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The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually re-
model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and stan- ferred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Refer-
dardizes the communication functions of a telecommuni- ence Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI
cation or computing system without regard to their un- model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as stan-
derlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the dard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the
interoperability of diverse communication systems with Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the Inter-
standard protocols. The model partitions a communica- national Telecommunication Union or ITU-T) as stan-
tion system into abstraction layers. The original version dard X.200.
of the model dened seven layers. OSI had two major components, an abstract model of net-
A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the working, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer
layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error- model, and a set of specic protocols.
free communications across a network provides the path The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by
needed by applications above it, while it calls the next the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Informa-
lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise thetion Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved
contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are
from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN,
visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in that
CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6.1. The
layer. new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various
The model is a product of the Open Systems Inter- addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided
connection project at the International Organization for into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities im-
Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identication plement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly
ISO/IEC 7498-1. only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided
facilities for use by the layer above it.
Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a
corresponding entity at the same layer in another host.
Service denitions abstractly described the functionality
provided to an (N)-layer by an (N-1) layer, where N was
one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local
host.
The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU-
T as the X.200-series of recommendations.[1] Some of
the protocol specications were also available as part of
the ITU-T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO/IEC
standards for the OSI model were available from ISO, but
Communication in the OSI-Model (example with layers 3 to 5)
only some of them without fees.[2]
In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the In- The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, la-
ternational Organization for Standardization (ISO), while beled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.
another was undertaken by the International Telegraph At each level N, two entities at the communicating de-
and Telephone Consultative Committee, or CCITT (the vices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs)
abbreviation is from the French version of the name). by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a
These two international standards bodies each developed payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with
a document that dened similar networking models. protocol-related headers and/or footers.
In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a Data processing by two communicating OSI-compatible
standard called The Basic Reference Model for Open devices is done as such:
1
2 2 DESCRIPTION OF OSI LAYERS
1. The data to be transmitted is composed at the top- 2.2 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
most layer of the transmitting device (layer N) into
a protocol data unit (PDU). The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer
a link between two directly connected nodes. It detects
2. The PDU is passed to layer N-1, where it is known and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physi-
as the service data unit (SDU). cal layer. It, among other things, denes the protocol to
establish and terminate a connection between two phys-
3. At layer N-1 the SDU is concatenated with a header, ically connected devices. It also denes the protocol for
a footer, or both, producing a layer N-1 PDU. It is ow control between them.
then passed to layer N-2.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:[6]
4. The process continues until reaching the lowermost
level, from which the data is transmitted to the re- Media Access Control (MAC) layer - responsible for
ceiving device. controlling how devices in a network gain access to
medium and permission to transmit it.
5. At the receiving device the data is passed from
the lowest to the highest layer as a series of SDUs Logical Link Control (LLC) layer - responsible for
while being successively stripped from each layers identifying Network layer protocols and then encap-
header and/or footer, until reaching the topmost sulating them and controls error checking and frame
layer, where the last of the data is consumed. synchronization.
Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such
security, involve all of the layers (See ITU-T X.800 as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi, and 802.15.4 ZigBee,
Recommendation[5] ). These services are aimed at im- operate at the data link layer.
proving the CIA triad - condentiality, integrity, and The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer that
availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the can operate over several dierent physical layers, such as
availability of a communication service is determined synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
by the interaction between network design and network
management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed
these are needed to protect against denial of service. local area networking over existing wires (power lines,
phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data
link layer that provides both error correction and ow
2.1 Layer 1: Physical Layer control by means of a selective-repeat sliding-window
protocol.
The physical layer denes the electrical and physical spec-
ications of the data connection. It denes the rela-
2.3 Layer 3: Network Layer
tionship between a device and a physical transmission
medium (e.g., a copper or ber optical cable, radio fre-
The network layer provides the functional and procedu-
quency). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line ral means of transferring variable length data sequences
impedance, cable specications, signal timing and simi-
(called datagrams) from one node to another connected
lar characteristics for connected devices and frequency (5 to the same network. It translates logical network address
GHz or 2.4 GHz etc.) for wireless devices. It is respon-
into physical machine address. A network is a medium
sible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw to which many nodes can be connected, on which every
data in a physical medium. It may dene transmission
node has an address and which permits nodes connected
mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. It denes to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by
the network topology as bus, mesh, or ring being some of merely providing the content of a message and the address
the most common. of the destination node and letting the network nd the
The physical layer of Parallel SCSI operates in this layer, way to deliver the message to the destination node, possi-
as do the physical layers of Ethernet and other local-area bly routing it through intermediate nodes. If the message
networks, such as Token Ring, FDDI, ITU-T G.hn, and is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on
IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), as well as personal area networks the data link layer between those nodes, the network may
such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4. implement message delivery by splitting the message into
The physical layer is the layer of low-level networking several fragments at one node, sending the fragments in-
equipment, such as some hubs, cabling, and repeaters. dependently, and reassembling the fragments at another
The physical layer is never concerned with protocols or node. It may, but need not, report delivery errors.
other such higher-layer items. Examples of hardware in Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily
this layer are network adapters, repeaters, network hubs, guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may
modems, and ber media converters. provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.
2.5 Layer 5: Session Layer 3
nication partners, the application layer determines the state information from the PHY layer, network
identity and availability of communication partners for throughput can be signicantly improved and en-
an application with data to transmit. When determining ergy waste can be avoided.[10]
resource availability, the application layer must decide
whether sucient network resources for the requested
communication exist. In synchronizing communication, 4 Interfaces
all communication between applications requires cooper-
ation that is managed by the application layer. This layer
Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols
supports application and end-user processes. Communi-
specify any programming interfaces, other than delib-
cation partners are identied, quality of service is identi-
erately abstract service specications. Protocol speci-
ed, user authentication and privacy are considered, and
cations precisely dene the interfaces between dierent
any constraints on data syntax are identied. Everything
computers, but the software interfaces inside computers,
at this layer is application-specic.
known as network sockets are implementation-specic.
For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's
3 Cross-layer functions Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Inter-
face, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and
above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are
Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network
given layer, but may aect more than one layer. Examples protocol (layer 3).
include the following:
Interface standards, except for the physical layer to me-
dia, are approximate implementations of OSI service
Security service (telecommunication)[5] as dened
specications.
by ITU-T X.800 recommendation.
ARP is used to translate IPv4 addresses (OSI layer The Internet application layer includes the OSI ap-
3) into Ethernet MAC addresses (OSI layer 2). plication layer, presentation layer, and most of the
Domain Name Service is an Application Layer ser- session layer.
vice which is used to look up the IP address of a Its end-to-end transport layer includes the graceful
given domain name. Once a reply is received from close function of the OSI session layer as well as the
the DNS server, it is then possible to form a Layer OSI transport layer.
3 connection to the third-party host.
The internetworking layer (Internet layer) is a subset
Cross MAC and PHY Scheduling is essential in of the OSI network layer.
wireless networks because of the time varying na-
ture of wireless channels. By scheduling packet The link layer includes the OSI data link layer and
transmission only in favorable channel conditions, sometimes the physical layers, as well as some pro-
which requires the MAC layer to obtain channel tocols of the OSIs network layer.
5
These comparisons are based on the original seven-layer [9] Grigonis, Richard (2000). Computer telephony- ency-
protocol model as dened in ISO 7498, rather than re- clopaedia. CMP. p. 331. ISBN 9781578200450.
nements in such things as the internal organization of
[10] G. Miao; G. Song (2014). Energy and spectrum ecient
the network layer document. wireless network design. Cambridge University Press.
The presumably strict layering of the OSI model as it ISBN 1107039886.
is usually described does not present contradictions in
[11] ITU-T Recommendation Q.1400 (03/1993)], Architec-
TCP/IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not
ture framework for the development of signaling and
follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such ex- OA&M protocols using OSI concepts". ITU. pp. 4, 7.
amples exist in some routing protocols (e.g., OSPF), or
in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide [12] ITU Rec. X.227 (ISO 8650), X.217 (ISO 8649).
a link layer for an application, although the tunnel host
[13] X.700 series of recommendations from the ITU-T (in par-
protocol might well be a transport or even an application- ticular X.711) and ISO 9596.
layer protocol in its own right.
[14] Internetworking Technology Handbook - Internetwork-
ing Basics [Internetworking]". Cisco. 15 January 2014.
7 See also Retrieved 14 August 2015.
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GAURAV AWASTHI and Anonymous: 2491
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