Carbon Nanotubes

by Matthew Tiszenkel

Definition:

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical lattice shape. The diameter

of the tubes measures on the nanometer scale making CNTs a nanomaterial. However, the length of

CNTs range from the nanometer scale to over half a meter. CNTs come in a molecularly perfect form,

Single-walled CNTs (SWNT), and an often structurally flawed form, Multi-walled CNTs (MWNT).

SWNTs are a single layer of graphite hexagonally bonded together to form a perfect hollow cylinder.

This cylinder is much stronger and thinner than a MWNT; at .7nm-2nm it is 100,000 times thinner than

a human hair. Carbon nanotubes also come in three unique geometries. Carbon nanotubes can be either

armchair, zigzag or chiral depending on which access the carbon sheet is wrapped around to form a

tube. Each geometry of CNTs has different electrical and mechanical properties. Due to its low

electrical resistance, light weight, and impressive length-to-diameter ratio, carbon nanotubes could be

the future of technology.

History of Carbon Nanotubes:

The history of CNTs begins where all modern stories of carbon allotropes begin, with the

discovery of the Buckminsterfullerene, or C60. Along with C60, many other fullerenes were discovered

including C70 and C84. These fullerenes were a new class of carbon molecules that all shared one key

characteristic, they all had 12 pentagonal faces, along with a varying array of hexagonal faces. C60 was

unique in that it was round like a soccer ball but other fullerenes had a more ovular shape. In 1990, Dr.

Richard Smalley hypothesized that, in theory, a tubular fullerene should be possible. It was over 30

years earlier, in the late 1950s, that Roger Bacon had discovered CNTs but did not fully comprehend

what he was looking at. He was studying a new carbon fibre and observed straight, hollow tubes of

carbon that appeared consist of sheets of graphite. In the 1970s, CNTs were once again discovered and
went unappreciated by Morinobu Endo who observed the same tubes made up of a single rolled up

layer of graphite. It wasn't until 1991, after the discovery of fullerenes, that Sumio Iijima observed

MWNTs formed by a carbon arc discharge. Finally, in 1993 Iijima and Donald Bethune at IBM

observed SWNTs, or buckytubes, as they had been known to be called.

Atomic Structure of Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon Nanotubes, as stated above, are an allotrope of carbon. This means they are made up

entirely of the element carbon. Originally, it was thought that carbon had only two forms: graphite and

diamond. Both graphite and diamond are made entirely of carbon, the difference is how the individual

carbon atoms are bonded together. For diamond, every carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms

in a three dimensional tetrahedral structure, making diamond very hard and difficult to break. Graphite,

on the other hand, is made of two dimensional sheets of what looks like chicken wire. These sheets are

held together through Van der Waals forces that are nowhere near as strong as a chemical bond. This

allows graphite to be used as for pencil lead because it is easy to separate into sheets. Additionally,

graphite makes a great lubricant. CNTs are simply rolled up sheets of graphite its properties are very

similar.

Bonding

Carbon nanotubes have two forces at play in their bonding. Firstly, they have a very strong

chemical bond between the individual carbon atoms in a single tube. These are the same covalent

bonds we see in a single sheet of graphite. Each carbon atom in a nanotube is covalently bonded to 3

other carbon atoms. Each nanotube is entirely composed of sp2 bonds, which are even stronger than the

sp3 bonds found in diamond. These bonds give them an incredible strength. Additionally, CNTs have a

natural tendency to align themselves to neighboring CNTs, in a rope like formation, through Van der

Waals forces. This tendency will hopefully allow for super strong and electrically conductive nanotube
based ropes and wires in the near future.

Conductivity:

As stated in the definition, CNTs come in three geometric flavors depending on the roll

orientation of the graphene sheet. These flavors: armchair, zig-zag and chiral, have unique electrical

properties dependent on their chiral vector C = (n,m). Armchair formation exists when C = (n,n). This

flavor has metallic electrical properties at all times. Zigzag tubes exist when C = (n,0). These CNTs

have metallic properties when n is a multiple of three but are semiconducting otherwise. Lastly, there

are chiral tubes. These tubes exists at C = (n,m) when m 0 and n. They are metallic when (2n+m)/3 is

an integer; otherwise they are semiconducting. Theoretically speaking, when carbon nanotubes are

conducting like metals, they can conduct ballistically. This means that the electrons are transported

with negligible electrical resistance caused by scattering. Typically, resistivity exists when an electron

moving inside of a medium, like copper wire, is scattered due to impurities or defects in that medium.

In a perfectly symmetrical and hollow medium, like a SWNT, the electrons are allowed to travel freely

from one end to the other without risk of being thrown off course.

Applications of Carbon Nanotubes:

Composite Materials:

Due to the incredibly strong structural integrity of CNTs, there have been proposals to

incorporate them into many different consumer items from clothes and sporting goods to combat

materials and even a theoretical space elevator. Unfortunately, the space elevator is a long time away

but many companies are already working on CNT composite sporting goods like baseball bats, tennis

rackets, hockey sticks, skis and golf clubs. The goal is to make enhanced strength, ultralight, and

reduced friction goods for athletes all over the world to enjoy. Sadly, when attempting to incorporate

CNTs into fibers, yarns and films, their strength falls far short of their theoretical maximums. Thus we

are still waiting for improvements in order to make lightweight tactical clothing like bulletproof shirts
and pants for our military. Only time, effort and patience will tell if CNTs can be utilized to their

theoretical potentials.

Stealth:

Recently, it has been proposed that applying MWNTs as a paint to the outside of planes will

allow radar to be absorbed because radar operates in the microwave range which can be absorbed by

MWNTs. Additionally, nanotubes neither reflect, nor absorb light making planes nearly invisible in the

night sky. However, due to manufacturing difficulties it would not be possible to coat an entire plane

in CNTs at this time. Surrey Nanosystems did just create a black they named Vantablack. This CNT

based black coating is considered to be the truest black we have on earth as it absorbs 99.96% of light.

Hopefully, as production costs decrease, we will see this product come to market and be able to further

improve our military's stealth operations.

Transistors:

Another very exciting potential use for CNTs, especially for Moore's Law enthusiasts, is to

create CNT based transistors. With current methods for creating transistors, Moore's Law is quickly

running its course. However, the idea is to create carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (CNTFETs)

to replace the MOSFETs on the market today. CNTFETs would be capable of switching using a single

electron. Additionally, while CNTs are an excellent conductor of electricity, they do not generate a lot

of heat like traditional metal solutions. This would mean smaller and faster computers as the need for

large heatsinks, fans or other cooling methods would diminish.

Solar Cells:

Due to their excellent UV/Vis absorption characteristics, SWNTs could potentially be used to

revolutionize solar power. Preliminary research by the New Jersey Institute of Technology has shown
that even in their current, unoptimized state, a combination of carbon nanotubes and buckyballs can be

used to create cells with a considerable increase in efficiency over current solar cell technology.

Miscellaneous Electronics:

In addition to transistors and solar cells, CNTs can generate strong magnetic fields so advances

are being made in using them for radio antennas and other electromagnetic devices. Also, conductive

CNTs have been used to replace carbon black brushes in commercial electric motors. These brushes are

better lubricated, cooler and less brittle than traditional brushes. It may even be possible to use CNTS

instead of tungsten filaments to make lightbulbs that will not burn out for much longer.

Risks:

In April of 2013, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) posted a bulletin about a

study preformed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) regarding long

term exposure to Carbon Nanotubes. NIOSH determined, through animal testing, that exposure to

CNTs may pose a respiratory hazard. NIOSH proposed a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1

g/m3 elemental carbon as a respirable mass 8-hour time-weighted average concentration. The NIOSH

REL was designed to reduce the risk of pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis. Considering the

uncertainty of the chronic health effects of prolonged exposure to CNTs, including the potential

carcinogenic properties of CNTs, it is recommended that exposure to CNTs be limited as much as

possible. Lastly, preliminary findings were shared in the bulletin from a laboratory study where mice

were exposed by inhalation to MWNTs. The study found that mice receiving both an initiator chemical

and inhalation exposure to MWNTs were more than 90% more likely to develop tumors than mice who

received the initiator chemical alone. NIOSH and the CDC urge all employers of persons who work

with CNTs to share this information and to set up medical surveillance programs for said employees.

Conclusion:

In sum, carbon nanotubes are an interesting and relatively new field of study for scientists
around the world. Between their interesting atomic structure, bonding, tensile strength and electrical

conductivity, there are a lot of mysteries about CNTs for scientists to discover. Additionally, their use

in consumer, scientific and commercial products around the world will likely grow exponentially in the

future as it has in the 26 years since they started to be understood. Furthermore, their continued study

will hopefully yield more accurate information on the potential negative health effects to long and short

term exposure. It will be a long road for carbon nanotubes but it will be very interesting to see if they

will take the world to new heights.

Works Cited

Nigam, R., et al. "Electrical Conductivity of Metal-Carbon Nanotube Structures: Effect of Length and

Doping." Bulletin of Materials Science, vol. 37, no. 5, Aug. 2014, pp. 1047-1051. EBSCOhost,

doi:10.1007/s12034-014-0043-0.

RAO, P. SUBBA, et al. "Estimation of Mechanical Properties of Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes Using

Molecular Mechanics Approach." Sadhana, vol. 40, no. 4, June 2015, pp. 1301-1311.

EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&db=aph&AN=108791649&site=ehost-live.

Dahm, Matthew M., et al. "Occupational Exposure Assessment in Carbon Nanotube and Nanofiber

Primary and Secondary Manufacturers." Annals of Occupational Hygiene, vol. 56, no. 5, July

2012, pp. 542-556. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&db=aph&AN=77692899&site=ehost-live.

Glukhova, O., et al. "Atomic Structure of Energetically Stable Carbon Nanotubes/Graphene

Composites." Physics of the Solid State, vol. 57, no. 5, May 2015, pp. 1009-1013. EBSCOhost,
doi:10.1134/S106378341505011X.