Jas Chap 5 May 17

UEME3112
Fluid Mechanics II
Chapter 5 Free Turbulence Flows
Fluid Mechanics II 1
Outlines
Wall Turbulence and Free Turbulence

Types of Free Turbulence
Jets
Mixing Layers
Wakes
Applications
Wall Turbulence and Free Turbulence
Wall turbulence is turbulence motions which are
constrained by one or more boundaries
The turbulence is generated in velocity gradient caused by
the no-slip condition.
Free turbulence is turbulence motions which are
unaffected by walls and develop and spread in an open
ambient fluid.
Velocity gradients are generated, but viscous (molecular)
shear stress usually can be neglected in comparison with
turbulent eddy stresses throughout the entire flow field.
Pressure gradient in the direction of motion is zero, i.e.,
pressure is constant.
Comparison of Transitional Free Jet and Wall Jet
The above flow pictures, extending from the jet exit to 15 widths downstream
location for the range of exit Re (based on average exit velocity and width of the
channel) from 330 to 3,800 were obtained using laser sheet/smoke flow
visualization.
These jets were issued from a rectangular channel (aspect ratio 20:1) with exit
velocity profile being parabolic. At a low Re range (Figs. [a] and [b]), the growth
rate of the wall jet is suppressed compared with the corresponding free jet.
Comparison of Transitional Free Jet and Wall Jet
In the case of wall jet,
a double row vortex
structure can be seen
clearly (e.g., Fig. [c]),
and during the
transition process
ejection of the
boundary layer from
the wall is noticeable
(Fig. [d]).
In addition, the flow
evolution from
laminar to turbulent
state with increasing
Re can be seen from
Figs. (a) to (f) for both
free jets and wall jets.
Free Turbulence
Just downstream of the disturbance that causes the velocity
gradients (the meeting point of two parallel streams, the jet
exit, the rear of the immersed body), the flow will be
developing and non-similar.
Further downstream, the flow will be similar and the velocity
profiles will all look alike when suitably scaled.
Free Turbulence
Transition to turbulence occurs after a very
short distance in the flow direction from
the point where the different streams
initially meet.
The turbulence causes vigorous mixing of
adjacent fluid layers and rapid widening of
the region across which the velocity
changes take place.
Right-hand side figure shows a
visualization of a jet flow.
Large eddies with a size comparable to the
width across the flow are occurring
alongside small eddies.
Free Turbulence
The visualization correctly suggests that the flow inside the jet
region is fully turbulent, but the flow in the outer region far away
from the jet is smooth and largely unaffected by the turbulence.
The position of the edge of the turbulent zone is determined by the
(time-dependent) passage of individual large eddies.
Close to the edge, these large eddies will occasionally penetrate into
the surrounding region.
During the resulting bursts of turbulent activity in the outer region
called intermittency fluid from the surroundings is drawn into the
turbulent zone.
This process is termed entrainment and is the main cause of the
spreading of turbulent flows in the flow direction.
Free Turbulence
Initially fast moving fluid will lose momentum to speed up the
stationary surrounding fluid.
Due to the entrainment of surrounding fluid, the velocity
gradients decrease in magnitude in the flow direction.
This causes the decrease of the mean speed of the jet at its
centerline.
Similarly, the difference between the speed of the wake fluid and
its fast moving surroundings will decrease in the flow direction.
In mixing layers, the width of the layer containing the velocity
change continues to increase in the flow direction, but the overall
velocity difference between the two outer regions is unchanged.
Free Turbulence
We are looking at the asymptotic downstream behavior of the
free turbulence, traditionally assumed to be independent of the
exact type of source which creates the flow.
The source thus ignored, is also assumed to be symmetrical, so
that the shear layer is not skewed in shape.
One then analyzes the asymptotic behavior of width and
velocity scales and the velocity profiles, (x, y) for plane flow,
or (x, r) for axisymmetric flow.
Free Turbulent Flow
(a) Free-shear layer (mixing Umax
layer), (b) free jet, and (c) wake

Characteristic velocity scale,
Umax(x) or umax(x).
Characteristic shear-layer width,
b(x).
Umax
Umax
umax
Mixing Layer
Occurs between two streams which move at different speeds in
the same general direction.
This discontinuity in velocity is the cause of turbulent mixing
downstream of where the two streams meet.
The width of the mixing region increases in the downstream
direction.
Free Jet
Occurs when fluid is discharged between nozzle or orifice.
The jet becomes completely turbulent at a short distance from the
point of discharge.
The emerging jet becomes partly mixed with the surrounding fluid
at rest, causing particles from the surroundings to be carried away
by the jet, so that the mass flow increases in a downstream
direction.
As it spreads out, the velocity decreases, but the total momentum
remains constant.
Wake
Forms behind a solid body which is being dragged through a fluid at
rest, or behind a solid body which has been placed in a stream of
fluid.
The velocities in a wake are smaller than those in the main stream,
and the losses in velocity amount to a loss in momentum due to drag
on the body.
The spread of the wake increases as the distance from the body
increases and the velocity differences become smaller.
Development of Free Turbulent Jet
The figure is valid only for similar jet and ambient fluids, e.g., air-into-
air, but not water-into-air.
The jet issues at a nearly flat, fully developed, turbulent velocity Uexit.
Mixing layers form at the lip of the exit, growing between the still
ambient and the nearly inviscid potential core flowing at velocity Uexit.
Figure shows the details of the

initial formation of a jet,
assuming a still ambient fluid.
The potential core vanishes quickly at a distance of about one
diameter from the exit, where the velocity profile loses its mixing-
layer-flat-core shape.
Downstream of the core, the flow begins to develop into the
distinctive Gaussian-type shape.
Finally, at about 20 diameters downstream of the exit, the velocity
profile reaches and maintains a self-preserving shape (independent
of distance x in the flow direction),
u y r
f or f
U max b b
depending on whether the jet is plane or axisymmetric.
It is this asymptotic self-similar form of free turbulent flows
that we wish to study here.
Note the velocity profiles have the same momentum, but not
the same mass flow.
Fluid is entrained in the jet from the ambient region, and jet
mass flow increases downstream.
Self-Similar Analysis of Turbulent Jets
Assume that we are sufficiently far downstream for the jet
velocity profiles to become self-similar.
The jet momentum J remains constant at each cross section:
+
J = u 2 dA = const = const bumax
2
(plane jet )

= const b 2umax
2
(axisymmetric)
In the self-similar region, the centerline velocity and jet width
should depend only on jet momentum, density and distance, but
not on molecular viscosity since there are no walls:
U max = f ( x, J , )
b = f ( x, J , )
Self-Similar Analysis of Turbulent Jets
By dimensional analysis, the width can be only a linear growth:
Turbulent jet:
b = (const )x (plane or axismmetric)
where the constant is unique: a single growth rate for all self-similar
turbulent jets, regardless of the Re.
Dimensional analysis of Umax leads to the following relations:
1/ 2
J
Plane flow : U max = (const ) x 1/ 2

1/ 2
J
Axisymmetric flow : U max = (const ) x 1

where the constant is unique, independent of Re.
Theoretical Velocity Profile For A Plane Jet
With the forms of b(x) and Umax(x) revealed by dimensional
analysis, the jet profile shape is found by solving the
turbulent-boundary-layer continuity and momentum relations
for zero pressure gradient:
u v
+ =0
x y
u u 1
u +v =
x y y
As suggested by Prandtl, shear stress can be modeled by an

eddy viscosity which is expressed as
t ( jet ) KU max b = (const )x1/ 2 , K 0.016 (1)
Grtler made the same assumption for plane-jet flow and defined
the following similarity variables:
1/ 2 1/ 2
x x y
u = U 0 0 F ' ( ) vt = KU 0b0 =
x x0 x (2)
where is a free constant and (U0, b0) are the values of (Umax, b) at
an initial reference point x0.
Substitution of the Equations (1) and (2) in the turbulent-boundary-
layer continuity and momentum relations yields a similarity
differential equation for the function F:
1
F ' ' '+ FF "+ F 2 = 0
2 (3)
where the coefficient has been chosen for convenience by
2
specifying that 4 Kb0 = 1
x0
Equation (3) is subject to symmetry at the centerline,
v = u / y = 0 at y = 0
and a vanishing velocity as y becomes very large:
F (0 ) = F " (0 ) = F ' ( ) = 0
plus the condition F(0) = 1 from the definition of velocity in
Equation (2).
The solution for a turbulent plane jet is
F = tanh ( )
u
= sec h 2 ( )
U max
Grtler matched the data at the half-velocity point, y1/2, where
u = U max / 2 and 1/ 2 = sec h 2 (0.5) = 0.88 .
So, we obtain the estimate plane jet 7.67

The width of the jet is ill-defined, since the velocity drops
asymptotically to zero at large y.
Define b = 2y1/2, then the jet grows as
b 1.76
= = tan 13o
x 7.67
x
with K= = 0.018
4b 2
So, a turbulent plane jet grows at a half-angle of 13, independent

of the Re.
Solution For A Circular Jet
The Grtler theory for this case gives the profile
2
u 2 y ( J / )
1/ 2
(4)
1 + 15.2 U max 7.4
U max 4 x x
This solution agrees reasonably well with the data, but it is too high in the
outer regions of the jet, possibly due to intermittency of turbulence near
the jet edge.
A better formula for the round jet is found simply by carrying over the
plane-jet solution with a different value of :
u y
(5)
sec h 2 10.4
U max x
Self-similarity in the velocity profile occurs for x/D >20, where D is the
source diameter.
At the centerline, Umax decreases as x-1 as if the flow begins from a virtual
origin approximately 7 diameters in front of the actual source.
(4)
(5)
Experimental data for a circular jet, verifying the approaching to self-

similarity: mean velocity
Figure (b) shows the measured streamwise velocity fluctuation, which is
non-similar at x/D = 20 and does not become self-similar until x/D = 50.
The transverse components, vrms and wrms do not become similar until
x/D = 70, at which point the round jet is truly self-preserving.
Even at x/D = 100, the components v and w are smaller than u, so that
the turbulence has not become isotropic (the fluctuating velocities are
equal).
Experimental data for a circular

jet, verifying the approaching to
self-similarity: streamwise
fluctuation
Free Turbulent Jet
Momentum Jet
Fluid motion as a result of kinetic energy.
Jet and surrounding may be the same fluid at the same temperature.
Jet engine exhaust, pump outlets, etc.
Buoyant Jet
Jet arises from stationary fluid at nozzle.
Jet results from a difference in nozzle and surrounding temperature
or density.
Heated air rising through cold air, salt water entering fresh water,
etc.
Applications
Mixing
Treatment Plants
Effluent Discharge
Fuel Air
Propulsion
Thermo Jets
Hydro Jets Eddy Jet Mixer
Plane Mixing Layer
Grtler (1942) solved for the velocity profile in a mixing layer
between parallel streams, including the case where the upper
stream moves at Umax and the lower stream moves at Umin.
The flow is approximately anti-symmetrical about the midpoint,
with boundary conditions.
1
u ( ) = U min u (+ ) = U max u (0) = (U min + U max )
2
The solution given by Grtler (1942) is
u U min 1 y
u* = = 1 + erf 13.5
U max U min 2 x (6)
If we define the layer half-thickness as the point where u* = 0.99,
then b/x 1.64, or b/x 0.121 = tan (7).
Plane Mixing Layer
Equation (3) agrees well with
experiments done by Plesniak and
Johnston (1988) as shown in
Figure (a).
Measurements in a plane mixing

layer: (a) mean velocity; (b)
longitudinal fluctuation; (c)
transverse fluctuation.
Turbulent Wake
Since a wake is a defect in a moving stream, it has a much stronger effect due to
convective acceleration than a jet, and the resulting formulas are different. Far
downstream, we assume self-similarity:
u umax u y
= f
umax ( x ) umax umin b( x )
As with jet flow, the pressure in the wake is nearly constant, except for turbulent-
fluctuation effects because of the open environment.
This time, the momentum theorem states that the drag force F associated with the
wake profile is independent of x:
+
F = u udA = const const Uu max b (plane wake)

= const Uu max b 2 (round wake)

where U is the stream velocity outside the wake, assumed uniform.
Small-defect assumption: u << U.
Turbulent Wake
Unlike the jet, umax is proportional to b-1 (plane) and to b-2
(circular wake).
When these facts are substituted in the boundary-layer
equations with the small-defect assumption u (u / x ) U (u / x )
, we find that similarity cannot be achieved unless
b = const x1/ 2 u max = const x 1/ 2 (plane wake)

b = const x1/ 3 umax = const x 2 / 3 (circular wake)
Turbulent Wake
Take b as the half-velocity point, the solution is a Gaussian
distribution:
u 0.696 y 2
exp
umax ( x )
2
y1/ 2
Sreenivasan and Narasimha proposed the following growth-
rate expressions for a plane wake:
y1/ 2 0.30(x )
1/2
1/ 2 (7)

umax 1.63U
x
where is the momentum thickness of the wake.
Turbulent Wake
Wygnanski et al. (1986) measured the plane wakes behind cylinder, high-
solidity screens, strips and airfoils. The flows did not become self-similar
until hundreds of momentum thickness downstream of the bodies.
Measurements of plane wakes behind various-shaped bodies: (a) mean-velocity defect;

(b) streamwise fluctuation.
Turbulent Wake
The mean-velocity defect data in Figure (a) are in good
agreement with the Gaussian formula.
However, the growth rates for cylinder wakes fit constants
different from Equation (7), i.e., (0.275, 1.75) rather than
(0.30, 1.63).
Moreover, Figure (b) shows that the streamwise function
behind each reaches self-similarity, but the distributions do
not agree with each other.
Wygnanski et al. (1986) concluded that there is no
universal state of similarity for 2-D wakes, except for the
mean-velocity defect.
Turbulent Wake
Formed behind a solid body in
motion (relative to fluid)
Velocities in wake region are less
than freestream
As distance from the body increases,
spread of wake increases and
velocities of wake increase
Ship Wake
Kelvin wake-angle
~19.5 from ships hull
Independent of speed or
shape of vessel
Decreases with acceleration
Power Laws For Free Turbulence
The various cases of free turbulence flows just discussed
have their own growth rates and velocity decay rates
summarized in the following table.
Laminar flow Turbulent flow
Growth of Velocity decay Growth of Velocity decay

width b of or u width b of or u
Mixing zone x1/2 1 x 1
Plane jet x2/3 x-1/3 x x-1/2
Circular jet x x-1 x x-1
Plane wake x1/2 x-1/2 x1/2 x-1/2
Circular wake x1/2 x-1 x1/3 x-2/3

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UEME3112

Chapter 5 Free Turbulence Flows

Wall Turbulence and Free Turbulence

layer), (b) free jet, and (c) wake

Figure shows the details of the

depending on whether the jet is plane or axisymmetric.

As suggested by Prandtl, shear stress can be modeled by an

So, we obtain the estimate plane jet 7.67

So, a turbulent plane jet grows at a half-angle of 13, independent

Experimental data for a circular jet, verifying the approaching to self-

Experimental data for a circular

Measurements in a plane mixing

= const Uu max b 2 (round wake)

b = const x1/ 2 u max = const x 1/ 2 (plane wake)

Measurements of plane wakes behind various-shaped bodies: (a) mean-velocity defect;

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

Growth of Velocity decay Growth of Velocity decay

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