In-

The BarOn EQ-i™ (J. De Beer, personal communication, 2003) can be

• Assist in hiring emotionally intelligent and potentially successful personnel.

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COUNSELING OR CLINICAL SETTING

• Assess a patient’s general degree of emotional well-being, potential for emo-

The BarOn EQ-i™ can also be used as a comprehensive measure of emo-

RELIABILITY OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Total emotional quotient = 0.94

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A reliability coefficient of 0.75 indicates a good level of reliability. As can

APPLICABILITY OF THE BARON

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this instrument could be used to facilitate better adaptation to a new social

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Two supplementary approaches, quantitative as well as qualitative, have

Permission to conduct the research, to publish the research results, and to

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LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The limitations of this study can be summarized as follows:

DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE

A total of 53 (i.e., 19 or 35.8% male and 34 or 64.2% female) staff mem-

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40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Figure 1: Box-and-Whisker Plot of Total Emotional Intelligence Scores

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Stress management (sm) 46 131 93.43 19.065 – .470

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIVE EI DIMENSIONS

DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBDIMENSIONS

Each of the five dimensions of the EI consists of a number of sub-

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20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Figure 2: Box-and-Whisker Plots of the Dimensions of the EI

deviation (SD), and skewness of each of these subdimensions. All of these

CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EI

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GENDER AND AGE GROUPS