Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Nuclear Physics
Instructor: Dr. Saed Dababneh
This is an introductory course that will cover the following general subjects
• Nuclear properties.
• Binding energy and nuclear stability.
• Nuclear models.
• Spin and moments.
• Nuclear forces.
• The
Th structure
t t off the
th nucleus.
l
• Nuclear reactions: energetics and general cross-section behavior.
• Neutron moderation, fission, controlled fission and fusion.
• Radioactive decays
decays.
• Interactions of nuclear radiations (charged particles, gammas, and neutrons) with
matter.
Then plot Z vs
vs. N
N.
Odd A Even A
ρ0
ρ (r) = (r − R ) / a
1+ e ρ0 = nucleon density near the center.
HWc 3
t = “skin”
“ ki ” thi
thickness.
k
Compare for A = 4, 40, 120 and 235.
a = thickness parameter.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 16
(Saed Dababneh). R = Half-density radius.
Nuclear Size
ρ0 decreases with A? Z
ρ ch argg e = ρ matter
No Yes A
High-energy e scattering
A
~ Constant X R ∝ A⅓ Light nuclei?
4 3
πR From some experiments….!
3
R = r0 A⅓ Charge distribution: r0 = 1.07 fm. a = 0.55 fm.
Matter distribution: r0 = 1.25 fm. a = 0.65 fm.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008
(Saed Dababneh).
Why? 17
Nuclear Size
HW 5
Nucleus Z/A Charge density
• Saturation?
• Get an estimate for nuclear density and thus inter-
nucleon distance.
σ T = 2π ( R + λ ) 2
σT
2π Different
targets
g
1 HW 6
Preferably low λ A 3 How can we get r0 from the graph?
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 20
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Size
Alpha particle
(
(+2e)
)
Gold nucleus
d (+79e)
What are the values of d for 10, 20, 30 and 40 MeV α on Au?
How does this explain … ?
3 Z ( Z − 1)e 2
E= K
5 R
Separation Energy
Neutron separation
p energy:
gy ((BE of last neutron)
Sn = [ m(A-1,Z) + mn – m(A,Z) ] c2
= Btot
t t(A,Z)
(A Z) - Btot
t t(A
(A-1
1,Z)
Z) Á HW 11 Show that
HW 12 Similarly, find Sp and Sα. Magic
HW 13 Krane 3.133 13 HW 14 Krane 3.14 3 14 numbers
n mbers
Mass spectroscopy X B.
Nuclear reactions X S.
Nuclear reactions X Q-value
~200 MeV
HWc 4
Think
Thi k off a computer
t program to
t
reproduce this graph.
V)
Neutrron Separation Energy Sn (MeV
L d iisotopes Z = 82
Lead
For constant Z
Sn (even N) > Sn (odd N)
For constant N
Sp ((even Z)) > Sp ((odd Z))
Remember HW 14 (Krane 3.14).
Neutron Number N
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 30
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Binding
g Energy
gy
80
Remember HWc 1.
70 Z=N
Z = N
60
50
Z
40
30
20
Odd A
Odd A
10
Even A
0
0 20 40 60 N 80 100 120 140
Remember HWc 1.
URE
ON
N CAPTU
CROSS SECTIO
EUTRON
Formation process
NE NEUTRON NUMBER
¾
Abundance
NDANCE
ABUN E
r s r s
MASS NUMBER
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 36
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 37
(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
• von Weizsäcker in 1935.
1935
• Liquid drop. Shell structure.
• Main assumptions:
1. Incompressible matter of the nucleus X
R ∝ A⅓.
2. Nuclear force saturates.
• Binding energy is the sum of terms:
1. Volume term. 4. Asymmetry term.
2. Surface term. 5. Pairing term.
3. Coulomb term. 6. Closed shell term.
…..
BV
= constant
A
The other terms
are “corrections” to
this term.
term
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 39
(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
Surface Term Bs = - as A⅔
• Binding energy of inner nucleons is higher than that at the surface.
• Light nuclei contain larger
number (per total) at the surface.
• At the surface there are:
2
4πr A 2 3 2
0
= 4A 3 Nucleons.
πro2
Bs 1
∝ 1
A A3
Remember t/R ∝ A-1/3
/3
W ∝ Z(Z-1) / R.
• BC / A =
- aC Z(Z-1) / A4/3 4 3
πr ρ
3
Remember HW 8 … ?!
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 41
(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
Is this reasonable…???
So …..!!!!
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 43
(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
Asymmetry Term Ba = - aa (A-2Z)2 / A
• Light nuclei: N = Z = A/2 (preferable).
• Deviation from this “symmetry” X less BE and stability.
• Neutron excess (N-Z) is necessary for heavier nuclei.
• Ba / A = - aa (N-Z)2 / A2.
• Back to this when we talk about
the shell model.
M ( A, Z ) = AM n − Z ( M n − M H )
2 −1
− [aV A − a S A − aC Z ( Z − 1) A
3 3
− a a ( A − 2 Z ) 2 A−1 + δ + η ]
Variations…….
Additional physics….
Fitting……(Global vs. local)…..
M ( A, Z ) = α + βZ + γZ 2
α =?
β =? ∂M
∂M
= 0 ⇒ Z min = ?
γ =? ∂Z
∂Z A
M ( A, Z ) = α + βZ + γZ 2 HW 16
2
α = AM n − aV A + a S A 3 + a a A − δ − η
−1
β = −( M n − M H ) − a C A 3
− 4a a
−1
γ = 4a a A + aC A −1 3
∂M β
= 0 ⇒ Z min =−
∂
∂Z A 2γ
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 50
(Saed Dababneh).
Mass Parabolas and Stability
y
• Determine
constants from
atomic masses.
Odd-Odd
Even-Even
Natural
Z A Spin Half-life Decay
Abundance
27 56 4 ... 77.7d β+
27 60 5 ... 5.272y β-
Z component ?? Experiment
Experiment, applied magnetic field
field.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 59
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Magnetic
g Moment
For Nuclei
∫ψ ϑψdv
• Expectation value of the moment. *
• In
I the
th xy-plane:
l Q ∼ - 〈 r 2〉 .
• 〈r2〉 is the mean square radius of the orbit.
• Along
Al z: Q ∼ +2
2 〈 r 2〉 .
• Expected maximum ∼ er02A2/3.
• 6x10
6 10-3030 to
t 50x10
50 10-30
30 em2.
µcα S HW 17
Hydrogen: E1 = … eV r1 = …x10
x10-10 m
Positronium: E1 = … eV
D t
Deuteron: E1 = … MeV
M V r1 = …x10
10-15
15 m
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 70
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force
• Saturation?
• Get an estimate for nuclear density and thus inter-
nucleon distance
distance. Have
Ha e you
o done that?
• Ι = l + sn + sp parity = (-1)l
• Adding spins of proton and neutron gives:
s = 0 (antiparallel) or s = 1 (parallel).
• For Ι = 1
parallel s-state even
parallel p-state odd
antiparallel p-state odd
parallel d-state even
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 86
(Saed Dababneh).
The Deuteron
• Experiment X µ = 0.8574376 µN X spins are
aligned…..But.?
• Direct addition X 0.8798038 µN.
• Direct addition of spin components assumes s-state
(no orbital component).
• Discrepancy X d-state admixture.
ψ = a0ψ0 + a2ψ2
µ = a02µ0 + a22µ2
HW 20 In solving HW 19 you assumed an s-state.
How good was that assumption?
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 87
(Saed Dababneh).
The Deuteron
•S state X No quadrupole moment.
S-state
• Experiment X +0.00288 b.
HW 21
Discuss this discrepancy.
Evidence:
1) End of radioactive series:
thorium series 208Pb
uranium series 206Pb
actinium series 207Pb
neptunium series 209Bi
2) At
A Z andd N mn’s
’ there
h are relatively
l i l llarge numbers
b
of isotopes and isotones.
4) Neutron
N t capture
t cross section.
ti
PTURE
TION
RON CAP
SS SECT
CROS
NEUTR
NEUTRON NUMBER
HW 22
Work out more examples for the
above evidences. For example, take
part of a plot and work on a group of
relevant nuclides.
2
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 101
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell
model ?
?
2(2l + 1) ?
accounts 9
correctly 9
for the
number of
9
nucleons
in each
level.
level Infinite spherical well Harmonic oscillator
But what (R=8F)
about Eν = (ν + 2 )hω
3
magic E nl = ( 2n + l − 1 2 )hω
numbers?
numbers
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 102
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
• More realistic! (Can it solve the problem?)
• Finite square well potential:
⎧− V0 r≤R
V =⎨
⎩ 0 r>R
• Rounded well potential:
V0 Adjusted by the separation energies.
V (r) = − (r − R ) / a V0 ~ 57 MeV
1+ e
• Correction for asymmetry and Coulomb repulsion.
HW 23
N −Z
∆Vas = ±27 ( MeV )
A
Coulomb repulsion? Vc(r) = ??
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 105
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
• Separation of variables:
ψ ( r,θ ,φ ) = R( r )Θ(θ )Φ(φ ) = R( r )Yl (θ ,φ ) m
• For
F a given
i spherically
h i ll symmetric t ti l V(r),
t i potential V( )
the bound-state energy levels can be calculated
f
from radial
di l wave equation
ti for
f a particular
ti l orbital
bit l
angular momentum l. HW 24
• Notice the important centrifugal potential.
2(2l +1) 2 6 10 2 14 6 18 10 2
ms Total 2 8 18 20 34 40 58 68 70
• 2, 8, 20 ok.
• Whatat about ot
other
e magic
ag c
numbers?
• Situation does not improve
p
with other potentials.
• Something g veryy fundamental
about the single-particle
interaction p
picture is missing
g in
the description…..!!!!!
• Spin-orbit
p coupling.
p g
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 108
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
• So far, 2(2l + 1) accounts correctly for the number
of nucleons in each level, since we already
considered both orbital angular momentum, and
spin, but still not for closed shells.
l , ml , s, m s ≡ Yl ml χ sms
Spherical But this representation
Harmonics
Harmonics, does not solve the
Eigenfunctions of problem.
L2 and Lz.
S 2 χ sms = s ( s + 1)h 2 χ sms s =1 2
S z χ sms = m s hχ sms − s ≤ ms ≤ s
Spin--Orbit Coupling
Spin
• M. G. Mayer and independently Haxel,
Jensen, and Suess.
• Spin-Orbit term added to the Hamiltonian:
p2
H= + V ( r ) + VSO ( r ) S .L
2m
2(2x3 + 1) = 14
l=3
1f7/2
First j
time
1
L.S = [ j ( j + 1) − l (l + 1) − s( s + 1)]h 2
2
HW 25 1
gap ∝ ( 2l + 1)h 2 , l>0
2
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 113
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Notes:
1. The shell model is most useful when applied to closed
1 closed-shell
shell or
near closed-shell nuclei.
2. Awayy from closed-shell nuclei collective models takingg into
account the rotation and vibration of the nucleus are more
appropriate.
3. Simple versions of the shell model do not take into account
pairing forces, the effects of which are to make two like-nucleons
combine to give zero orbital angular momentum
momentum. The pairing
force increases with l.
4. Shell model does not treat distortion effects ((deformed nuclei))
due to the attraction between one or more outer nucleons and
the closed-shell core.
EF ∝ n2/3
Transition
probability?
A < 150
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008
(Saed Dababneh).
190 < A < 220 117
Shell model
Harmonic
Near drip No spin-
oscillator
line orbit Near
coupling valley of β
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 stability 118
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 119
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
• 17 p, 21 n.
• p in 1d3/2 lÆsÅ π=+
• n in 1f7/2 lÅsÅ π = - X total π = -
• Rule 3 X sp Å sn Å X lp Æ ln Å
•½+½+3–2=2
1d3/2
?
1p1/2
l Å pairing Å
2s1/2
1d5/2
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 123
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Core 20
• Extreme independent
particle model X only
23rd neutron.
• More complete shell
model X all three
“
“valence” nucleons.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 124
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
HW 26 Discuss the energy levels of nuclei with
odd number of nucleons in the 1f7/2 shell.
4 π ∆R Difference
Diff
β= 1 between
3 5 r0 A 3 semimajor and
Deformation semiminor axes.
parameter
parameter. Rav
HW 28 Problems 5.11 and 5.12 in Krane.
Di
Discuss effect
ff t on quadrupole
d l moment. t
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008
(Saed Dababneh).
β>0 β 132
<0
Collective model
Symmetry
axis 1
E = gω 2
2
l = gω
l2 h2
E= = I ( I + 1)
2g 2g
GS (even
(even-even)
even) X 0+
Symmetry X only even I
E (0 + ) = 0
E ( 2 + ) = 6( h 2 / 2 g ) = 91.4keV ⇒ h 2 / 2 g = 15.23keV
E ( 4 + ) = 20( h 2 / 2 g )
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 133
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
Higher angular
momentum X
centrif gal stretching
centrifugal 12+
X higher moment of 10+ 1518.00 16.61 18.33
inertia X lower 8+
energy than expected 6+ 7.00
X additional 4+ 299.44 3.28 3.33
evidence for lack of 2+ 91.4 1.0 1.0
rigidity. 0+ 0
164Er
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 135
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
Odd-A
1
E = gω 2 + Enucleon
2
Instantaneous
shape
http://wwwnsg.nuclear.lu.se/basics/excitations.asp?runAnimation=beta10
λ=1 λ=2 λ=3
λ=0 dipole quadrupole octupole
monopole
= R avr + α 20 Y20
• Quantization
Q ti ti off quadrupole
d l vibration
ib ti iis called
ll d a
quadrupole phonon.
• A phonon
h carries
i ttwo units
it off angular
l momentum t
and even parity (-12).
• This
Thi mode d iis d
dominant.
i t F
For mostt even-even nuclei,
l i
a low lying state with Jπ=2+ exists.
• Octupole
O t l phonon.
h
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 140
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
l=4 µ = +4, +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4
Triplet
l=2 µ = +2,
2 +1,
1 0,
0 -1,
1 -2
2
0 + , 2+ , 4+
l=0 µ=0
-2 -1 0 1 2
-2 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
-1 -3 -2 -1 0 +1
0 -2 -1 0 +1 +2
1 -1
1 0 +1 +2 +3
2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 141
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
Two-phonon triplet at twice the HW 30
energy of the single phonon state. Krane 5.10
• Incident
I id t particle ti l may: change h di
direction,
ti llose
energy, completely be absorbed by the target……
• Target
T t may: transmute,
t t recoil…… il
• b = γ X Capture reaction.
• If B.E.
B E permits it X fission
fi i ((comparable bl masses). )
• Different exit channels a + X Æ Y1 + b1
Æ Y2 + b2
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 Æ Y + b ……. 143
3 3
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
• Recoil nucleus Y could be unstable X β or γ emission.
Tb + TY = Q + Ta
+ve Q-value X reaction possible if Ta Æ 0.
-ve Q-value X reaction not possible if Ta Æ 0. (Is Ta > |Q| sufficient?).
Conservation of momentum ……
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 145
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
• Conservation of momentum. HW 31
• We
W usually
ll ddo nott d t t Y.
detect
Show that:
ma mbTa cosθ ± ma mbTa cos 2 θ + ( mY + mb )[mY Q + ( mY − ma )Ta ]
Tb =
mY + mb
• The
Th threshold
th h ld energy (f (for Ta):
) (the condition occurs for θ = 0º).
mY + mb
TTh = −Q
mY + mb − ma
• +ve Q-value X reaction possible if Ta Æ 0.
• Coulomb
C l bb barriers…….!!!
i !!!
• -ve Q-value X reaction possible if Ta > TTh.
mY − ma
a
• Double-valued
Double valued in a forward cone
cone.
( mY + mb ))[mY Q + ( mY − ma )Ta ]
cos θ max
2
=−
ma mbTa
Sample
58Ni(α,p)61Cu
even less ….
HW 32
Discuss the elastic and inelastic scattering of
neutrons using the relations you derived in
HW 31.
l = mvob
vo vmin
rmin
b
2
d
1zZe
V=
4πε o d
Ta = 0
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008
(Saed Dababneh).
No dependence on φ 159
Coulomb Scattering
g
HW 35
Show that the fraction of incident
alpha particles scattered at
backward anglesg from a 2 µ
µm
gold foil is 7.48x10-5.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 162
(Saed Dababneh).
Coulomb Scattering
g
• Elastic X Rutherford scattering.
• Inelastic X Coulomb excitation.
Direct
• Time.
• Energy.
CN decays
• Two-step reaction.
EaCM • CN “forgets” how it was formed
formed.
• Decay of CN depends on
statistical factors that are functions
QCN of Ex, J.
• Low energy projectile, medium or
heavy target.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 166
(Saed Dababneh).
Compound
p Nucleus Reactions
• Random collisions X
nearly isotropic angular
distribution.
• Direct reaction
component X strong
angular dependence.
1 1 Γb(Q+En)
∝ ∝ 2
E v
Γn(En)
∝ vn Pln ( En )
Probability to
penetrate the
potential barrier
For thermal neutrons Γ (Q) ≈ constant Po(Ethermal) = 1
b
Q >> En P>o(Ethermal) = 0
1
Non-resonant σ n ( En ) ∝
v
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 172
(Saed Dababneh).
Neutron-induced Reactions
n-TOF
CERN
n_TOF
n TOF
CERN
µ ((uu )
In numerical units: 2πη = 31.29 Z1 Z 2
E CM ( keV )
Multipolarity
ΓDipole ( Eγ ) = α1 Eγ3
E
1 − 2πη
σ (E) = e S(E)
E
EC = ??
∆E Ù ∆t
CN X p particle emission X ∆EÏ X ∆E > spacing
p g between
virtual states X continuum. (Lower part X larger spacing X
isolated resonances).
D X bound states X γ-emission X ∆EÐ X isolated states.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 184
(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
HW 38
In the 19F(p,αγ) reaction:
• The
Th Q Q-value
l iis 8.???
8 ??? MMeV.
V
• The Q-value for the formation of the C.N. is 12.??? MeV.
• For a proton resonance at 668 keV in the lab system
system, the
corresponding energy level in the C.N. is at 13.??? MeV.
• If for this resonance the observed g gamma energy gy is 6.13 MeV,
what is the corresponding alpha particle energy?
• If for this resonance there has been no gamma emission
observed,
b d what
h t would
ld th
then b
be th
the alpha
l h particle
ti l energy? ?
Target
g Target
g
Q-value Q-value
Q + ER = Er
Eγ = E + Q - Eex
Non-resonantt
N Resonant
Capture Capture
(all energies) (selected energies
with large X-section)
2 2
σ γ ∝ Y Hγ a + X
2
σ γ ∝ E f H γ Er E r H CN a + X
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008
(Saed Dababneh).
σ γ ∝ Γa Γb 187
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 188
(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
h
L = lh = bp = b
D
b = lD
σ l , max = πb 2
l +1 − πb = ( 2l + 1)πD
l
2 2
656.7
HW 40 πD (b) =
2
µ (u ) E ( keV )
CM
2J + 1
σ max = πD aX 2
(1 + δ aX )
( 2 J a + 1)( 2 J X + 1)
ω
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 189
(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
Damped Oscillator Oscillator strength
g
f
response ∝
(ω − ωo ) + ( 2 )
2 δ 2
1 Damping
δ=
t0 factor
eigenfrequency
Γa Γb
σ (E) ∝
( E − ER ) + ( 2 )
2 Γ 2
2J + 1 Γa Γb
σ ( E ) = πD aX 2
(1 + δ aX )
( 2 J a + 1)( 2 J X + 1) ( E − E R ) 2 + ( Γ2 ) 2
Breit--Wigner formula
Breit
Γ = Γa + Γb
• All quantities in CM system
• Only for isolated resonances.
σ R ∝ Γa Γb Reaction Usually Γa >> Γb.
σ e ∝ Γa Γa Elastic scattering
σ R Γb HW 41 When does σR take its maximum value?
=
σ e Γa
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 191
(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
Exit
Ja + JX + l = J Jπ Ex
Ch
Channel
l
Excited
(-1)l π(Ja) π(JX) = π(J) State b+Y
Entrance
(-1)l = π(J) Natural parity. aChannel
+X
Compound
Nucleus C*
Charged particle
radiative capture (a,γ)
(What about neutrons?)
ωγ ∝ Γa EC ωγ ∝ Γγ
Energy
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 193
(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
14N((p,γ)
HW 43
• Q = ??
• EC = ??
• ER = 2.0 MeV
Formation via s-wave p protons,, Take J = ½,, Γp = 0.1 MeV,,
dipole radiation Eγ = 9.3 MeV, Γγ = 1 eV.
Show that ωγ = 0.33 eV.
• If same resonance butb t att ER = 10 keV
k V
Γp = ?? Eγ = ?? Γγ = ??
Show that ωγ = 3.3x10
3 3x10-23 eV.
eV
Huge
g challenge
g to experimentalists
p
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 194
(Saed Dababneh).
α transfer reactions
α-transfer
Angular distribution
Resonance Jπ Estimated
Energy (keV) ωγ (µeV)
566 2+ 1.9 18O(α, γ)22Ne
3- 0.15
4+ 0 01
0.01
470 0+ 0.6
1- 0.2
Experimental upper limit < 1.7 µeV
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 195
(Saed Dababneh).
Neutron Resonance Reactions
γ (β-delayed γ-ray)
(Z+1, A+1)
Neutrons
Target
Thickness “x”
dI −σ t nx
= −σ t ndx I = Ioe
I
Similar to γ-attenuation. Why?
⎡ E ⎤ ( A − 1) 2
A −1
where ζ = ⎢ln \ ⎥ = 1 + ln
⎣ E ⎦ av 2A A +1
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 199
(Saed Dababneh).
Neutron Moderation
HW 44 (continued)
How many collisions are needed to thermalize a 2 MeV
neutron if the moderator was:
1H 2H 4He 12C 238U
~200 MeV
Liquid Drop
Energy (MeV)
Shell
Activation E
Extrapolation to 47 X ≈ 10-20
20 s.
s
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 206
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
235U +n
Î
93Rb + 141Cs + 2n
Not unique.
Low-energy
fission
processes.
The average
number of
neutrons is
different, but
the
distribution is
G
Gaussian.
i
Delayed neutrons
~ 1 delayed neutron
per 100 fissions,
fi i b
butt
essential for control
of the reactor
reactor.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 Fission Barriers 212
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
66 MeV 98 MeV
Heavy Light
g t
fragments fragments
miscalibrated
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 215
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
• Mean neutron energy ≈ 2
MeV.
MeV
• ≈ 2.4 neutrons per fission
(average) X ≈ 5 MeV
average kinetic energy
carried by prompt neutrons
per fission.
HW 45
• Show that the average momentum carried by a neutron is only ≈
1.5 % that carried by a fragment.
• Thus neglecting neutron momenta, show that the ratio between
kinetic energies of the two fragments is the inverse of the ratio of
their masses
masses. E1 m2 66 95
≈ ≈
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008
(Saed Dababneh).
E2 m1 98 140 216
Nuclear Fission
Enge
g Distribution of fission energy
Krane
sums
them up
as β Lost … !
decays.
a
Lost … ! b
c
V Σ fφ
• Thermal reactor power (quick calculation)
V Σ fφ
Pth = 10
3.1x10
Nuclear
Nuclearand
Reactors,
Radiation
BAU, 1st Semester,
Physics, BAU, First
2007-2008
Semester, 2007-2008 220
(Saed(Saed
Dababneh).
Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
• 235U + n Î X + Y + (~2.4)n Fast second generation neutrons
• Moderation of second generation neutrons X Chain reaction.
• Net change in number of neutrons from one generation to
th nextt ≡ k∞ (neutron
the ( t reproduction
d ti factor).
f t )
Infinite medium (ignoring leakage at the surface).
• k∞ ≥ 1 X Chain reaction
reaction.
• Water, D2O or graphite moderator.
• k < 1 X subcritical system.
y Chain reacting pile
• k = 1 X critical system.
• k > 1 X supercritical system.
• For
F steady
t d release
l off energy (steady-
( t d
state operation) we need k =1.
σf σf ν
η =ν =ν = η <ν
σa σ f + σγ 1+ α
Σ = Σ x + Σ y = N xσ x + N yσ y
= (γ xσ x + γ yσ y ) N
238U
• Σf / N = (0.992745)(0)
(0 992745)(0) + Doppler effect?
(0.0072)(584) 4πR 2
= 4.20
4 20 b.
b
• Σγ / N = (0.992745)(2.75) +
(0.0072)(97)
= 3.43 b. Using the experimental elastic
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First scattering data the radius of the 223
Semester, 2007-2008 (Saed Dababneh). nucleus can be estimated.
Moderation (to compare x-section)
2H 1H
(n,n) (n,n)
(n,γ) (n,γ)
• Resonances?
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 224
(Saed Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
σf
• Probability for a thermal neutron to cause fission ≈
4.20 σ f +σγ
• For natural uranium = = 0.55
4.20 + 3.43
• If each fission produces an average of ν = 2.4 neutrons, then the
mean number of fission neutrons produced per thermal neutron =
η = 2.4 x 0.55 ≈ 1.3 σf
η =ν
σ f +σγ
• This is close to 1. If neutrons are still to be lost, there is a danger
of losing criticality.
• For enriched uranium (235U = 3%) η = ????? (> 1.3). 1 3)
• In this case η is further from 1 and allowing for more neutrons to
be lost while maintaining criticality.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 225
(Saed Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
• N thermal neutrons in one generation have produced so far
ηN fast
f t neutrons.
t
• Some of these fast neutrons can cause 238U fission X more fast
neutrons X fast fission factor = ε (= 1.03
1 03 for natural uranium).
uranium)
• Now we have εηN fast neutrons.
• We need to moderate these fast neutrons X use g graphite
p X for 2
MeV neutrons we need ??? collisions. How many for 1 MeV
neutrons?
• The
Th neutron
t will
ill pass th
through
h th
the 10 - 100 eV
V region
i d during
i ththe
moderation process. This energy region has many strong 238U
capture resonances (up to 1000 b) X Can not mix uranium and
graphite as powders.
• In g
graphite,
p an average
g distance of 19 cm is needed for
thermalization X the resonance escape probability p (≈ 0.9).
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 226
(Saed Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
• Now we have pεηN thermal neutrons.
• Graphite must not be too large to capture thermal neutrons;
when thermalized, neutrons should have reached the fuel.
• Graphite thermal cross section = 0.0034 b, but there is a lot
of it present.
• Capture can also occur in the material encapsulating the fuel
elements.
l t
• The thermal utilization factor f (≈ 0.9) gives the fraction of
thermal neutrons that are actually available for the fuel
fuel.
• Now we have fpεηN thermal neutrons,
neutrons could be > or < N
thus determining the criticality of the reactor.
∞ k = fpεη
f The four
four--factor formula.
k = fpεη(1
(1-lfast)(1-lthermal
f t)(1 th l)
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 227
(Saed Dababneh). Fractions lost at surface
Neutron
reproduction
f
factor
k = 1.000
x 0.9
Th
Thermal l
utilization xη
factor “f”
x 0.9
Resonance
escape
probability
b bilit
What is: ”p”
• Migration
g length?
g x 1.03
Fast fission
• Critical size? “ε”
factor “ε
How does the
geometryt affect
ff t the
th
reproduction factor?
Fertile ⎯2⎯
⎯
.3 d
→ 239
Pu + β − + ν
σf,th = 742 b
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 232
(Saed Dababneh).
Fission Reactors
_
232
Th + n → 233Th ⎯22
⎯min P + β − +ν
⎯→ 233 Pa
_
Fertile ⎯27
⎯→
⎯d → 233
U + β − +ν
σf,th = 530 b
• If η = 2 X Conversion and fission
fission.
• If η > 2 X Breeder reactor.
• 239Pu: Thermal neutrons (η = 2.1)) X hard for breeding. g
Fast neutrons (η = 3) X possible breeding X fast
breeder reactors.
After sufficient time of breeding, fissile material can be easily
(chemically) separated from fertile material.
C
Compare ti 235U from
tto separating f 238U.
HW 47
Pressurized
water
ate
reactor
Gas
• Most cooled
power
reactor
reactors in
i
GB are
graphite
moderated
gas--
gas
g
cooled.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 238
(Saed Dababneh).
• Liquid
q sodium cooled, fast breeder reactor.
• Blanket contains the fertile 238U.
• Water should not mix with sodium. Breeder
reactor
γI γ Xe
σ aI φ σ aXeφ
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 243
(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
HW 48 Reactivity ≡ ρ = k − 1 , let us use k∞ (Infinite reactor).
k
∑ afuel
f1 = ffuel (critical)
∑ a + ∑ clad
a + ∑ mod erator
a
∑ afuel
f2 =
∑ afuel
f l
+ ∑ clad
a
l d
+ ∑ mod
a
d erator
t
+ ∑ poison
a
i
∑ apoison
Show that ∆ρ = ρ 2 − ρ1 = − fuel
∑ a + ∑ clad
a + ∑ mod erator
a
∂t
Initial conditions?
• Clean Core Startup.
Startup Assume no spacial
• Shutdown (later). dependence.
λI
I (∞)
Xe(∞)
(γ I + γ Xe ) ∑ f φ0 − ( λ Xe +σ aXeφ0 ) t
and Xe(t ) = (1 − e )
λ Xe + σ φ Xe
a 0
γ I ∑ f φ0 −( λ Xe +σ a φ0 ) t
Xe
−λI t
+ (e −e )
λ Xe − λI + σ a φ0
Xe
I ((∞)
Xe(∞)
∂t
r
∂Xe(r , t ) r r r r r
= γ Xe ∑ f φ (r , t ) + λI I (r , t ) − λ Xe Xe
X (r , t ) − σ a Xe
Xe
X (r , t )φ (r , t )
∂t
r
I (0) = I (∞) ∂I (r , t ) r
= −λI I ( r , t )
Xe(0) = Xe(∞) ∂t
r
φ (t ) = φ (0) = 0. ∂Xe(r , t ) r r
= λI I (r , t ) − λ Xe Xe
X (r , t )
∂t
λI − λ Xe
>0?
Height off the peak
depends on I(∞)
d Xe(∞), i.e.
and
depends on φ.
Strategies
• If you plan to shut down for “short
short maintenance”
maintenance , think
about stepback.
• Examine different scenarios using this code from
http://www.nuceng.ca/
• You will get more experience after you finish the
computational physics course.
• Thus:
r r r
∑ (r , t ) = σ a γ Sm ∑ f (r ,0)φ (r ,0)t
Sm
a
Sm
Linear
ea wit
w th ttime.
e.
Read section 13
13..7 in Krane.
Krane
Look at sections 13
13..8 and 13.
13.9
• Thermonuclear reactions
• At room temperature X kT = 0.025 eV.
• Practically,
y, keV available energy
gy but much higher
g
Coulomb barrier.
• What is the temperature
p required
q to classically
y
overcome the barrier for a D-D reaction.
• Penetration p y X much lower temperatures.
probability p
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 258
(Saed Dababneh).
Fusion Reactions
1 − 2πη
σ (E) = e S(E)
E
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 259
(Saed Dababneh).
Fusion Reactions
• Show that
Q
1
2 mv =2
1 + mb mY
b b
Q
1
2 mv =2
1 + mY mb
Y Y
1 2
mv mY
2
1
=
b b
2
2 mv mb
Y Y