Homogenous: Units of both sides of Systematic Error: Results that differ from the true

equation balances out. values by a fixed amount.

Random Error: Results that scatter around a mean
Q aX bY Q aX bY value.
Q X Y
m n Q X m Y n Precision: Agreement with each other.
Q X Y Accuracy: Closeness with actual value.
Absolute error is in 1 sf Q
Qty is in same dp as absolute error Fractional Error
Q
Q
v u at Fd v % Error 100%
Q
v 2 u 2 2as Fd v 2 Thermal Equilibrium: Rate of heat gain = Rate of heat loss No net
s 1 2 (u v)t flow of heat
s ut 1 2 at 2 0th law: If A and B are separately in thermal eqm with C, then A and B
U Q W are in thermal eqm with each other.
1st law: Internal Energy of a system is dependant only on its state. An
increase in the U of a system is the sum of work done on the
Absolute Zero: Minimum Internal Energy at 0K.
system and the heat supplied to the system.
Specific Heat Capacity: The qty of heat required to raise the Internal Energy: The sum of all microscopic KE
temperature of 1kg of the material by and PE of molecules in the object.
1K. Temperature: A measure of the average KE.
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion: The heat energy required to
change the state of 1kg of the W Fx W pV
material from solid to liquid
without a change in
temperature. Isothermal: No T; pV nRT p 1V
Isovolumetric: No V
pV NkT where k is Boltzmann constant
Isobaric: No p
pV 1 Nm c 2 Adiabatic: No Q; switches between isotherms
3

3
2 kT 1
2 m c2 Mean KE of molecule Inertia: A bodys reluctance to change its state of
rest/motion.
d (mv) Mass: A measure of a bodys inertia.
F ma
dt 1st law: A body continues its state of rest of motion or rest unless a
p mv resultant external force acts on it [Inertia].
2nd law: Rate of change of momentum is proportional to resultant force
Impulse Ft p and acts in the direction of the force [F=ma].
3rd law: If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal
Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum: but opposite force on body A [action-reaction pair].
When bodies in a system interact, the total
momentum remains constant, provided no net
external force acts on the system.

m1u1 m2 u 2 m1v1 m2 v2 a Where W = weight
For elastic collisions, u1 u 2 v2 v1 W = effective weight
S = W (action-reaction)
S
Effective weight:
S W = ma
Total force tt obj exerts on a spring W
scale.
Hookes Law: The extension of a spring is proportional to Couple: Pair of equal and opposite parallel forces
the load if the limit of proportionality is not exceeded. whose line of action do not coincide.
Fl
F kx W 1
2 Fx W 1
2 kx2
Translation Eqm: Resultant force is zero.
kx2
2 2
Work Done 1
2
1
2 kx1 Rotational Eqm: Resultant torque about any axis
in extending is zero.
spring 1
2 k ( x 2 x1 ) 2 F
1
2 k ( x 2 x1 )( x 2 x1 ) F2
1
2 ( x 2 x1 )( F2 F1 )

A F1
F
p
A
p hg 0 x1 x2 x

( hg) A
Resultant hgA N
Upthrust
V g
W
mg mv 2
N W
.: Upthrust = weight of fluid displaced r
.: Resultant force = W - U mv 2
If mg , water will stay in bucket
r
mv 2
N W 0
Scalar qty W Fs cos r

Energy: The capacity to do work. s r Centripetal force:

KE: E possessed by virtue of its motion. Rate of of
PE: E possessed by virtue of its position.
v r angular A force that acts perpendicular to
the direction of motion and
2 displacement directed towards the center of the
Work-Energy T
Theorem W 1
2 mv 2 1 2 mu 2 circular path.
v v v2
d ( Fs ) a v
P Fv t t r
dt
m1 m2
F G
2
2

mr 2 G
Mm
mr
Mm
G 2
r2
r2 T r Gravitational Field Strength: GM d
g 2
Keplers T 2 4 r 3
2 Gravitational force per unit
mass r dr
Third Law GM h 1 2 g (t ) 2
where r = radius of circular motion
M=center of mass of circular motion Geostationary satellite:
Rotates at the same angular velocity as
GMm
GPE U the Earth, located above the Equator
r
Since PE at is zero, and work is done by Gravitational Potential:
gravity to bring an object from to a pt, The work done per unit mass by an external agent in
hence, GPE is negative [still scalar] bringing a small mass from infinity to that point.
GM
Escape Velocity => GPE + KE 0
r
 a
x x 0 sin t 2 x0
a 2 x
x x 0 cos t
SHM is the motion of a body, whose
Vmax x0 x acceleration directly proportional to
0 displacement and directed towards a fixed
v
point.
x0
2 x0
The negative sign shows tt a and x are
always opposite and directed towards
x equilibrium.
v x0 x 2
2
x0 0 x0
Displacement
x0 Energy Light: Oscillation decays exponentially.
Critical: Returns to equilibrium v.quickly.
Total Energy
Heavy: No oscillation; returns to
E
2
1 mvmax equilibrium v.slowly.
2 PE
Ek 1
2 m x0 x
2
2 2

Ep 1
2 m x 2 2
KE t
displacement x0
Amplitude
Resonance
E
Total

PE No
e Damping

x
KE f
mg k (e x) ma
0 t
mg ke kx ma
kx ma
Transverse: Particles of the medium move in a direction
k
xa 2x a v f perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.
m
x
2
k Longitudinal: parallel
m 2
A series of high and low pressure regions called
P P compressions and rarefactions.
I
Area 4r 2 EM waves:
I kA2 where A is amplitude oscillating electric and magnetic fields which are
perpendicular to each other and the dir of wave
Radio waves >0.1m propagation.
Microwaves 0.1m 0.1mm
wavelength

Polarised: particles vibrate in the same plane.

Infra-red 0.1mm - 700nm
Visible light 700nm 400nm Stationary wave: Amplitude same.
UV 400nm 1nm Frequency same.
X-rays 1nm 10pm Wavelength same.
Direction different.
Gamma rays <10pm
 Principle of SuperPosition: Diffraction: Bending of waves around the sides of an
When 2 or more waves arrive at the same pt at the same aperture. (aperture size should be
time, the resultant displacement is equal to the vector comparable to wavelength of wave)
sum of the individual displacements due to each wave.
Interference:
Wave is confined in a given space; no propagation of Superposition of coherent waves from identical
energy. sources to form an observable pattern.
>Same amplitude
Fundamental Mode = 1st Harmonic [c=v/2L] >Polarised in the same plane
Overtone = 2nd ++ harmonic >Coherent (in phase/constant phase diff)
Where x is fringe width; dist
Stationary waves are formed for which Youngs D
wavelength:string length = a simple ratio (eg. 3:1) double slit x between adjacent bright/dark
a fringes
L
Diffraction d sin n n
Grating

4L c c 2L c
QQ
F 1 22 End Correction:
4 0 r Air molecules are slightly attracted to pipe material,
Electric field strength:
F Q thus antinode is located slightly beyond the open end.
Force per unit charge acting on a
E
q 4 0 r 2 small positive charge placed at that
point. Q It Current: Rate of flow of charge.
U q V
Electric Potential: Charge: A fundamental property of matter
Q Work done by external force in tt is ve or +ve and gives rise to E force.
V
4 0 r moving a unit positive charge from
infinity to the point. Coulomb: Qty of charge that passes a pt in
dV q can be ve or +ve a circuit in 1s when there is 1A.
E V = Vfinal - Vinitial
dr
W Pd: Amt of E energy converted to other
V V
E Q
forms when a unit charge passes from one
d pt to another. [EMF is reverse]

Max Power when Volt: Pd between 2pts in which 1J is

+ - V
external R = internal R. R converted when 1C passes thru.
e- I
R1
V V l Resistance: Ratio of the pd to the current.
1
R R 2 R
P IV A Ohm: Resistance of a conductor in which
2 1A passes thru when pd is 1V.
V

R I I I
I 2R

0 V 0 V 0 V

Ohmic Filament Diode

 0 I Flux density from an
F BIl sin
Flemings LEFT HAND to
B infinitely long wire predict magnetic force.
2r
0 NI At the centre of a circular
B wire
Unit is
F BQv sin
2r Tesla
B 0 nI Inside of a solenoid d Flemings RIGHT HAND to
E
B 1
2 0 nI At the end of a solenoid dt predict induced Emf.

Faradays Law
Lenzs Law: The product of the area and magnetic flux
The induced current always flows in a direction NBA sin density that passes through it perpendicularly.
to oppose the change that produces it. Weber (Wb)

d 2QV Acceleration thru

[AC Generator] E 1 mv 2 QV v
dt 2 an electric field
m
d sin
NBA E Velocity Selector
dt BQv QE v where E is E-field
NBA cos t B
strength NOT Emf.
E Blv sin
r d ( BA sin )
r E
Br sin 2 dt
2 d ( Bls sin )
r
1 2 Br 2 sin dt
2 Blv sin [Moving Rod]
Br 2
1
2 sin
T
BAf sin [Rotating Disc]

I I 0 sin t Irms:
I rms I2 The value of the steady current which would dissipate heat at the
V V0 sin t same rate in a given resistance as the AC.
I
For sinusoidal only: I02
I0 V0 P0
I rms Vrms P
2 2 2 I02/2
I rms R
2
I0

When AC flows thru primary, it sets up a varying

mag field in core which links primary to 0 t
secondary. With Faradays, varying mag field
induces AC EMF across the wire in secondary. -I0
2
Heating effect of Wires of low resistance P
Vs I p N s Plost Rcable
current across cables
V
Vp I s N p Heating effect of eddy Laminated iron core, cutting
currents across eddy currents
Rectification:
Heat loss from Soft, easily magnetized iron Process of changing AC to DC.
magnetizing / reversing
the magnetic poles
Photoelectric emission is the I Vs I
Obj A
emission of e- from a metal
surface when exposed to EM
waves of sufficiently high Obj B
frequency.

0
mvmax eV s -Vs
1 2 f 0 V
2 0 intensity
E hf
hf KE max Work function is the Maxwellian model:
min energy to liberate There should be measurable time lag between emission and
eV s an e- from its surface irradiation.
The max KE of photoelectron should depend on intensity, not
h
p frequency.
Photoelectric emission should occur for all wavelengths since
energy is transmitted in a continuous manner.
Emission Spectra:
Gas is heated/bombarded with e-. e- are excited, Absorption Spectra:
before emitting a photon. Diffraction Grating is When white light passes through cool gas, characteristic
used to study line spectra. frequencies of photons are absorbed. When these excited
atoms return to a lower state, the emitted photons are
scattered in all directions.
.:Dark lines.
Relative Intensity

Kb X-rays are produced when the incident e- had been accelerated by a high
voltage.
Not all e- are stopped in a single collision => Continuous broad spectrum
Sharp intense lines when e- are knocked out of the n=1 shell.
Ka
K-alpha for n=2 to n=1.
K-beta for n=3 to n=1.

Wavelength Heisenburgs uncertainty principle

xp
2
h Uncertainty in e- momentum is as large as
p momentum of incoming photon

p x Smallest dist that produces separate image
x small xk x 1
2 x large
k large k small Energy-time uncertainty
Et
2 2
k The more localized the wave packet (), the
larger the range of wavelengths (k) needed.
exponentially 2m(U E )
decreasing T exp( 2kL), k R T 1
sinusoidal region
Non-zero amplitude
indicates probable A microscope is limited in its resolution by the
U transmission wavelength of the waves used for the image.

An electron microscope is limited by the low

x wavelength, high momentum of Debroglie
.: pentration of the material surface.

STMs limitation is the conductivity of the sample.

L
 Laser (read the notes) Isotopes: Nuclei that have the same proton number but different number
Coherent: In phase of neutrons.
Collimated: Same dir
Monochromatic: 1 wavelength u: atomic mass unit; 1/12th of the mass of a 12C atom.

m ( Zm p Nmn ) m nucleus
( Zm p Nmn ) (m A Zme )
ZmH Nmn m A
Mass Defect m: The difference between the sum of the masses of the
nucleon and the mass of the actual nucleus.
BE mc 2
Fe

BE per nucleon
Coulomb repulsion > nuclear force
Conservation of
Charge U
Momentum
Mass-Energy
Mass number
Fusion Fission

H
Radioactivity is the random and
spontaneous decay of an unstable nucleus Mass no, A
to a more stable one by emission of
particles and/or radiation.
Helium-4 nuclei Air range of 3 - 4cm
Random: Dont know which and particles High Ionising Power Stopped by paper
when a nucleus will decay
Low hazard unless ingested
Spontaneous: Not affected by other
Moderate Ionising Power Stopped by 5mm of Al
environmental factors
High speeds (0.5c) Stopped by surface tissues
Produced when excited nuclei Stopped by few cm of lead
Background radiation is systematic returns to ground state Main radiation hazard due to
error. Weak Ionising Power deep penetration
Cancer, leukemia, cataracts,
hereditary defects
Store in lead containers when not in use.
Handle with a pair of tongs.

dN Decay Constant is the probability of decay of a nucleus per unit

N time.
dt Where N is the no. of undecayed nuclei. N
N N 0 e t
dN
A N A0 e t Activity A, is the rate of decay. (Bq) Constant
dt Where A0 is the activity at t = 0. half-life
ln 2
t 12 Half-life is the time it takes for half of
a given no. of nuclei to decay.
n
N 1
Where n is the number of half-lives.
t
N0 2