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INTRODUCTION
Metallic aircraft structures are composed of many individual pieces that must be securely fastened together to
form a complete structural unit. Fusion welding, non-fusion welding, hardware fasteners, and adhesives are the
principal methods used in the construction and repair of metal aircraft joints. This chapter describes the equip-
ment and basic procedures needed to join metals using fusion and non-fusion welding techniques, and the meth-
ods used to repair welded aircraft structures. Since welding has become so highly specialized, the FAA no longer
requires a person to perform welding to a high skill level to become a certified aircraft technician. If you have an
interest in specializing in this area, you will need to pursue advanced training. One source of additional infor-
mation on advanced aircraft welding techniques is the book Welding Guidelines, which is available from
Jeppesen.
WELDING PROCESSES
metallic alloys when sufficient heat is applied. Section C of this chapter introduces the procedures
Oxygen chemically reacts with the heated surface of for proper handling, setup and safe use of oxyacety-
the metal and forms metal oxides such as iron oxide lene equipment. It also explains the fundamentals
(rust) or aluminum oxide. When excessive oxide is of oxyacetylene-torch cutting. Although you are not
present, it often results in porous pockets, causing a required to become proficient in performing welds,
weak joint. Limiting the effects of oxidation is criti- a background in basic oxyacetylene welding skills
cal to maintaining strong weld joints. may prove useful in the maintenance of tools and
shop equipment.
Each type of fusion welding controls the formation
of oxides differently. The gas welding processes ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
generate carbon dioxide (CO2), which shields the Electric arc welding includes shielded metal arc
welding zone from oxygen. CO2 is a natural by- welding, gas metal arc welding, and tungsten inert
product of oxygen and acetylene combustion. In gas [TIG) arc welding. Although TIG welding is the
welding processes that use an electric arc for heat, method that is predominantly used in aircraft fabri-
other methods of shielding the weld are used, cation and repair, a technician is also required to
including coating electrodes with flux, or using understand the other methods.
gases to flood the area around the arc to shield the
weld from oxygen. When electricity has sufficient voltage to arc across
the space between an electrode to an area of differ-
OXYACETYLENE WELDING ent electrical potential, heat is produced from the
Oxyacetylene welding, often referred to as gas weld- movement of electrons. The amount of heat is pre-
ing, gets its name from the two gases, oxygen and dominantly determined by the amount of current
acetylene, that are used to produce a flame. (amperage) flowing across the gap. For all types of
Acetylene is the fuel for the flame and oxygen sup- arc welding, a transformer/rectifier (TR) unit is used
ports combustion and makes the flame hotter. The to produce and control electrical power. An addi-
combination of these two gases results in sufficient tional feature is that the TR unit has the capability
heat to produce molten metal. The temperature of the of changing the polarity of electricity that flows out
oxyacetylene flame ranges from 5,600 to 6,300 F. of its terminals.
Most aircraft gas welding is done on thin-gauge steel Electric arc welding produces a blinding light, with
that ranges from 16- to 20-gauge, or about .027- infrared and ultraviolet rays, which can burn both
to .050-inch thick. Welding thicker metals requires skin and eyes. Before being exposed to a welding
larger equipment; however, welding techniques arc, you must wear an arc-welding helmet, gloves
remain much the same. Aircraft structures of steel and proper clothing. Anyone observing electric arc
tubing are usually fabricated by welding the tubes welding also needs appropriate protective gear.
together into a strong, lightweight structure. Heavy clothing or leather aprons should be worn to
[Figure 4-2] cover as much skin as practical. The use of light-
weight fabric materials does not provide adequate
protection to prevent burns to the skin.
between the wire rod and the metal, which pro- (GTAW) and by the trade names of Heliarc and
duces heat capable of exceeding 10,000 F. This Heliweld . These trade names were derived from
intense heat melts both the metal and the rod. the fact that the inert gas originally used was
helium. [Figure 4-4]
As previously mentioned, the welding process accel-
erates oxidation, a harmful chemical reaction
between the metal and the oxygen in the air. It is a
major concern, and must be controlled to obtain a
quality weld. To accomplish this, the arc-welding rod
is coated with flux, which protects the welding zone
from the air as it burns. As the flux burns from the
rod, it releases an inert gas that shields the molten
metal. When the weld is complete, an airtight slag
covers the weld bead as it cools. This slag must be
chipped off to examine the weld. [Figure 4-3]
Figure 4-5. ATlG welding setup consists of a power supply, aTlG torch with a tungsten electrode, and a supply of inert gas.
AC electricity is a reasonable compromise. Half the starting arc normally is disengaged once the arc is
time the arc is putting most of its heat in the metal, stable. On AC arcs, it normally is left on to augment
and the other half it is blasting the oxides away from the arc's stability. When welding aluminum, the sta-
the surface. A disadvantage is that 60 Hz AC does bilizing signal should be on continuously whether
not alternate rapidly enough to result in a stable arc. using AC or DC.
This can be overcome by superimposing on the
welding current, a high-voltage, low-current signal The torch used with TIG welding is essentially a
operating at a high frequency. handle with a chuck to hold the tungsten electrode.
A ceramic, high-temperature plastic, or Pyrex
High frequency AC also is used for starting arcs glass nozzle, surrounds the electrode and directs a
without touching the material. On DC arcs, continuous flow of gas around the arc. An
this air-cooled
SEAM WELDING
While it would be possible to create a seam with a
series of closely spaced spot welds, a better method
is to use a seam welder. This equipment is com-
monly used to manufacture fuel tanks and other
components where a continuous weld is needed.
Instead of the electrodes of a spot welder, the metal
in a seam welder is drawn between two copper
wheels. Pressure is applied to the wheels and timed
pulses of current flow through the metal between
them. The pulses create spots of molten metal that
Figure 4-7. When preparing a TIG electrode for welding, fol- overlap to form the continuous seam.
low the manufacturer's instructions. Manufacturers some-
times require the electrodes to be ground to a rounded TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS
shape for welding with AC power, while a pointed tip is The result of a weld is a joint. To evaluate the qual-
sometimes called for when using straight-polarity DC. ity of an aircraft welding repair, it is essential to
understand the various types of joints and be able to
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING recognize whether proper techniques were used to
Many thin sheet metal parts for aircraft, especially create these joints. The five basic types of weld
stainless steel parts, are joined by one of the forms joints are shown in figure 4-9.
of electric resistance welding; either spot welding or
seam welding. [Figure 4-8] BUTT JOINTS
Butt joints are used to join metal forms such as
SPOT WELDING sheet, bar, plate, tube and pipe. In aircraft applica-
When spot welding, two copper electrodes are held tions, butt joints generally are not used for joining
in the jaws of a vise-like machine and the pieces of tubing because they are too weak for aircraft struc-
metal to be welded are clamped between them. tures. In uses other than tubing, butt joints are suit-
Pressure is applied to hold the electrodes tightly able for most load stresses if the welds are made
together while electrical current passes between the with full penetration, adequate fusion and proper
electrodes. The current flow through the metal reinforcement. A typical butt weld should penetrate
between the electrodes generates enough heat to 100 percent of the thickness of the base metal.
melt the metal. The pressure on the [Figure 4-10]
electrodes
Aircraft Welding 4-7
LAP JOINTS
A lap joint is seldom used in aircraft structures
when welding with gas, but is commonly used
when spot welding. The single lap joint has very lit-
tle resistance to bending and will not withstand
shearing stresses. The double lap joint is stronger,
but requires twice the welding of the simpler, more
efficient, butt weld. [Figure 4-12]
Figure 4-9. A technician must be familiar with the tech- CORNER JOINTS
niques for fabricating these basic welding joints. A corner joint results when two pieces of metal are
brought together so that their edges form a corner of
a box or rectangle. This joint can only be used
where load stresses are not significant. [Figure 4-13]
Figure 4-10. Butt joints are simple but require special prepa-
ration considerations to provide adequate weld penetration.
Bevels are often required before welding thick metals.
TEE JOINTS
Tee joints are quite common in aircraft work, par-
ticularly in tubular structures. The plain tee joint is Figure 4-13. Corner joints are common in aircraft compo-
suitable for most aircraft metal thickness. Thicker nents such as airbox assemblies made from aluminum.
metals require the vertical member to be either sin-
gle or double beveled to permit the heat to penetrate
deeply enough. [Figure 4-11] EDGE JOINTS
Again where load stresses are not significant, edge
joints may be used to join two pieces of sheet metal.
To form an edge joint, bend the edges of one or both
parts upward and place the two ends parallel to
each other. Weld along the outside of the seam
formed by the two edges. In some situations, the
bent-up edges may provide enough material to form
the bead so that a filler rod is not required. [Figure
4-14]
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
Figure 4-11.Tee joints are suitable for most metal thickness,
OF METAL
although beveled edges may be required to achieve Controlling the expansion and contraction of metals
sufficient penetration in thicker metals. during welding is necessary to reduce distortion,
4-8 Aircraft Welding
Figure 4-19. These are examples of improperly formed welds. Most are caused by poor technique, inexperience or simply care-
lessness. If you observe welds with these defects, reject them and arrange to have them repaired by an FAA-approved welding
facility.
inspection. Cracks and internal defects may be dif- be certified for accuracy and the personnel con-
ficult or impossible to see. [Figure 4-19] ducting the inspection must have received special
training.
If you suspect a defective joint, but cannot confirm
it visually, it will be necessary to perform a more BRAZING AND SOLDERING
detailed non-destructive inspection. Non-destruc- Non-fusion joining occurs when two or more pieces
tive inspection (NDI) techniques include of metal are held together by a softer metal such as
dye-pene-trant, magnetic-particle, x-ray, ultrasonic brass, bronze or silver. The molten metal sticks to
and eddy-current. The dye-penetrant inspection is the surface by adhesion rather than fusion. A braz-
the most cost-effective and easy test to perform ing rod or solder used with the proper flux will act
in the field,but does not identify internal flaws. To like glue when holding a metal joint together.
use other forms of NDI, the inspection equipment Brazing or soldering a joint is achieved at a much
must
Aircraft Welding 4-11
lower temperature than fusion welding. Since heat of welding would distort the part or destroy its
brazed or soldered joints are not as strong as heat treatment. For braze welding, the material must
fusion-welded joints, they are not typically used in be mechanically cleaned to remove all oxidation
aircraft structural applications. Instead, brazing and and scale. The metal is then positioned, as it would
soldering are used widely in electrical connectors, be for regular welding. The end of the brazing rod is
fuel and hydraulic line fittings, and many other heated for about two inches and dipped into a
low stress applications. borax-type flux. The flux sticks to the rod and will
flow off as the rod melts on the base metal. Covering
TORCH BRAZING the joint with flux before welding also helps prevent
Brazing is a form of metal joining in which an the formation of oxides and produces a cleaner,
iron-free metal is used as a cohesive material. The stronger weld.
non-ferrous material, usually brass or bronze, is
melted with an oxyacetylene torch at a temperature When braze welding, the torch should be adjusted
below that of the base metal, but above 800 F. to a neutral flame the same size as would be used for
There are actually two operations that may be welding. Flame types and adjustment procedures
performed by brazing. One operation is referred to are described later in section C of this chapter. The
as braze welding, in which two metals are joined base metal should be heated to a cherry red. Keep
together in much the same manner as fusion the end of the brazing rod near the torch flame to
welding, except that the filler material does not keep it hot. When the metal is sufficiently heated,
fuse into the base metal. Because braze welding touch the rod to it so that the rod melts and flows
does not provide the strength of fusion welds, it is onto the base metal. The width of a good braze bead
seldom used in aircraft structures. The other should be about the same as a weld bead on the
operation is simply referred to as brazing, and same thickness of material. Bead width is deter-
involves melting cohesive brazing metal near mined by the distance the torch tip is held from the
closely fitting parts. The cohesive metal, once work the closer the tip, the wider the bead.
melted, flows between close-fitting metal surfaces However, the tip should be held at a sufficient dis-
by capillary action to form a tight seal or joint. When tance to prevent the base metal from becoming
the joint cools, it forms a bond between the two molten.
metals. For this action to occur properly, the metal
must be absolutely clean. A good brazed joint will be smooth with an even
deposit of brazing metal on the top. The brazing
Flux is used to clean the surfaces of the metal being material should penetrate the joint and be visible on
joined. Brazing flux has a caustic base which, when the bottom. Brazing material should be the same
heated, turns to liquid. It washes away oxides and color as the original rod. If the joint is overheated,
impurities that may have formed on the surfaces of zinc may burn out of the metal, and it will leave the
the metals. A flux coating on a filler rod allows it to weld with a copper appearance. [Figure 4-21]
flow when melted and to adhere to a base metal sur-
face. The term adhesion, as applied to brazing,
means the molten filler material will flow into the
pores of (but not fuse to) a joint. [Figure 4-20]
Figure 4-20. Brazing uses capillary action to draw molten TORCH BRAZING OF ALUMINUM AND
metal into close fitting joints.
MAGNESIUM
Aluminum and magnesium may be torch brazed in
Braze welding also is sometimes used to join dis- much the same way as steel. This procedure
similar metals that cannot be joined by fusion weld- requires the material to be completely clean with no
ing. Braze welding also can join metals where the oxides on the surface. Apply fresh
flux to the
4-72 Aircraft Welding
surface, and then use a soft, neutral flame to heat tional oxides until the joint is covered with the sol-
the material until the flux melts. As soon as the flux der. Each different type of metal to be soldered has
starts to flow, touch the rod to the material. The rod a recommended flux, which can be found in manu-
will melt and flow into the joint. Allow the joint to facturers' guides or in soldering reference hand-
cool, and scrub every trace of the flux with an acid books.
wash. Rinse away all traces of the acid with plenty
of hot water. It is especially important to thoroughly Soft solder is primarily a mixture of tin and lead. The
remove all flux from magnesium parts because it melting point varies considerably with the percent-
can cause severe corrosion. age of each. The solder is identified by two numbers,
indicating the percentage of tin followed by the per-
TORCH SOLDERING centage of lead. 40-60 solder must be heated to
Soldering is similar to brazing, using many of the 460 F to flow, while 50-50 solder flows at 420.
same techniques and devices as when making The mixture that melts at the lowest temperature has
brazed joints. Brazing materials normally melt at 63% tin and 37% lead (63-37), which flows at 361.
temperatures above 800 F, while solders melt at The most commonly used soft solder is of the 50-50
temperatures considerably lower than this. As with composition, and is sold in the form of a hollow
brazing,the oxyacetylene welding torch is some- wire with the center filled with flux. [Figure 4-22]
times used for soldering as well as brazing.
HARD SOLDERING
SOFT SOLDERING Hard and silver soldering are actually forms of braz-
While there is very little use for soldered joints in ing in which the filler material melts at a tempera-
aircraft structures, a technician may need to solder ture more than 800 F. The oxyacetylene flame
joints in an air-conditioning system or other for silver soldering should be neutral, but may have
non-structural application. a slight excess of acetylene. The flame must be soft,
not harsh. To conform to commonly accepted termi-
The basic principle of soldering is similar to that of nology in aircraft maintenance, silver brazing will
brazing in that a joint is made with a close fit be called silver soldering in this text.
between the parts. The joint is fluxed and uniformly
heated with a soft flame. The solder is melted by Stainless steel oxygen lines often have their end fit-
touching it to the metal at the edge of the joint, and tings attached by silver soldering. To do this, clean
it is pulled by capillary action into the joint. and assemble the fitting and the end of the tube.
Mix the flux with water, apply it to the joint and
Fluxes used for soldering are an important part of carefully heat it. The flux will dry as the water boils
the system. The flux dissolves any oxides that are out of it and will then begin to bubble. As it
on the surface and prevents the formation of addi- approaches the correct temperature for applying the
Figure 4-22. The melting temperature of solder depends on the tin-lead mixture and is supplied on a spool marked with an identi-
fication number. Examples of where each solder type may be used are shown in this figure with the tin/lead content, melting tem-
perature and the temperature required for each solder to flow.
Aircraft Welding 4-13
heated to the melting point of the solder. Once the diodes and other temperature-sensitive devices,
metal has been adequately heated, the solder will Once the solder has been applied, the joint must be
flow smoothly into the joint and form a solid bond held stationary until the solder has cooled and
with the metal. Care must be exercised so that heat solidified. If the part is disturbed before cooling, the
from the soldering iron does not damage adjacent solder may fracture, causing an intermittent or high-
insulation or electric circuitry. Apply heat sinks to resistance connection.
ADVANCED WELDING AND REPAIRS
STRUCTURAL REPAIRS
Most repairs requiring welding will be outlined in
detail in a structural repair manual for the part
being repaired. Some will require design and
approval for a repair. This section outlines the gen-
Figure 4-26. A dent at a cluster weld is repaired with a
eral procedures that will be employed in specific lap-joint welded patch.
4-18 Aircraft Welding
Figure 4-28. Use of a supporting inner-sleeve is one method of repairing a damaged tubular structure.
being repaired. The inside diameter of the reinforc- clamped rigidly and not allowed to expand during
ing tubes must be no greater than 1/16-inch more welding, it will, in many cases, be pulled out of
than the outside diameter of the original. Cut the alignment. In extreme cases, contraction during
ends of the tubes with a 30-degree scarf or with a cooling can break the repair by creating excessive
fish mouth. The length of the reinforcing section tension on the part. Structural repair manuals will
should be three times the diameter of the original often specify the procedures to be used in counter-
tube between the inner ends of the cuts. acting expansion and contraction.
Drill rosette holes in the sleeves before installing
them over the replacement tube. Center the splice LANDING GEAR AND ENGINE MOUNT
tubes over each end of the replacement section and REPAIRS
weld them in place. Weld both ends of one of the All welding on an engine mount should be of the
sleeves and allow the weld to cool before welding highest quality, since vibration tends to accentuate
the other sleeve in place. This will minimize the any minor defect. Repaired engine mounts must be
warpage. [Figure 4-29] checked for accurate alignment. If all members are
out of alignment, reject the engine mount and
If a cluster weld has been damaged too much to be replace it with one supplied by the manufacturer or
repaired by a patch welded over it, the entire clus- equivalent.
ter may be cut out and outer sleeves welded over the
ends of the tubing to make a new cluster. The pro- Aircraft technicians should be aware that certain
cedure is similar to that for an outer-sleeve splice. landing gear assemblies are not repairable. Only
[Figure 4-30] assemblies made from steel tubing are candidates for
welding repairs. Even some steel-tubing landing gear
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION assemblies are not suitable for repair. Use of heat
Some allowances must be made for expansion and treating on parts of the gear assembly makes welding
contraction when designing a welded repair. As a repair difficult or impossible. Consult the manufac-
part is heated to welding temperature, it naturally turer's maintenance manual prior to attempting any
expands. As it cools, it contracts. If welded repairs on aircraft landing gear assemblie.
a part is
4-20 Aircraft Welding
Figure 4-29. Another type of repair to tubular structure is with the use of an outer sleeve as reinforcement.
Aircraft Welding 4-21
Figure 4-30. An entire cluster welded joint can be replaced using techniques similar to those used for outer-sleeve splices.
BASIC GAS WELDING
ACETYLENE GAS
A heavy gas, with a disagreeable odor, acetylene
becomes unstable at pressures of 15 psi or higher.
At 30 psi, the slightest amount of heat generated by
friction of acetylene against the atmosphere will
cause it to explode. The normal operating pressure
Even though tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding is the for most acetylene welding is 4 to 8 psi.
accepted welding method for modern aircraft, you
need to understand basic gas welding before learn- Acetylene tanks are filled with Fuller's earth, a
ing these advanced techniques. This includes porous mixture with the characteristics of a sponge.
knowledge of the gases and equipment used, as well This provides hollow paths for liquid acetone to
as equipment set-up, operation and shutdown. Gas flow into the bottle. Acetone can absorb up to 25
welding, more than most aspects of airframe main- times its volume in acetylene. Because acetylene is
tenance, requires constant attention to safety prac- stored in acetone, it can be shipped in bottles
tices and proper use of safety equipment. without the danger of exploding. The quantity
of a freshly charged acetylene bottle is a volumetric
GASES measurement calculated from total weight, not psi.
To produce enough heat to melt metal, a com- However, when an acetylene bottle is connected to
bustible gas like acetylene is mixed with oxygen. a pressure gauge, it can read as high as 250 psi when
Other gases, such as propane, natural gas, fully charged. The pressure gauge is not reading
methy-lacetylene-propadiene (MAPP) gas, and acetylene but acetone pressure. It is recommended
hydrogen are used primarily for cutting or in that acetylene be released slowly from the acetone
the soldering/brazing processes. [Figure 4-31] by opening the tank valve no more than one-quarter
to one-half turn. If the acetylene tank valve is
opened too far, acetone will flow out of the bottle
into the feed line or gas hose.
OXYGEN
Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that
comprises 21 percent of the volume of the earth's
atmosphere. In welding, oxygen is used to support
EQUIPMENT
Oxyacetylene welding equipment includes regula-
tors, hoses, torches and lighters as well as personal
safety equipment like welding goggles and gloves. It
is essential to understand the operation and safety
practices for this equipment.
PRESSURE REGULATORS
Both oxygen and acetylene are supplied under a
pressure far higher than is needed at the torch. A
regulator reduces the pressure to a usable value. If
the gases are supplied from a manifold system, a
single-stage regulator is sufficient to control the Figure 4-33. A two-stage regulator controls the acetylene
pressure. However, most aircraft repair shops use gas in oxyacetylene welding. The gauges for pressures in
bottled, high-pressure gases, which require the bottle and at the torch read much lower values than
those gauges used for the oxygen gas.
two-stage regulators.
OXYGEN
The adjusting screw handle is turned counterclock-
The cylinder pressure for oxygen can be as high as
wise to close the valve. When there is no more
3,000 psi. Two-stage regulators employ one stage of
opposition from the spring, the gas flow to the torch
pressure reduction to a constant intermediate pres-
is shut off. Turning this handle clockwise opens the
sure. A final stage further drops the pressure to the
valve and regulates the pressure of the gas delivered
specific value needed for welding. Two gauges
to the torch.
show the tank pressure and the pressure at the out-
put of the regulator. This two-stage operation
ensures that the pressure delivered to the torch All approved-type regulators have a safety disc that
will not vary as the cylinder pressure drops. will rupture at a pressure below that which would
[Figure 4-32] damage the regulator. This disc is on the low-pres-
sure side of the regulator, and if the regulator should
4-24 Aircraft Welding
Figure 4-35. Equal pressure torches are used with high-pressure bottled gas.
Aircraft Welding 4-25
The mixing chamber for equal pressure torches dle as it melts. The melting of the rod helps the
screws onto the torch body, and the tubes and tips welder to control the flow of metal in the molten
screw into it. The gases flow into the mixing cham- puddle.
ber through two separate tubes, where they are thor-
oughly mixed before they are delivered to the tip. Most filler rods used for aircraft welding are copper
coated to prevent rust from forming on the surface.
While some torches utilize separate tips screwed Oxide on a filler rod is undesirable because it can
onto a single-torch tube, a combination tip and tube, cause more rapid oxidation while welding. Too
that screws directly into the mixing chamber, is many oxides within a molten puddle will result in
more common. The manufacturer usually desig- a porous weld, leading to weak spots in the joint.
nates the size of the tip. Common orifice sizes are
000, 00, 0, and 1-5, with larger tip sizes being desig- OXYACETYLENE WELDING GOGGLES
nated by larger numbers. The manufacturer usually Although the glow from the white-hot metal will not
lists the number drill size that corresponds to each cause permanent damage to the eyes, the intense
size tip. flame and molten puddle are bright enough to tem-
porarily blind a welder who looks directly at them.
INJECTOR TORCH That is why an approved pair of oxyacetylene weld-
Although not commonly used, acetylene generators ing goggles is required equipment. It is important to
require a torch that operates differently. The realize that oxyacetylene welding goggles do not
high-pressure flow of oxygen passes through a provide adequate protection for electric arc welding;
venturi-like portion of the torch creating a permanent damage to the eyes will likely occur if
low-pressure area to draw the low-pressure these oxyacetylene goggles are used for that purpose.
acetylene into the mixing chamber. [Figure 4-36]
Welding goggle lenses consist of a clear outer cover
and shaded filter glass. The inexpensive outer cover
is often damaged from weld spatter and needs to be
replaced frequently. The filter glass is identified
with a number indicating the level of eye protec-
tion. Higher numbers denote darker lenses with
more protection and lower numbers represent less
protection. For aluminum welding, a blue lens filter
normally is used, because it allows better observa-
tion of the metal surface. For steel, the filters usu-
ally are green or brown. Never substitute sunglasses
for welding goggles since they do not provide ade-
Figure 4-36. Injector torches utilize a venturi to
quate protection. [Figure 4-37]
draw acetylene into the mixing chamber.
TORCH LIGHTERS
Torches usually are lit with a flint-and-steel-type
lighter. Matches should not be used because of the
danger in carrying matches in the welding area.
Metal popped from the torch could accidentally
ignite them. Many permanently installed welding
stations have a combination torch holder and pilot
light. When the torch is hung up on the holder, both
the acetylene and oxygen are cut off, and the flame
goes out. When the torch is lifted, the gases again
flow, and a small pilot light on the fixture is used to
light the torch.
FILLER RODS
Filler rods are used to reinforce the bead and they
also serve as a heat sink. When a filler rod works as Figure 4-37. It is important to use the correct welding
a heat sink it pulls heat away from the molten pud- goggles or hood for the type of welding to be done.
4-26 Aircraft Welding
Figure 4-39. Each different metal thickness requires specific rod diameters, tip sizes, and gas pressures.
until all the heavy black smoke clears from the onto a fire brick (brick which is resistant to high
flame. Then, slowly open the oxygen valve on the heat) and begin running puddles from one side to
torch. Three distinct flames appear; a bright white the other in a forehand direction. A good puddle
cone at the orifice tip, a long white middle flame, should show a rippled penetration on the bottom
and a large feathery blue flame. As the oxygen valve side of the plate. Occasionally, you might burn a
is opened further, the flame pattern changes from hole all the way through the metal. This usually is
the heavy acetylene orange to a flame with a caused by not moving the torch fast enough or by a
whitish-blue hue. As more oxygen is added to the flame that is too hot. If the penetration is not deep
flame, the long white middle cone begins to shrink enough, it is because the torch is moved too fast or
toward the inner cone at the tip. When the middle the flame is not hot enough. [Figure 4-41]
flame becomes the same size as the white inner
cone, a neutral flame has been formed. From this
point it is a simple matter of fine-tuning the flame to
the type flame required for a particular welding
repair. [Figure 4-40]
welding torch in preparation for future welding heated to form a puddle, the filler rod tip should be
jobs. [Figure 4-42] resting within the high-heat zone. The filler rod will
draw away some of the heat used to melt the pud-
dle. This will give you more control over the molten
puddle.
Figure 4-43. Dip the filler rod into the molten puddle so as to Figure 4-44. Add filler rod into the puddle to get a crowned
add enough metal to produce a slightly crowned bead. bead with good penetration.
Use a rod of the proper diameter for the metal. For OXYACETYLENE CUTTING
1/16-inch-thick metal, a 1/16-inch diameter rod is An oxyacetylene flame can be used to cut steel with
correct. Form the puddle as before, and hold the end unrivaled ease. The cutting torch is similar to an
of the rod about 1/8-inch above the puddle and just oxyacetylene-welding torch with an additional
a little ahead of the torch. Momentarily dip the end valve that allows a stream of high-pressure oxygen
of the rod into the puddle, and enough of it will to flow directly to the work from a hole in the cen-
melt off to give the puddle a slightly crowned ter of the nozzle. Surrounding this oxygen hole is a
appearance. Continue to move the puddle across the series of pre-heating holes. [Figure 4-45]
sheet, adding rod by dipping it in as you move.
With sufficient oxygen pressure and the right size
If the rod, torch tip and metal thickness are correct, torch tip, an oxyacetylene cutting flame can be
a neutral flame should be sufficient to melt both the adjusted to cut steel over a foot thick. The cut made
puddle and the filler rod. As the metal is being by an oxyacetylene cutting torch is known as a kerf.
Aircraft Welding 4-29
Figure 4-45. An oxyacetylene cutting torch consists of a normal welding torch, with an additional orifice for high-pressure oxygen,
and a valve to control it.
A good quality cutting-torch can make as smooth a are gas inlet attachments for both oxygen and acety-
cut in the metal as a hacksaw. lene on the torch handles. The cutting torch has an
extra oxygen valve that is used to adjust the
Different gas pressures and tip sizes are required for high-pressure oxygen jet blast for cutting. Just like
cutting various thickness of metal. This data usually the regular welding torch, a cutting torch is lit with
is determined by the manufacturer of the cutting a striker, then adjusted to a neutral flame. The
instrument. For example, one manufacturer recom- adjusted neutral flame is used to preheat the metal
mends using 15 psi of oxygen, 4 psi of acetylene, to a red-hot condition before cutting. The neutral
and an oxygen jet size of a no. 72 drill to cut a flame should not shift when the jet blast of pure
1/8-inch thick sheet of steel. The same oxygen is applied. If the preheat flame shifts, turn
manufacturer recommends using 100 psi of oxygen, off the torch, clean the tip orifices with a tip cleaner,
7 psi of acetylene, and an oxygen jet size of a no. 32 then re-light the torch.
drill for cutting a piece of steel 12 inches thick.
These pressures will vary according to the make of Squeezing a lever on the torch handle activates the
the cutting instrument. You can find exact jet of high-pressure oxygen. When this pressurized
procedures on how to operate the equipment in the oxygen hits the red-hot surface of the metal, a chem-
manufacturer's manual. ical and physical reaction occurs. The oxygen accel-
erates the natural oxidation of the metal to many
When cutting thick materials, higher pressure oxy- times the normal rate. The metal disintegrates, or
gen is necessary. When oxygen pressure above 100 burns, and the resulting residual metal is blown out
psi is delivered from the torch tip, it is difficult to the bottom of the kerf. Upon examining the remains,
hold the torch in place. The high-pressure oxygen you would find ferrous oxides as evidence of this
stream makes the tip react like a jet engine, pushing oxidation.
away from the cutting surface. To assist in holding
the torch a constant distance from the material at SHUTTING DOWN THE EQUIPMENT
high pressures, a cutting torch may be mounted on Welding equipment should be shut down when not
a trolley that rolls across the metal as it is being cut. in use. Shutting off the gas equipment avoids gas
leaks and relieves pressure from the gas regulator
A cutting torch and a regular welding torch connect valves. Here is the procedure (and correct sequence)
into the oxyacetylene system the same way. There for shutting down the welding apparatus:
4-30 Aircraft Welding
1. Shut off the flame by closing the acetylene nee 6. Turn the acetylene-regulator adjusting screw to
dle valve on the torch. the left to relieve pressure on the diaphragm,
and then close the torch acetylene valve.
2. Close the oxygen needle valve on the torch.
7. Open the torch oxygen valve, drain the oxygen
3. Close the acetylene cylinder valve. hose and regulator.
4. Close the oxygen cylinder valve. 8. Turn the oxygen-regulator adjusting screw to
5. Open the acetylene valve on the torch to drain the left to relieve the diaphragm pressure. Then
the acetylene hose and regulator. This removes close the torch oxygen valve.
pressure on the regulator's 9. Hang up the torch and hose properly to prevent
working-pressure hose or torch damage.
gauges.