MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC VIEWPOINT OF THERMODYNAMICS ‘The behaviour of a matter can be studi at two levels: a) Macroscopic, b) Microscopic Macroscopic ( or classical thermodynamics): ‘© Inthis approach, a certain quantity of matter is considered, without taking into account the events occurring at the molecular level * This macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics that does not require knowledge of the behaviour of individual particles, ‘* Mactoscopic thermodynamics is only concerned with the effects of the action of many molecules, and these effeets can be perceived by human senses, © The macroscopic observations are completely independent of the assumptions regarding the nature of matter. «Example: A moving car, «falling stone from a eliff, ete Microscopic ( or statistical thermodynamics): © From the microscopic viewpoint, matter is composed of a large number of small molecules and atoms. ‘* This microscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics that require knowledge of the behaviour of individual parties, © Microscopic thermodynamics is concerned with the effects of the action of many molecules, and these effects cannot be perceived by human senses. ‘* The microscopic observations are completely dependent on the assumptions regarding the nature of matter. ‘© Example: Individual molecules present in air, ete. ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS When a body Ais in thermal equilibrium with a body B, and also separately with a body , then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This is the zeroth law of thermodynamies.Importance of zeroth law of thermodynamics It is the basis of temperature measurement. In order to obtain a quantitative measure of temperature, a referenes body is used, and a certain physical characteristic of this body which changes with temperature is selected. The change in the selected characteristic may be taken as an indication of change in temperature. The selected characteristic is called the theemomettic property, and the reference body which is used in the determination of temperature is called the thermometer. A very common thermometer consists of a small amount of mercury in an evacuated capillary tube. In this case, the extension of the mercury in the tube is used as the thermometric property. Reference Points ‘Temperature scales enable us to use a common basi for temperature measurements. All and temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the freezi boiling points of water, which are also called the ice point and the steam poins, spectively. A mixture of ice and water that equilibrium with air saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure is said to he at the ice point, and a mixture of liquid water and water vapor ‘with no air) in equilibrium at 1 atm pressure is said to be at the steam point. These points are also called as the referen e points, A temperature scale may of two reference points (steam and ice point) like the Celsius scale or of a single reference point (273K, i.e, the ice point) like the Kelvin scale ‘The ice point and steam points have the following disadvantages: (a) The difficulty of achieving equilibrium between the pure ice and air-saturated water (since when ice melts, it surrounds itself only with pure water and prevents intimate contact with air-saturated water), and (b) Extreme sensitiveness of the steam point to the change in pressure ‘To overcome this difficulty, triple point of water is chosen as the reference point, at which ico, liquid water and water vapour coexist. Triple point of water is also known as the standard fixed point of thermometry.SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES SURROUNDINGS: BOUNDARY ‘A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The mass of region outside the system is called she surroundings. = The real ori uaginary surface that se rates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. ‘The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. The boundary is the contact surface shared by both the system and the surroundings. ‘The boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any volume in space. Open & Closed Systems ‘+ Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass ‘or fixed volume in space is chosen for study A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can eros its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system, But energy, in the form of heat or work, can eross the boundary; and the volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed. If, as a special case, even eneray is not allowed to cross the boundary. that system is called an isolated system.‘© An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, '* Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the device as the control volume. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a contro! volume, ‘+ A large number of engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of a system and, therefore, are modeled as control volumes. © A car radiator, a turbine, and a compressor all involve mass flow and should be analyzed as control volumes (open systems) instead of ax control masses (closed systems). © In general, any arbitrary region in space can be selected as a control volume. © The boundaries of a control volume are called a conirol surface, and they can be real ‘or imaginary. In the case of a nozzle, the inner surface of the nozzle forms the real part of the boundary, and the entrance and exit areas form the imaginary part, since there ‘are no physical surfaces there, imignry—_sentbrenry vray / ate ee, ae ame) ‘Example of Open system PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM ‘+ Any characteristic of a system by which it’s physical condition may be described is called a property. ‘© Pressure, temperature, volume, mass, viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, velocity, elevation, ete. '* Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensi‘+ Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density. * Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume, and total momentum are some examples of extensive properties. ‘+ Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Some examples of specific properties are specific volume Yim) and spe total energy (¢ =E/n). TATE AND EQUILIBRIUM © Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all the properties can be measured or calculated throughout the entire system, which gives us a set of properties that completely describes the condition, or the state, of the system. * Ata given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values. If the value of even ‘one property changes, the state will change to a different one. (Sate A system at two different states ‘+ Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equilibrium implies a state of balance, * Inan equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system, © A system _in_equilibrium experiences no_changes when it is_isolated_from_its surroundings, © There are many types of equilibrium and a system is not in thermodynamic ‘equilibrium unless the conditions of all the three relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied!1. Thermal equilibrium. Temperature should be same throughout the system, 2. Mechanical equilibrium-Unbalanced forces should be absent, eg, change in pressure 3. Chemical equilibrium —No chemical reaction and mass transfer PROCESSES AND CYCLES * Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process, and the series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of the process. '* To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings roneny A susie? Proves + When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasistatic, or quasie equilibrium, process. © A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that properties in one part of the system do not, ‘change any faster than those at other partsPaste eT 2 (a) Slow compression (9) Very fest compression (quasi-eguilit ‘The prefix iso- is offen used fo designate a process for which a particular property remains constant. An isothermal process, for example, is a process during which the temperature remains constant. An isobarie proeess is a process during which the pressure P remains constant. An isochoric (or isometric) process is a process during which the specific volume remains constant. Adiabatic process: i. A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process . ii, The word adiabatic comes from the Greek word adiabatos, which means not to he passed. it, For a adiabatic process, the s stem is well insulated so that no or only a negligible amount of heat can pass through the boundary. iv. A.wall which is impermeable 1o the flow of heat is an adiabatic wall ¥.—-Awall which permits the flow of heat is a diathermie wall. A system is said to have undergon a cycle if it retums to its initial state at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are identical‘The Steady-Flow Process ‘© The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient. © During a steady-flow process, fluid properties within the control volume may change with position but not with time, The Steady-Flow Process Uniform-Flow Process ‘© The term uniform, however, implies no change with location over a specified region. SR] Uniform-Flow Process PATH & POINT FUNCTIONS ‘© Path functions - th magnitudes depend on the path followed di 8 process as well as the end states, Eg: Heat and Work ‘+ Point functions - they depend on the state only. and not on how a system reaches that state. Eg: PropertiesWORK AND HEAT TRANSFER Acclosed syster eract with its surroundings in wo ways: a, Work Transfer b. Heat Transfer A. Work Transfer ‘The work is done by a force as it acts upon a body moving in the direction of the force. Force roe ---91 Body ‘Therefore, from definition Work Don Characteristics of Work 1. Pady work or Displacement work or boundary work '* Consider the gas enclosed in the piston-cylinder devive shown in Figure. TIT ‘+ The initial pressure of the gas is P, the total volume is V, and the cross-sectional area of the pistom is A. * If the piston is allowed to move a distance ds in a quasi-equilibrium manner, the differential work done during this process is BW = Feds = P.Ads = PV ‘+ Therefore, the Displacement work in the differential form is equal to the product of the absolute pressure P and the differential change in the volume dV of the system, Thisexpression also explains why the Displacement work is sometimes called the P dV work. * ‘The total boundary work done during the entire process as the piston moves is ‘obtained by adding all the differential works from the initial state to the final state we ig Pav , kp _Process path ‘The area under the process curve on a P-V diagram represents the boundary work. 2. Since the magnitude of work done depends on the path followed during the process, therefore work is a path function, 3. Work done depends on the mass, therefore work is extensive property 4. Formal sign convention for work: i. Work done by a system or work done due to expansion is positive; ii, Work done on a system or work done on due to compression is negative. B. Heat Transfer ‘© Heat is defined as the form of energy that is ransferred between two systems (or & system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature differe © That is, an energy interaction is heat only if it takes place because of 2 temperature difference. ‘¢ Then it follows that there cannot be any heat transfer between two systems that are at the same temperature.Characteristics of Heat |. Heat Transfer is given by Q, in Joules Q=mxexar Where mass, ke c= specific heat, /kg-K AT= Change in temperature, K 2. Heat transfer occurs through three modes: i. Conveetion- Interaction between solid surface and adjacent fluid system or between two fluid systems. fi, Conduction - Heat transfer when Two bodies are in direct contact. ili, Radiation — Due to the emission of electromagnetie waves: 3. Since the magnitude of heat depends on the path followed during the process, therefore heat is a path funetion. 4, Heat depends on the mass, therefore heat is extensive property. Formal sign convention for Heat Transfer i. Heat transfer to a system is positive: li, Heat wansfer from a sysiem is negative. WORK DONE DIFFERENT PROCESSES 1. Isobaric process Work done is given by “ w pv. Me Where,Characteristics of Heat |. Heat Transfer is given by Q, in Joules Q=mxexar Where mass, ke c= specific heat, /kg-K AT= Change in temperature, K 2. Heat transfer occurs through three modes: i. Conveetion- Interaction between solid surface and adjacent fluid system or between two fluid systems. fi, Conduction - Heat transfer when Two bodies are in direct contact. ili, Radiation — Due to the emission of electromagnetie waves: 3. Since the magnitude of heat depends on the path followed during the process, therefore heat is a path funetion. 4, Heat depends on the mass, therefore heat is extensive property. Formal sign convention for Heat Transfer i. Heat transfer to a system is positive: li, Heat wansfer from a sysiem is negative. WORK DONE DIFFERENT PROCESSES 1. Isobaric process Work done is given by “ w pv. Me Where,© Isothermal Process Work done is given by ” w= ['pv, ky Me Where Ps pressure in pascal, Vis volume in m* 1 is initial and 2 is final state of system Meal Gas equation, PY = RT Since, for isothermal process Temperature T is constant Therefore, PV = Constant = C = P,V; = PaV2 Work done is given by > W= Ce2/V1) > W = PV nV, /V,) = PM In(¥z /%,) = Ve In(V2 / Vs)= nrrin(’? My d= nerin?, /p,) Paztn(?/p ) 4, Polytropic or adiabatic process © Polytropic Process Work done is given by we [ra Where, Pis pressure in pascal, Vis volume in m’ 1 is initial and 2 is final state of system Heat Transfer is zer0 ‘Therefore, PV® = Constant Ps = evs= natin(!/y,) = nBPin(?t/p,) = PYain(™/p,) = PaVatn(?*/p,) 4. Polytropic or adiabatic process © Polytropic Process Work done is given by % w= [pv, Wher is pressure in pas Vis volume in m? 1s initial and 2 is final stat of system Heat Transfer is 2er0 ‘Therefore. PV® = Constant = P,vg = P,VE > We Jevsav > we C] vet O41. >We