Shell Special Intensive Training Programme

13 SUBSIDENCE AND THERMAL HISTORY

13.1 Geohistory Analysis

The stratigraphic thickness of a basin fill as seen today is a result of cumulative

compaction through time. The quantitative analysis of subsidence rates through time
is termed geohistory analysis. Using a technique termed backstripping, it is
possible to produce a curve for the subsidence and sediment accumulation rates
through time. To achieve this, three corrections to the present stratal thicknesses
need to be applied:

1. Decompaction. The present-day compacted thicknesses must be

corrected to account for the progressive loss of porosity with depth of
burial.

2. Palaeobathymetry. The water depth at the time of deposition determines

the stratal position relative to a datum (such as present sea level).

3. Absolute sea level fluctuations (eustasy). Changes in the palaeosea level

relative to todays needs to be considered.

Figure 79. Time slices in the subsidence history of a basin. Note that the water depth,
sedimentation rate and compaction all vary with time. Each increment of sediment is
compacted beneath the weight of successive increments and this effect must be removed for
each time slice in the backstripping procedure.

The procedure for backstripping of a sedimentary basin starts with the division of the
stratigraphic column into unit for which the thickness and age range can be

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accurately determined (fig.79). These time slices are then added to the basement
one by one, calculating the original decompacted thickness and bulk density and
placing its top at a depth below sea level corresponding to the average depth of
water in which the unit was deposited. The isostatic subsidence caused by the
weight of this sediment can then be calculated and the depth to the surface on which
the sediment was deposited is calculated with only the weight of the water as the
basement load (fig. 80). The next unit is then added and adjusted in the same way.
The thickness and bulk density of the first unit are adjusted in accordance with the
depth of burial beneath the second unit, and so on up the stratigraphic column. This
sounds very simple but, in practice, there are several problems. The most important
of these are:

1. It is not easy to accurately estimate the water depth at the time of

formation.

2. Eustatic corrections are difficult to apply. As has already been seen, the
stratigraphical evidence for global sea level changes remains unclear.
Even if it were possible to identify eustatic changes, there would still be the
question of the magnitude of the variations. The Vail-Haq sea level
curves, even if correct, cannot be used to determine this.

3. The total subsidence is the result of the tectonic driving force and the
sediment load. It may not be possible to derive an appropriate model for
the tectonic driving mechanism responsible for basin formation. Unless
tectonic subsidence can be accurately modelled, it is not possible to derive
useful information on sea level change from backstripping curves. It may
also be difficult to determine how the sediment load effects the equation. Is
the vertical load compensated for locally (isostasy) or does the lithosphere
support the sediment load by regional flexure. In the latter case, it is
generally not possible to separate the tectonic and sediment contributions.

Once the calculations have been made, a true time-depth history of any sediment
layer can be evaluated. This data can be used make comparisons between
boreholes or other sections. Furthermore, the subsidence curves (e.g. fig. 81)
produced give an immediate visual impression of the nature of the driving force
responsible for basin formation and evolution.

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Figure 80. The basic relationships between a loaded sedimentary section and an unloaded
or backstripped section. Wd = water depth during deposition of a given sedimentary unit; S*
total sediment thickness; m , s, w = density of mantle, sediment and water respectively; Y =
depth of water with no sediment load; SL incremental eustatic change in sea level.

Figure 81. Subsidence curve for the COST B-2 well, Atlantic continental margin.
Backstripping based on (a) local isostatic loading and (b) flexural loading. Subsidence
caused by sediment and water loads is shown in the lower part of the diagram with that
resulting from tectonic driving forces shown above.

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13.2 Thermal History

Subsidence in sedimentary basins causes material deposited under conditions of low

temperature and pressure to adjust to progressively increasing temperatures and
pressures as it is buried. The most important factors in the maturation of organic
matter are temperature and pressure (i.e. depth of burial) being relatively
unimportant. This temperature and time dependency is described by the Arrhenius
equation, which states that the reaction rate increases exponentially with
temperature. This equation can be used to evaluate the cumulative effect of
increasing temperature over time and the results related directly to measurable
indices of burial. It is also possible to calculate the masses of petroleum generated
during thermal maturation of organic matter.

Subsurface temperatures in a sedimentary basin are controlled by:

1. The basal heat flow history of the basin, which in turn reflects the
lithospheric mechanics of the basin.

2. Internal factors, such as variations in thermal conductivites, heat

generation from radioactive sources within the sediments and regional
water flow through aquifers. Evidence shows that the latter has profound
consequences for heat flow in basins with important recharge areas in
uplift areas (e.g. foreland basins and intracratonic sags) where there will
be anomalously low surface heat flows.

Borehole measurements can be used to estimate formation temperatures, with the

necessary correction for the cooling that takes place during the circulation of drilling
fluids. From the corrected figures, the geothermal gradient and the basal heat flow to
the sedimentary section can be calculated.

The thermal maturity of sedimentary succession can be determined from a number

of burial indices including:

1. Optical parameters such as vitrinite reflectance, spore/pollen colouration,

fluorescence studies, etc.

2. Geochemical measurements, such as pyrolysis,

3. Mineralogical thermal indicators, especially clay mineral composition and

structure.

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Such measurements can be used to constrain palaeotemperatures and

palaeogeothermal gradients. This can then be used to determine the formative
mechanism of the sedimentary basin.

Figure 82. The main types of RO profile: 1 normal sublinear; 2 two periods with different
geothermal gradients; 3 strong geothermal perturbation, then returning to normal; 4
intermediate between 2 and 3.

Vitrinite reflectance is the most commonly used indicator of thermal maturity. Vitrinite
reflectance measurements plotted against depth (RO profiles)(fig. 82) provide a
great deal of information on the thermal history of a basin. The normal pattern is a
sublinear relationship between log RO and depth, indicating a continuous, time-
variant geothermal gradient. RO profiles with distinct kinks between two linear
segments (doglegged) indicate two periods of different geothermal gradient
separated by a thermal event. RO profiles with a sharp break or jump (offsets)
indicate the existence of an unconformity with a large stratigraphic gap. RO profiles in
sedimentary basins can therefore be used to test between time-constant and time-
variant geotherms, if the subsidence history is known.

Studies of modern heat flows and ancient geothermal gradients estimated from
thermal indicators suggest that thermal regime closely reflects tectonic history and
that there are three main types of palaeogeothermal history (fig. 83):

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Figure 83. Summary of the typical heat flows associated with sedimentary basins of various
types.

1. Hypothermal (cooler than average) basins include oceanic trenches, outer

forearcs and foreland basins.

2. Normal (near average) basins include mature passive margins.

3. Hyperthermal (hotter than average) basins include oceanic and continental

rifts, some strike-slip basins and magmatic arcs in collision settings. This
follows from the mechanics of basin formation, which involve the raising
towards the surface of isotherms.

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13.3 Applications

Burial and thermal histories can be used to determine the oil and gas potential of a
basin and to estimate reservoir porosities. Burial history curves from a number of
locations can also be used to construct palaeostructure maps at specific time slices.
Combined with information on thermal maturity, this can be a powerful tool in
evaluating the timing of oil migration and likely migration pathways in relation to the
development of suitable traps.

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