Section 3.

4 The Function Relation 249

Section 3.4 The Function Relation

Purpose of Section We introduce the concept of the function, both as a

rulewhich assigns a unique value to every member of a set, and from
the relation viewpoint, as a subset of a Cartesian product. We discuss
again the important concepts of injections, surjections and bijections,
which were introduced earlier in our study of the cardinality of sets

Introduction
No doubt the concept of a function covers familiar territory for many readers of
this book1. Normally, in beginning mathematics books, a function f : A B is
defined as a rule that assigns to each value x A a unique value y B . This is
the definition proposed by German mathematician Peter Lejeune Dirichlet
(1805-1859) in the 1830s. The definition is sometimes criticized since it leaves
open the question of the exact meaning of a rule. However, in most cases there
is no ambiguity. When we write an algebraic formula like
y = f ( x) = sin x

where x is a real number, the rule is clearly understood. It simply assigns to

each x the value sin x . We denote the function by the letter f and the value of
the function at x by f ( x) . This motivates the Dirichlet "rule" definition of a
function.

Peter Gustav Lejune Dirichlet (1805-1859(

1
A fascinating reference for functions is Atlas for Computing Mathematical Functions by
William Jackson Thompson which gives analytical, visual and descriptive properties of over 150
special functions useful in pure and applied mathematics.
250 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Dirichlet Definition of a Function: Let A and B denote sets. A function

f from A to B, denoted f : A B , is a rule which assigns to each element
x A , a unique element in B . The set A is called the domain of the
function, written dom( f ) , and B is the codomain of the function. For x A
the assigned value in B is called the image of x under f and denoted
by f ( x ) , which is read the value of f at x .

The range of f , denoted by range ( f ) , or f ( A) , is the set of outputs of

the function, or
range ( f ) = { f ( x) : x A } B
The graph of a function f is the set
graph ( f ) = {( x, y ) : x A, y = f ( x)} A B

There are several synonyms for the word function. The words mapping (or
map), transformation, and operator are often used depending on the context as
well as the domain and codomain of the function.

Example 1: Functions The following are examples of functions with different

domains, codomains, ranges, and graphs.

a) Define f :[1,1]
by the rule f ( x) = 1 x 2 . Here

domain(f ) = [1,1]
codomain(f ) =

range(f ) = [0,1]

graph ( f ) = {( x, ) }
1 x 2 : x [ 1,1] (top half of unit circle)
Section 3.4 The Function Relation 251

b) Define f : 
by the rule f ( n ) = sin n, n = 1, 2,...

domain ( f ) = 
codomain ( f ) =

range ( f ) = {sin n, n = 1, 2,...}
graph(f ) = {(n,sin n) : n }

c) Define f :[0, )
3 by the rule f (t ) = ( cos t ,sin t , t ) .

domain(f ) = [0, )
codomain (f ) =
3
range(f ) = {(cos t ,sin t , t ) : 0 t < }
3
graph(f ) = {(cos t ,sin t , t ) : 0 t < } [0, )
3

d) Define f :
2
defined by the rule f ( x1 , x2 ) = 3x1 + 2 x2 .

domain( f ) =
2
codomain( f ) =

range(f ) = {3x1 + 2 x2 : x1 , x 2 )
}

graph(f ) = {( x1 , x2 , 3 x1 + 2 x2 ) : x1 , x2
}
3

This graph is impossible to visualize since it belongs in a four-dimensional

space. The function is called a transformation and you can think of it as
mapping points in the plane to other points in the plane. Readers who have
studied linear algebra will recognize it as a combination of a rotation and a
stretching of the plane.

A Brief History of the Function

Although the concept of a function is one of the most important
concepts in all of mathematics, its history is relatively short. The
mathematician and writer of math history, Morris Kline, credits Galileo
(1564-1642) with the first statement of dependency of one quantity on
another2. In 1673, the German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz (1646-
1716) used the word "function" to mean any quantity that varies from
point to point along a curve. One of the first formal definition of a
function is due to the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783),
who defined a function as

2
The statement is, 'The time of descent along inclined planes of the same height, but of different
slopes, are to each other as the length of these slopes."
252 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

"Quantities dependent on others, such that as the second

changes, so does the first, are said to be functions".
Euler and other leading mathematicians of the times, such as the French
mathematician Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), thought of functions in terms
of equations, such as y = x 2 or y = sin x For mathematicians of the time,
an expression like
0 x < 0
f ( x) =
1 x 0
was not considered a function since it is not an equation, only a rule for
assigning values to a variable. Finally in 1837, the German
mathematician Peter Lejeune Dirichlet expanded the definition of a
function to what we accept today, when he wrote:
"A variable quantity y is said to be a function of a variable
quantity x, if to each value of x there corresponds a
uniquely determined value of the quantity y".

Relation Definition of a Function

In addition to defining a function as a rule, (ala Dirichlet), we can also think of
a function in terms of relations.

Definition: A relation is a correspondence between two sets A and B ,

called the domain and range of the relation, such that to each element of
the domain there is assigned two or more elements of the range. If the
relation assigns exactly one element of the range, the relation is called a
function.

An Important Classification of Functions

1. Algebraic Functions: An algebraic function is a function which is a

solution of a polynomial equation whose coefficients are themselves
polynomials. For example, an algebraic function in one variable x is a
solution y of an equation of the form

Pn ( x ) y n + Pn 1 ( x ) y n 1 +  + P1 ( x ) y + P0 ( x ) = 0

where the coefficients ai ( x) are polynomials in x . Polynomials Pn ( x)

Section 3.4 The Function Relation 253

and ratios of polynomials Pm ( x) / Pn ( x) are also algebraic functions since

they are solutions of

y Pn ( x ) = 0
Pm ( x ) y Pn ( x ) = 0

respectively. A more useful interpretation of an algebraic function states

that it is a function that can be constructed, starting from x , using only
a finite number of operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and root extraction.
2. Transcendental Functions: Functions that are not algebraic are
called transcendental functions. Important transcendental functions are
sin x , cos x and e x . .

Important Note: In 1890 the Italian mathematician Guiseppe Peano

shocked the mathematical world with a construction of a continuous
space-filling curve; a curve in the plane, defined by two continuous
functions x = f (t ), y = g (t ) , such that as t varies over [0,1] , the point
( x(t ), y (t )) passes through every point in the unit square [0,1] [0,1] .

Composition of Functions
The function f ( x) = sin x 2 can be interpreted as assigning the value of sin x 2 to
the real number x However, it can also be interpreted as a combination or
composition of two functions: the first assigning x 2 to x , the second assigning
sin x 2 to x 2 , which leads us to the following definition.

Composition of Two Functions

Given sets A, B, C and functions
g : A B, f : B C
we define the composition of f and g , which is denoted by f  g and
read " f circle g ," as the function that sends the point x A into
( f  g )( x ) = f ( g ( x ) ) C .
The domain of f  g consists of the following points of A :

dom (f  g ) = {x A : x dom (g )} {x A : g ( x) dom (f )}

where dom (f ) , dom ( g ) are the domains of f , g , respectively.

254 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Example 2: Composition of Real-Valued Functions Find the compositions

f  g and g  f of the functions
f ( x) = x 2 , < x <
g ( x) = x , 0 x <

Solution
2
( f  g )( x ) = f ( g ( x) ) = f ( x) =( x) =x x [ 0, )

( g  f )( x ) = g ( f ( x) ) = g ( x 2 ) = x2 = x x

Note that f  g g  f , but also their domains are different.

Domain of a Composition
The domain of a composition always seems to bother some students.
Here is a nice way to think about it. Gary (we call g ) and Francie
(we call f ) want to move several bags of cement a total of 200
yards, the bags weigh various amounts. The object is for Gary to
carry the bags the first 100 yards and hand them off to Francie who
then carries them the last 100 yards. The problem is some bags are
very heavy. Suppose that Gary is able to carry 8 bags (domain of g )
and that of those bags Francie can carry 3 of them (domain of f ),
thus only 3 bags get moved the 200 yards. These three bags are the
domain of the composition f  g . In other words, the intersection of
the bags that Gary can lift and the bags given to Francie that Francie
can lift.
Section 3.4 The Function Relation 255

Injections, Surjections, and Bijections Three important types of

functions are injections (one-to-one), surjections (onto), and bijections
(one-to-one correspondence).
Injection (1-1): A function f : A B is an injection (or one-to-
one3) if
direct form: ( a, b A ) a b f ( a ) f ( b )
contrapositive form: ( a, b A ) f ( a ) = f ( b ) a = b

Surjection (onto): A function f : A B is a surjection if and only if

( b B )( a A) ( f ( a ) = b )
________________
Bijection (1-1 correspondence): A function f : A B is a bijection
if and only if it both an injection and surjection.. i.e. a one-to-one
correspondence between A and B. .
These three types of functions are illustrated in the diagram below.

Example 3: Injections, Surjections, and Bijections The graphs in Figure 1

illustrate typical injections, surjections, and bijections from
to
. Note that
the graph of a 1 1 function intersects any horizontal line at most once.

3
Often, one simply writes 1-1 to denote a one-to-one function.
 256 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Types of functions
Figure 1

Example 4: Injection Show that the function f :   defined by f (n) = n 2

is an injection4.
Proof:
Some people might say lining up the natural numbers against their squares, as
is done in Table 1 is a pretty convincing argument that f is a 1-1 mapping, but
we present a more formal proof.

n 1 2 3 4  n 
f ( n) = n 2 1 4 9 16  n2 
Table 1
We show m n f (m) f (n) by proving its contrapositive
f (m) = f (n) m = n .
We write

4 2
The domain of a function can influence whether a function is one-to-one. The function f ( x ) = x with
domain the real numbers is not one-to-one, but the same rule defined on the non-negative real numbers is
one-to-one.
Section 3.4 The Function Relation 257

f ( m ) = f ( n ) m2 = n2
m2 n2 = 0
( m n )( m + n ) = 0
m = n or m = n
But m = n is not possible since we are assuming m, n are positive numbers.
Hence, we conclude m = n and so f is 1 1 on  .
Example 5: Surjection If f :

is defined by f ( x) = x3 + 1 , show that f
maps
onto
, i.e. a surjection.
Proof: For any y
we seek an x
that satisfies y = x3 + 1. If

x = 3 y 1

we have
3
. f ( x) = ( 3
)
y 1 + 1 = ( y 1) + 1 = y
Hence f maps
onto
.

Example 6: Counterexample Is the function f :

defined by

y = x 2 + 2 x a surjection?
Solution: The number y = 2 has no real pre-image since the equation
x 2 + 2 x = 2 has only complex solutions.

Inverse Functions
In arithmetic, some numbers have inverses. For example 3 is the additive
inverse of +3 since 3 + (3) = 0 . Some functions also have inverses in the sense
that the inverse of a function undoes the operation of the function.

Historical Note: The study of functions changed qualitatively with the

ideas of Italian mathematician Vito Volterra (1860-1940), who
introduced the idea of functions of functions (i.e. functions of
functions, whose arguments were functions). Later, French
mathematician Jacques Hadamard (1865-1963) named these types of
functions functionals, and Paul Lvy (1886-1971) gave the name
functional analysis to the study of functions interpreted as points in a
space, not unlike points in the plane.
258 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Definition: Function Inverse

If f : A B is 1-1, then for each y f ( A) in the range of A , the equation

f ( x) = y has a unique solution x A . This yields a new function
f 1 : range( f ) A , defined by
x = f 1 ( y ) .

This function is called the inverse of f .

Example 7: Inverse Function The function f :[0, ) [1, ) defined by

f ( x) = 1 + x 2 , x 0
is a 1-1 function from [0, ) onto [1, ) and hence has an inverse
f 1 :[1, ) [0, ) . Find and draw the graph of this inverse.
Solution Solving the equation
y = 1 + x2
for x 0 in terms of y , we find the unique value

x = y 1 , y 1

or f 1 ( y ) = y 1 , y 1 .
At this stage one often renames the variables and writes the inverse as
f 1 ( x) = x 1 , x 1 .
The graphs of f and f 1 are drawn in Figure 2. Note that the graph of f 1 is
the reflection of the graph of f through the 45 degree line y = x .
Section 3.4 The Function Relation 259

A function and its inverse

Figure 2

Some common inverses of 1-1 functions defined of given domains are listed in
Table 2.
function domain inverse domain
f ( x) of f f 1 ( x ) of f 1
x+a x
xa x

mx m 0, x
x/m m 0, x

1/ x x>0 1/ x x>0
x2 x0 x x0
x3 x
3
x x

ex x
ln x x>0
ax a > 0, x > 0 log a x a > 0, x > 0
xa /b x0 xb / a x0

tan x <x< tan 1 x

2 2
Common inverses
Table 2
260 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Problems
1. Testing Relations Determine which of the following relations are functions.
For functions, what is the domain and range of the function?
a) R = {(1,3) , ( 3, 4 ) , ( 4,1) , ( 2,1)} Ans: yes
b) R = {(1,3) , (1, 4 ) , (1, 2 ) , ( 3,1)}
c) R = {(1,3) , ( 3, 4 ) , (1,1)}
d) R = {(1, 2 ) , ( 2, 2 ) , ( 3, 2 ) , ( 2,3)}

2. Graphing Graph each of the following relations on
and tell which

relations are functions.

a) R = {( x, y ) : y = x 2 }
b) R = {( x, y ) : y = x }
1
c) R = ( x, y ) : y =
x + 1
d) R = {( x, y ) : x = y }
e) R = {( x, y ) : x + y = 1}

3. Find the Mystery Function Find a function that tears the interval [0,1] into
two parts at its midpoint and then stretches each part uniformly to twice its
length.
4. Compositions Find f  g and g  f and their domains for the following
functions f and g . We assume the domains of the functions are all values for
which the function is well-defined.
f ( x ) = {( 2,3) , ( 1,1) , ( 0, 0 ) , (1, 1) , ( 2, 3)}
a)
g ( x) = {( 3,1) , ( 0, 2 ) , ( 1, 2 ) , ( 2, 0 ) , ( 3,1)}
b) f ( x ) = 2 x + 3, g ( x) = x 2 + 5
1
c) f ( x) = 2
, g ( x) = x 2
x +1
d) f ( x ) = x , g ( x) = x
e) f ( x ) = x , g ( x) = x 2
f) f ( x ) = 1 x 2 , g ( x) = x 2 1
Section 3.4 The Function Relation 261

5. Three-Way Composition Let each f , g , h be functions from {1, 2,3, 4} to

itself given below. Find the composition f  ( g  h) .

f = {(1,3) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 3,1) , ( 4, 2 )}
g = {(1, 2 ) , ( 2, 2 ) , ( 3, 4 ) , ( 4,3)} .
h = {(1, 4 ) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 3,1) , ( 4, 3)}

6. Backwards Compositions One can often interpret a function h as the

composition of two functions. For the function h determine f , g such that
h= f g.
2
a) h ( x ) = ( x 1) + ( x 1) + 3
b) h ( x ) = sin (1/ x )
c) h ( x ) = x2 + x + 1
2
d) h ( x ) = ex + 1

7. Decomposing a Function as a Composition Write the function h ( x ) = x 2 + 1

as a composition h = f  g of two functions in an infinite number of different
ways.
8. Classroom Function Let A be the set of students in your Intro to Abstract
Math Class and B be the natural numbers from 1 to 100.
a) Suppose we assign to each student the age of the student. Is this a function
from A to B ?
b) Suppose we assign to each natural number n B all students in the class
whose age is n . Is this a function from B to A ?
9. More Compositions Given functions f , g illustrated in Figure 3, both having
domains and codomains A = {1, 2,3, 4} , find the following.
a) f  g Ans: f  g = {(1, 2 ) , ( 2,1) , ( 3, 2 ) , ( 4, 4 )}
b) g  f Ans: g  f = {(1, 4 ) , ( 2,3) , ( 3, 2 ) , ( 4, 4 )}
c) f  f
d) g  g
262 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Figure 3

10. Shifting Domain of a Composition Given the function defined by

1
f ( x) = , x 1
1 x
with domain the real numbers, except 1, find the domain of f  f .

11. Graphing a Composition Draw the graph for two arbitrary real-valued
functions f , g of a real variable. Then select an arbitrary real number x and use
the graphs to find the location of ( f  g )( x) .

12. Compositions Find f  g if

a) f :

3 , f (t ) = (t , t 2 , t 3 )
b) g :

, g (t ) = sin t
13. Composition of Operators Given the differential operators
L1 ( f ) = xf ( x) + 1
df
L2 ( f ) = x 2
dx
on sufficiently smooth domains, find a) L1  L2 , b) L2  L1
14. Functions from Everyday Life Ann has a summer job selling subscriptions
to an internet service. She receives a weekly salary of $500 plus a 6%
commission on sales over $5000. Assuming she sells enough to get her
commission, write Anns weekly salary as a composition of two functions.
15. Recursive Functions A recursive function is one defined in terms of itself.
For example, the factorial function
n ! = n ( n 1)( n 2 ) ( 2 )
Section 3.4 The Function Relation 263

can be defined recursively as

0 n =1
n! =
n ( n 1) ! n > 1
Another recursive function can be used to find the greatest common divisor of
two positive integers m and n . Apply the function gcd :    , defined
recursively by

m if n =0
gcd( mn
, ) =
gcd( n, remainder( mn
, ) ) if m n and n >0

to find the greatest common divisor of the following numbers.

a) m = 25, n = 5
b) m = 56, n = 2
c) m = 37, n = 3
16. Functional Equation) A functional equation is an equation which
expresses the value of the function at a point in terms of the value of the function
at different points. Below, are listed four well-known functional equations. Find
the function or functions in explicit form that satisfies the given functional
equation.

a) f ( x + y) = f ( x) + f ( y)
b) f ( x + y) = f ( x) f ( y)
c) f ( xy ) = f ( x ) + f ( y ) , x, y > 0
d) f ( xy ) = f ( x ) f ( y ) , x, y > 0
17. Injections, Surjections, Bijections Give examples of the following
functions f1 , f 2 , f3 , f 4 from  to  that satisfy the following properties.

a) f1 is neither 1-1 or onto.

b) f 2 is 1-1 but not onto.
c) f3 is onto but not 1-1.
d) f 4 is both 1-1 and onto.

18. Find a function f that satisfies the following properties.

a) f maps
to {1, 2,3}

b) f maps  to

c) f maps

to

264 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

d) f maps
to


e) f maps {a, b, c} to [0,1]

19. Injections, Surjections, and Bijections Which of the following functions

f :

are injective, surjective, and bijective. Assume the domains of the
functions are subsets of
for which the function is well-defined.
a) f ( x) = x3 2 x + 1 Ans: surjective
b) f ( x) = sin (1/ x ) Ans: none of the three
x2 x 0
c) f ( x) =
x +1 x > 0
d) f ( x) = e x
20. Interesting Function Given f :   defined by

n 2 if is n even
f (n) =
( n + 1) 2 if n is odd
a) Draw part of the graph of this function.
b) Is the function 1-1 ?
c) Is the function an onto function? If so, onto what?
21. Inverse Function Given the function defined by

f ( x) = x 2, x 2

a) Draw the graph of f

b) Find the domain and range of f .
c) Prove that the function is 1-1.
d) Find the inverse of the function.
e) Find the domain and range of the inverse function.
f) Draw the graph of the inverse function.

22. Function as Ordered Pairs For f :{1, 2,3}  defined by the ordered
pairs f = {(1, 3), (2,5), (3,1)} :
a) Is f 1-1?
b) Is f onto?
c) What is the range of f ?

23. 1-1 but not Onto Give an example of a function f :

that is 1-1 but
not onto.
Section 3.4 The Function Relation 265

24. Hmmmmmmmmm For what value of the exponent n  is the function

f ( x) = x n an injection?
25. Prove or Find a Counterexample Is it true that if a function is 1-1, then its
inverse is also 1-1? If so prove it, if not find a counterexample.
26. Counting Functions I Let A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b, c} as shown in the
following diagram.
a) How many functions are there from A to B ?
b) How many injections are there from A to B ?
c) How many surjections are there from A to B ?
d) How many bijections are there from A to B ?

27. Counting Functions II Let A = {1, 2,3}, B = {a, b} as shown in the

diagram.
a) How many functions are there from A to B ?
b) How many injections are there from A to B ?
c) How many surjections are there from A to B ?
d) How many bijections are there from A to B ?
266 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

28. Finding Injections and Surjections

a) Find a function f :   that is 1-1 but not onto.
b) Find a function f :   that is onto but not 1-1.

29. Composition of Onto Maps Prove that if

g : X Y (onto)
f : Y Z (onto)
then the composition f  g is an onto function from X to Z . In short, the
composition of surjections is a surjection.
30. Composition of 1-1 Maps Prove that if
g : X Y (1-1)
f : Y Z (1-1)
then the composition f  g is a 1-1 function from X to Z . In short, the
composition of injections is an injection.
31. Hmmmmmmmmmm If
g : A B, f : B C , f  g : A C .
Find examples of the following:
a) A 1-1 composition f  g : A C where f : B C is not 1-1.
b) An onto composition f  g : A C where g : A B is not onto.
c) A bijection f  g : A C where g is not onto and f is onto.
32. More Counting Functions Let S = {1, 2,3} .
a) How many functions are there from S to S ?
b) How many onto functions are there from S to S ?
c) How many 1-1 functions are there from S to S ?
d) How many bijections are there from S to S ?
33. Counting Functions in General) If A is a set with m elements and B is a
set with n elements how many functions f : A B of the different types are
there?
a) All functions
b) All 1-1 functions
c) All bijections
Section 3.4 The Function Relation 267

34. Cantor-Bernstein Theorem Let A, B be two sets. The CantorBernstein

theorem states that if there is an injection5 f : A B and an injection
g : B A , then A = B . Use the Cantor-Bernstein theorem to show the sets
(0,1) and [0,1] have the same cardinality.
35. Euler Totient Function In number theory, the Euler totient function (n)
(or phi function) is a function
: 
defined on the natural numbers, gives the number of natural numbers less than n
that are coprime with n , where a number is coprime with another if the greatest
common divisor of the two numbers is 1. For example, (6) = 2 since 1 and 5
are coprime with 6, but 2, 3, and 4 are not. Verify the following special cases of
some important properties of the Euler totient function.
a) (17 ) = 16 , general theorem ( p ) = p 1, p prime

b) (1) + ( 2 ) + ( 4 ) + ( 8 ) = 8, general theorem ( k ) = n

k |n

c) (15 ) = ( 3) ( 5 ) , general theorem ( mn ) = ( m ) ( n ) , m, n coprime

d) ( 53 ) = ( 5 1) 52 , general theorem ( p k ) = ( p 1) p k 1

36. Carmichael's Totient Function Conjecture An open question in number

theory is the Carmichael Totient Function Conjecture, which states that for every
natural number n , there is at least one other natural number m that satisfies
(m) = (n) , i.e. both have the same number of coprimes. As of 2015, it is
unknown whether the conjecture is true or false. Do you think the conjecture is
true or false?

5
Keep in mind that injections (or 1-1 functions) do not map different points into the same point
and hence a 1-1 map from A to B means the cardinality of A is less than or equal to the
cardinality of B .
268 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS