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Book title: Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens: From Initial Inversion to Full Accretion

Author: P. Baby et al.
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1 Q1 Thick-skinned tectonics in the Oriente foreland basin of Ecuador
2
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4 P. BABY1,2,3*, M. RIVADENEIRA4, R. BARRAGAN5 & F. CHRISTOPHOUL1,2,3
5 1
IRD, Geosciences Environnement Toulouse (GET), 31400 Toulouse, France
6 2
7 Universite de Toulouse, UPS (OMP), GET, 14 avenue Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France
8 3
CNRS, GET, 31400 Toulouse, France
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4
10 EP PETROECUADOR, Alpallana E8-86 y Av. 6 de diciembre, Quito, Ecuador
11 5
12 HESS Corporation, Suite 9.02, Level 9, Menara Tan & Tan, 207 Jalan Tun Razak,
13 50400 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
14
15
*Corresponding author (e-mail: patrice.baby@ird.fr)
16
17 Abstract: The Oriente Basin is part of the retro-arc foreland basin system that developed in the
18 zone of transition between the Central Andes and the Northern Andes since Late Cretaceous
19 times. It is deformed by thick-skinned tectonics related to the inversion of pre-Cretaceous exten-
20 Q2 sional fault systems, which have broken the basin into three tectonic domains during three mean
21 periods of inversion (Late Cretaceous Palaeocene, Early Eocene and Miocene). The northern
22 part of the present-day Sub-Andean wedge-top corresponded, during the Late Cretaceous, to the
23 forebulge depozone. The NNE SSW SachaShushufindi Corridor (SSC) extends from the north-
24 ern region of the Oriente foredeep to the Sub-Andean Cutucu Cordillera. It results from inversion of
the Late TriassicEarly Jurassic rifting. The eastern Capiron Tiputini Inverted System (CTIS)
25
results from the inversion of the normal faults of the Late Jurassic back-arc basin. The Ish-
26 pingoTambococha Tiputini (ITT) trend is located in the present-day forebulge depozone of
27 the basin. This position presents favourable conditions for oil biodegradation. Source rocks
28 throughout the Oriente Basin are immature or poorly mature. A large part of oil accumulations
29 must be explained by long-distance migration from the west, before the Eocene uplift of the
30 Q3 Cordillera Real, or from the south.
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32 Supplementary material: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP00000.
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36 The south north structural evolution of the Andean (Dashwood & Abbots 1990; Balkwill et al. 1995)
37 retro-arc foreland basin reflects the complexity of but not fully analysed.
38 the orogenic front that propagates on a hetero- The Oriente Basin hosts around 30 billion bar-
39 geneous substratum inherited from pre-Andean rels of oil (BBO) trapped in 100 fields (Rivadeneira
40 palaeogeographies. This latitudinal evolution shows & Baby 2004) and, thus, can be considered as one of
41 a progressive transformation from thin-skinned the most prolific petroleum Sub-Andean basins. The
42 deformation in the Central Andes to thick-skinned origin of this oil is little known because the in situ
43 deformation in the Northern Andes (Kley et al. source rocks of the Oriente Basin are immature or
44 1999; Gil et al. 2001). The Oriente foreland basin poorly mature. A well-constrained tectonic model
45 of Ecuador occupies a key position at the hinge for the Oriente Basin is essential to better under-
46 of the Central and Northern Andes, where the stand its petroleum system development.
47 origins of this transformation can be analysed. The The present study provides an updated structural
48 Oriente Basin belongs to the large present-day and kinematic model of the Oriente foreland system
49 MaranonOriente Putumayo foreland system and supported by an integrated tectonic analysis carried
50 oil province known as MOP (Marksteiner & out as part of the IRDPetroproduccion research
51 Aleman 1997), which developed from southern agreement between 1995 and 2001. We propose
52 Colombia to northern Peru, between the Pre- a new thick-skinned pattern of the Oriente Basin
53 Cambrian Brazilian Guyana basement shield to superimposed on a complex rift system reactivated
54 the east and the eastern Andean orogenic wedge to during four periods of tectonic inversion. We
55 the west (Fig. 1). It is deformed by thick-skinned replace the Oriente Basin evolution in the Andean
56 tectonics related to the inversion of pre-Cretaceous geodynamic context, especially in regard with the
57 complex extensional fault systems, whose effects eastwards propagation of the retro-arc basin sys-
58 on basin structuring have previously been discussed tem since Late Cretaceous times. Finally, we

From: Nemcok, M., Mora, A. R. & Cosgrove, J. W. (eds) 2013. Thick-Skin-Dominated Orogens: From Initial
Inversion to Full Accretion. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 377,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP377.1 # The Geological Society of London 2013. Publishing disclaimer:
www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
 P. BABY ET AL.

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102 Fig. 1. (a) Location map of the MaranonOrientePutumayo (MOP) Andean retro-arc foreland basin system
103 (GTOPO30 DEM). (b) Structural cross-section (A A ) across the Ecuadorian Andes and associated retro-arc foreland
basin. The black dashed line on the map (a) shows the location of the structural cross-section AA . DGM, Dolores
104 Guyaquil Megashear. Bubbles on the cross-section represent seismicity events (Mb . 4.0) from Gutscher et al. (1999).
105 The black square indicates the study area shown in Figure 2.
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108 discuss the implications of our tectonic model volcanic and seismic activity (Hall 1977; Yepes
109 for the petroleum system development, and try to et al. 1996; Legrand et al. 2005). They correspond
110 explain the presence of giant oil accumulations in to a zone of transition between the SSE NNW-
111 the Oriente Basin. oriented Central Andes and the SSW NNE North-
112 ern Andes, where the subducting Nazca Plate
113 evolves from flat-slab subduction in Peru to dip-
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Tectonic setting ping and oblique subduction in Colombia (Gutscher
115 The Ecuadorian Andes are currently subjected to et al. 1999). This part of the Andes is also affected
116 intense crustal deformation, exhibiting high by the subduction of the oceanic Carnegie Ridge,
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150 Fig. 2. Geomorphic and structural map of the Oriente foreland basin (SRTM DEM) with known structures and
151 associated oil fields. The white dashed lines show the location of the three structural cross-sections of Figure 4. C, T, B,
152 U, A, M2 and M1 correspond to informal names but commonly used of sandstone and limestone key horizons in the
153 Napo Formation of the Oriente Basin (Tschopp, 1953; Canfield et al. 1982; Dashwood & Abbots 1990; White et al.
154 1995; Barragan et al. 2004).
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157 whose effects have been intensely discussed escaping (a term used by Egbue & Kellogg
158 (Gutscher et al. 1999; Guillier et al. 2001; 2010) to the NE relative to stable South America
159 Bourdon et al. 2003; Michaud et al. 2009; Egbue at a rate of 6 + 2 mm a21 (CASA measurements:
160 & Kellogg 2010). The Ecuadorian Andean moun- Egbue & Kellogg 2010). This escape is interpreted
161 tain belt is the narrowest part of the chain, and as the consequence of the oblique subduction of
162 presents a double-wedge thrusting geometry (Fig. the Carnegie Ridge, which resulted in increased
163 1b). Deformation in the Interandean zone is dri- coupling with the overriding South American
164 ven by the dextral transpressive Dolores Guyaquil Plate (Lonsdale 1978; Gutscher et al. 1999; Tren-
165 Megashear (DGM) zone (Winter et al. 1993; kamp et al. 2002; Michaud et al. 2009; Egbue &
166 Deniaud et al. 1999; Trenkamp et al. 2002), which Kellogg 2010). East of the DGM, the orogenic
167 marks the frontier between the two opposite oro- wedge forms an east-verging thrust system invol-
168 genic wedges. West of the DGM, the west-vergent ving the South American continental margin. It
169 wedge corresponds to the Ecuadorian coastal deforms and supplies sediments to the adjacent
170 domain of oceanic substratum accreted to the Oriente foreland basin system, which comprises
171 South American continental margin during Cretac- the Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt (wedge-top
172 eous and Palaeogene times (Aspden & Litherland depozone) and a weakly deformed Amazonian fore-
173 1992; Jaillard et al. 2009). It forms the southern deep limited to the east by the Tiputini thrust fault
174 extremity of the Northern Andean block, which is (Fig. 2). The Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt
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175 comprises the Napo Uplift in the north and the grabens or half-grabens are partially or totally
176 Cutucu Cordillera in the south, both of which eroded below the pre-Albian unconformity. At this
177 consist of large and high folded structures limited latitude, the Andean retro-arc foreland basin onset
178 by steeply dipping thrust faults. These two thrust- coincided with the beginning of the westwards
179 related antiformal culminations are separated by shift of the South American Plate that was initiated
180 the Pastaza Depression, where the apex of the Plio- by the opening the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean
181 cenePleistocene Pastaza megafan is located (Bes (119 105 Ma) (Fairhead 1988). The Albian Q4
182 de Berc et al. 2005), extending into the southern Campanian foreland deposits (HollinNapo mega-
183 part of the Oriente Basin (Fig. 2). The Sub-Andean sequence) are characterized by cyclic sequences of
184 thrusts are very active today, as shown by numerous sandstones, limestones and organic-rich shales
185 and important recent earthquakes (Yepes et al. (Dashwood & Abbotts 1990; White et al. 1995; Bar-
186 1996; Legrand et al. 2005). Furthermore, three ragan et al. 2004). Their deposition and distribution
187 active volcanoes are located in the Sub-Andean on a relative stable platform along a NW SE
188 zone (Hall 1977; Barragan et al. 1998). In the Ama- depocentre were controlled by worldwide eustatic
189 zonian lowland, the Oriente foredeep is weakly sea-level fluctuations and tectonic loading of
190 deformed by NNESSW trends of en echelon the incipient and distant Andean orogenic wedge.
191 reverse faults, which controlled the structuring of The major influxes of sands were derived from the
192 the major oil fields of the basin (Fig. 2). Amazon craton (Ruiz et al. 2007). This first Cretac-
193 eous megasequence was probably deposited in the
194 backbulge and forebulge depozones of the retro-arc
195 Stratigraphy and geological background foreland basin system. The MaastrichtianPalaeo-
196 cene fine-grained red beds of the Tena Formation
197 The Oriente Basin preserves a sedimentary succes- unconformably overlie the Napo sequence and
198 sion, ranging in age from Palaeozoic to Quaternary, show an important evolution of the Oriente fore-
199 which overlies Precambrian cratonic basement land basin. The Tena infill presents a typical fore-
200 (Tschopp 1953). The stratigraphic column (Fig. 3) land wedge profile, with pinch-out towards the
201 can be divided into a pre-Cretaceous series, uncon- east. Its fine-grained red beds were deposited prob-
202 formably overlain by shallow-marine to continental ably in a predominant fluvial environment of distal
203 Cretaceous and Cenozoic foreland deposits. foredeep depozone. It recorded a sudden eastwards
204 The pre-Cretaceous series comprises Palaeozoic propagation of the Andean orogenic wedge consist-
205 marine sediments preserved in Mesozoic grabens ent with the exhumation of the Cordillera Real (65
206 or half-grabens, Late Triassic and Early Jurassic 55 Ma), evidenced by Spikings et al. (2000) using
207 marine to continental rift deposits (Santiago Forma- thermochronology (zircon fission track). Moreover,
208 tion), and Middle Late Jurassic back-arc continen- Ruiz et al. (2004) showed that the Tena Formation
209 tal and shallow-marine volcaniclastic sediments deposits were derived from the Cordillera Real.
210 (Chapiza and Tambococha formations) (Diaz et al. The Eocene Tiyuyacu Formation is separated
211 2004). The Late Triassic Early Jurassic rifting was from the Tena red beds by a major regional ero-
212 induced by the break-up of Pangaea (Jaillard et al. sive unconformity. Above this unconformity, the
213 1995). It was followed by a MiddleLate Jurassic coarse fluvial sedimentation and the increase of
214 back-arc extensional regime related to the onset sedimentation rate of the Lower Tiyuyacu Mem-
215 of the Farallon Plate subduction beneath South ber (Christophoul et al. 2002a) recorded a new
216 America and the associated activity of the Misa- period in the eastwards propagation of the foreland
217 hualliColan volcanic arc (Aspden et al. 1987; basin system. The Lower Tiyuyacu Member strata
218 Romeuf et al. 1997). Between 130 and 120 Ma, a were apparently deposited in the proximal foredeep
219 major change in the geodynamic setting occurred depozone. They are capped by a new major erosive
220 with subduction and active arc magmatism ceas- planed surface, overlaid by the Middle Eocene
221 ing, interpreted as the result of the accretion of Early Oligocene second-order sequence defined by
222 allochtonous terranes onto the Ecuadorian and Christophoul et al. (2002a), and comprising the
223 Colombian margin (Aspden & Litherland 1992; coarse fluvial Upper Member of the Tiyuyacu For-
224 Barragan et al. 2005; Jaillard et al. 2009). mation, the transgressive Orteguaza Formation and
225 After a period of sedimentary hiatus, the Andean the fine-grained fluvial deposits of the Chalcana
226 retro-arc foreland basin started to develop. In the Formation (Fig. 3). This erosive base can be inter-
227 Oriente Basin, the first foreland deposits correspond preted as the expression of the beginning of an iso-
228 to the transgressive sandstones of the Hollin For- static rebound due to the rapid exhumation of the
229 mation (Albian) overlying a major and spectacu- Cordillera Real evidenced by Spikings et al.
230 lar erosional planed surface described also in the (2000) during this period (43 30 Ma). This rapid
231 Maranon and Putumayo basins (Marksteiner & exhumation is also supported by apatite fission-
232 Aleman 1997). Subsurface data show that Mesozoic track analysis in the Cutucu Cordillera (Marksteiner
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281 Fig. 3. Stratigraphic column of the Oriente Basin with tectonic events, associated magmatism and petroleum
282 systems (modified from Baby et al. 2004 and Barragan et al. 2005).
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285 & Aleman 1997), where the Middle Eocene erosive et al. 1998; Catuneanu 2004). The Neogene infill
286 surface is clearly visible on its eastern flank. The of the Oriente foreland basin recorded increasing
287 Upper Tiyuyacu Orteguaza Chalcana second- sedimentation rates contemporaneous with a new
288 order sequence recorded this progressive orogenic rapid exhumation of the Cordillera Real, indicative
289 unloading in a new configuration of the Oriente of a new ongoing tectonic loading and eastwards
290 foreland basin (foresag depozone, after Catuneanu propagation of the retro-arc foreland basin system
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310 Fig. 4. Structural cross-sections across the Oriente foreland basin system. The cross-sections are located on the
311 maps of Figures 2 and 5. The three tectonic domains, defined from structural style and pre-Cretaceous inheritance and
312 discussed in the text, are differentiated (SFTB, SSC and CTIS). Cross-section A is the most representative of the
313 northern prolific part of the Oriente Basin. In cross-section B, the SSC is poorly constrained by subsurface data.
314 In cross-section C, we have located the Mw 7.0 main shock of the 1996 Macas earthquake (Legrand et al. 2005).
315 No subsurface data are available in the eastern part.
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318 (Roddaz et al. 2010). The Neogene infill com- The Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt (SFTB)
319 prises thick non-marine deposits (the Arajuno
320 and Chambira formations) passing eastwards to In the NW part of the Oriente Basin, the Sub-
321 shallow-marine or lacustrine deposits (the Curaray Andean zone is uplifted by east-verging thrusts
322 Formation) (Christophoul et al. 2002b). It is involving the Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimen-
323 capped by the modern Pastaza alluvial megafan, tary cover and its basement composed mostly of
324 which extends from the Pastaza Depression to granites and/or the Upper Jurassic Misahualli
325 the southern Maranon Basin (Bes de Berc et al. Chapiza andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic units.
326 2005). Regional cross-section A in Figure 4 is the most
327 representative of the northern SFTB, which com-
328 prises the Napo Uplift and its eastern frontal blind
329 Structural analysis and tectonic domains thrust structures. The Napo Uplift corresponds to a
330 complex antiformal culmination related to a deep
331 The construction of regional cross-sections (Fig. 4) mega-thrust system characterized by weak short-
332 from abundant seismic profiles and wells pro- ening, and a consequent vertical displacement
333 vided by Petroecuador, and surface data in Sub- responsible for the important seismic activity and
334 Andean areas, permitted us to define three tectonic landscape instability of this region (Espinosa et al.
335 domains (Fig. 5). The Oriente Basin is deformed 1999). This antiformal culmination hosts three
336 by a thick-skinned thrust system, which developed active volcanoes (Sumaco, Pan de Azucar and
337 from the Cordillera Real to the eastern Tiputini Reventador), which constitute the only Sub-Andean
338 thrust fault. This deep thrust system is interpreted volcanoes of the chain. The Sumaco Volcano shows
339 as being connected to an intrabasement detachment strong compositional variations, which reflect the
340 zone (Balkwill et al. 1995) plunging below the Sub- complexity of the Ecuadorian subduction zone
341 Andean zone and the Cordillera Real. The three (Barragan et al. 1998). The Cretaceous reservoirs
342 tectonic domains described below are currently overlying the Jurassic volcanic Misahualli For-
343 incorporated into a large orogenic thrust wedge mation host the Bermejo oil field (Lee et al. 2004)
344 (Fig. 4). As shown by previous work (Dashwood at the northern closure of the Napo Uplift, and
345 & Abbots 1990; Balkwill et al. 1995; Barragan the giant Pungarayacu heavy-oil field (Rivadeneira
346 et al. 2004), they result from a complex basement & Baby 2004) at its southern closure (see Fig.
347 structural inheritance reactivated during various 2). To the south, in the Pastaza Depression, the
348 period of deformation. Napo Uplift disappears and the shortening is
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385 Fig. 5. Map of the tectonic domains of the Oriente foreland basin defined by structural style and pre-Cretaceous
386 inheritance. Principal oil fields are represented. The southern part is less constrained by subsurface data. The black
dashed lines locate the three structural cross-sections of Figure 4. The locations of the seismic sections of Figures 6 11
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391 concentrated in the transition zone of the Abitagua The Sacha Shushufindi Corridor (SSC)
392 Granite between the Cordillera Real and the
393 Sub-Andean FTB. At this latitude, the Sub-Andean The Sacha Shushufindi Corridor extends from the
394 front corresponds to the Autapi thrust-related northern prolific region of the Oriente Basin to
395 fold, also characterized by weak shortening and the Sub-Andean Cutucu Cordillera (Fig. 5), where
396 a relatively important vertical displacement. In the Santiago Late Triassic Lower Jurassic syn-
397 the southern Oriente Basin, the Sub-Andean FTB rifting succession emerges (Gaibor et al. 2008). To
398 is represented by the Cutucu Cordillera, whose the north, the SSC is located in the deepest part of
399 structural complexity due to the inversion of the the Oriente foredeep and corresponds to the less
400 Upper Triassic Lower Jurassic rift (see below) is deformed domain. It hosts the giant Sacha and
401 illustrated by cross-section C of Figure 4. The Sub- Shushufindi oil fields (Canfield et al. 1982; Rivade-
402 Andean thrusts of the Cutucu Cordillera are par- neira & Baby 2004), which correspond to low relief
403 ticularly active and produce intense seismicity, but large northsouth-oriented anticlines linked
404 as shown by the 1995 Macas (Mw 7.0) seismic to regional basement reverse faults (Balkwill
405 event (Legrand et al. 2005) (see Fig. 4c for et al. 1995). In the seismic profile of the Figure 6,
406 location). the Sacha Shushufindi Corridor is deformed by
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435 Fig. 6 Reflection seismic section crossing the inverted Late TriassicEarly Jurassic rift system of the
SachaShushufindi Corridor (modified from Diaz et al. 2004). For the location, see Figure 5. The Sacha Profundo
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pre-Cretaceous inverted structure illustrates the first period of inversion in the Oriente Basin (135 125 Ma).
437 TWT, two-way time.
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440 NNESSW inverted pre-Cretaceous high-angle This peculiar magmatism is interpreted as being
441 normal faults inherited from the Late Triassic the result of the roll-back of the relict Jurassic slab
442 Lower Jurassic rifting, as confirmed by the Sacha material in response to the accretion of allochtho-
443 Profundo well that reached the sedimentary infill nous terranes onto the Ecuadorian and Colombian
444 of the rift and its Palaeozoic sedimentary substratum margin in the latest Jurassicearliest Cretaceous
445 (Diaz et al. 2004; Suarez & Ordonez 2007). Here, (Barragan et al. 2005).
446 the syn-rifting succession has a continental facies At the latitude of the Pastaza Depression (Fig. 5),
447 and was defined as the Late Triassic Early Jurassic the available subsurface data did not permit pre-
448 Sacha Formation by Rivadeneira & Sanchez (1989). cise constraint of the geometry of the SSC but the
449 The Shushufindi zone shows an en echelon pattern structural pattern appears to be quite similar to
450 of faults and associated large folds compatible that of the Sacha Shushufindi area. The Villano
451 with a dextral transpressive tectonics (Vega 1998). oil field is also an inverted structure inherited from
452 At a regional scale (Fig. 4a), this part of the SSC the Late Triassic earlier Jurassic rifting. Further
453 does not show recent deformations and is trans- South, the Sub-Andean Cutucu Cordillera corre-
454 ported passively on the intrabasement detachment. sponds to the emergence of the SSC (Fig. 4c), trans-
455 The northern part of the SSC is also characterized ported and uplifted onto the Sub-Andean deep thrust
456 by the presence of volcanic bodies (Fig. 7) resulting system. The core of this complex antiformal struc-
457 from Cretaceous (Albian Campanian) alkaline ture is comprised of the Pumbuiza and Macuma
458 intraplate magmatism in the Oriente Basin (Barra- Palaeozoic series (Tschopp 1953), and the syn-
459 gan et al. 2005). Reflection seismic data (Fig. 7) rifting Santiago Formation, which, in this part of
460 show that the location and occurrence of these the basin, hosts good source rock levels (Gaibor
461 alkaline eruptive sites were controlled by the pre- et al. 2008). The Mesozoic normal faults are
462 existing NNE SSW Triassic and Jurassic rifts. weakly inverted, transported and uplifted onto the
463 They are associated with inverted or non-inverted Sub-Andean deep thrusts, which connect on the
464 normal faults of the SCC (Barragan et al. 2005). intrabasement detachment apparently responsible
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483 Fig 7. Reflection seismic section showing the Jaguar extrusive structure (tuff cone) and the structural control of the
484 pre-existing Late TriassicEarly Jurassic rifting on the emplacement of this alkaline eruptive site. This tuff cone
485 developed in the TuronianCenomanian Upper Napo Formation. For the location, see Figure 5. TWT, two-way time.
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for the 1995 Macas seismic event (Legrand et al. heavy-oil field in Ecuador after Pungarayacu. The
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2005) (Fig. 4c). At this latitude, the foredeep is difference in structural style between the CTIS
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unexplored and its geometry is poorly constrained, and the SSC is obvious (Fig. 4), and can be
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but subsurface data show that it corresponds to the explained by the difference in the extensional struc-
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deepest part of the Oriente Basin (Marksteiner & tural pattern inheritance. The SSC results from
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Aleman 1997). the inversion of the Late Triassic Early Jurassic
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Globally, structural analysis shows that the SSC rifting, whereas the CTIS corresponds to the inver-
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is inherited from the Late Triassic Early Jurassic sion of the Middle Late Jurassic extensional
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rifting, which explains its NNE SSW structural back-arc basin.
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trend slightly oblique to the Andean chain.
497
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499 Inversion kinematics
The Capiron Tiputini Inverted System (CTIS)
500 Pre-Albian inversion
501 The eastern tectonic domain of the Oriente Basin is
502 horizontally shortened and vertically extruded The Hollin Formation lies on a spectacular erosional
503 (Fig. 4). It is limited by north south- and NNE planed surface known in all the MOP (Maranon
504 SSW-oriented opposite verging thrusts (the Cap- Oriente Putumayo) foreland basin (Tschopp 1953;
505 iron and Tiputini faults), which correspond to the Canfield et al. 1982; Dashwood & Abbotts 1990;
506 inversion of listric normal faults connected to White et al. 1995; Marksteiner & Aleman 1997). Q5
507 the intrabasement detachment described by Balk- This erosional surface developed not only on
508 will et al. (1995) and illustrated by the seismic deformed older rocks of megastructures, such as
509 section of Figure 8. The Tiputini inverted half- the Aguarico or Cononaco structural arches (Dash-
510 graben (Fig. 9) is the most representative of the wood & Abbotts 1990), but also on inverted
511 inherited extensional structures of the CTIS. In the grabens as in the SSC. The Sacha Profundo seis-
512 southern extension of the Tiputini half-graben, mic section (Fig. 6) clearly shows contractional
513 syn-extensional sedimentary infill was reached by deformation prior to the Hollin deposits due to a first
514 the Tambococha-1 well that showed the presence inversion of the Late Triassic Early Jurassic rift.
515 of shallow-marine deposits of Late Jurassic The younger strata involved in this contractional
516 Neocomian age (Diaz et al. 2004; Suarez & structure are believed to be the Chapiza Forma-
517 Ordonez 2007). These deposits are equivalent to tion, Middle JurassicValanginian in age (Suarez
518 the more western continental Chapiza Formation. & Ordonez 2007). Apparently, this first rift inver-
519 The famous ITT (IshpingoTambococha Tiputini) sion event previously described in the Oriente
520 trend, in the eastern border of the CTIS, hosts Basin by Balkwill et al. (1995) and in the Solimoes
521 around 3.4 billion barrels (Rivadeneira & Baby Basin of western Brazil (Caputo 1991; de Matos &
522 2004) and constitutes the second-largest giant Brown 1992) occurred between the Valanginian
 P. BABY ET AL.

523
524
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545 Colour
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549
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554 Fig. 8. Reflection seismic section showing the half-grabens system of the Capiron Tiputini Inverted System connected
555 to an intrabasement decollement (modified from Diaz et al. 2004). This intrabasement decollement was reactivated
556 during the Oriente foreland basin propagation. For the location, see Figure 5. TWT, two-way time.
557
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562
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569 Colour
570 online/
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573
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578 Fig. 9. Reflection seismic section crossing the inverted Late Jurassic Neocomian half-graben of the CapironTiputini
579 Inverted System. For the location, see Figure 5. The inverted Tiputini Fault constitutes the current frontal thrust
580 of the Oriente thrust system (see also the maps in Figs 1 & 2, and the cross-section in Fig. 4a). TWT, two-way time.
 ORIENTE THICK-SKINNED TECTONICS

581 and the Albian, and was contemporaneous with the et al. 2004). In the CTIS, the late Cretaceous inver-
582 pre-Hollin erosion period. It was probably induced sion is difficult to observe, and is commonly
583 by the latest Jurassic earliest Cretaceous oblique obscured by more recent deformations. In the Sub-
584 accretion of oceanic and continental exotic terranes Andean FTB, Dashwood & Abbots (1990) men-
585 onto the Ecuadorian and Colombian margin tioned a pre-Maastrichtian uplift of the Napo
586 (Aspden & Litherland 1992; Jaillard et al. 2009), Uplift recorded by a progressive westward trunca-
587 which stopped the Jurassic subduction and marked tion of the Napo sediment fill. In the Pastaza
588 the end of the associated extensional back-arc Depression, the first uplift of the Sub-Andean
589 basin (Barragan et al. 2005). However, it can also Mirador anticline is sealed by growth strata in the
590 be related to the initial opening of the South Atlantic Upper Napo shales below the Basal Tena erosional
591 Ocean, which occurred between 125 and 135 Ma surface (Barragan et al. 2004). All of these obser-
592 (Larson & Ladd 1973), and probably provoked a vations seem to show that this second contractional
593 westwards motion of the South American Plate. event occurred between the Turonian and the Maas-
594 trichtian. It is contemporaneous with the Cretaceous
595 Late Cretaceous inversion alkaline intraplate magmatism of the Oriente Basin
596 (Barragan et al. 2005) restricted to the SSC, where
597 The Late Cretaceous inversion is particularly visible the Cretaceous volcanic bodies are associated
598 in the SSC, where it has been described by various with inverted or non-inverted normal faults of the
599 authors (Canfield et al. 1982; Dashwood & Abbots Triassic Jurassic rift (Fig. 7). The Late Cretaceous
600 1990; Balkwill et al. 1995), who showed that giant inversion event in the Oriente Basin can be associ-
601 oil fields such as Sacha or Schuchufindi were ated with the oblique accretion of the Pallatanga
602 forming during this period. This second event of allochtoneous terrane onto the Ecuadorian margin
603 inversion is illustrated by the seismic section of (Hughes & Pilatasig 2002; Jaillard et al. 2009;
604 Figure 10 crossing the southern closure of the Kennan & Pindell 2009) but it is also present in
605 Shushufindi structure. It shows clearly an onlap of the Central Andes (Peruvian Phase), where no
606 the Upper Napo shales on a strong reflector known accretionary events are known to have occurred
607 Q6 as the A M2 limestones in the SSC, and is dated (Jaillard & Soler 1996). As mentioned by these
608 by the petroleum industry as Turonian (Barragan authors, the long-term compressive deformation of
609
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636 Fig. 10. Reflection seismic section crossing the southern closure of the Shushufindi structure. For the location, see
637 Figure 5. It shows clearly an onlap of the Upper Napo Formation shales on the strong reflector of the AM2 limestones,
638 and illustrates the Late Cretaceous period of inversion. TWT, two-way time.
 P. BABY ET AL.

639
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656 Fig. 11. Reflection seismic section crossing the Cononaco structure, and showing the growth strata in the Early Eocene
657 Lower Tiyuyacu Formation. The erosive surface of the base of the MiddleLate Eocene Upper Tiyuyacu Formation
658 is also well illustrated. TWT, two-way time.
659
660
661 the continental margin (the Andean retro-arc fore- seismic sections in this part of the basin (Fig. 6).
662 land system) is probably controlled by the westward During the Neogene, the SSC was passively trans-
663 shift of the South American Plate initiated by the ported on the intrabasement regional decollement
664 opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean since that connects the Sub-Andean FTB to the Tiputini
665 Albian times (Pindell & Kennan 2009). thrust front (Fig. 4). The Tiputini inverted fault
666 (Fig. 9) deformed the entire sedimentary infill of
667 the foreland basin and seems to be still active as
Early Eocene inversion
668 the Sub-Andean front. Neogene growth strata are
669 In the SSC and in the western part of the CTIS, some not observed in the Oriente Basin and it is difficult
670 inverted structures, such the Cononaco oil field to precisely date the onset of the Neogene thrust
671 (Fig. 11) in the SSC or the CuyabenoSansahuari tectonics. Globally, from Venezuela to Bolivia,
672 oil field (Christophoul et al. 2002a) in the CTIS, most of the Sub-Andean deformation is considered
673 show growth strata in the Early Eocene continental to have occurred after the late Miocene (Mora et al.
674 deposits (Lower Tiyuyacu Member Formation). 2010). This is confirmed by apatite fission-track data
675 These growth strata are truncated and sealed by in the Andes of Colombia (Mora et al. 2008) and
676 the major regional erosive unconformity located at Peru (Kennan 2008). In the Oriente Basin, apatite
677 the base of the Upper Tiyuyacu Member fluvial fission-track data from the basement rocks of the
678 deposits, whose basal conglomerate was dated at Sub-Andean System showed that they were never
679 46 + 0.6 Ma from an interbedded tuff (Christo- above 120 8C (Ruiz et al. 2004) and apatite fission-
680 phoul et al. 2002a). This Early Eocene contractional track cooling ages could not be obtained.
681 event visible in the axial part of the Oriente Basin
682 corresponds to the major Andean orogenic period
683 defined in the western Cordillera of central and
Petroleum system implications
684 northern Peru as the Incaic Phase (Megard
685 1984). In Ecuador, it is associated with the rapid The Oriente Basin stratigraphic column in Figure 3
686 exhumation and uplift of the Cordillera Real, as evi- shows the relative ages of potential source rocks
687 denced by thermochronology analysis (Spikings and reservoirs. Regionally, the Oriente Basin con-
688 et al. 2000). It coincided with a change in conver- tains two proven petroleum systems: (1) the Early
689 gence rate and direction between the Farallon and Jurassic Santiago petroleum system developed
690 South American plates (Jaillard & Soler 1996). essentially in the southern part of the SSC and
691 emerging in the Cutucu Cordillera (Diaz et al.
692 Neogene inversion 2004; Gaibor et al. 2008); and (2) the Cretaceous
693 Hollin Napo petroleum system (Tschopp 1953;
694 The Neogene deformation is predominant in the Feininger 1975; Dashwood & Abbotts 1990;
695 Sub-Andean FTB and in the CTIS (Fig. 5) but is Bernal 1998), which today hosts all of Ecuadors
696 almost absent in the SSC, as shown by most of the oil production. Regionally, in the Oriente Basin,
 ORIENTE THICK-SKINNED TECTONICS

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Fig. 12. Map of the maturity (Ro, vitrinite reflectance) of the Basal Napo source rock (modified from Bernal 1998),
733 which corresponds to the deepest Cretaceous source rock level of the Oriente Basin. This map has been constructed
734 from the Petroproduccion database (Ro analysis from 37 wells distributed over the Oriente Basin and from outcrops
735 located in the Napo Uplift and Cutucu Cordillera). It shows local current kitchens in the Napo Uplift, in the northern SSC
736 (Auca kitchen) and in the southern part of the Oriente Basin. The Auca kitchen seems to be associated to the thermal
737 anomaly created by the Cretaceous alkaline intraplate magmatism characterizing the northern part of the SSC.
738
739
740 Cretaceous source rock levels are immature or before the Cordillera Real uplift occurred (Feininger
741 poorly mature, except for the Basal Napo source 1975; Dashwood & Abbotts 1990) and/or from
742 rock. The map in Figure 12 (modified from Bernal the south (Maranon kitchen of the MOP) (Markstei-
743 1998) represents the maturity of this source rock ner & Aleman 1997). Generally, long-distance
744 level, which corresponds to the deepest Cretaceous migrations in foreland basins (Head et al. 2003)
745 source rock level of the Oriente Basin. It shows are supported by the drainage system constituted
746 local current oil source kitchens in the Napo by the first syn-tectonic fluvial and fluvial deltaic
747 Uplift, in the northern SSC (Auca kitchen) and in sedimentary filling (Eschard & Huc 2008), equival-
748 the southern part of the Oriente Basin. The Auca ent to the Early Cretaceous Hollin Formation in our
749 kitchen seems to be associated to the thermal case (Fig. 3). The Cordillera Real Eocene exhuma-
750 anomaly created by the Cretaceous alkaline intra- tion (Spikings et al. 2000) destroyed the probably
751 plate magmatism characterizing the northern part Late Cretaceous and Palaeocene oil source kitchen
752 of the SSC (see earlier). Therefore, most oil (Quito kitchen), which corresponded at that time
753 accumulations must be explained by long-distance to the foredeep depozone of the Oriente retro-arc
754 migration coming from the west (Quito kitchen) foreland basin system. Therefore, a south north
 P. BABY ET AL.

755 migration pathway from the NW part of the system. This confirms an old trapping, probably
756 Maranon Basin seems to better explain a large part prior to the Middle Eocene uplift evidenced in the
757 of the northern oil accumulations of the Oriente Cordillera Real (Spikings et al. 2000).
758 Basin. In the deeper southern part of the Oriente
759 Basin, basin modelling (Beicip Franlab Genex 1D Sacha Shushufindi play
760 software 2006) of the Bobonaza-1 well gave a
761 50 Ma pulse of hydrocarbon generation and expul- This tectonic domain is the most prolific of the
762 sion for the Basal Napo source rock (Burgos 2006). Oriente Basin. As shown previously, most of the
763 An earlier pulse could have occurred out of the structures are pre-Middle Eocene, which seems
764 Q6 present configuration of the Oriente Basin, in to be the mean criterion for oil accumulation in
765 deeper parts of the MOP, during the early Eocene Cretaceous reservoirs. The isolated small Auca
766 foredeep sedimentation. This hypothesis was also kitchen (Fig. 12) is not sufficient to charge the
767 suggested by Dashwood & Abbotts (1990) and giant oil fields of the SSC. The northern Early Juras-
768 Marksteiner & Aleman (1997). It implies a first sic Sacha Formation, which is the lateral equivalent
769 hydrocarbon migration that could have charged of the Santiago Formation (Diaz et al. 2004), has
770 Q6 old structural traps, such as Late Cretaceous inver- continental facies and no source rock potential. All
771 sion structures. of these imply long-distance migration from
772 The three tectonic domains of the Oriente Basin the south, where the Santiago Formation contains
773 (Fig. 5) have segmented the petroleum systems and mature black shales with moderate low source
774 can be considered as three different petroleum rock potential (Gaibor et al 2008), and where Cre-
775 plays. taceous source rock levels are more mature. The
776 NNE SSW Sacha Shushufindi Corridor (Fig. 2)
777 Sub-Andean play constitutes an excellent pathway for southnorth
778 oil migration that could charge the Hollin reservoirs.
779 The Napo Uplift comprises the Bermejo oil field in Pre-Cretaceous structures, such the Sacha Pro-
780 the north (Lee et al. 2004) and the giant outcropping fundo structure (Fig. 6), have trap potential for
781 Pugarayacu heavy-oil field in the south (Rivade- the Oriente oil fields if reservoirs are present.
782 neira & Baby 2004). In this zone, the Cretaceous Potential sandy reservoirs are described in the
783 petroleum system overlies the Late Jurassic vol- Patuca Member clastic sequence of the Santiago
784 canic Misahualli Formation (Fig. 3). The Napo Formation (Gaibor et al. 2008). They could be a
785 source rock levels are not sufficiently mature target for future exploration in the southern part of
786 (Vallejo et al. 2002) to charge the Cretaceous reser- the SSC.
787 voirs of the Bermejo and Pungarayacu fields.
788 The origin of the oil must have been sourced in Capiron Tiputini play
789 the western oil kitchen (Quito kitchen) prior to the
790 Eocene uplift of the Cordillera Real (Spikings Inverted rift structures in the northern part CTIS
791 et al. 2000), and located in the Late Cretaceous host numerous and widely distributed oil fields
792 and Palaeocene foredeep depozone. This is consist- (Fig. 2). The most important accumulations are the
793 ent with the pre-Maastrichtian structuring of the heavy-oil deposits charged in the three structures
794 Napo Uplift (Dashwood & Abbotts 1990) that was of the IshpingoTambococha Tiputini trend. The
795 probably in a forebulge position in the Late Cretac- Napo Cretaceous and Tambococha pre-Cretaceous
796 eous retro-arc foreland basin system. Oil migration (Diaz et al. 2004) local source rocks are immature
797 could have occurred from the western foredeep and, as in the Sub-Andean and Sacha Shushufindi
798 (Quito kitchen) to the structural and stratigraphic plays, long-distance oil migration is necessary
799 traps of the forebulge (Napo Uplift), which could to charge the structures. The difference between
800 constitute, as in others parts of the world (Head these two plays is the younger timing of the defor-
801 et al. 2003; Eschard & Huc 2008), an excellent mation in the CTIS, which seems to start in the
802 habitat for heavy-oil accumulations. Recent Sub- early Eocene in the western part and more recently
803 Andean deformation and volcanism have probably in the eastern part (Neogene). The ITT trend is
804 destroyed a large part of the Late Cretaceous trap- located in the present-day forebulge depozone of
805 ping; the giant Pugarayacu heavy-oil field is pre- the Oriente foreland basin system, and shallow
806 served in the southern closures of the Napo Uplift. Cretaceous reservoirs can be charged through
807 In the Pastaza Depression, such traps can be pre- long-distance lateral oil migration. The forebulge
808 served below the Pastaza Neogene megafan. Fur- position presents generally favourable conditions
809 ther south, the Cutucu Cordillera is too deformed in promoting the biodegradation of large charges
810 to have preserved any oil traps. In the SW flank of conventional oils responsible for heavy-oil
811 of this cordillera, we observed oil traces in the occurrences (Head et al. 2003, Eschard & Huc
812 Hollin sandstones overlying the Santiago petroleum 2008).
 ORIENTE THICK-SKINNED TECTONICS

813 Conclusions of large charges of conventional oils, which could

814 explain the large heavy-oil accumulations of the
815 The Oriente Basin is part of the retro-arc foreland ITT trend.
816 basin system (MOP), which developed in the zone Regionally, source rocks of the Oriente Basin are
817 of transition between the SSENNW-oriented immature or poorly mature. A large part of the oil
818 Central Andes and the SSW NNE Northern accumulations must be explained by long-distance
819 Andes since Late Cretaceous times. It is deformed migration from a western foredeep (Quito kitchen)
820 by thick-skinned tectonics related to the inversion before the Eocene uplift of the Cordillera Real, or
821 of pre-Cretaceous complex extensional faults from the southern Maranon deeper foredeep of the
822 systems, which have broken the basin into three tec- MOP.
823 tonic domains (Figs 4 & 5): the Sub-Andean fold
824 and thrust belt (SFTB); the NNESSW-oriented This research project was led thanks to the Institut de
825 Sacha Shushufindi Corridor (SSC); and the Recherche pour le Developpement Petroproduccion
826 CapironTiputini Inverted System (CTIS). Four research agreement between 1995 and 2001. We thank
827 periods of inversion (pre-Albian, Late Cretaceous, reviewers L. Kennan and J. Barnes for their interesting
comments that helped to improve the paper.
828 early Eocene and Neogene) have been observed
829 through analysis of the sedimentary records corre-
830 lated with previous thermochronology results in
831 the orogenic wedge. The MOP foreland basin evol- References
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833 development (Late Cretaceous Palaeocene, Early Mesozoic collisional history of the Cordillera Real,
834 Eocene and Miocene), which produced the principal Ecuador. Tectonophysics, 205, 187 204.
835 pulses of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion. Aspden, J., McCourt, W. & Brook, M. 1987. Geometri-
836 The present-day Sub-Andean wedge-top of the cal control of subduction-related magmatism: the
837 Oriente Basin is comprised of the Napo Uplift in Mesozoic and Cenozoic plutonic history of Western
838 the north and the Cutucu Cordillera in the south. Colombia. Journal of Geological Society, London,
144, 893905.
839 Both antiformal structures were uplifted on steep Baby, P., Rivadeneira, M. & Barragan, R. 2004. Intro-
840 basement thrust faults that are still active. The duction. In: Baby, P., Rivadeneira, M. & Barragan,
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842 Late Cretaceous, to the forebulge depozone of Travaux de lInstitut Francais des Etudes Andine,
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846 Cordillera. It results from the inversion of the Late Balkwill, H., Rodriguez, G., Paredes, F. & Almeida,
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848 of the SSC, the inverted structures are generally Tankard, A. J., Suarez, S. R. & Welsink, H. J.
849 pre-Middle Eocene in age, and form low relief but (eds) Petroleum Basins of South America. AAPG,
850 large north south-oriented anticlines with impor- Memoirs, 62, 559571.
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852 part of the SSC does not show recent deformation Kurz, M. 1998. Subduction controls on the compo-
853 and is transported passively on an intrabasement sitions of lavas from the Ecuadorian Andes. Earth
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857 assic syn-rift strata outcrop. The eastern Capiron Oriente del Ecuador. In: Baby, P., Rivadeneira, M.
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860 back-arc basin connected to an intrabasement decol- Andine, 144, 45 68. Entire book accessible at World
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863 ing the Early Eocene in the western part of the Barragan, R., Baby, P. & Duncan, R. 2005. Cretaceous
864 CTIS and during the Neogene in its eastern part. alkaline intra-plate magmatism in the Ecuadorian
865 The ITT trend corresponds to the recent inversion Oriente Basin: geochemical, geochronological and tec-
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870 sents favourable conditions for oil biodegradation nica Nacional, Quito.
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