CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION

EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION

EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

EARTHMOVING MATERIALS AND

OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif, Asstt. Professor, NED UET

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

INTRODUCTION TO
EARTHMOVING
The Earthmoving Process
Earthmoving is the process of moving soil or rock from one
location to another and processing it so that it meets construction
requirements of location, elevation, de

Activities involved in this process

Excavating , loading, hauling, placing (dumping and spreading),
compacting, grading, and finishing

Efficient Management of this process

Accurate estimating of quantities, job conditions, proper
equipment selection, and competent job management

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 1
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

INTRODUCTION TO
EARTHMOVING
Equipment Selection
The choice of equipment to be used on a construction
project has a major influence on the efficiency and
profitability of the construction operation.
Factors for Equipment Selection
Availability, future use of equipment, availability of
parts and service, effect of equipment downtime on
other operations

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

INTRODUCTION TO
EARTHMOVING
Production of Earthmoving Equipment
The basic relationship for estimating the production of all earthmoving
equipment is as follows:

Production = Volume per cycle X Cycles per hour

Volume per cycle is average volume of material moved per equipment
cycle
Nominal capacity of the excavator or haul unit must be modified by an
appropriate fill factor based on the type of material and equipment
involved
Cycle per hour must include efficiency factors to represent actual number
of cycles achieved per hour
Cost per unit of production = Equipment cost per hour
Equipment production per hour

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 2
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

INTRODUCTION TO
EARTHMOVING
Job Efficiency (Two Approaches)
Number of effective working minutes per hour divided by 60
Multiply the number of theoretical cycles per 60-min by numerical
efficiency factor

Job efficiency factors for earthmoving operations (From TM 5-331B, U.S.

Department of the Army)

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

EARTHMOVING MATERIALS

Soil and Rock

General Soil Characteristics
Trafficability
Function of soil type and moisture condition
Usually expressed qualitatively although devices for quantitative
measurements are available
Poor trafficability conditions may require drainage, stabilization of
haul routes, use of low-ground-pressure construction equipment
Loadability
Measure of difficulty in excavating and loading a soil
Loose granular soils-high loadability
Compacted cohesive soils-low loadability

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 3
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

EARTHMOVING MATERIALS

General Soil Characteristics

Unit weight
Expressed in lbs/cu.yd. or Kg/cu.m.
Depends on soil type, moisture content, degree of compaction
Relationship between unit weight and bearing capacity so, soil unit
weight is also used as measure of compaction
Moisture content
Moisture Content (%) = Moist weight-Dry weight X 100
Dry Weight
Example Problem 2-1: A soil sample weighed 120 lb (54.4 kg) in the
natural state and 100 lb (43.5 kg) after drying. Determine the moisture
content.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND

CLASSIFICATION
Soil is considered to consist of five fundamental material
types:
Gravel
Diameter greater than 1/4 in. and less than 3 in. (6 mm to 76 mm)
Larger than 3 in. are called cobbles or boulders
Sand
Smaller than gravel larger than 0.7 mm (200 Sieve)
Silt
Pass No. 200 Sieve but larger than 0.002 mm.
Clay
Particles less than 0.002 mm in diameter
Organic material
Partially decomposed vegetable material
Peat is a highly organic soil having fibrous texture (dark color, odor, spongy feeling)

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 4
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND

CLASSIFICATION
Soil Classification Systems
Two principal soil classification systems.
Unified System
AASHTO [American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND

CLASSIFICATION
Soil Classification Systems
Remove all particles over 3 in.
Separate smallest particles that can be seen by naked eye
If more than 50% by weight is larger than no. 200 it is coarse grained soil
Coarse particles are divided into particles larger than and smaller than
in. (6 mm)
If > 50% of coarse fraction (by weight) is > in. then soil is gravel
otherwise sand.
If < 10% by weight of total sample is smaller than No. 200 sieve, second
letter is assigned based on grain size distribution (W or P)
If > 10% by weight of total sample is smaller than No. 200 sieve, second
classification letter is based on plasticity of fines (L or H)

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 5
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND

CLASSIFICATION

Unified system of soil classificationfield identification

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND

CLASSIFICATION
If sample is fine-grained (more than 50% by weigh smaller than No. 200 sieve),
classification is based on dry strength and shaking tests of material smaller than 1/64
in. in diameter
Dry Strength Test
Mold a sample into golf ball size (putty consistency)
Allow sample to dry
Use thumb or forefinger of both hands to break sample
If not broken-highly plastic
If sample breaks, attempt to powder it by rubbing it b/w thumb and forefinger
If sample is difficult to break and powder-medium plasticity
If sample easily breaks and powders-low plasticity
Shaking Test
Form a ball of in dia.
Add water until sample doesn't stick to fingers as it is molded
Put sample in palm of hands and shake vigorously
Observe speed with which water comes out at the surface of the sample to produce
shinny surface
A rapid reaction indicates noplastic silt

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 6
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND

CLASSIFICATION
Construction Characteristics of Soils

Construction characteristics of soils (Unified System)

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE
CHARACTERISTICS
Soil Conditions
Bank: Material in its natural state before disturbance.
Often referred to as in-place or in situ.A unit volume
is identified as a bank cubic yard (BCY) or a bank
cubic meter (BCM).
Loose: Material that has been excavated or loaded. A
unit volume is identified as a loose cubic yard (LCY) or
loose cubic meter (LCM).
Compacted: Material after compaction. A unit volume
is identified as a compacted cubic yard (CCY) or
compacted cubic meter (CCM).

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 7
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE
CHARACTERISTICS
Swell
Shrinkage
Load and Shrinkage Factors

Typical soil volume change during earthmoving.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE
CHARACTERISTICS

Typical soil weight and volume change characteristics*

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 8
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

SPOIL BANKS

When planning and estimating earthwork, it

is frequently necessary to determine the
size of the pile of material that will be
created by the material removed from the
excavation.
If the pile of material is long in relation to its
width, it is referred to as a spoil bank.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

SPOIL BANKS

Typical values of angle of repose of excavated soil

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 9
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

SPOIL BANKS

Triangular Spoil Bank

Conical Spoil Pile

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Swell

Soil increases in volume when it is excavated

Soil grains are loosened during excavation
Air fills the void spaces created
Unit volume of soil in the bank condition will
occupy more than one unit volume after
excavation.
This phenomenon is called Swell.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 10
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Examples

Example 2-2 Swell %

Find the swell of a soil that weighs 2800 lb/cu yd (1661
Kg/m3) in its natural state and 2000 lb/cu yd (1186 Kg/m3)
after excavation

Swell (%) = Weight/bank volume 1 X 100

Weight/loose volume

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Shrinkage

Soil is compacted
Some air is forced out of the void spaces
Soil occupies less volume than loose or bank
condition
The phenomenon is reverse of Swell
Its called shrinkage

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 11
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Examples

Example 2-3 Shrinkage %

Find the shrinkage of a soil that weighs 2800 lb/cu yd
(1661 Kg/m3) in its natural state and 3500 lb/cu yd (2077
Kg/m3) after compaction.

Shrinkage (%) = 1 - Weight/bank volume X 100

Weight/compacted volume

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Load and Shrinkage Factors

Loose volume to bank volume conversion factor is load factor

Load factor = weight/loose unit volume
weight/bank unit volume
Load factor = 1/(1 + swell%)
weight/bank unit volume
Bank Volume to Compacted Volume conversion factor is Shrinkage
Factor

Shrinkage factor = weight/bank unit volume

weight/compacted unit volume
Shrinkage = 1-shrinkage%

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 12
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Examples

Example 2-4 and 2-5 discussed in class.

Refer to your class notes.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

CONSTRUCTION USE OF THE

MASS DIAGRAM
Mass Diagram is continuous curve representing accumulated
volume of earthwork plotted against linear profile of roadway
Characteristics of a Mass Diagram
Cumulative earthwork volume
Cut
Fill
Point of change from cut to fill
Point of change from fill to cut
Balance line
Using the Mass Diagram
Length and direction of haul for a balanced section
The average length of haul for a balanced section
Location and amount of borrow (material hauled in from borrow pit) and
waste (material hauled away to a waste area) for the project

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 13
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Characteristics of a Mass Diagram

Peak = Cut to Fill

Cut

Valley = Fill to Cut

Fill

Balance Line

Cumulative Earthwork Volume

A mass diagram.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

CONSTRUCTION USE OF THE MASS

DIAGRAM-Example Problem
Problem Solution was discussed in Class. Refer to your class notes

Construction use of a mass diagram.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 14
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

ESTIMATING EARTHWORK
VOLUME
When planning or estimating an earthmoving project, it is
often necessary to estimate the volume of material to be
excavated or placed as fill.
The procedures to be followed can be divided into three
principal categories:
(1) pit excavations (small, relatively deep excavations such as
those required for basements and foundations)
(2) trench excavation for utility lines
(3) excavating or grading relatively large areas
Procedures suggested for each of these three cases are
described in the following sections.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

ESTIMATING EARTHWORK
VOLUME
Pit Excavations
Trench Excavations
Large Areas

FIGURE 2-3. Figure for Example 2-6.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 15
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

ESTIMATING EARTHWORK
VOLUME

FIGURE 2-4. Figure for Example 2-8.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

CONSTRUCTION USE OF THE

MASS DIAGRAM

Cut = 75-(-75) + 50-(-50) = 150

+ 100 = 250 X 103 BCY
75

75

FIGURE 2-6. Construction use of a mass diagram.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 16
CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

CONSTRUCTION USE OF THE

MASS DIAGRAM

Fill= (0-(-80)) + 60-(-60) + (50-(-50)) = 80

60
+ 120 + 100= 300 X 103 BCY

60
80

Construction use of a mass diagram.

CN-424 -HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS

Dr. Farrukh Arif

Dr. Farrukh Arif

NED UET-Civil Engineering 17