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ABSTRACT
Today's alternating current power grid evolved after 1896, based in part on
Nikola Tesla's design published in 1888 (see War of Currents). At that time, the
grid was conceived as a centralized unidirectional system of electric power
transmission, electricity distribution, and demand-driven control.
In the 20th century power grids originated as local grids that grew over time,
and were eventually interconnected for economic and reliability reasons. By the
1960s, the electric grids of developed countries had become very large, mature
and highly interconnected, with thousands of 'central' generation power stations
delivering power to major load centres via high capacity power lines which
were then branched and divided to provide power to smaller industrial and
domestic users over the entire supply area. The topology of the 1960s grid was a
result of the strong economies of scale of the current generation technology:
large coal-, gas- and oil-fired power stations in the 1 GW (1000 MW) to 3 GW
scale are still found to be cost-effective, due to efficiency-boosting features that
can be cost effectively added only when the stations become very large.
A smart grid is a digitally enabled electrical grid that gathers, distributes, and
acts on information about the behavior of all participants (suppliers and
consumers) in order to improve the efficiency, importance, reliability,
economics, and sustainability of electricity services
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SMART GRID
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INTRODUCTION
Historical development of the electricity grid
Today's alternating current power grid evolved after 1896, based in part on
Nikola Tesla's design published in 1888. At that time, the grid was conceived as
a centralized unidirectional system of electric power transmission, electricity
distribution, and demand-driven control.
In the 20th century power grids originated as local grids that grew over time,
and were eventually interconnected for economic and reliability reasons. By the
1960s, the electric grids of developed countries had become very large, mature
and highly interconnected, with thousands of 'central' generation power stations
delivering power to major load centres via high capacity power lines which
were then branched and divided to provide power to smaller industrial and
domestic users over the entire supply area. The topology of the 1960s grid was a
result of the strong economies of scale of the current generation technology:
large coal-, gas- and oil-fired power stations in the 1 GW (1000 MW) to 3 GW
scale are still found to be cost-effective, due to efficiency-boosting features that
can be cost effectively added only when the stations become very large.
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The term smart grid has been in use since at least 2005, when it appeared in the
article "Toward A Smart Grid" of Amin and Wallenberg. The term had been
used previously and may date as far back as 1998. There are a great many smart
grid definitions, some functional, some technological, and some benefits-
oriented. A common element to most definitions is the application of digital
processing and communications to the power grid, making data flow and
information management central to the smart grid. Various capabilities result
from the deeply integrated use of digital technology with power grids, and
integration of the new grid information flows into utility processes and systems
is one of the key issues in the design of smart grids. Electric utilities now find
themselves making three classes of transformations: improvement of
infrastructure, called the strong grid in China; addition of the digital layer,
which is the essence of the smart grid; and business process transformation,
necessary to capitalize on the investments in smart technology. Much of the
modernization work that has been going on in electric grid modernization,
especially substation and distribution automation, is now included in the general
concept of the smart grid, but additional capabilities are evolving as well.
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SMART GRID
Smart grid refers to the next generation electric power network that makes use
of IT and high technologies. Compared to the telecommunication network, the
electric power network has not developed remarkably in terms of creating
innovative technologies. However, smart grid by revolutionizing the electric
power network and being almost as powerful as the internet, is attracting many
attentions among various industries.
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A smart grid delivers electricity from supplier to consumers using two- way
digital technology to control appliances at consumers homes to save energy,
reduce cost and increase reliability and transparency. It overlays the electricity
distribution grid with an information and net metering system. Power travels from
the power plant to your house through an amazing system called the power
distribution grid. Such a modernized electricity networks is being promoted by
many governments as a way of addressing energy independences, global warming
and emergency resilience issues. Smart meters may be part of smart grid, but alone
do not constitute a smart grid.
A smart grid includes an intelligent monitoring system that keeps track of all
electricity flowing in the system. It also incorporates the use of
superconductive transmission lines for less power loss, as well as the capability
of the integrating renewable electricity such as solar and wind. When power is
least expensive the user can allow the smart grid to turn on selected home
appliances such as washing machines or factory processes that can run at
arbitrary hours. At peak times it could turn off selected appliances to reduce
demand.
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Understanding the need for smart grid requires acknowledging a few facts about
our infrastructure. The power grid is the backbone of the modern civilization, a
complex society with often conflicting energy needs-more electricity but fewer
fossil fuels, increased reliability yet lower energy costs, more secure distribution
with less maintenance, effective new construction and efficient disaster
reconstruction. But while demand for electricity has risen drastically, its
transmission is outdated and stressed. The bottom line is that we are exacting
more from a grid that is simply not up to the task.
POWER SYSTEM
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Howsmartshould be a powergrid
The utilities get the ability to communicate with and control end user hardware,
from industrial- scale air conditioner to residential water heaters. They use that
to better balance supply and demand, in part by dropping demand during peak
usage hours.
Taking advantages of information technology to increase the efficiency of the
grid, the delivery system, and the use of electricity at the same time is itself a
smart move. Simply put, a smart grid combined with smart meters enables both
electrical utilities and consumer to be much more efficient.
A smart grid not only moves electricity more efficiently in geographic terms, it
also enables electricity use to be shifted overtime-for example, from period of
peak demand to those of off-peak demand. Achieving this goals means working
with consumers who have smart meters to see exactly how much electricity
is being used at any particular time. This facilitates two-way communication
between utility and consumer. So they can cooperate in reducing peak demand
in a way that its advantageous to both. And it allow to the use of two way
metering so that customer who have a rooftop solar electric panel or their own
windmill can sell surplus electricity back to the utility.
1. Intelligent
Capable of sensing system overloads and rerouting power to prevent or
minimize a potential outage; of working autonomously when conditions
required resolution faster than humans can respond and co-operatively in
aligning the goals of utilities, consumers and regulators.
2. Efficient
Capable of meeting efficient increased consumer demand without adding
infrastructure.
3. Accommodating
Accepting energy from virtually any fuel source including solar and wind as
easily and transparently as coal and natural gas: capable of integrating any and
all better ideas and technologies energy storage technologies. For e.g.- as they
are market proven and ready to come online.
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4. Motivating
Enable real-time communication between the consumer and utility, so consumer
can tailor their energy consumption based on individual preferences, like price
and or environmental concerns.
5. Resilient
Increasingly resistant to attack and natural disasters as it becomes more
decentralization and reinforced with smart grid security protocol.
6. Green
Slowing the advance of global climate change and offering a genuine path
towards significant environmental improvement.
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The smart grid represents the full suite of current and proposed responses to the
challenges of electricity supply. Because of the diverse range of factors, there
are numerous competing taxonomies, and no agreement on a universal
definition. Nevertheless, one possible categorisation is given here.
Reliability
The smart grid will make use of technologies that improve fault detection and
allow self-healing of the network without the intervention of technicians. This
will ensure more reliable supply of electricity, and reduced vulnerability to
natural disasters or attack.
Although multiple routes are touted as a feature of the smart grid, the old grid
also featured multiple routes. Initial power lines in the grid were built using a
radial model, later connectivity was guaranteed via multiple routes, referred to
as a network structure. However, this created a new problem: if the current flow
or related effects across the network exceed the limits of any particular network
element, it could fail, and the current would be shunted to other network
elements, which eventually may fail also, causing a domino effect. See power
outage. A technique to prevent this is load shedding by rolling blackout or
voltage reduction (brownout).
Classic grids were designed for one-way flow of electricity, but if a local sub-
network generates more power than it is consuming, the reverse flow can raise
safety and reliability issues. A smart grid aims to manage these situations.
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Efficiency
Numerous contributions to overall improvement of the efficiency of energy
infrastructure is anticipated from the deployment of smart grid technology, in
particular including demand-side management, for example turning off air
conditioners during short-term spikes in electricity price. The overall effect is
less redundancy in transmission and distribution lines, and greater utilisation of
generators, leading to lower power prices
Load adjustment
The total load connected to the power grid can vary significantly over time.
Although the total load is the sum of many individual choices of the clients, the
overall load is not a stable, slow varying, average power consumption. Imagine
the increment of the load if a popular television program starts and millions of
televisions will draw current instantly. Traditionally, to respond to a rapid
increase in power consumption, faster than the start-up time of a large
generator, some spare generators are put on a dissipative standby mode .A smart
grid may warn all individual television sets, or another larger customer, to
reduce the load temporarily (to allow time to start up a larger generator) or
continuously (in the case of limited resources). Using mathematical prediction
algorithms it is possible to predict how many standby generators need to be
used, to reach a certain failure rate. In the traditional grid, the failure rate can
only be reduced at the cost of more standby generators. In a smart grid, the load
reduction by even a small portion of the clients may eliminate the problem.
energy cost of operation into their consumer device and building construction
decisions. See Time of day metering and demand response.
According to proponents of smart grid plans, this will reduce the amount of
spinning reserve that electric utilities have to keep on stand-by, as the load
curve will level itself through a combination of "invisible hand" free-market
capitalism and central control of a large number of devices by power
management services that pay consumers a portion of the peak power saved by
turning their devices off.
Sustainability
The improved flexibility of the smart grid permits greater penetration of highly
variable renewable energy sources such as solar power and wind power, even
without the addition of energy storage. Current network infrastructure is not
built to allow for many distributed feed-in points, and typically even if some
feed-in is allowed at the local (distribution) level, the transmission-level
infrastructure cannot accommodate it. Rapid fluctuations in distributed
generation, such as due to cloudy or gusty weather, present significant
challenges to power engineers who need to ensure stable power levels through
varying the output of the more controllable generators such as gas turbines and
hydroelectric generators. Smart grid technology is a necessary condition for
very large amounts of renewable electricity on the grid for this reason.
Market-enabling
The smart grid allows for systematic communication between suppliers (their
energy price) and consumers (their willingness-to-pay), and permits both the
suppliers and the consumers to be more flexible and sophisticated in their
operational strategies. Only the critical loads will need to pay the peak energy
prices, and consumers will be able to be more strategic in when they use energy.
Generators with greater flexibility will be able to sell energy strategically for
maximum profit, whereas inflexible generators such as base-load steam turbines
and wind turbines will receive a varying tariff based on the level of demand and
the status of the other generators currently operating. The overall effect is a
signal that awards energy efficiency, and energy consumption that is sensitive
the time-varying limitations of the supply. At the domestic level, appliances
with a degree of energy storage or thermal mass (such as refrigerators, heat
banks, and heat pumps) will be well placed to 'play' the market at seek to
minimise energy cost by adapting demand to the lower-cost energy support
periods. This is an extension of the dual-tariff energy pricing mentioned above.
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Latency of the data flow is a major concern, with some early smart meter
architectures allowing actually as long as 24 hours delay in receiving the data,
preventing any possible reaction by either supplying or demanding devices.
Technology
The bulk of smart grid technologies are already used in other applications such
as manufacturing and telecommunications and are being adapted for use in grid
operations. In general, smart grid technology can be grouped into five key areas.
Integrated communications
Some communications are up to date, but are not uniform because they have
been developed in an incremental fashion and not fully integrated. In most
cases, data is being collected via modem rather than direct network connection.
Areas for improvement include: substation automation, demand response,
distribution automation, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA),
energy management systems, wireless mesh networks and other technologies,
power-line carrier communications, and fiber-optics. Integrated
communications will allow for real-time control, information and data exchange
to optimize system reliability, asset utilization, and security.
Smart meters
A smart grid replaces analog mechanical meters with digital meters that record
usage in real time. Smart meters are similar to Advanced Metering
Infrastructure meters and provide a communication path extending from
generation plants to electrical outlets (smart socket) and other smart grid-
enabled devices. By customer option, such devices can shut down during times
of peak demand.
Advanced components
Innovations in superconductivity, fault tolerance, storage, power electronics,
and diagnostics components are changing fundamental abilities and
characteristics of grids. Technologies within these broad R&D categories
include: flexible alternating current transmission system devices, high voltage
direct current, first and second generation superconducting wire, high
temperature superconducting cable, distributed energy generation and storage
devices, composite conductors, and intelligent appliances.
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Advanced control
Power system automation enables rapid diagnosis of and precise solutions to
specific grid disruptions or outages. These technologies rely on and contribute
to each of the other four key areas. Three technology categories for advanced
control methods are: distributed intelligent agents (control systems), analytical
tools (software algorithms and high-speed computers), and operational
applications (SCADA, substation automation, demand response, etc.). Using
artificial intelligence programming techniques, Fujian power grid in China
created a wide area protection system that is rapidly able to accurately calculate
a control strategy and execute it.The Voltage Stability Monitoring & Control
(VSMC) software uses a sensitivity-based successive linear programming
method to reliably determine the optimal control solution
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A smart grid precisely limits electrical power down to the residential level,
network small-scale distributed energy generation and storage devices,
communicate information on operating status and needs, collect information
on prices and grid conditions, and move the grid beyond central control to a
collaborative network.
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Although there are specific and proven smart grid technologies in use, smart
grid is an aggregate term for a set of related technologies on which a
specification is generally agreed, rather than a name for a specific technology.
Some of the benefits of such a modernized electricity network include the
ability to reduce power consumption at the consumer side during peak hours,
called demand side management; enabling grid connection of distributed
generation power (with photovoltaic arrays, small wind turbines, micro hydro,
or even combined heat power generators in buildings); incorporating grid
energy storage for distributed generation load balancing; and eliminating or
containing failures such as widespread power grid cascading failures. The
increased efficiency and reliability of the smart grid is expected to save
consumers money and help reduce CO2 emissions.
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Enabling Technology
The bulk of smart grid technologies are already used in other applications such
as manufacturing and telecommunications and are being adapted for use in grid
operations. In general, smart grid technology can be grouped into five key areas
I. Integrated communications
Some communications are up to date, but are not uniform because they have
been developed in an incremental fashion and not fully integrated. In most
cases, data is being collected via modem rather than direct network connection.
Areas for improvement include: substation automation, demand response,
distribution automation, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA),
energy management systems, wireless mesh networks and other technologies,
power- line carrier communication s and fiber-optics. Integrated communication
will allow for real time control, information and data exchange to optimize
system reliability, asset utilization, and security.
Core duties are evaluating congestion and grid stability, monitoring equipment
health, energy theft prevention, and control strategies support. Technologies
include: advanced microprocessor meters (smart meter) and meter reading
equipment, wide-area monitoring system, dynamic line rating(typically based
on online reading by distributed temperature sensing combined with Real time
thermal rating (RTTR) systems), electromagnetic signature
measurement/analysis, time-of-use and real-time pricing tools, advanced
switches and cables, backscatter radio technology, and Digital protective relays.
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A smart grid replaces analog mechanical meters with digital meters that record
usage in real time. Smart meters are similar to Advanced Metering
Infrastructure meters and provide a communication path extending from
generation plants to electrical outlets (smart socket) and other smart grid-
enabled devices. By customer option, such devices can shut down during times
of peak demand.
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ENERGY CONSERVATION
TECHNIOUES
ENERGY CONSERVATION IN TRANSMISSION
SYSTEM:
Transformer is a static device. It does not have any moving parts. So, a
transformer is free from mechanical and frictional losses. Thus, it faces only
electrical losses and magnetic losses. Hence the efficiency of conventional
transformer is high around 95-98%.
Thus, energy conservation opportunities for transformer are available only in
design and material used. Also optimizing loading of transformer can increase
efficiency of system.
The environmental protection agency (EPA) brought study report that nearly 61
billion K WH of electricity is wasted in each year only as transformer losses.
Study of typical grid system showed that, power transformer contributes nearly
40% to 50% of total transmission and distribution losses.
Maintaining maximum efficiency to occur at 38% loading (as recommended by
REC), the overall efficiency of transformer can be increased and its losses can
be reduced. The load loss may be even reduced by using thicker conductors .
63KVA 1235-844W
100KVA 1760-1196W
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By using superior quality or improved grades of CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented)
laminations, the no-load losses can be reduced to 32%.
Transformer with superior quality of core material i.e. amorphous alloy is called
Amorphous Transformers. Amorphous alloy is made up of Iron-boron-silicon
alloy. The magnetic core of this transformer is made with amorphous metal,
which is easily magnetized / demagnetized. Typically, core loss can be 7080%
less than its molten metal mixture when cooled to solid state at a very high
speed rate, retain a random atomic structure that is not crystalline. This is called
Amorphous.
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Amorphous transformer
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AWRENESS IN CONSUMERS -
This is one of most important and useful/helpful for energy conservation. This
can be done by asking consumer to make use of energy efficient equipments, by
giving seminar about energy conservation and make them aware and understand
about the happening and there advantages and disadvantages etc.
Effective use of smart grid technologies by customer helps utilities
Optimizes grid use.
Improve grid efficiency and security.
Better align demand with supply constraints & grid congestion.
Enable distributed generation (especially from renewable sources)
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ENERGY CONSERVATION IN
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM :-
This is done by considering following points:-
1) BALANCING OF PHASE LOAD-
As a result of unequal loads on individual phase sequence,
components causes over heating of transformers, cables, conductors
motors. Thus, increasing losses and resulting in the motor
malfunctioning under unbalanced voltage conditions. Thus, keeping the
system negative phase sequence voitage within limits, amount of savings
in capital (saving the duration of equipment )as well as energy losses.
Thus, to avoid this losses, the loads are distributed evenly as is practical
between the phases.
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SMART METERS
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COMPONENTS USED
ATMEGA 16
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Port B (PB7..PB0)
Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected
for each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics
with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are
externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated.
The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running.
Port C (PC7..PC0)
Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected
for each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics
with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are
externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated.
The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if the
clock is not running. If the JTAG interface is enabled, the pull-up resistors on
pins PC5 (TDI), PC3 (TMS) and PC2 (TCK) will be activated even if a reset
occurs.
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Port D (PD7..PD0)
Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected
for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics
with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are
externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated.
The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if the
clock is not running.
A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a
reset, even if the clock is not running.
XTAL1
Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock
operating circuit.
XTAL2
AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used,
it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter.
AREF
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DTMF
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LCD
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IC 7805
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RELAY
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Working Principle
Smart grid does a lot of works. It is not possible to demonstrate each of the
tasks in a single project. So an attempt is made to demonstrate some of its
functions like automatic scheduling, power shading, distance controls etc.
Description of loads:
1. Two simple houses representing a colony
2. A hospital
3. An industry
In case of the colony, the houses are supplied by the main supply. In case
of power cut, they are being supplied by the storage which is represented
by an UPS.
But when the storage discharges fully in case of long power cut, then the
colony remains in dark.
In the hospital, since many of the biomedical equipment like breather are
running continuously on the electricity, so there is an interruptible need of
electric supply.
So, for the hospital, an arrangement is made such that if the main supply
goes off, then it is being supplied by UPS. When UPS discharges, then it
is being supplied by another energy source representing renewable energy
source.
In case of Industry, two loads are shown by means of two bulbs. The first
load in the industry is its normal load and the second one is extra or
overload.
During normal operation, it is being supplied by the main supply. During
power cut, it is being supplied by the renewable energy source.
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All these devices and operation are controllable by mobile showing the latest
distance supervision and operation functions. This is done by means of DTMF
(dual tone multiple frequency).
Here as can be seen, the main power supply is directly connected to the UPS
and then to the colony loads. This makes the houses to work under main power
cut conditions also by the use of UPS.
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The rectified output is given to the exciting coil of the 2c relay. Normally the
plate is attached to the NC pin of the relay under not excited condition. So we
have attached the NO (normally open) pin to the main supply, so that in case of
main power on, the supply is provided by the main to the hospital.
In case the mains gets off, the UPS supplies the hospital load. And if UPS too
gets discharged in case of long power cut, then the renewable energy source
connected to the NC (normally closed) pin comes into action and supplies the
hospital load.
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In case of industry too, the same concept is used. Ac supply from mains is
stepped-down to be rectified to yield 12v dc to run the relay. In case the mains
gets off, the renewable energy source supplies the industry load.
Another complication has also been added to the industry to show the load
shading. In case the extra or overload is on, a buzzer is made on by the help of
microcontroller and then after some time the colony power cut happens.
In addition to all these, all the loads can be controlled individually by using a
mobile phone showing the distance operation using DTMF technology. For this
purpose, a 1c relay each is connected to individuals loads.
Also, the UPS charging or not charging can be controlled by distance operation
using DTMF technology.
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Some features of smart grids draw opposition from industries that currently are,
or hope to provide similar services. An example is competition with cable and
DSL Internet providers from broadband over power line internet access.
Providers of SCADA control systems for grids have intentionally designed
proprietary hardware, protocols and software so that they cannot inter-operate
with other systems in order to tie its customers to the vendor.
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With the advent of cybercrime there is also concern on the security of the
infrastructure, primarily that involving communications technology. Concerns
chiefly center around the communications technology at the heart of the smart
grid. Designed to allow real-time contact between utilities and meters in
customers' homes and businesses, there is a very real risk that these capabilities
could be exploited for criminal or even terrorist actions. One of the key
capabilities of this connectivity is the ability to remotely switch off power
supplies, enabling utilities to quickly and easily cease or modify supplies to
customers who default on payment. This undoubtedly a massive boon for
energy providers, but also raises some significant security issues.
Cybercriminals have infiltrated the U.S. electric grid before on numerous
occasions. Aside from computer infiltration, there are also concerns that
computer malware like Stuxnet, which targeted systems on the SCADA
software language widely used in industry, could do to a smart grid network
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Future
In the new future, will not be any vast development.
Risky because of financial developments and regulations.
In the long run, attitudes will change, wide spread usage of the smart grid
from every business to every home just like the internet.
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Resources of information
Articles
Websites:-
www.nima.com
www.howstuffworks.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.xcelenergy.com/smartgridcity
www.schneider.com
www.powersmiths.com
www.renewableenrgyworld.com
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