Kina23201ens 002

European Commission
Research Fund for Coal and Steel

Promotion of steel in sustainable and
adaptable buildings
R. M. Lawson, E. Yandzio (1), P. Beguin (2), G. Nuesse (3), K. Luig (4),

J. Kesti (5), J. Widman (6)
(1) The Steel Construction Institute Buckhurst Road, Silwood Park, Ascot SL5 7QN, Berkshire, United Kingdom
(2) CTICM Domaine de Saint-Paul, 102, route de Limours, F-78471 Saint-Rmy-ls-Chevreuse Cedex
(3) FOSTA Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung, Sohnstrae 65, D-40237 Dsseldorf
(4) 3L Architects and Industrial Designers Office 2015, Horlecke 46, D-58706 Menden
(5) Ruukki Oyj Laajamentie 1, FI-13430 Hmeenlinna
(6) SBI Banrgatan 54, Box 27751, S-115 92 Stockholm
Contract No RFS2-CT-2005-00035
1 July 2005 to 30 June 2006
Final report
Directorate-General for Research
2008 EUR 23201 EN

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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2008
ISBN 978-92-79-08181-1
ISSN 1018-5593
European Communities, 2008

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FINAL SUMMARY
1. Objectives
The objective of this Type 2 dissemination project was to present the results of the previous
demonstration project on sustainable and adaptable forms of construction used in the residential sector.
Five demonstration projects had been constructed in a range of steel technologies, including light steel
framing, modular construction and primary steel frame and the buildings had been subject to a range of
pre-construction and on-site tests.
The dissemination project had various parts, culminating in seminars in the participating countries, a
series of 6 case studies, a concise publication on sustainability and a more detailed publication on
Building physics. The 4 page case studies were published in English and French, and the other two
publications were of 32 and 50 pages length respectively.
The Sustainability publication is the first of its type at a European level, and is included in full in this
Report.
2. Comparison of planned activities with work accomplished

The dissemination project was carried out in only 12 months, and all the national seminars were held in
June 2006. The publications took longer than expected because of the extensive commenting period
and many revisions that were required, and the whole project proved to be very demanding.
3. Description of activities
The following activities were carried out, which required meetings of the partners in Malmo in
October 2005, Rome in January 2005, London in April 2006, and Stockholm in August 2006.
3.1. Collection of test data

The test data obtained during the previous demonstration project was collected and analysed and a
separate report was prepared.
3.2. Case studies

A series of 6 case studies in an agreed 4 page format was prepared which covered the building form,
design concept, construction details and test and economic data, and project team.
3.3. Sustainability guide

A 32 page Sustainability guide was prepared, which covered:
background to sustainability
introduction to steel technologies
sustainability indicators
application and sustainability benefits of steel
sustainability assessment
This is published in full colour and is well illustrated. This publication exceeded the original target
length of 16 pages because of the volume of information included.
3
3.4. Building physics publication
This publication covers all aspects of the building physics performance of the use of steel in housing
and residential buildings including:
Building Regulations in the participating countries

Thermal performance
Hygrothermal performance
Typical forms of construction
Cladding systems
Relevant standards
The publication was prepared in draft form and circulated widely for comment.
3.5. Conclusions
This dissemination project has resulted in 3 important publications in key areas of design, which can be
used to promote the use of steel in the residential sector throughout Europe.
4. Exploitation and impact of the results

The information was presented in various national seminars and is the publications described above.
They are published in sufficient numbers for circulation through the steel information centres, and high
quality PDFs are available in order for the publications to be re-printed easily. Other language versions
can be prepared using the template that was created. A French language version of the case studies was
prepared.
The project is of high importance because the residential sector is expanding to meet new demands, and
steel is well placed to expand its market share, based on strong sustainability and building physics
arguments.
KEYWORDS
Housing
Residential
Steel
Modular
Thermal
Sustainability
Environmental
Testing
4
CONTENTS
Page No.
FINAL SUMMARY 3
KEYWORDS 4
1 INTRODUCTION 7
1.1 Partners in this project 7
1.2 Project objectives 7
2 CASE STUDIES 9
2.1 UK Case Study 9
2.2 Swedish Case Study 9
2.3 German Case Study 9
2.4 Finnish Case Study 9
2.5 Italian Case study 9
2.6 French Case study 10
UK Case Study 11
Swedish Case Study 15
German Case Study 19
Finnish Case Study 23
Italian Case Study 27
French Case Study 31
3 SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE 35
3.1 Publication content 35
3.2 The British approach based on EcoHomes rating (UK) 68
3.2.1 EcoHomes assessment 68
3.2.2 Code for Sustainable Homes 68
3.3 The French approach on sustainability of buildings 68
3.3.1 Eco-construction 68
3.3.2 Sustainability check list to EcoHomes 69
3.3.3 Eco-management 69
3.3.4 Comfort issues 70
3.3.5 Health and sanitary issues 70
3.3.6 Sustainability approach for building 70
3.4 The Finnish approach to sustainability 72
3.4.1 Introduction to ProP 72
3.4.2 Evaluation of sustainability 72
3.5 Sustainability comparisons of modular building with concrete building 75
3.6 Other key sustainability indicators 76
4 BUILDING PHYSICS GUIDE 81
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 Steel technologies for housing and residential buildings 81
4.2.1 Light steel framing in housing 81
4.2.2 Light steel framing in apartments 85
4.2.3 Modular construction 87
4.2.4 Primary steel frame with light steel infill walls 89
4.2.5 Light steel infill and separating walls 92
4.2.6 Types of cladding 94
4.3 Energy efficiency principles 98
4.3.1 European Energy Performance Directive 98
4.3.2 Energy consumption calculations 99
4.4 Performance of the building envelope 100
4.4.1 Heat loss through building envelope 101
4.4.2 Maximum U-value in Regulations 101
4.4.3 Thermal bridges 103
4.4.4 Linear thermal bridges 103
5
4.4.5 Point thermal bridges 103
4.4.6 Thermal properties of common building materials 104
4.5 Energy efficient steel solutions for building envelopes 105
4.5.1 Warm frame construction 105
4.5.2 Inter-stud insulation 105
4.5.3 Perforated steel sections 106
4.5.4 Steel cladding to achieve U-value of 0.25W/m2K 107
4.5.5 Thermal performance of light steel walls 110
4.5.6 Performance of thermal studs 111
4.5.7 Simplified U-value calculation for brick-clad wall 113
4.5.8 Effect of thermal inertia 114
4.6 Ventilation and air-tightness 114
4.6.1 Natural ventilation 115
4.6.2 Mechanical exhaust ventilation 115
4.6.3 Mechanical exhaust and supply ventilation with heat recovery 115
4.6.4 Cooling energy demand 116
4.6.5 Air-tightness 116
4.6.6 Measured air-tightness 117
4.7 Moisture control 118
4.7.1 Basic theory of condensation 118
4.7.2 Moisture control 119
4.7.3 Influence of thermal bridging on moisture control 119
4.8 Energy saving and renewable energy 120
4.8.1 Photovoltaics 120
4.8.2 Planar solar connectors 121
4.8.3 Warm air collectors 122
5 TESTS PERFORMED BY THE PARTNERS 123
5.1 Tests performed in the UK 123
5.1.1 Thermal and air-tightness tests on the demonstration building 123
5.1.2 Acoustic test results on the demonstration building 124
5.1.3 Thermal analysis of wall panels 125
5.1.4 Background testing of steel-timber floor joists 128
5.2 Tests performed in Sweden 134
5.2.1 Scope of physical testing 134
5.2.2 Physical testing and data 134
5.2.3 Sound insulation and springiness 138
5.3 Tests performed in Finland 139
5.3.1 Steel roof integrated solar systems 139
5.3.2 Monitoring of Villa 2000 141
5.3.3 Monitoring of Loiste building 143
5.3.4 Conclusions from site measurements 144
5.4 Tests performed in France 144
5.4.1 In service monitoring hygrothermic and thermal performance 144
5.4.2 Acoustic behaviour 150
6 SEMINARS 151
6.1 Seminar in the UK 151
6.2 Seminar in Germany 152
6.3 Seminar in Sweden 152
6.4 Seminar in Italy 152
List of tables 153
List of figures 154
REFERENCES 159
6
1 INTRODUCTION
This final report presents the results of a Type 2 dissemination project (RFCS2-CT2005-00035) which
addresses the use of steel technologies as applied to the residential sector that may be considered to be
both adaptable and sustainable. The former demonstration project for which the dissemination activities
were performed was an ECSC project 7215-PP-058 Steel in Residential Buildings for Sustainable and
Adaptable Construction, whose final report was published in 2004[1]. The final report on the
dissemination activities covers the following aspects:
Case studies of 6 demonstration projects
Publication on sustainability
Background tests and their evaluation
Review of sustainability methodologies
Publication on Building Physics
Seminars held in 4 countries
Other case studies and supporting information.
1.1 Partners in this project

These aspects are covered in more detail in the following Sections. The partners in this dissemination
project are:
The Steel Construction Institute (SCI) UK
Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Mtallique (CTICM) F
Ruukki Fin
Stlbyggnadsinstitutet (SBI) Swe
Centro Sviluppo Materiali (CSM) It
Forschung Stahlanwendung eV (and 3-L Architects) (FoSTA) De
The final report was prepared by the project coordinator, SCI with contributions from the partners.
1.2 Project objectives

The objective of this valorisation project was to disseminate efficiently the technical knowledge and
design guidance gained from the ECSC research project Steel in Residential Buildings for Sustainable
and Adaptable Construction (contract 7215-PR-058) through the publications and seminars.
The overall objective was achieved through the following specific objectives:
Review of test information obtained from the previous ECSC project
Publications on Sustainability and Building Physics.
Case studies on the demonstration projects
Seminars in 4 countries
The project was divided into 3 work packages (WP) covering the range of technical and managerial
activities necessary for its successful execution. Each work package was divided into several
constituent tasks. The work packages are listed in Table 1.1.
7
Table 1.1 Summary of tasks in each work package
Work package (WP) Objectives
WP 1 Assimilation of test data Coordinator: Ruukki
Collect information on previous tests, including structure, thermal and
acoustic performance
WP 2 Evaluation of sustainability Coordinator: SBI Sweden
benefits Evaluate the sustainability benefits involved in pre-fabricated
construction technologies, as obtained from the demonstration projects
WP 3 Dissemination activities Coordinator: SCI
Prepare 6 Case studies in 4 page format.
Prepare Sustainability Guide (initially 16 pages)
Prepare draft Building Physics publication (initially 20 pages)
8
2 CASE STUDIES
A series of 6 case studies in 4 page format was presented for each of the demonstration projects in the
participating countries as follows:
2.1 UK Case Study

This project consisted of a hybrid modular and planar technology as applied to a multi-storey residential
building. This 'new way of building' was explored in terms of a prototype 2 storey building constructed
in a Corus factory, which was also subject to in-service tests and other component tests. Construction
costs and programme were also reviewed.
The case study was prepared by SCI and is presented in the following pages.
2.2 Swedish Case Study

The Swedish project consisted of a series of modular buildings using the Open House system which has
been used in two projects, the latest one for 500 apartments in Annestadt near Malmo. The system
consists of modular units with recessed corners, based on a 3.9 m grid, which uses Square Hollow
Section columns as the primary structural members. An environmental assessment was carried out for
this technology.
The case study was prepared by SBI and is presented in the following pages.
2.3 German Case Study

The German case study consists of a concept study of a modular building which is adaptable from
office to residential use. The original idea was to create a Generation House, that is adaptable as family
sizes change, but this was itself adapted as the project was in progress. A comparative study was made
of construction costs and programme.
The case study was prepared by architects 3L and is illustrated on the following pages.
2.4 Finnish Case Study

The Finnish case study is a large house built for the annual housing fair in Kotka. It consists of a steel
frame and light steel infill walls and floors, including also a basement. A series of pre-construction trials
and tests were carried out by VTT in the background project. Excellent thermal insulation and
air-tightness were obtained and the energy consumption was only 30% of a typical house in Finland.
The case study was prepared by Ruukki and is illustrated on the following pages.
2.5 Italian Case study

The Italian case study was carried out on the manufacture of a prototype extendable pre-fabricated unit,
primarily aimed at disaster relief. It was called 'Pull-to-Open', which describes the extension process.
The module is 2.35 m wide, and is extendable to 4.6 m.
This case study was prepared by CSM and is illustrated on the following pages.
9
2.6 French Case study
The French case study refers to a recent project designed and constructed using the PRISM system,
based on a composite frame with light steel infill walls. The original French demonstration project was
carried out for a medical centre in Nancy on a construction system known as CIBBAP, but this was
discontinued. After discussion with CTICM, a case study was prepared for a mixed steel-concrete
residential building using the PRISM concept.
This case study was prepared by CTICM and is illustrated on the following pages.
10
UK Case Study
11
12
13
14
Swedish Case Study
15
16
17
18
German Case Study
19
20
21
22
Finnish Case Study
23
24
25
26
Italian Case Study
27
28
29
30
French Case Study
31
32
33
34
3 SUSTAINABILITY GUIDE
3.1 Publication content
This publication addresses the common technological solutions for the use of steel in housing and
residential buildings, and the key aspects of sustainability that influence their design. The publication is
presented page by page in the following sections together with a commentary on the information that is
included.
The publication draws heavily on information that exists at both a European and national level in terms
of:
information on case studies on the use of steel in various projects including photographs and data
sustainability guide lines such as EcoHomes in the UK, HQE in France, Pro-P in Finland
background reports from the partners in the course of the demonstration projects
other national reports and European legislation
The images and other documentation inevitably are based on information that is provided from the
partners and concentrate on the strong, exciting markets for steel in residential buildings, notably the
UK, France and Sweden.
The publication is 32 pages long and it covers the following key aspects:
Background to sustainability
Introduction to steel technologies in housing and residential buildings
Key indicators of sustainability, materials and resources, waste, energy, transport, pollution, health
and social issues
Steel technologies in light steel framing, modular construction, primary steel frames etc
Sustainability assessments
The format follows the agreed sequence:

Front page showing a high profile residential project, which was selected as a project in Evreux
near Rouen, France by the well known architects, Dubosc and Landowski. This is a steel-intensive
building using a steel frame, flooring and roofing and is illustrated in Figure 3.1
Back page - contact addresses of the partners, as illustrated in Figure 3.2
35
Figure 3.1 Front page of the Sustainability Guide
36
Figure 3.2 Back page of the Sustainability Guide
37
Pages 2 and 3: An introduction to the publication gives the classical definition of sustainability by
Brundtland as "Meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their needs". Figure 3.3 shows a recent highly acclaimed project using
steel, and Figure 3.4 presents the introductory text.
Figure 3.3 A 5 storey modular building in the UK showing the internal courtyard
38
Figure 3.4 Page 3 presenting an introduction to sustainability
39
Pages 4 and 5: An introduction to steel technologies presents a range of building forms and steel
components, as illustrated in Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.5 Page 4 giving an introduction to the use of steel in housing and residential
buildings
40
Figure 3.6 Page 5 presenting an introduction to steel technologies
41
Pages 6 and 7: The key drivers for the use of steel are presented, together with a breakdown of
construction costs of a 6 storey residential building, and the key time and cost factors that are
relevant to various levels of prefabrication. These pages are presented in Figure 3.7 and Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.7 Cost drivers for the use of steel
42
Figure 3.8 Quality and time drivers for construction
43
Pages 7 and 8: Sustainability aspects of the use of steel in housing and residential construction are
reviewed, firstly focussing on 'Materials and Resources' and then on 'Waste'. The data on
construction materials and waste is taken from a CIRIA report (UK), but is also substantiated by a
Euroconstruct report. Re-cycling rates for steel are taken from an SCI/Corus publication, which
shows that up to 98% of steel is re-cycled. Information on current recycled content is not given
(although IISI give a 'global' figure of 42% recycled content). These pages are presented in
Figure 3.9 and Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.9 Background on sustainability materials and resources
44
Figure 3.10 Background on sustainability and waste of materials
45
Pages 9 and 10: Transport and energy are linked and are reviewed on facing pages. Energy use
covers both operational energy and embodied energy recognising that over a 50 year life cycle,
operational energy can be 20 times higher than embodied energy. Data on the embodied energy in a
steel-framed or masonry house are presented which shown that the embodied energy is 11% less
and the total weight is 29% less in comparison to more traditional construction (excluding
foundations and ground floor). These pages are presented in Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.11 Background on sustainability Transport
46
Figure 3.12 Background on sustainability Energy
47
Pages 12 and 13: Other aspects of sustainability are addressed on these pages, which refer to
aspects in terms of the building performance characteristics and solid interactions. Highly
pre-fabricated steel technologies reduce the impact of the construction process as regards the
locality, and also reduces pollution and disturbance. Higher levels of safety, productivity and
continuity of employment are achieved, as presented in Figure 3.13 and Figure 3.14.
Figure 3.13 Background on sustainability Pollution and performance
48
Figure 3.14 Background on sustainability other measures
49
Pages 14 and 15: Steel technologies are introduced by illustrating various components, such as
floor joists, wall panels and roof trusses. The project also illustrated is the Oakfern re-development
in Basingstoke, UK consisting of 250 houses and apartments in light steel framing, illustrated in
Figure 3.15 and Figure 3.16.
Figure 3.15 Steel technologies walls, floors and roofing
50
Figure 3.16 Steel technologies in housing continued
51
Pages 16 and 17: Light steel framing is primarily used in 23 storey housing and low-rise
buildings. Recent housing projects are illustrated in Figure 3.17 and Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.17 Light steel framing used in housing
52
Figure 3.18 Application and sustainability benefits of light steel framing in housing
53
Pages 18 and 19: Light steel framing is also used for multi-storey buildings of 3 to 6 storeys.
Various important residential projects are illustrated in Figure 3.19 and Figure 3.20
Figure 3.19 Light steel framing in multi-storey buildings
54
Figure 3.20 Application and sustainability benefits of light steel framing in apartments
55
Pages 20 and 21: Modular construction using volumetric units are composed of light steel wall,
floor and ceiling panels. These load-bearing modules may be designed up to 6 storeys height
without a stabilising structure of 8 or more storeys with a core or braced structure to resist
horizontal forces. Recent forms of modular construction are illustrated in Figure 3.21 and
Figure 3.22.
Figure 3.21 Multi-storey buildings using modular construction
56
Figure 3.22 Application and sustainability benefits of modular construction
57
Pages 22 and 23: Multi-storey buildings are often constructed using primary steel frames with light
steel infills to which the cladding is attached, as illustrated in Figure 3.24 and Figure 3.24.
Figure 3.23 Primary steel frames with light steel infill walls
58
Figure 3.24 Application and sustainability benefits of steel frames with light steel infill walls
59
Pages 24 and 25: The use of primary steel frames is presented, based on principles of composite
construction, and as illustrated in Figure 3.25 and Figure 3.26.
Figure 3.25 Other examples of the use of steel in residential building
60
Figure 3.26 Application of primary steel frames (continued)
61
Page 26: A sustainability assessment of the Open House system is presented in Figure 3.27, based
on a background SBI report. The results are presented relative to traditional concrete construction.
It was found that the lightweight steel construction weighed only 15% of the reference building,
and the embodied energy is reduced by 27%. Recycled content is increased by 41% and
recyclability by 77%.
Figure 3.27 Sustainability assessment of Open House in Sweden
62
Pages 27: The EcoHomes assessment is reviewed for a typical residential building and points
scoring methodology is described on the following pages, starting in Figure 3.27.
Figure 3.28 Sustainability assessment of a 6 storey residential building
63
Pages 28 and 29: The EcoHomes assessment is continued in more detail as shown in Figure 3.29.
Figure 3.29 Sustainability assessment (continued
64
Figure 3.30 Sustainability assessment total score of 72%
65
Pages 30 and 31: A sustainability check list is presented for the use of steel in the residential sector,
based on the previous criteria and is illustrated in Figure 3.31. A reference list is given in
Figure 3.32.
Figure 3.31 Sustainability check list
66
Figure 3.32 Reference list included in the Sustainability publication
67
3.2 The British approach based on EcoHomes rating (UK)
EcoHomes[2] is widely adopted as a way of qualifying the sustainability of a particular building project,
and its application is presented in the following sections, as related to a typical multi-storey residential
building in an urban location.
3.2.1 EcoHomes assessment

The EcoHomes assessment is represented by a number of criteria which form groups of issues that
relate to a particular area of environmental concern. These are weighted separately and each one earns
a percentage of the available credits in the following approximate percentages:
Energy 22.5%
Transport 9%
Pollution 7.9%
Materials 34.8%
Water 7%
Ecology 10.1%
Health & Wellbeing 9.0%
The following assessment criteria are explained as follows with reference to a hypothetical multi-storey
apartment project in using a primary steel frame and light steel infill walls, and located in a city centre
near good transport facilities. Many factors are not dependent on the form of construction:
As indicated in the Sustainability Guide, the assessment procedure leads to an overall total of 72%
which is Excellent. However, it is recognised that relatively few of the criteria are related directly to the
choice of structural system. Benefits not readily covered by these criteria are: impact of the construction
process on the locality, future adaptability in use, and materials re-use or recycling.
3.2.2 Code for Sustainable Homes

In December 2006, the Code for Sustainable Homes was launched by the British Government. It
provides basic minimum requirements for sustainable design of housing (primarily) and follows the
broad criteria of EcoHomes. It will be mandatory for all housing projects.
3.3 The French approach on sustainability of buildings

The ADEME "Agence de l'Environnement et de la Matrise de l'Energie" is a state body which assists in
initiatives in the field of sustainable construction.
The HQE association (HQE "Haute Qualit Environnementale" = High Environmental Quality), is a
private federation of building constructors and clients and has set a framework and criteria for
sustainable construction, taking account of:
Environmental requirements : use of primary resources and protection of the environment.
Comfort and health requirements.
Economical framework.
Social issues.
Taking account of these issues, the HQE association has set 14 targets that can be considered also as
broad indicators of a sustainable approach.
These targets are linked to the 4 sustainability categories defined above; and are explained as follows:
3.3.1 Eco-construction
To minimise the impacts of the building on its direct environment by:
Harmonious relation of the buildings with their close surroundings : site integration and site
opportunities to be achieved and nuisances effect to be minimised.
68
Integrated choice of construction products and materials, adaptability, durability, efficient sanitation
and minimum environmental impacts.
Low nuisance and low waste in site construction, taking account of deconstruction and waste
management.
3.3.2 Sustainability check list to EcoHomes

The following sustainability check-list for the use of steel in housing and residential buildings is based
on BRE EcoHomes, and relates to the building fabric and other design issues in choice of construction
system.
Criterion Comment on use of steel in construction

EN1 Energy Use CO2 production in service is reduced by energy efficient design, which
can be improved by off-site manufacture.
Renewable energy systems can be introduced into the roofing and
cladding
Embodied energy is minimised by use of lightweight construction. The
steel use is typically only 20 kg/m2 floor area.

2
EN2 Building Fabric High levels of thermal insulation can be achieved (< 0.25 W/m K) cost
effectively

3 2
Air-tight buildings can be achieved (< 5 m /m h air leakage)
Steel buildings can be extended and modified easily in the future.
TRA Transport Transport of materials and products is minimised by pre-fabrication.
Components can be delivered just in time to site.
Flexible space provision allows for multi-use, and can create a live-work-
play environment, which reduces the need for commuting.
Urban residential projects provide better links to public transport.
POL Pollution Steel components are inert and produce no noxious fumes
MAT Materials Steel construction scores high under BREs Green Guide to Housing
specification
Steel is robust to damage, durable and long life. Steel components are
free from movements due to creep and shrinkage.
Materials are used efficiently in off-site manufacture by ordering of
materials, reduction in damage etc.
Waste is minimised in production and on-site
Steel can be fully recycled or re-used. The asset value of modules is
maintained, when the building is dismantled.
WAT Water Water is recycled during steel production
Steel technologies are essentially dry processes on-site
ECO Ecology Buildings are designed to have minimum impact on the locality
Building footprint is reduced by building to medium or high-rise
HEA Health & Well-being Excellent acoustic insulation is achieved (> 60 dB sound reduction)
Flexible space use is provided, which can be re-configured easily by use
of light steel separating walls and partitions.
Minimum disruption during construction process, which is especially
important for renovation projects
Gas-tight and water-tight ground floors can be achieved
Off-site processes improve on-site safety. Conditions for workers are
much improved by high levels of investment in production.
3.3.3 Eco-management
To minimise the impacts of the building on its direct environment but also to reduce the running cost of
the "building" to meet social issues:
Energy management: reduce energy needs and particularly non-renewable energy. Promote the use
of renewable (green) energy, efficiency of energy and local source of energy, promote the use of
69
efficient heating systems (condensation boilers). Promote the use of efficient thermal envelope of
the building (RT2005 approach).
Water management: Save on use of fresh water, promote the use of rain water on the site for
secondary application, management on sewerage and water recycling.
Waste management: waste collecting, efficient routing of waste material (glass, plastics, papers, etc)
for efficient recycling leaving on waste deposits only the ultimate part of waste material.
Maintenance and longevity of the construction and performance: performance optimisation and low
maintenance needs.
3.3.4 Comfort issues

Hydrothermal comfort: good quality air, room comfort, a balance between heating and ventilation,
air tightness of the building envelope, balance between winter (heating) and summer (cooling)
comfort.
Acoustic comfort, limit airborne noise, both external and internal, disturbance as well as impact and
equipment noise.
Visual comfort: both on the outdoor view and the indoor lighting (energy saving in winter) and find
a correct balance between natural lighting and heat comfort.
Olfactive comfort, reduce the source of unfavourable odours/smells and plan for ventilation.
3.3.5 Health and sanitary issues

Sanitary conditions of the indoor environment: air and ambiance, cleaning approach.
Air quality: no pollution of construction material and equipment.
Water quality: pipe protection and high quality drinking water, service maintenance, management
of water, separation of waste waters.
3.3.6 Sustainability approach for building

The sustainable design approach is initiated by the voluntary approach of the project owner. This is not
an obligatory requirement but any project should identify the sustainable arguments or answer the
sustainability requirements of the project.
The approach is explicitly derived from:

The 14 targets defined above that are extended in a list of 143 requirements.
Appreciation criteria.
Indicators of sustainability.
An evaluation method.
An appreciation scale of the performance.
Compliance should lead to a certificate for sustainable construction. This certificate is the result of the
sustainable approach, taking account of these environmental aspects, and includes:
14 sustainable targets to be met.
Management of the project.
Social approach.
This is presently at experimental level but, until now, 24 projects have followed this approach in France.
The following table presente a summary of the 14 targets as a score board and 3 performance levels.
The performance is estimated relative to a base requirement that should be met. Depending from a
defined scale for each requirement, the appreciation is defined for:
Basic requirements met = base.
Better than basic requirements = performing.
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Much better than basic requirements = good performance.
To achieve the HQE certificate, the project shall at least have:
7 targets met at basic requirement level
4 targets met at basic performing level
3 targets met at good performance level
This evaluation takes account of the performance target and also the management approach and system
to maintain this performance during the lifetime of the building or project.
Table 3.1 Table for determination of the environment score profile of a project
Requirements
Target
Target Title Base not Base met Performance Every
Number
met level met performing
level met
1 Harmonious relation of the building with the

close environment
2 Relevant choice of building material,
systems and construction processes
3 Low nuisance construction site
4 Energy management
5 Water management
6 Waste management
7 Maintenance management
8 Hygrothermal comfort
9 Acoustic comfort
10 Visual comfort
11 Odours (smelling) comfort
12 Sanitary quality of the building environment
13 Sanitary quality of the indoor air
14 Water quality
HQE is a method of assessment and a tool to define the sustainability level. It is a

private initiative.
The HQE approach uses several background documents:
The SME document "Systeme de Management Environnemental" "Environmental management
System" that defines the methodology, Level requirement, the 14 targets and scale appreciation
for the certification. This text has been drafted by the HQE association.
The DEQE document "Dfinition Explicite de la Qualit Environnementale" "Explicit Definition
of Environmental Quality" the deeply define and explain the 14 targets and sub requirements for
these 14 targets. Document has been drafted by the HQE association.
The certification referential Drafted by the HQE association.
The standards documents on sustainable approach Drafted by AFNOR.
A series of documents Tools for environmental quality, notebook for sustainable construction
tools to estimate: evaluate the environmental efficiency of a project (whatever the field of this
project). These documents and tools were drafted by ADEME.
71
3.4 The Finnish approach to sustainability
3.4.1 Introduction to ProP
The indicators that describe the eco-efficiency and sustainability of a building are both qualitative and
quantitative in nature. The quantitative indicators can be verified by testing or calculations. The
qualitative indicators typically need an expert evaluation to be assessed. Table 3.2 gives an overview on
building properties classification and related indicators developed at VTT[3], and also an explanation of
eco-efficiency and cost-efficiency based on the classification. This classification was also the basis in
the target setting of the Finnish demonstration building Loiste.
Table 3.2 VTT ProP building properties classification used in Finland

A Conformity B Performance C Cost and Environmental D Process
Properties
A1 Location B1 Indoor conditions C1 Life-cycle costs D1 Briefing/Programming

A2 Services B2 Service life C2 Environmental pressure D2 Procurement
B3 Adaptability D3 Commissioning
B4 Safety D4 Operation
B5 Comfort
B6 Accessibility
B7 Usability
conformity + performanc e conformity + performanc e

Eco - efficienty = Eco - efficiency =
Environmen tal pressure life cycle costs
In the design brief for the Finnish demonstration project, the following general criteria for
eco-efficiency were considered:
Energy consumption of an eco-efficient building is considerably lower than of a building according
to the Finnish Building Code requirements of that time (and also requirements came into force in
later of the project October 2003).
Life cycle costs of an eco-efficient house are lower than with a typical house
Low environmental impact of the construction process and use of the building compared to typical
buildings
Eco-efficient building and its components have a long service life
Building materials and components are firstly re-usable, and second recyclable.
Eco-efficient building is comfortable, functional, healthy, accessible and adaptable for different
user needs.
High in-use safety
Sustainability targets for Loiste were set using VTT's Building Properties Classification VTT ProP
and the respective tool EcoProP (Requirements Management Tool, 2003,
http://cic.vtt.fi/eco/ecoprop/english/EcoProp_brochure.pdf).
The target scoring included also detailed requirements on components and products. It was clear right at
the start that all detailed requirements could not be verified easily. The sustainability target description
given below served as a guideline for both the building design and the selection of its components.
3.4.2 Evaluation of sustainability

The sustainability of the demonstration project was evaluated using 5-levels of targets. The basic level
for all categories is the building practice and legislative requirements at the time of design of the
building. The sustainability levels are defined as follows:
72
Level 5. Innovative solution aiming at high sustainability. This category outcome can be, e.g.,
minimised heating energy consumption, full adaptability of a space, long service life of a
building component etc.
Level 4. Best practice solution aiming at high sustainability. This category outcome can be, e.g.,
energy-efficiency by 50% lower heating energy consumption compared to typical level, high
adaptability of a space, long service life of a component etc.
Level 3. High sustainability of a solution. This category outcome aims at substantial improvement
compared to basic level, such as limited adaptability of a space within interior walls, 30 %
lower heating energy consumption compared to typical level, extended service life of a
component etc.
Level 2. Improved sustainability of a solution
Level 1. Basic level: Building code requirements, no sustainability targets.
The evaluation of the completed building is based on the criteria descriptions of the classification.
Evaluation data is based on measurements at the house, numerical simulation of performance, expert
opinion, and user interviews. Data on existing buildings is collected in various monitoring projects
carried out by VTT. The results of the evaluation are shown in the following Figures.
Figure 3.33 Sustainability evaluation of Finnish demonstration project and comparison to

existing buildings Indoor climate, Illumination, Service life
73
existing buildings Adaptability in design and use, Safety in use, Functionality
and comfort

existing buildings Cost properties, Ecology, Energy use, Design and
construction
74
3.5 Sustainability comparisons of modular building with
concrete building
The following data is taken from an assessment by SBI of the Openhouse modular system used in a
project near Malmo in Sweden. Various sustainability parameters are compared to an equivalent precast
concrete structure as used in a multi-storey residential building. It is reasonable to expect that these
sustainability benefits are broadly applicable to all modular construction in relation to more massive
concrete and masonry construction. The full report is given in SBI publication 229-2[4].
Table 3.3 Sustainability assessment of Openhouse

Sustainability Parameter Modular Building (Light Steel) Reference (Concrete/Brickwork)
148 kg/m2 2
Material use 982 kg/m
(15%)
54%
Materials from virgin sources 95%
(57%)
Embodied energy in as-built 215 kWh/m2 2

333 kWh/m
construction (65%)
45%
Recycled content 5%
(9 )
90%
Recyclability 10%
(9 )
100 kWh
Energy use (per annum) 162 kWh
62%)
Transport of components in 6 kWh

19 kWh
construction (33%)
Note: Embodied energy is equivalent to approximately 2 years operational energy
Transport energy is equivalent to 3 to 5% of embodied energy
Data taken from SBI Report 229-2[4].
75
3.6 Other key sustainability indicators
Major clients such as British Land in the UK have developed their own sustainability methodologies as
presented below.
Table 3.4 Sustainability indicators by client, British Land

A. SITE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD
Sustainability criteria Issue Aspect relevant to design & construction
Will the development and construction process

A1 Biodiversity Habitat impact on biodiversity?
Is natural ventilation feasible for the building

Air quality location and its environment?
What will be the noise and vibration levels

Noise during construction and use?
A2 Environmental conditions
Is solar shading necessary to reduce heat
Solar and lighting building up?
What is the effect of the development on the

Environmental wind local wind environment?
A3 Flooding Flood risk Is the building potentially subject to flooding?
What are the local planning commitments?

A4 Heritage Conservation In renovation projects, is part of the building to
be retained?
Is there any contamination risk in a brown

A5 Land Use Contamination risk field site?
A6 Local Character Local approvals Is the building in character in the locality?
Will the project offer local employment during

A7 Local economy Employment construction?
A8 Regeneration Encourage local use Will the project support affordable housing?
Public Transport Is the building close to public transport?
Pedestrian/bicycles Is suitable pedestrian access provided?

facilities
A9 Transport
Does the project minimise deliveries of
Freight traffic materials?
Has car parking been considered, eg below

Car parking ground?
76
Table 3.1 continued
B RESOURCE CONSUMPTION
Can the CO2 emissions be reduced by various

Carbon emissions measures (see below)?
Has embodied energy of materials been

Embodied energy considered?
Has the energy demand been estimated (k

B1 Energy Energy use 2
Wh/m /year)?
What is the proportion of renewable energy

Renewables sources?
What is the transport energy use to and from

Transport energy the building?
Can the construction be designed to minimise

Reduced materials materials use?
B2 Materials Use What is the proportion of recycled materials

Re-use/recycled used?
materials Which is he proportion of the construction
materials that can be re-used or recycled?
Is lean production used?

Do basic site processes and materials reduce
Waste reduction waste?
B3 Waste Management Is there opportunity for recycling of waste on
site and in production?
What are the mechanisms for safe disposal of

Disposal waste?
Can water use be minimised in safe

Water consumption construction process?
B4 Water Use Can water be recycled on site?
Is water abstraction required and what are its

Water abstraction implications?
77
Table 3.1 continued
C. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
Have sources of emission been identified and

Control controlled?
C1 Emissions Does the choice of construction machinery

Construction process impact on emissions?
Dust control Can dust be minimised or controlled on site?
Can ground excavation be minimised and

C2 Landscape Ground use earth re-used?
Minimise noise and How can noise and vibration be minimised in

C3 Noise and Vibration the construction process?
vibration
Has the community been involved in the

construction process to be used?
C4 Nuisance Minimise nuisance
Can sensible restrictions be made on working
time on site?
Is the construction process likely to result in

C5 Water Quality Water pollution water pollution?
Have water storage facilities been introduced?
C6 Biodiversity Habitat Can facilities be made during construction?
C7 Heritage Archaeology See A4.
C8 Land Contamination See A5.
C9 Lighting Intrusion Can site lighting be reduced at night?
C10 Pest Control Nuisance Is the construction resistant to pest attack?
78
Table 3.1 continued
D. USER COMFORT AND SATISFACTION
Is there sufficient access for vehicles and

pedestrians?
General access
D1 Access Can vehicle access be minimised during
construction?
Disabled access Does the building permit disabled access?
Indoor and outdoor

D2 Amenities
facilities
D3 Comfort, health and well Are thermal, noise and other comfort criteria
Comfort levels achieved?
being
D4 Connectivity Linking to local facilities
Minimise crime Is there adequate storage for equipment and

D5 Crime and Security materials on site?
opportunities
Is there opportunity for local employment in

D6 Employment Local employment construction?
D7 Equal Rights Employment
Is there construction process inherently safe?

D8 Health & Safety Construction safety
Has a safety plan been prepared?
D9 Human Rights Basic legislation
D10 Public Relations Public space
D11 Training and Education Worker training How will staff be adequately trained?
E. STAKEHOLDER DIALOGUE
E1 All Stakeholders Consultation
E2 Agencies and Have all potential issues been identified?

Consultation
Organisations
E3 Community Consultation
E4 Employee Can the construction staff identify any

Consultation concerns?
E5 Users and Occupants Consultation
79
4 BUILDING PHYSICS GUIDE
4.1 Introduction
The use of light steel and modular construction is increasing in housing and residential buildings and in
public buildings, where the benefits of lightweight, improved quality and speed of construction are
realised. In these applications, the performance of the building in service is very important. These
performance characteristics include many aspects of building physics of the building envelope, such as:
thermal insulation
air-tightness
control of condensation
durability
The light steel framework has an effect on these performance characteristics, and improved
performance can be achieved relative to more traditional building techniques. Thermal insulation is
characterised by the thermal transmission or U-value of the building envelope, and U-values
significantly lower (or better) than current Regulations are obtained using light steel framing.
Loss of heat by air infiltration through the building envelope can be responsible for over 50% of the
total heating requirement in a typical building. Modern light steel frames are considerably more air-tight
than brick- and blockwork for example, leading to reduced heating bills. Controlled ventilation systems
with heat recovery can be introduced.
This publication addresses the important aspects of building physics as applied to light steel framing. It
begins with an introduction to light steel and modular construction technologies, and identifies their
application benefits.
Typical examples of cladding systems achieving target U-values are illustrated. U-value calculations are
presented to show the influence of the various layers, including direct heat loss through the light steel
sections. Comparisons with 2 D thermal analyses illustrate the local temperatures on the internal face of
the building, which have to be controlled by careful design. In this respect, perforated of slotted or
thermally broken light steel components are beneficial.
Further information is given on renewable energy systems and other issues affecting building design.
4.2 Steel technologies for housing and residential buildings

A wide range of steel technologies may be used in the housing and residential building sectors, which
are reviewed as follows. Their features and range of applications are also presented.
4.2.1 Light steel framing in housing

Light steel framing is used for single family housing, terraced housing and smaller apartment or multi-
occupancy buildings. The various steel components that may be used in their applications are:
pre-fabricated load-bearing wall panels using C sections (see Figure 4.1)
floor joists, usually of C or Z sections that are placed individually or installed as pre-fabricated
floor cassettes
lattice joists or I beams used for longer spans
non-load bearing wall panels used as partitions between rooms
open habitable roofs using light steel C sections
composite slabs used in water-tight ground floors and basements
cladding and roofing systems, such as composite panels
81
Figure 4.1 Factory production of light steel wall panels
Bracing can be provided by:

integral bracing manufactured within the wall panel
X-bracing fixed externally to the wall panel
diaphragm action of boards, such as gypsum boards, plywood or cement-particle board
Thermal insulation is provided by rigid-insulation boards placed externally to the light steel framework
in warm frame construction, and additionally by mineral wool placed between the C sections, in the
form of inter-stud insulation. In external walls and roofing, slotted or perforated C sections may be used
to reduce heat loss due to cold bridging, and are preferred in highly insulating applications.
Features Application Benefits

Floor depth of 200 to 300 mm using light steel joists, No separate structure is required. Walls are
or 350 to 500 mm using lattice joists load-bearing and support floors directly
Spans of 3 to 5 m between load-bearing walls Wall panels and floor cassettes may be pre-
Self weight of 0.6 to 1.0 kN/m2 fabricated for rapid installation
2 or 3 storey housing often with useable roof space Lattice joists achieve longer spans and allow for
services in the floor zone
Fire resistance of 30 or 60 minutes provided by
plasterboard Low self weight reduces loads on foundations
Acoustic insulation through multiple layers Fire resisting plasterboard provides fire resistance
and acoustic insulation
External walls are braced for stability
Useful for roofs and roof-top extensions, where light
weight is important
Form of construction:
Walls Floors
Load-bearing walls comprise C sections of 75 to Floor joists comprise C sections of 150 to 250 mm
150 mm depth, which are pre-fabricated into panels depth, or
Walls support floor joists by Z sections or cleats Long span lattice joists of 225 to 400 mm depth
Wall height of 2.4 m (typically) Floor boarding of 19 mm thickness with battened
Walls provide for building stability through internal floor or mineral wool layer for acoustic insulation
bracing or cross-flats Single layer of plasterboard ceiling for acoustic
Diaphragm action can be provided by cement insulation and fire resistance in housing
particle board etc
External walls can support lightweight cladding
Brickwork is generally ground supported
Typical examples of light steel framing in housing are illustrated in Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3.
82
Figure 4.2 Typical light steel framing for 2 storey housing
Figure 4.3 Single family housing in Finland
83
Figure 4.4 House using light steel framing to create a curved roof, Oxford
Figure 4.5 Semi-detached house using light steel framing and brick cladding
84
4.2.2 Light steel framing in apartments
Light steel framing may also be used in multi-storey apartments of 36 storeys height. The same forms
of construction may be used as for housing, except that the loading is higher and consequently the light
steel sections are deeper or thicker. Other forms of construction are:
pre-fabricated wall panels often with pre-attached cladding (see Figure 4.6)
mixed use of hot rolled steel and light steel components (see Figure 4.7)
thin gypsum screed placed on steel decking and supported by light steel floor joists
composite slabs used as intermediate separating floors
separating walls between apartments
A wide variety of building forms can be created, often require different uses at ground floor from the
upper floors. For example, in urban locations, shops or community space is provided, as illustrated in
Figure 4.8. In multi-storey apartment buildings, higher fire resistance periods and acoustic insulation
are required, which leads to the use of composite intermediate floors.
Figure 4.6 Large pre-fabricated wall panels with perforated C sections

Load bearing walls of 3 to 6 storeys Medium-rise apartments with walls at 4 6 m
Long span floor joists (often of lattice form) spacing
Habitable roof space can be created in steel Longer spans achieve flexibility in internal room
positions
Light weight construction
More usable and efficient space provision
Multiple layers of boards for acoustic insulation and
fire resistance Reduces foundation loads
Hot rolled steel posts (often SHS) can be placed Excellent acoustic insulation
strategically 60 minutes fire resistance
Heavier loads can be resisted locally
85
Walls Floors
Load-bearing walls comprise C sections of 100 to Longer span floor joists of 200 to 300 mm depth
150 mm depth in thicknesses of 1.5 to 2.8 mm Lattice joists of 225 to 400 mm depth
Wall height of 2.8 to 3.3 m (typically) Battened floor or mineral wool layer for excellent
Bracing provided in wall panels, which may be acoustic insulation
supplemented by X bracing between steel posts Composite slab may be used in some applications
100 100 SHS posts may be introduced Double layer of plasterboard fixed to resilient bars
Brickwork to first or second floor, lightweight cladding attached to joists
above I beams may be used locally and supported by posts
Figure 4.7 Multi-storey light steel framing
Figure 4.8 3 storey apartment and shop in light steel framing
86
4.2.3 Modular construction
For cellular buildings, such as hotels, student residences and key worker accommodation, production of
repeatable modular units can be efficient. The structure of the modules consists of light steel framing
with strategically placed posts using Square Hollow Sections or Angles (see Figure 4.9). The various
types of modular construction are:
load-bearing modules of 48 storeys
mixed modular and panel construction for creation of open plan space (see Figure 4.10)
modules supported by a primary steel frame at a first or second floor podium
non-load bearing modules supported by a primary steel frame
modules supported by an existing structure, e.g. in roof-top extensions
The following features and application benefits of modular construction are:

Used for cellular buildings with multiple repeated Economy of scale in production for hotels, key
units worker accommodation, student residences
Size of units limited by transport (3.6 m 8 m is Rapid installation on site (6-8 units per day)
typical) Two units can be placed together to create larger
Open-sided units can be created (by changing the spaces
floor orientation) Robustness can be achieved by attaching the units
Modules are stacked with usually no independent together at their corners
structure Low self weight
Self weight of 1.5 to 2 kN/m2 Stability of tall buildings can be provided by a braced
4-8 storeys (6 is usually the optimum) steel core
Fire resistance of 30 to 60 minutes provided by Fire stopping between the units prevents fire spread
plasterboard Excellent acoustic insulation
Acoustic insulation through double layer walls and Useful for roof-top extensions or difficult working
floors areas
Walls Floors
Load-bearing walls comprise C sections of 75 to Floor joists comprise C sections of 150 to 250 mm
150 mm depth, which are pre-fabricated into panels depth, or
Walls support floor joists by Z sections or cleats Long span lattice joists of 250 to 400 mm depth
Wall height of 2.4 to 3.6 m (typically) Floor boarding of 19 mm thickness with battened
Walls provide for building stability through internal floor or mineral wool layer for acoustic insulation
bracing or cross-flats Double layer of plasterboard ceiling for acoustic
Diaphragm action can be provided by cement insulation and fire resistance
particle board etc
External walls can support lightweight cladding
Brickwork is generally ground supported
87
Figure 4.9 Light steel module with internal corridor
Figure 4.10 Mixed modules and panels in medium-rise apartments
88
Figure 4.11 Installation of modules in a social housing project, London
Figure 4.12 Modules supported by a primary steel structure at first floor
4.2.4 Primary steel frame with light steel infill walls

A primary steel frame may be used on the structure of multi-storey buildings to provide long spans,
flexibility in space use and future adaptability. The steel frame and floor may take various forms:
composite frame with beams at typically 3 m spacing (see Figure 4.13)
shallow integrated beams supporting a composite slab
beams using asymmetric beams and a deep composite slab (see Slimdek illustrated in Figure 4.14)
integrated beams and precast concrete slab (see Figure 4.15)
89
steel beams and precast concrete slab
Rectangular Hollow Sections and light steel floors
All these forms of construction can use light steel infill walls, which are non-load bearing but which
provide fire resistance and acoustic separation functions. Many variants on these structural systems are
possible as shown in Figure 4.11 and Figure 4.16.
Figure 4.13 Composite floor on steel beams
The features and applications of composite construction in residential buildings are as follows:
Downstand beams located at line of separating walls Narrow beams can be located within separating wall
(total floor depth is typically 350 to 500 mm) no projection outside wall
Shallow slab (130 to 150 mm) UC sections used as beams lead to minimum floor
Spans of 5 to 15 m (beams) and 2.5 to 4 m (slab) zone
Self weight of 3 to 4 kN/m2 Slabs can span directly between separating walls
No limit on building height or width Long span construction useful for mixed
residential and retail projects
Fire resistance of 30 minutes by ceiling or up to 120
minutes by spray, board or intumescent coating Lower self weight than reinforced concrete flat slab
Acoustic insulation through battened floor (or Stability can be provided through the frame (up to
similar) 4 storeys) or by bracing or core (taller buildings)
Intumescent fire resistant coatings can be applied
off-site
Excellent acoustic insulation
Form of construction
Walls Floors
Skeletal structure comprised of SHS or smaller Choose narrower UB sections to fit within width of
UC columns to fit in separating walls separating walls
Separating walls created using double walls of light Or choose UC sections of 200 to 300 mm depth to
steel sections provide the minimum floor zone with ceiling below
Infill walls using light steel sections supporting light Shallow decking of 46 to 80 mm depth to create a
weight cladding composite floor of 120 to 160 mm depth
Brickwork supported on perimeter beams Single layer of plasterboard ceiling
Battened floor for acoustic insulation
90
Figure 4.14 Slimdek construction using integrated beams
Figure 4.15 Integrated beams with precast concrete slabs
91
Figure 4.16 Steel residential building with an inverted concrete slab used in a project in
The Hague, NL
4.2.5 Light steel infill and separating walls

Light steel walls may be used in the following applications in composite a primary steel frame:
Infill walls at the periphery of the building which create a rapid dry envelope in the temporary
condition and which provides for wind resistance and lateral support to the cladding in the
permanent condition
Separating walls between units of accommodation internally which provide both acoustic
insulation and fire compartmentation functions
Partition walls to separate rooms
The functional requirements of these applications of light steel walls are listed below.
Functional requirements for light steel walls in framed structures are as follows:
Design
Infill walls at faade Separating walls Partition walls
Requirements
Lateral Loading Resists wind loading, which may Resists nominal internal pressure No special requirements -
be high at the corners of tall (0.2 kN/m2) typically resists nominal impact
buildings loads
Acoustic Generally, no requirement for Strict requirement for acoustic Less severe acoustic
Insulation external noise reduction, but insulation to meet a minimum of insulation requirements
40 dB reduction can be achieved 54 dB sound reduction (typically 40 dB sound
by most cladding systems reduction)
Fire Resistance Must prevent passage of smoke Fire resistance requirements Nominal fire resistance
or flame between floors- depend on building height. requirements single layer
important if lightweight cladding Generally 60 mins. is specified in of plasterboard
used two layers of fire resisting
plasterboard
Thermal Must possess adequate thermal No special requirement No special requirement
Insulation insulation and air-tightness,
2
U-value < 0.3 W/m K
92
The design of light steel infill walls depends on the wind loading and it is often necessary to reduce the
spacing of the wall studs to resist the higher wind loading at the upper levels in a multi-storey building
or at the corners of the building. Generally, 100 mm deep C sections are satisfactory for low or
medium-rise buildings, increasing to 150 mm C sections in high-rise buildings.
Typical examples of light steel infill walls are shown in Figure 4.17 and Figure 4.18. A variety of
cladding materials may be used and can achieve high levels of insulation (see next Section).
Separating walls often use multiple layers of plasterboards to provide acoustic insulation and fire
resistance, as shown in Figure 4.19.
Figure 4.17 Light steel infill walls used with Slimdek
Figure 4.18 Light steel infill wall in a composite frame
93
Figure 4.19 Separating wall and plasterboard
4.2.6 Types of cladding

Various types of cladding may be used in housing and residential buildings, which have a direct effect
on the thermal performance of the building envelope. These generic cladding types are:
Brickwork (generally ground supported)
Clay tiles or brick slips
Lightweight boards
Metallic panels
Insulated render
Glazed faades
Wood or wood-based panels
These various cladding types are illustrated below and in earlier figures.
94
Figure 4.20 Brickwork used in a 3 storey residential building
Figure 4.21 Mixed use of clay tiles and metallic cladding
95
Figure 4.22 Boards pre-attached to light steel modules
Figure 4.23 Metallic cladding using large cassette panels
96
Figure 4.24 Insulated render combined with brickwork
Figure 4.25 Multi-storey composite building with glass faade supported on inclined
columns
97
4.3 Energy efficiency principles
4.3.1 European Energy Performance Directive
In the Kyoto Protocol, industrialized countries have agreed to reduce their collective emissions of
greenhouse gases by 5.2% relative to the year 1990. The six greenhouse gases, including carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide etc, will be reduced as an average over the five-year period from
December 2008.
Energy use in buildings is one of the largest creators of CO2 as it comprises about 40% of total
European energy consumption. The most significant energy uses are space and water heating, lighting,
catering, air conditioning and refrigeration and equipment such as domestic appliances, computers, lifts
and office equipment. Figure 4.26 illustrates the energy consumption in the domestic sector throughout
the EU.
Lighting +
11 % appliances
Water heating
25 %
Cooking
57 %
7% Space heating
Figure 4.26 Energy consumption by end use in the domestic sector
The European Unions Energy Performance of Buildings Directive[5] was published in January 2003.
The overall objective of the Directive is to promote the improvement in the energy performance of
buildings taking into account outdoor climatic and local conditions and indoor climate requirements,
and cost-effectiveness. Each EU member state is required to transpose the Directive into national law by
the beginning of 2006 and a further three years is allowed for full implementation.
The Energy Performance (EP) standardisation approach must also take into account the indoor
conditions and is not only related to thermal performance of the envelope. This includes heating,
cooling, fans, lighting, hot water, pumps, humidification, etc. Therefore an EP approach must focus on
the overall energy consumption of the buildings and its installed appliances.
Each country has to develop effective solutions to enhance the energy performance of buildings, but
these solutions differ from one county to the other, and are similar in some areas but differ widely in
others.
All countries have maximum U-value requirements (thermal performance of the envelope) and specify
procedures to calculate the energy performance of new buildings. More than one procedure may be
permitted to calculate the overall energy performance. In most countries, there are possibilities of
trade-offs between different parameters. It means that an improved higher performance on one
parameter allows lower performance on another. In the procedures, default values are often used, but
actualised value or proof values may be used.
To calculate the comparative performance, which represents the maximum value of the energy
consumption, some countries use a reference building, while some countries use standard formulae.
98
4.3.2 Energy consumption calculations
The total calculated energy used by the building comprises the annual energy use for the following
purposes:
Heating
Cooling
Ventilation systems
Hot water
Lighting
Each energy use includes auxiliary energy and losses of systems. Energy uses for other purposes (e.g.
electrical appliances, cooking, industrial processes) are not included in the calculated energy use, but
the total metered energy will normally include these other uses.
The transmission heat loss (QT) and ventilation heat loss (QV) are usually considered to be the most
significant sources of energy use in a building. Figure 4.27 illustrates the overall energy balance of the
building.
Calculation direction (from the use to the source)
QS
Final energy
(boundary:building)
QT
Qi
QV Davi
heat requirement
(heat use)
Qh
Qc,e
Emission
Distribution Storage Generation Primary
energy
Qd Qs Qg
Calculation direction (from the use to the source)
Figure 4.27 Illustration of thermal energy balance in housing
According to prEN ISO 13790[6], the energy needed for space heating should be calculated from:
QNH = QT + QV -G,.H (Qi + Qs) (1)
where
QNH is the building energy needed for heating;
Qi is the sum of internal heat sources over the given period;
Qs is the sum of solar heat sources over the given period;
G,.H is the dimensionless gain utilisation factor (mainly depending on thermal inertia of the
building
The total heat loss, QL (= QT + QV), of a single zone building considered at a uniform internal
temperature is given by:
QL = H(1-e)t (2)
99
where
1 is the internal temperature;
e is the average external temperature during the calculation period;
t is the duration of the calculation period;
H is the heat loss coefficient of the building envelope.
This equation can be adapted to allow for the use of degree-days, which is the multiple of average
external temperature per day and the number of days.
The heat loss coefficient of a single zone building at a uniform internal temperature, and for a given
calculation period or sub-period, is defined by:
H = HT + HV (3)
where
HT is the transmission heat loss coefficient, calculated according to EN ISO 13789[7] (for
envelope elements incorporating ventilating devices)
HV is the ventilation heat loss coefficient
The transmission heat loss coefficient, HT, is calculated by:
HT = LD + Ls + HU (4)
where
LD is the direct coupling coefficient between the heated space and the exterior through the
building envelope, defined by next equation [W/K]
LD = i AiU i + l +
k k j j (5)
where
A = Surface area of the building component [m2]
U = U-value representing the heat flow through a unit area [W/m2K]
lk = Length of linear thermal bridge [m]
k = Additional thermal transmittance [W/mK] of a linear thermal bridge as determined
empirically or calculated using a numerical method appropriate to the purpose.
j = Additional thermal transmittance of a point thermal bridge j in the building
component [W/K]
Ls is the steady state ground heat loss coefficient [W/K]
HU is the transmission heat loss coefficient through unheated spaces [W/K].
Heat losses across regular areas of the building envelope are calculated using standard EN ISO 6946[8].
Thermal bridges that occur over the whole surface are directly considered in the U-values of these
areas.
A typical hand calculation of the U-values of a brick-clad light steel wall is presented in Section 4.5.7.
4.4 Performance of the building envelope

The building envelope provides a barrier between exterior and interior environments. The interior
environment is expected to be stable despite considerable changes in outdoor conditions. The building
envelope provides a range of functions. It should retain heat, and resist rain, moisture, air and other
flows. In addition, the building envelope must be aesthetically acceptable and provide a secure barrier
against noise and fire. It should also be possible to maintain the building envelope easily, and it should
be robust to damage and impact.
100
4.4.1 Heat loss through building envelope
Heat loss via thermal transmittance through the building envelope is divided into losses occurring
through the walls, roof and ground floor. Heat loss by thermal transmittance through walls can be
further divided into losses that occur through windows, doors and the wall structure itself.
Figure 4.28 illustrates the various forms of heat loss at a corner of a building that are affected also by
local heat losses, known as thermal bridges (see Section 4.4.3).
Figure 4.28 FEM illustration of thermal behaviour at a corner of a building with

linear and point cold bridges
4.4.2 Maximum U-value in Regulations

The U-value is a parameter that defines the thermal properties of the building envelope. It is the
measure of the rate of heat loss or thermal transmission through one square meter of the material for a
one degree difference in temperature across it, and its units are W/m2K. U-values are not standardized
across Europe, but Regulations in every country define their requirements according to local climatic
conditions. Typical national values expressed as a maximum limit of the component are presented in
Table 4.1 to 4.4. In most cases, these U-value limits are coupled with other requirements, including new
whole building models.
In the UK, the U-value is also dependent on the form of heating, as electrical heating is penalised.
Maximum permitted U-values are presented for both the former and current Regulations[9] in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Maximum U-values (W/m2K) required by UK Regulations[9]

Ground Pitched roof insulation
Building Regulations Walls Flat Roof
Floors
Between joists Between rafters
Former Regulations, 2003 0.45 0.45 0.25 0.30 0.35
New Regulations, 2006
Carbon efficient heating* 0.35 0.25 0.16 0.20 0.25
Other heating 0.27 0.22 0.26 0.28 0.22
*Heating systems such as gas or oil fired.
101
In Scandinavia, U-values are lower than in most other European countries, which has led to advances in
energy efficient design of light steel framing. The Finnish Code dates from 2003 and design solutions
should achieve the following three requirements:
U-values of all building envelope satisfy maximum limits (see Table 4.2)
Heat recovery of the ventilation system meet basic requirements (30% recovery)
Total area of the windows does not exceed 15% of building floor area or 50% of area of the
external walls.
Table 4.2 Maximum U-values (W/m2K) required by Finnish Regulations

Building Floors
Regulations Walls Roofs Doors Windows
Ground Ventilated Exposed
Regulations
0.25 0.16 0.25 0.20 0.16 1.4 1.4
2003
If all of these basic requirements are not met, energy performance requirements can be met if one of the
following is fulfilled:
1. Heat losses through whole building envelope do not exceed the reference level but the basic
requirements for heat recovery of ventilation are met.
2. Heat losses through building envelope and ventilation do not exceed a reference level according to
basic requirements.
As in most European countries, new proposals for energy efficiency regulations were in circulation for
comment in early spring 2006, which take into account the European Energy Performance Directive[5].
The principle of basic requirements for heat losses though building envelope and ventilation still exists.
Further to these, the whole building energy performance should take into account other factors such as
energy consumption for heating, water heating and possibly cooling.
The Swedish Regulations[10] are presented in Table 4.3 and apply to houses with a floor area less than
100 m2 and with a total window and door area less than 20% of the floor area. Air leakage must not
exceed 0.6 /s/m2 at 50Pa.
Table 4.3 Maximum U-values (W/m2K) required by Swedish Regulations[10]
Regulation Wall Roof Floor Doors Windows
BBR (Boverkets Byggregler) 0.18 0.13 0.15 1.3 1.3
BBR (supplied electricity) 0.10 0.08 0.10 1.1 1.1
The primary regulation, if not using the alternative U-values in the table above, is that the average
building envelope U-value (Um) must not exceed 0.50 W/m2K. Also, the residential building must be
designed so that the energy usage is less than 110 kWh/m2 floor area in southern Sweden (climate zone
south), and 130 kWh/m2 in climate zone north. For residential buildings using electrical heating, the
maximum energy usage is 75 kWh/m2 (zone south) and 95 kWh/m2 (zone north).
The French Regulations are presented in the form of a Code RT2005[11] (in force since mid-2006). A
series of maximum U-values are presented in Table 4.4, and the reference and maximum U-values are
calculated for the average of the multiple of the exposed surface areas times their respective U-values.
Linear thermal bridging is established from a coefficient of:
for individual housing: 0.55 W/mK as reference and 0.65 W/mK as maximum
for other buildings: 0.60 W/mK as reference and 1.20 W/mK as maximum
Air-tightness is defined by a maximum limit of 0.8 m3/m2h for housing or 1.2 m3/m2h for apartments.
102
Table 4.4 Maximum U-values (W/m2K) required by French Regulations
Regulations Walls Roofs Ground Floor Doors Windows
Ref 0.36 0.2 0.27 1.5 2.1

RT2005 Code
Max 0.45 0.34 0.36 2.6 2.6
The focus of the new standard EnEV in Germany (2002) is now on calculation models for whole
building performance and not on elemental approaches. However, a trade-off between the U-values of
the building elements is the maximum U-values of the various components does not fall below the
following values in Table 4.5:
Table 4.5 Maximum U-values in Regulations on energy saving in Germany
Regulations Walls Ground Floors Pitched Roof
EnEV
0.45 0.40 0.30
Energieeinspar Verordnung (Feb 2002)
Whole building energy models must show a 20% overall energy reduction relative to traditional housing in
Germany
4.4.3 Thermal bridges

A thermal bridge may occur due to any building component made of material with high thermal
conductivity where the steady-state heat flow due to temperature difference is higher in comparison to
the adjacent surface area. The majority of thermal bridges are located at points of discontinuity in the
structure, such as in corners, joints of elements and joints of window and doorway openings, and can
also occur due to gaps in the insulation.
For steel structures, the significance of thermal bridging is higher than in other materials because the
thermal conductivity of steel is typically 50 W/m2K, which is considerably greater than that of common
insulating materials. In the worst cases, moisture condensation caused by the thermal bridge can reduce
the thermal performance and long-term durability of the building component. According to ISO 10456,
the design values of thermal insulation should take into account the effects of moisture and ageing on
the insulative capacity of the thermal insulation.
4.4.4 Linear thermal bridges

Linear thermal bridges occur in all types of building. A typical example of the linear thermal bridge
would be a structural frame with the thermal insulation between the members. Additional thermal
transmittance coefficients for linear thermal bridges are not defined in regulations, but they must be
separately determined prior to using the calculation formulas presented in prEN 13790[6] and
prEN 6946[8]. In practice, linear additional thermal transmittance coefficients are determined either by
calculation or empirically. Simplified methods and default values are given in prEN ISO 14683[12] and
instructions for modelling of thermal bridges are given in prEN ISO 10211[13].
The maximum values that may generally be permitted are presented in Table 4.6. These values are
multiplied by the length of the thermal bridge, and divided by the exposed area of the wall in order to
establish their overall effect in terms of heat loss.
A simplified U-value calculation including the effect of thermal bridging through the C section wall
studs is presented in Section 5.7.
4.4.5 Point thermal bridges

There are also several possibilities of point thermal bridges in the construction, such as steel ties
penetrating the thermal insulation. A total influence of these point thermal bridges might be as high as
10% of total transmission loss.
103
Figure 4.29 Thermographic camera view of a typical framed structure
Table 4.6 Maximum values for linear thermal bridges

Junction W/mK
Box shaped lintel over window 0.30
Other shapes of lintels 0.21
Sill below window 0.04
Side of window 0.05
Intermediate floor within a dwelling 0.07
Intermediate floor between dwellings 0.14
Balcony attachment 0.04
Corner of building 0.09
Separating wall between dwellings 0.06
Eaves (insulation at ceiling level) 0.06
Gable (insulation at ceiling level) 0.24
4.4.6 Thermal properties of common building materials

The thermal transmittance through a unit surface area of a material is defined as its thermal
conductivity, , divided by its thickness, d. Metals have relatively high thermal conductivities, whereas
mineral wool and polyurethane are good insulators and have low thermal conductivity. Typical thermal
conductivities of insulating materials are presented in Table 4.7. The design thermal conductivity may
be based on tests to prEN ISO 6946[8] or other published data, and typical values for building materials
are presented in Table 4.7. The U-value is calculated from the inverse of the sum of the inverse of the
thermal transmittance of materials acting in combination, and this calculation is performed in
Section 4.5.7.
104
Table 4.7 Typical thermal conductivities of common insulating materials
Material (W/mK)
Mineral Wool 0.03 0.05
Polyurethane 0.025 0.055
Polystyrene 0.03 0.05
Table 4.8 Thermal conductivities of common building materials

Material (W/mK)
Aluminium 160
Steel 50
Stainless steel 15
Stone (used in construction) 1.0 3.5

3
Concrete density = 2000kg/m 1.35
3
Concrete density = 2400kg/m 1.65
Heavy blockwork 1.44
Render (cementitious) 1.00
Brickwork 0.77
Glass 1.0 1.4
Lightweight blocks 0.14 0.19

3
Plasterboard density = 600 kg/m 0.18
3
Plasterboard density = 900 kg/m 0.30
3
Wood density = 500 kg/m 0.13
3
Wood/Plywood density = 700 kg/m 0.18
3
Chipboard (Particle board) density = 600 kg/m 0.14
4.5 Energy efficient steel solutions for building envelopes

There are various strategies by which high levels of thermal insulation may be achieved in the building
envelope.
4.5.1 Warm frame construction

In warm frame construction, all or most of the insulation is located on the outside of the steel frame,
and so cold bridging is eliminated. A warm frame also prevents interstitial condensation and the life
expectancy of the frame is high. However, for U-values below 0.25 W/m2K, the thickness of external
insulation increases to a point where the total thickness of the wall may be too high, especially when a
brick faade is used (see Figure 4.30(a)).
Insulated render cladding is thermally efficient because all or most of the insulation is placed externally
to the frame (see Figure 4.31). Composite or sandwich panels may also be used as cladding panels in
multi-storey buildings and also achieve low U-values.
4.5.2 Inter-stud insulation

Additional inter-stud insulation is widely used where high levels of thermal insulation are provided.
The case is illustrated in Figure 4.30(b). However, when using unperforated light steel sections, it is
105
recommended that no more than 50% of the total U-value is provided by the inter-stud insulation, in
which case cold bridging is minimised.
2 layers of plasterboard
Optional
sheathing board
2 layers of plasterboard
Light steel studs with
mineral wool between
Light steel studs
Insulated sheathing
Thermal insulation board
Wall ties in channels

fixed to stud structure
through insulation Wall ties in channels
fixed to steel structure
through insulation
Brick external cladding Brick external cladding
(a) (b)
Figure 4.30 (a) External insulation to light steel frame using brickwork
(b) Combined external and inter-stud insulation
Figure 4.31 Externally insulated cladding in a multi-storey residential building
4.5.3 Perforated steel sections

Perforated or slotted C sections may be used to minimise direct heat low through the steel components
and to reduce cold bridging. Therefore the thickness of external insulation can be reduced and replaced
by additional inter-stud insulation. This form of construction is shown in Figure 4.32, in this case using
metallic cladding. A weather-resisting board is fixed to the face of the slotted studs on the metallic
106
cladding which acts as a rain-screen. The thermal performance of slotted studs is presented in
Section 4.5.6
Other forms of 'thermally-broken' studs may be used, such as double C section walls, or timber-steel
composite sections, which greatly reduce direct heat loss and optimises on the wall thickness.
15 50
0
20
60
0
15
20
Plasterboard
65
Mineral wool insulation
Light steel
slotted studs
Figure 4.32 Slotted C sections used with metallic cladding and inter-stud insulation
4.5.4 Steel cladding to achieve U-value of 0.25W/m2K

The most common forms of cladding to external walls in housing and residential buildings are
brickwork for the first, second and possibly third floors, and insulated render or other lightweight
cladding above the first floor in multi-storey buildings. A thermal insulation of 0.25W/m2K, coupled
with specific measures to achieve air-tightness, is envisaged in future national Building Regulations. It
is important to provide these levels of performance economically in light steel framing.
The following details illustrate the build-up of the external wall construction for brickwork and
insulated render supported by 100 mm 1.5 mm C sections installed in the form of pre-fabricated light
steel walls. Excellent acoustic insulation is achieved in all cases and flanking losses are minimised.
Brickwork cladding
Closed-cell insulation boards of 50 mm thickness may be screw-fixed externally to the C sections, and
mineral wool insulation is placed between the C sections at approximately 600 mm centres. A 40 mm
minimum cavity to the brickwork is provided, and the brickwork is supported by stainless steel or
plastic ties every 5 brick courses at a density of 4.4 per m2 and fixed to vertical furring runners. This
system is illustrated in Figure 4.33 and achieves a U-value below 0.25W/m2K, which compensates for
modest cold bridging through the screw fixings.
Two layers of 12.5 mm plasterboard may be provided internally, one being vapour resistant (by an
internal foil layer), and the other being fire resistant to achieve 60 minutes fire resistance. Alternatively,
a vapour control layer may be used, in which case, the internal board is standard plasterboard. The total
wall thickness is 320 mm, which is approximately 50 mm less than the equivalent brick- and blockwork
wall of the same insulating value. In 2 storey houses, 75 mm deep C sections may be used with
2 35 mm closed cell insulation boards externally.
107
Vertical runner
for wall ties
102 Brickwork
40 min. Cavity
50
Closed cell insulation
100
Mineral wool (100 mm thick)
12.5 Light steel C section (100 x 50)

12.5 400 - 600 Vapour resistant plasterboard
Total 320 mm Fire resistant plasterboard
U value of 0.25 W/m C

Fire resistance of 60 minutes
Figure 4.33 Cross-section through brickwork and light steel wall
Insulated render
A common form of lightweight cladding is cementitious render or insulation that it attached to the light
steel support structure. The cementitious layer may be placed on 80 mm rigid polystyrene or other rigid
insulation, which itself is screw fixed to 10 mm cement particle-board for weather-tightness in the
temporary and permanent conditions. This system is illustrated in Figure 4.34 and its achieves a
U-value below 0.25W/m2K, which compensates for any cold bridging around windows etc.
Internally, inter-stud mineral wool insulation and plasterboard are used between the 100 mm deep
C sections, as for brickwork. The total wall thickness is approximately 230 mm, which represents a
reduction of 30% relative to brickwork and light steel framing (compared to Figure 4.33).
15
Render on base coat
80 Polystyrene insulation
10 Cement particle board
100
Mineral wool

12.5 Vapour resistant plasterboard
Total 230 mm U value of 0.25 W/m C Fire resistant plasterboard
Figure 4.34 Cross-section through insulated render cladding to light steel wall
To satisfy national requirements in housing, a 15 mm nominal cavity is often introduced, as in

Figure 4.35. The cavity permits drainage of any moisture vapour, but does not permit air circulation.
The air-gap achieves modest additional insulation. For 2 storey housing, the depth of the C sections can
be reduced to 75 mm, leading to a total wall thickness of 220 mm.
Window pods may also be used to reduce air leakage and rain penetration, and the cross-section
through a typical insulated rendered wall is shown in Figure 4.36.
15
Render on base coat
80 Polystyrene insulation
10 Cavity (15 mm nominal)
75 15 Cement particle board
Mineral wool
12.5
Total 220 mm Vapour resistant plasterboard
U value of 0.25 W/m C Fire resistant plasterboard
Figure 4.35 Cross-section through insulated render cladding showing 15 mm cavity for use
in housing
108
Figure 4.36 Cross-section through window pod in insulated render
Metallic cladding
Metallic cladding may be in the form of cassette panels or composite panels. In the first case, the
metallic panels act as a rain screen and in the second case as a weather barrier.
Figure 4.37 shows the attachment of a cassette cladding system with insulation external to the light steel
frame. Figure 4.38 shows an alternative approach using perforated C sections with inter-stud insulation.
Figure 4.37 Attachment of metallic cladding panel
109
Figure 4.38 Metallic cassette panel attached to perforated studs
4.5.5 Thermal performance of light steel walls

Thermal analyses have been carried out for the two wall types with light steel framing with C section
wall studs at 600 mm spacing: an insulated render and a brick-tile system. The computed U-values for
various thicknesses of insulation are presented in Table 4.9. Mineral wool placed between the wall studs
reduces the U-values considerably (from 0.33 for case 3 to 0.24 W/m2K for case 6 typically).
Table 4.9 U-values for different wall constructions in light steel framing
Case Description of Wall Construction U-value (W/m2K)
1 Render: 60 mm EPS only 0.42
2 Render: 60 mm EPS, Mineral wool between studs 0.28
8 Brick tile: 35 mm EPS, Mineral wool between studs 0.35

EPS = Expanded polystyrene
The thermal performance of a typical rendered cladding system with mineral wool between the wall
studs is shown in Figure 4.39 and Figure 4.40. The isothermal lines show the local cold spots on the
steel studs. For this case, the maximum temperature difference is 2C across the wall (for a 20C
overall temperature between inside and outside). The use of brick tiling shows a similar performance.
These local temperature results are presented in Table 4.10 for various levels of external insulation.
110
The corresponding U-values for a brick-clad wall are lower because of the greater insulating effect of
the brickwork and the drained but unventilated cavity behind the brickwork. A U-value of 0.2 W/m2K
can be obtained when foil-backed closed-cell insulation board is used in the cavity see Section 5.7.
Figure 4.39 Thermal profile for insulated render cladding, consisting of 60 mm EPS board
and 100 mm mineral wool between C sections
Table 4.10 Summary of computed temperatures (for 20C temperature difference across
the wall)
Minimum steel Cold Spot on
Wall Configuration
temperature internal surface
Insulated render:
60 mm EPS & 100 mm mineral wool 12C 2.0C
40 mm EPS & mineral wool 14C 1.5C
70 mm EPS & mineral wool 14.5C 1.3C

100 mm EPS & mineral wool 15.8C <1.0C
Brick-tile system:

4.5.6 Performance of thermal studs

Thermal studs are steel sections manufactured with multiple web perforations along their length,
which reduces the thermal bridge effect of the stud as shown by the extreme temperature distribution in
Figure 4.40. However, the dimension and frequency of the perforations has a major impact on the
load-bearing capacity of the stud and therefore the precise shape and density of the perforations are the
result of a number of requirements. The improved thermal performance of this type of stud is illustrated
in Figure 4.41.
111
Figure 4.40 Principle of thermal performance of perforated studs
Figure 4.41 FEM illustration: comparison between normal and perforated studs. Different
colours illustrate temperatures in degrees
The thermal behaviour of slotted or perforated studs is much better than unperforated studs with inter-
stud insulation, as defined by Figure 4.42 for the wall configuration shown in Figure 4.43. It is apparent
from this graph that U-values below 0.2 W/m2K can be achieved using perforated studs using a total
thickness of 200 mm mineral wool. Low U-values cannot be obtained by solid web studs without
placing most of the insulation externally to the light steel frame.
Figure 4.42 U-values of walls with external gypsum boards using C sections with perforated
and solid webs[14]
112
102 Brickwork
9
30 min. Cavity
Weather resistant board
200
Perforated C section
12.5
400 - 600 Fire resistant plasterboard
Total 355 mm (with vapour barrier)
Figure 4.43 Wall configuration used in the thermal analysis of perforated C sections
4.5.7 Simplified U-value calculation for brick-clad wall

Consider a brick-clad light steel wall of the form shown in Figure 4.30(b) consisting of:
One layer of 15 mm thick fire resisting plasterboard internally

Light steel frame consisting of 100 mm deep 1.6 mm thick C sections placed at 600 mm centres
Mineral wool inter-stud insulation (100 mm) between the C sections
Closed-cell insulation board of 50 mm thickness
Cavity (minimum of 40 mm typically)
Brickwork (102 mm thickness)
The principles of the U-value calculation are presented in pr EN ISO 6946[8], which also takes into
account the resistance of the surfaces and the presence of air-gaps. Typical thermal parameters of the
various layers may be taken as below:
100 mm mineral wool i/di = 0.04/0.1 = 0.40 W/m2K

50 mm closed cell insulation i/di = 0.025/0.05 = 0.50 W/m2K
15 mm plasterboard i/di = 0.18/0.015 = 12 W/m2K
102 mm brickwork i/di = 0.77/0.10 = 7.5 W/m2K
The basic U-value of the wall should take into account the heat loss through the C section, and the
effect of this additional thermal bridge may be computed using a 2-D thermal analysis. As a first
approximation, the local heat loss may be calculated from a thermal conductivity of steel of
approximately 50 W/m2K, assuming that no gaps are present between the C section and the mineral
wool. This additional heat loss is given theoretically by 50 1.6/600 = 0.13 W/m2K when expressed
uniformly over the wall surface area, and this additional heat loss will increase linearly for closer stud
spacings. However, the effective U-value will increase when considering heat flows through any air
gaps and from the C section into the mineral wool.
The total U-value of the wall may also include the thermal resistance of the brick cavity and the
external/internal surfaces which may be taken as follows:
Rcavity = 0.18 m2K/W for cavity in brickwork

2
= 0.44 m K/W for use of foil-backed insulation board
2
Rext = 0.04 m K/W for the external surface
2
Rint = 0.13 m K/W for the internal (room) surface
113
The total U-value of the brick-clad light steel wall is therefore given by:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + 0.44 + 0.17
U total ( 0.40 + 0.13) 0.5 12 7.5
or Utotal = 0.21 W/m2K
It is shown that the U-value ignoring direct heat loss during through the C-section is 0.19 W/m2K and
therefore the local heat loss adds approximately 10% to the basic U-value of the wall. As noted above,
this U-value is approximate and should be calculated more accurately using 2D thermal analysis.
Additional point thermal bridges will also occur due to the wall ties which may be taken as a notional
value of 0.01 W/m2K.
When perforated thermal studs of 200 mm depth are used, the computed linear thermal transmittance
is 0.028 W/m, which leads to an increase in the effective U-value of the whole surface of 0.028/0.6
= 0.047 W/m2K, or only about one third of that of an unperforated C section.
4.5.8 Effect of thermal inertia

Thermal inertia does not seem to have significant influence according to the latest research[14] as
illustrated in Figure 4.44. In the simulated residential terraced house, thermal inertia has a modest effect
of 0.4% on total energy consumption, while other factors like air-tightness of the building result in an
increase of 8% in energy saving. In contrast, a ventilation system has a significant role on energy
efficiency in residential buildings. A building with a traditional exhaust ventilation system with heat
recovery equipment (see later). Thermal inertia plays a slightly more significant role in single family
houses but in general, the home-owner wishes the building to be thermally responsive rather than of
massive construction.
180
Without cooling Centralised cooling Split cooling
160
Specific consumption, kWh/m,a
140
100.4% 101.4% 100%
100%
99.8%
99.6% 99.7% 99.4% 99.6% 99.2
100.6% 100% 99.8% 99.7% 99.6%
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Theor. lightweight Lightweight Semiweight Massive Extra-massive
Figure 4.44 Influence of the building fabric (with or without cooling) on the heat consumption
of the building
4.6 Ventilation and air-tightness

Ventilation is the process by which air is removed from an occupied space and replaced with fresh air.
The primary aim of ventilation is to preserve the freshness of air. Sometimes, ventilation may also be
used to lower the temperature inside an occupied area.
114
Infiltration and ventilation in dwellings may account from 30% to 50% of total energy needed for space
heating. Heat loss through ventilation and infiltration is an extremely important factor as in up to 53%
of building ventilation heating energy consumption is the result of uncontrolled ventilation[15].
Air-tightness of building envelope significantly influences the energy consumption of building. Air
leakage is the uncontrolled flow of air through gaps and cracks in the fabric of a building. This is not to
be confused with ventilation which is controlled flow of air into and out of the building through purpose
built ventilators that is required for the comfort and safety of the occupants. The air leakage points of a
building are concentrated mainly at the point of contact of building components, joints and service
connections. Air leakages and the associated heating energy can be reduced by improving the
air-tightness of the components
Energy efficient buildings therefore require air-tight and well insulated building envelope and
controlled ventilation with heat recovery.
4.6.1 Natural ventilation

Natural ventilation utilizes natural forces as a stack effect, which is dependent on temperature
difference and wind speed. Fresh air is supplied and exhaust air is removed using purpose-provided
apertures as windows, doors and other openings. Non-pressurized air shafts are also commonly used to
remove exhaust air. Natural ventilation is not well controlled and that is why it is difficult to estimate its
influence on ventilation heat losses.
4.6.2 Mechanical exhaust ventilation

Mechanical exhaust ventilation is a type of forced ventilation system. Exhaust air is removed by means
of mechanical devices, such as fans. Routes for replacement air must be considered carefully or
infiltration occurs. Normally fresh air is supplied from small gap through the envelope, such as through
slots located above windows. Mechanical exhaust ventilation is more controlled that is why quality of
interior air is better but energy demand of building may be even greater that in buildings with natural
ventilation.
4.6.3 Mechanical exhaust and supply ventilation with heat recovery

The most energy efficient ventilation method is balanced ventilation system that means mechanical
exhaust and supply with heat recovery. A balanced ventilation system uses two fans with separate
ducting systems, one to supply fresh air and one to remove stale air from the building. The system
should not affect the pressure balance of the interior space.
Energy recovery ventilation systems provide a controlled way of ventilating a home and reducing
excessive moisture while also minimizing energy loss. Energy recovery units reduce the costs of
heating ventilated air in the winter by transferring heat from the warm inside air being exhausted to the
fresh (but cold) supply air.
Figure 4.45 Principle of heat recovery
115
Because an energy-recovery ventilator transfers some of the moisture from the exhaust air to the usually
less humid incoming winter air, the humidity of the house air stays more constant. This also keeps the
heat exchanger core warmer, minimizing problems with freezing.
In the summer, an energy-recovery ventilator may help to control humidity in the house by transferring
some of the water vapour in the incoming air to the theoretically drier air that's leaving the house. Most
energy recovery systems can recover about 70%80% of the energy in the exiting air and deliver that
energy to the incoming air. However, they are most cost effective in climates with extreme winters or
summers, and where fuel costs are high.
4.6.4 Cooling energy demand

Cooling and air conditioning plays significant role in energy consumption. On average, air conditioning
accounts for 15% of energy use in housing across the EU, but can increase to over 40% in hot and
humid regions.
There are different kinds of air conditioning systems on the market and the main types are centralized
air conditioning and room air conditioners.
Central air conditioners typically use a forced air distribution system. A fan blows air through a filter
then over a coil to condition it (removing heat and humidity). The conditioned air is circulated through
air shafts to the various rooms. A thermostat controls the system and provides temperature set by user.
Split air conditioners are devices which are split so that the compressor and condenser are located
outside and the fan coil unit inside. Split units are usually very effective and noticeably quiet.
Room air conditioners can be mounted either through the wall or in a window also portable devices are
available on the market.
4.6.5 Air-tightness
Air-tightness of building envelope significantly influences the energy consumption of building. The air
leakage points of a building are concentrated mainly at the joints between the building components,
joints and service connections. Air leakages and the associated heating energy can be reduced by
improving the air tightness of the components. Building air tightness is generally expressed in terms of
an air leakage value, i.e. a value defined by air pressure testing of the building. Factors affecting the
amount of leakage ventilation include e.g. wind direction and wind velocity, the shape and height of the
building, temperature difference and building location.
Influence of air and wind barriers

Air barriers play a very important role in hygrothermal performance of the building. The primary
requirement for an air barrier is its water vapour resistance as it prevents warm, humid air from
intruding into the in building envelope. Continuity in the air barrier is also very important, but it is also
the most difficult requirement to achieve. The air barrier must wrap not only solid wall but also corners,
junctions, details around openings, floor lines, soffits, inlets etc. Durability of air barrier is also an
extremely important issue, as it must last as long as the construction itself.
Wind barriers are used in exterior walls to prevent air flows in insulation materials. Convection due to
wind will occur in porous, low-density materials leading to an increase in heat flow through the
insulation. It will decrease in the thermal resistance of the insulation and transport moisture in the
structures. The most common wind barriers are plaster boards as well as diffusion open foils.
Definition and measurement methods

Air-tightness is measured with blower door test, as illustrated in Figure 4.6. A blower door consists of a
calibrated fan for measuring an air flow rate and a pressure sensing device to measure the pressure
created by the fan flow. The combination of pressure and flow can be used to estimate the air-tightness
of building envelope. Air-tightness should be tested according to EN 13829[16] at 50 Pa pressure
difference. For an energy efficient building, a general recommendation for air tightness according to
EN 13829 is n50 < 1 [ 1/h ].
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Figure 4.46 Example of blower door for air-tightness test
4.6.6 Measured air-tightness

Air leakage can be defined as air changes per hour (Ach), which is the volume of air entering the
building relative to its enclosed volumes expressed as over one hour pf 50Pa pressure difference. This is
expressed in n50[h1]. Alternatively air leakage is represented by the volume of air divided by the
surface area of the building envelope, again expressed as over one hour (m3/m2h). This factor is called
the 'air permeability', or q50. The ratio between these two parameters depends on the scale and
proportions of the building.
For housing, an air leakage rate of 10 m3/m2h is typical of current performance in the UK, for example,
and therefore air leakages of less than 5 m3/m2h represent better than average performance. Values
below 3 m3/m2h are excellent from an air-tightness point of view and can be obtained in light steel
construction.
A typical single family house has a surface area of 200 to 250 m2 and a volume of 300 to 350 m3. The
ratio of ach to m3/m2 is such that 1 Ach is approximately equivalent to 1.5 m3/m2h air leakage for single
family housing. This ratio will be different for other building forms.
Air-tightness of steel buildings has been investigated as in Table 4.11:
Table 4.11 Air-tightness data for typical buildings
Building type Air leakage rate at 50Pa (Ach)
Prefabricated light steel framed houses (terraced house) 1.9-2.5
Site built light steel house (terraced house) 4
Prefabricated timber detached houses 2-4
Prefabricated timber houses (terraced) 3-5
Concrete framed buildings 1-4
Low energy detached house 0.8-2
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Air-tightness measurements results for existing light steel framing projects in Finland based on a
previous ECSC research project are:
Project location (Finland) Air leakage rate at 50Pa (Ach)
Tuusula (see Figure 6.2) 1.0
Ojakkala 1.5
Yljrvi 1.9-2.1
Hmeenlinna 1.7
Figure 4.47 Steel house in Tuusula (Villa 2000) Finland
4.7 Moisture control

Moisture may occur due to various effects:
External rain that penetrates the building envelope

Any water present in the materials (not relevant to light steel framing)
Condensation due to leakage of warm moist air through the building envelope
Transient heating/cooling conditions
Flooding externally or internally, which takes time to dry out
There will not be moisture problems if construction is designed properly, used materials are
appropriately used and installed and environmental conditions are normal. The most important
questions are: How much moisture can penetrate the structures and how quickly penetrated moisture
dries out, and does it damage the structure?
4.7.1 Basic theory of condensation

The predominant moisture transport mechanisms are diffusion, convection, capillary suctions and liquid
flow due to gravity or pressure. The most usual moisture-related problems are condensation and mould.
Condensation may occur (dew point) when the relative humidity (RH) reaches 100%. The relative
humidity is percentage of saturation humidity. Condensation occurs on surfaces if temperature is lower
than dew point temperature of air.
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4.7.2 Moisture control
Condensation usually occurs at thermal bridges or in areas due to infiltration. If the structure has been
built and designed correctly to modern standards, this situation should not occur in normal operating
conditions. If, however, moisture does condense on the structure, it should be able to pass out of the
wall structure without causing damage or health risks.
The primary requirement of a vapour barrier is that it prevents the warm moist air condensing on the
colder parts of the building envelope. A vapour control layer should be placed on the warm side of the
building envelope which ensures that the temperature of the air does not fall below the dew point
temperature. This may be in the form of foil-backed plasterboard or a separate vapour control layer
behind the internal plasterboard. In warmer climates, the vapour control layer may be located differently
depending on the ambient conditions.
4.7.3 Influence of thermal bridging on moisture control

The surface at thermal bridges is normally slightly colder than adjacent structure. Even though thermal
bridges should be avoided, they can be allowed in building components if they do not cause moisture
damage or excessive relative humidity on the surfaces of building components in normal use. Localized
decreases in the temperature caused by thermal bridges can cause moisture to condense inside or on the
surface of a component. Surfaces can be considered to be damp enough for corrosion to occur at a
relative humidity of just 80 %. By applying methods compliant with the ISO 13788:2001[17], the
relationship between surface temperature and relative humidity and the probability of mould occurrence
can be evaluated. When assessing thermal bridges, methods compliant with the ISO 10211-1[13]] are
used.
The internal surface temperatures of building components required to avoid critical surface humidity
and interstitial condensation are defined in ISO 13788[17] compliant calculation methods:
si ( x , y ) e
f Rsi ( x , y ) =
( i e )
where
fRsi(x,y) is the temperature coefficient at the internal surface point (x,y)
si(x,y) is the internal surface temperature at point (x,y)
i is the indoor air temperature
e is the outdoor air temperature
As an example, consider the interior temperature of a perforated C-stud is 13C when exterior
temperature is 20C (for a nordic climate). The temperature coefficient fRsi(x,y) at the coldest points of
the light steel section is:
13 ( 20 )
f Rsi ( x, y ) = = 0,825
( 20 ( 20 )
This fRsi value is relatively high at 0,825 which is noticeable higher than required 0,7.
The long-term durability of light steel framing has been tested and modelled in a number of research
projects and monitoring assessments. According to studies[18] carried out by the Technical Research
Centre of Finland (VTT), the internal surface temperatures of perforated light steel frame constructions
are sufficiently high in normal conditions to prevent surface condensation and the so-called ghosting
effect from occurring. The calculated service life of the structure, based on the corrosion of the zinc
layer is estimated as 60200 years in conditions subject only to infrequent moisture, as in a warm dry
envelope.
Ghosting refers to the adherence of suspended dust particles onto surfaces that are colder than the air.
The internal surface of a wall can therefore become discoloured for example, at thermal bridges even in
119
clean indoor environments. It is concluded that no moisture risks are associated with light steel
constructions provided that good building practices are observed.
Figure 4.48 Wet time of a perforated light steel frame construction
4.8 Energy saving and renewable energy

It is possible to integrate renewable energy utilizing components into steel framed buildings. The most
common solutions are PV-laminates, plane collectors for heat and collector channels for warm air.
Photovoltaic laminates as well as plane collectors can be integrated easily and aesthetically on steel
roofing.
4.8.1 Photovoltaics
PV-laminates are photovoltaic cells which use semiconductor-based technology to convert light energy
into an electric current. Electric current can be used directly or stored in batteries. Solar energy can also
be used for everyday living and utilised as primary energy, and supplementary energy is taken from the
public electric power network when needed. PV-laminates can be directly integrated on the surface of
steel cladding. The laminate is wired from the connecting box of the electric laminate to an installation
centre where a charging controller and necessary fuses are located. A battery suitable for solar energy
recovery is also connected to the installation centre. All necessary accessories are included in the
installation sets.
120
Figure 4.49 Photovoltaics laminated to steel roofing
4.8.2 Planar solar connectors

Different kind of planar collectors has been used for many years. They are devices in which sunlight is
converted into heat on a plane surface without the aid of reflecting surfaces to concentrate the rays.
Usually there is an absorber where water-glycol solution circulates as the heat transferring liquid.
Liquid warmed by the sun is transferred to a water boiler that utilises the heat energy of the liquid for
warming household water. The system is controlled by a pump and control unit.
Figure 4.50 Planar solar connectors integrated to steel roofing
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Figure 4.51 Solar energy collection devices
4.8.3 Warm air collectors

Warm air is available from early in the spring to the autumn as soon as the surface temperature of the
roof is higher than the open-air temperature through the warming effect of the sun. The system is based
on a simple structural solution where collector pipes for ventilation, - warm-air collectors - are installed
under standing seam roofing sheets. When the sun warms the roof, air warms up in the ventilation
channels and rises to the collecting channel on the ridge of the roof. The air is directed with a
ventilation machine from the collecting channel into the building. In the summertime, warm air is
directed outdoors to cool the roof space and structure.
A warm air collector device can be used within the cladding structure and energy source in detached
family houses, terraced houses, and multi-storey houses. The system can also utilized in summer time
for cooling the attic. Fans needed for circulating air can also use solar energy. Parts of the receiving
channel and the collecting channel are standard parts that are pre-dimensioned to build a functional unit.
The efficiency of a warm air collector can reach as much as 10-20% of total radiation energy.
Figure 4.52 Double skin roofing system with heat exchange
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5 TESTS PERFORMED BY THE PARTNERS
The following tests were carried out in the course of the demonstration project, which are summarised
in this section.
5.1 Tests performed in the UK

5.1.1 Thermal and air-tightness tests on the demonstration building
Two types of test were performed on the demonstration building to assess its energy performance in
service:
Thermographic tests to assess heat loss and local cold spots.
Air-infiltration tests to assess the air-tightness of the building envelope.
The thermographic test results are directly influenced by the external insulation and the type of cladding
system. For reasons of expediency, insulation was not placed between the wall studs or behind the
Corium brick-tile system. The rendered cladding system was insulated with EPS attached to board
screwed to the light steel frame. The gable walls were unclad and their results can be ignored.
Discussion of thermographic data

The critical temperature difference defining the risk of local condensation through cold bridging as
identified by BSRIA in the UK, is taken as 0.25 difference between the external and internal
temperature (typically 2.5 to 4.5C).
Local cold bridging was generally found to be excessive, partly on the walls with brick tiles, and. the
critical locations are presented in Table 5.1. Temperature differences greater than approximately 4oC
are poor. It is concluded from these tests that full reliance should not be put on the insulation between
the wall studs, and at least half of the insulation should be placed externally to the wall studs. (See also
theoretical studies in Section 5.1.3).
Table 5.1 Measured temperature differences over the surface of the external faade
Location Temperature Difference (C)
Rendered Cladding on First Floor
Side A 3.1, 7.5
Side B 3.1, 4.7, 5.0, 5.2
Stair Module 5.5, 8.6, 11.2
Brick-Tile Cladding (uninsulated)
Side A 6.9
Side B 6.1, 6.3
Discussion on air leakage tests

At a mean air pressure of 50 pascals, the air change rate was measured at 4.7 ach (corresponding to an
air volume of 609 m3/h). Slightly higher values of 4.8 ach were recorded for the stair module.
Although there is no current requirement for envelope permeability in the UK Building Regulations[9],
the measured permeability value of 3.2 m3/m2 is less than the guide value of 10 m3/m2 for housing in the
UK. It could be improved if windows and doors were fitted with seals but may also be affected by
services installations in a real building. Therefore, the air-tightness performance is good.
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5.1.2 Acoustic test results on the demonstration building
Acoustic tests were carried out on the prototype demonstration building for the following cases:
1. Separating floor (first floor)
Lattice joist
Plyweb box beams
2. Separating wall between the modules

Ground floor
First floor
The tests also reflect the incomplete nature of the faade construction in terms of acoustic flanking
losses. Non-glazed windows were boarded. Only one side of the building was finished to occupancy
standard (the lattice joist side).
The test results are presented in accordance with the former and current Building Regulations, and the
current Regulations take account of a low frequency sound correction factor, Ctr. The results are
presented in Table 5.2 and Table 5.3 for the separating floors and walls respectively. They correspond to
single measurements and are compared to the minimum acceptable values.
Discussion of separating floors

The airborne sound reduction satisfies the Regulations for both floor configurations, but the low
frequency correction factor is relatively high (-12 dB). This suggests that the floors are susceptible to
low frequencies (< 200 Hz). The lattice joist does not satisfy the current Regulations for airborne
sound, whereas the plyweb beam satisfies the Regulations by 3 dB. It is likely that flanking losses
through the faade walls may have contributed to the poor performance on the lattice joist side of the
building. Therefore, the construction could be made acceptable by appropriate improvements to the
details of the floor-wall connections to reduce flanking losses. The impact sound transmission values
are low, indicating excellent performance of the Rockfloor covering.
Table 5.2 Test data and comparison with the UK Building Regulations for separating floor
in demonstration building
Airborne Sound Impact Sound

Separating Floor Requirements and Reduction Transmission
Measured Performance
DnT,w Ctr DnT,w + Ctr Ln,T,w
Building Regulations 1991
Mean 52 dB - - 61 dB
Minimum 48 dB - - 65 dB
Minimum - - 45 dB 62 dB
Lattice Joists 350 mm deep @ 400 mm centres 55 dB -12 dB 43 dB 48 dB
Plyweb box beams 350 mm deep @ 600 mm centres 60 dB -12 dB 48 dB 48 dB
All separating floors have 18 mm chipboard over 40 mm Rockfloor with 19 mm plasterboard or 18 mm

chipboard attached to the joists, with the layers on 12.5 mm fire-resistant plasterboard with 100 mm
mineral wool insulation placed between the joists.
Discussion of separating walls

The airborne sound reductions across the module walls are excellent and satisfy the former and current
UK Regulations by over 9 dB. The results for the first floor module walls are better than those of the
124
ground floor presumably because flanking losses are much less. The low frequency connection factor
is 4 to 11 dB, which is less than for the floors.
Table 5.3 Test data and comparison with the Building Regulations for separating wall
between modules in the demonstration building
Separating Wall Requirements and Airborne Sound Reduction

Measured Performance
DnT,w Ctr DnT,w + Cr
Mean 53 dB - -
Minimum 49 dB - -
Buildings Regulations 2003
Minimum - - 45 dB
Module wall ground floor 62 dB -4 dB 58 dB
Module wall first floor 75 dB -11 dB 64 dB
The separating wall between the modules consists of two walls comprising 100 mm 1.6 mm C sections
with 11 mm OSB on both sides and 12.5 mm fire resistant plasterboard on the room side and 100 mm
mineral wool insulation between the wall studs.
5.1.3 Thermal analysis of wall panels

Thermal analyses were carried out for the two wall types in the demonstration building: an insulated
render, and a brick-tile system (Corium). The various layers in the wall and their thermal conductivities
are presented in Figure 5.1. The computed thermal transmissions (U-values) for various thicknesses of
insulation are presented in Table 5.4. Mineral (Rockwool) wool placed between the wall studs reduces
the U-values considerably (from 0.335 to 0.236 W/m2K).
Table 5.4 U-values for different constructions

Case Description U-value (W/m2K)
2 Render: 60 mm EPS, Rockwool in frame cavity 0.277
8 Corium: 35 mm EPS, Rockwool in frame cavity 0.350
The thermal performance of the rendered cladding system with mineral wool between the wall studs is
shown in Figure 5.2.
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(a) Insulated render
(b) Brick-tile system (Corium)

Figure 5.1 Thermal conductivities of materials used in thermal analyses
The isothermal lines show the local hot spots on the steel studs. The maximum temperature difference
is 2C across the wall (for a 20C overall temperature between inside and outside). Reducing the
proportions of external and inter-stud insulation increases this effect, as shown in Figure 5.3.
The use of brick tiling shows a similar performance, as in Figure 5.4. Increasing the amount of external
insulation as in Figure 5.5 reduces the local hot spots to less than 1C. These results are presented in
Table 5.5.Table 5.5 presents the results for various levels external insulation.
Table 5.5 Summary of computed temperatures (for 20C temperature difference)

Minimum steel Hot Spot on internal
Wall Configuration
temperature surface
Insulated render:
60 mm EPS & 100 mm mineral wool 12C 2.0C
40 mm EPS & mineral wool 14C 1.5C
100 mm EPS & mineral wool 15.8C <1.0C
Brick-tile system:

126
On the basis of these tests, it is recommended that at least 70 mm of external insulation and a similar
thickness of mineral wool insulation is used between the wall studs in order to achieve a U-value of
0.25 W/m2K and to reduce the risk of condensation on the steel elements.
Figure 5.2 Thermal profile - Render, 60 mm EPS, 100 mm Rockwool
Figure 5.3 Thermal profile - Render, 40 mm EPS, 100 mm Rockwool
127
Figure 5.4 Thermal profile - Corium, 50 mm EPS,100 mm Rockwool
Figure 5.5 Thermal profile - Corium, 80 mm EPS and 100 mm mineral wool
5.1.4 Background testing of steel-timber floor joists

Steel and timber are synergistic materials when used in floor joists because the light steel sections
provide the flanges for bending resistance, and the plywood web provides the shear resistance. The
depth of the plyweb joist can be varied to suit the design requirements, and openings can be cut easily
into the plywood.
In this research, four prototype steel-timber floor joists were investigated as shown in Figure 5.6, based
on earlier tests at the University of Edinburgh:
T section flange and single plywood web
T section flange and double plywood web
C section flange with double plywood web
C section flange with double thicker plywood web
The tests gave an opportunity to examine these parameters before deciding on the plyweb joist design to
be included in the demonstration building.
T section T section Box section Box section

- single web - double web - thick web - thin web
Figure 5.6 Plyweb deep joist configurations using T and C section flanges
128
Test procedure and results
The floor assemblies were tested in the vacuum rig, and adjusting the test specimen to its final location
is shown in Figure 5.7. The vacuum rig allows uniformly distributed loads to be applied up to a
maximum of 4 kN/m2 at which load was maintained for 30 minutes and removed. Load was then
increased to failure (or to the maximum capabilities of the vacuum pressure).
Test configuration
The test specimen consisted of pairs of steel-timber floor joists at 600 mm centres with a span of 5.75 m
between centres of supports. The joist depth of 345 mm was selected, based firstly on calculations of
predicted composite action and, secondly, to align with the dimensional requirements of the
demonstration building. The floor boarding was screwed and glued to the joists and cantilevered
300mm beyond the centreline of the joists. The joist ends were held in place by 12 mm plywood
diaphragms, in order to prevent instability at the supports.
The four different joist configurations that were tested were all 345 mm deep and had the following
details:
1. Tee section of 50 50 1.8 mm thick with a single 12 mm plywood web fixed with countersunk
screws at 150 mm centres.
2. Tee section of 50 50 1.8 mm thick with two 6 mm plywood webs fixed with hexagonal head
screws at 200 mm centres.
3. C section with 77 mm web 50 mm flange 1.6 mm thick, with two 12 mm plywood webs fixed
with countersunk screws at 200 mm centres.
4. C section with 77 50 1.6 with two 6 mm plywood webs fixed with hexagonal head screws at
200 mm centres.
Hexagonal head screws were used for the thinner plywood rather than countersunk screws that caused
local damage to the 6mm plywood webs. The plywood board pattern adopted for the double web joists
ensured that board joints were staggered on opposite sides of the joist.
Test results
The test results are presented for the four plyweb joist specimens as follows:
Test Specimen C1: Box web, 12mm plywood

The load cycle to failure is shown in Figure 5.9. The behaviour was linear elastic for a load exceeding
the working load of the floor. The 4 kN/m2 load was maintained for 30 minutes to monitor creep
deflections. On applying further loads, there was a problem with the test rig and the load had to be
removed at just over 5 kN/m2. The load was then reapplied, but failure was not achieved when loading
was terminated at 6 kN/m2.
129
Figure 5.7 Test specimen adjusted to final location in the vacuum rig
Load v Displacement to 6kN; Type C1
6.0
5.0
4.0
Load (kN/m2)
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0
Displacement (mm)
Figure 5.8 Test C1: Results from load cycles 4 to 7
Test Specimen C2: Box web: 6mm Plywood

The test to a load of 6 kN/m2 followed a similar form to test C1 (see Figure 5.9). The slip movement at
4 kN/m2 was 2 mm over 30 minutes duration.
Load v Displacement to 6kN; Type C2
6.0
5.0
4.0
Load (kN/m2)
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0
Displacement (mm)
Figure 5.9 Test C2: Results from load cycles 4 to 7
130
Load v Displacement to 5.6kN; Type T1
5.6
4.6
3.6
Load (kN/m )
2
2.6
1.6
0.6
-0.4 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0
Displacement (mm)
Figure 5.10 Test T1: Results from load cycles 4 to 7
Test Specimen T1: Single web joist; 12mm plywood

The joists used in test specimen T1 were the only non-symmetrical elements used in the test
programme, and the performance was not expected to be as good as the other joists (see Figure 5.10).
This was confirmed in the test to serviceability load as the deflection was almost double that for the
joists with C-section flanges. Separation of the boards occurred at around 5.8 kN/m2, indicating that
shear failure of the fixings had occurred (see Figure 5.11).
The performance of joist T2 (see Figure 5.12) was considerably better than T1. At a load of 4 kN/m2,
the deflection of T1 was around 40mm, whereas for T2 it was 25mm. A creep deflection of 3 mm was
recorded at this load. Loading was continued up to 5.6 kN/m2, at which point failure had not occurred.
Figure 5.11 Test T1: Local deformation at joint in plywood web
131
Test Specimen T2: Double web joist: 6 mm plywood
Load v Displacement to 5.6kN; Type T2
5.6
4.6
3.6
Load (kN/m )
2
2.6
1.6
0.6
-0.4 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0
Displacement (mm)
Figure 5.12 Test T2: Results from load cycles 4 to 7
Analysis of results
Theoretical deflections
The second moment of area of the joists may be determined on the basis of the steel flanges alone. The
contribution of the plywood webs is ignored in the calculations to determine load/displacement
characteristics of the joist. The T flange joists are assumed to be placed at 400 mm centres, but the
spacing of the C flange joists may be increased to 600 mm because of the wider support and continuity
that they provide to the floor boarding.
Measured deflections
The measured deflections of the joists up to a load of 1 kN/m2 were greater than predicted by hand
calculations. Table 5.6 presents a comparison of the theoretical and measured deflections. The
difference is due to slip of the fixings to the flange and shear in the plywood.
Table 5.6 Comparison of predicted and actual load displacement for load cycle 1.
Predicted Difference
Actual deflection
Joist Centres (mm) Load (kN/m2) deflection (shear
(mm)
(mm) deflection)
(mm)
C1 600 1.0 3.67 3.90 0.2
C2 600 1.0 3.67 3.95 0.2
T1 600 1.0 3.56 7.35 3.7
T2 600 1.0 3.23 4.40 1.2

Predicted deflection based on I value of section
The results clearly show that the performance of the single web joists T1 was greatly affected by shear
deflections, or the effect of the discontinuous web of the joist. The C1 and C2 joists behaved well and
shear deflection was small. The same comparison could be made close to the factored load, at which
point the shear effects are greater (see Table 5.7).
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Table 5.7 Comparison of predicted and actual load displacement for factored loads
Difference (slip
Predicted Actual deflection
Joist Centres (mm) Load (kN/m2) on fixings)
deflection (mm) (mm)
(mm)
C1 600 4.0 14.68 22.15 8.0
C2 600 4.0 14.68 24.70 10.0
T1 600 4.0 14.24 39.75 15.0
T2 600 4.0 12.92 25.45 10.0
For acceptable serviceability performance, the two factors of greatest importance are:
1. Under dead plus imposed load, the deflection of the floor joists must not exceed 15mm (this is based
on comparable design limits for timber floors).
2. The natural frequency of the floor should not be less than 8Hz (this is to avoid resonant effects due
to walking).
For residential construction, combined dead plus imposed load does not exceed 2.4 kN/m2. At this load,
the deflections were as presented in Table 5.8, which are less than 15 mm except in Test T1. The
spacing of joists T1 and T2 was reduced to 400mm in order to achieve these limits.
Table 5.8 Deflections and natural frequency for residential applications (serviceability
loading = 2.4 kN/m2)
Actual deflection Natural frequency
Joist Centres (mm)
(mm) (Hz)
C1 600 11.7 8.6
C2 600 12.6 7.9
T1 400 14.3 8.1
T2 400 9.3 9.4
The comparable values of natural frequency are also presented in Table 5.9. Natural frequency is
calculated for the self weight of the floor construction plus 30 kg/m2, representing a lower bound to the
loads present on a bare floor. The self weight is taken as 0.9 k/m2 for a built-up floor (with acoustic
enhancements). These criteria show that joists C1 and T2 are acceptable, but that joists C2 and T1 are
marginal. On this basis, it was decided to proceed with joist type C1 in the demonstration building.
The following design table (Table 5.9) is presented for the double web plywood joist, C2. This is based
on the criteria above. Natural frequency controls use design for lighter imposed loads, and total
deflection controls for heavier imposed loads.
Table 5.9 Maximum span (m) of ply-web joists at 600 mm centres

Depth of joist (mm)
Imposed load 300 325 350 375 400 425
1.5 kN/m2 5.0 5.4 5.8 6.2 6.7 7.2

2
2.5 kN/m 4.7 5.0 5.4 5.8 6.3 6.7
2
Self weight = 0.9 kN/m
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5.2 Tests performed in Sweden
5.2.1 Scope of physical testing
The Ridskolan development in southern Sweden is constructed of modules to create an apartment
building. Since several modules were used for one apartment, the connections between modules and
their details must fulfill the demands for the building physics. The multi-layer construction of the
building envelope was also challenging in terms of connections and details. To verify the good
performance of the completed apartments, various on-site measurements were carried out including,
acoustic, vibration and energy performance.
Acoustics
For airborne sound insulation, air-tightness of external walls and between apartments is crucial. Impact
sound transmission can also be a problem for light weight construction. As the modules are connected
to the primary frame in only six places per module, the design of these connections should reduce the
impact sound transmission to an acceptable level. Field measurements demonstrated acceptable
performance.
Human induced vibrations

Occupant-induced vibrations are of great concern in all lightweight constructions. Modular construction
provides for separation of floor and ceiling. Vibrations are not easily transmitted through the floor to
the module below. Furthermore, the short floor span reduces the risk of annoyance due to vibrations.
Field measurements of the springiness of the floor were necessary to prove the performance.
Energy usage
Energy usage and a good thermal comfort are also critical issues due to the climatic conditions. It was
assumed that monitoring energy use in lived-in dwellings would not be representative in cases where
the inhabitants have recently moved in. For a valid estimation of long-term energy use, monitoring was
carried our during the second heating season, i.e. 2004/2005. As this was not feasible in this project,
indicators of energy use are of more interest, such as air-tightness and thermographic studies of the
external walls, together with theoretical calculations of energy consumption for heating.
Field measurements
Physical testing focused on the performance of individual apartments. Thus the performance is
described for a single apartment rather an overall building. Field measurements methods given in
standards have been used, as far as possible.
5.2.2 Physical testing and data

The full versions of the results from physical testing are presented in two background SBI (Swedish)
reports:
Results from fan pressurisation test and building thermography[19]
Measurements of sound insulation and springiness of a light weight floor[20]
Fan pressurization and building thermography

Air-tightness
Air-tightness was measured by using the method of fan pressurization, according to EN 13829[16]. The
pressurisation equipment Minneapolis Blower Door was used, and staff from the Department of
Building Physics at Lund University performed the test.
The thermography equipment used was an Agema TermoVision 900. Staff of Lund University also
performed the test and the building thermography was performed on the same occasion as the
pressurization test.
134
The four apartments studied are all situated on the top (second) floor and have the same floor area
(61 m). The apartments consist of two full modules each and are almost square in plan. Three of the
apartments are identical with two facing exterior walls, while the fourth apartment has exterior walls on
three sides. The internal room height is 2.55 m.
The field measurements were performed for a general outdoor air temperature of 3C and an indoor air
temperature of 20C. The weather conditions were generally cloudy with a wind speed of 3-6 m/s. The
surrounding conditions were not optimal for the fan pressurization test, as the wind speed was slightly
higher than normal. Furthermore, the apartments were quite small for the measuring method used. The
apartments were not inhabited at the time of the field measurements.
The results of these tests are presented in a report of the University of Lund[19]. An air change rate of
between 0.26 and 0.33 air changes per hour at 50 Pa was recorded. The average air change rate was
0.29 ach@50Pa, as shown in Table 5.10. The apartment with the highest air change rate is situated at the
end of the building, as it has exterior walls on three sides, while the other apartments have only two
exterior walls.
If all the surrounding surfaces of the apartment are taken into account, the air change rate is on average
0,8 l/s/m at 50 Pa, and this achieves the requirements of the Swedish Building Regulations (BBR[10].
The possible paths for air leakage are the air gap separating the modules of the different apartments and
through the facades.
Table 5.10 Measured air change rates per hour at 50 Pa for the apartments
Apartment ach@50Pa area m2 volume m2
203 0.26 61 156
223 0.29 61 156
218 0.28 61 156
211 0.33 61 156
Average 0.29 61 156
Results - Building thermography

Building thermography measurements were performed for two different cases: with run-time pressure
differences over the building envelope and with a negative indoor pressure of 50 Pa from fan
pressurization. The values for surface temperatures were slightly higher (approximately 0.5C) for the
case with a large negative indoor pressure. This was probably due to leakage between the modules of
the apartment and the air gap separating the modules of other apartments. The indoor surfaces of the
apartments were thermographed and the surface temperatures measured in eleven locations in each
apartment. The values for the pressurized measurements are presented in Table 5.11. A graph of the
temperature field in a corner (floor/external walls) is shown, specifically the lower part of a window, in
Figure 5.13.
Low surface temperatures, approximately 9C, will arise in the window frames and doorframes. It is
easy to see the effect of points of leakage (the striped areas under the window in Figure 5.14). In
addition to the low temperatures by the windows, a few randomly cold surfaces have been identified.
135
Table 5.11 Indoor surface temperatures from building thermography with a negative
pressure of 50 Pa.
Apartment 218 223 203 Apartment 211
Point of monitoring C C C Point of monitoring C
Corner ceiling/wall, living room 16,1 18,2 17,4 Corner ceiling/wall, kitchen 20,1
Corner ceiling/wall, living room 20,1 17,6 18,4 Window bottom, kitchen 9,8
Ceiling/wall above window, living 19,0 17,5 17,6 Ceiling above window, 19,4
room kitchen
Window top, right, living room 12,0 11,4 11,7 Corner ceiling/wall, living 17,5
room
Window bottom, right, living room 9,7 9,2 10,1 Corner wall/floor, living room 17,5
Window top, left, living room 12,3 11,5 12,8 Window bottom, living room 9,8
Window bottom, left, living room 9,8 9,3 9,3 Corner wall/floor, living room 19,9
Window, kitchen 9,9 9,4 10,4 Corner ceiling/wall, bedroom 17,0
Corner ceiling/wall, kitchen 16,1 14,2 17,2 Corner wall/floor, bedroom 16,2
Corner ceiling/wall, bedroom 17,3 19,3 16,0 Window bottom, bedroom 18,5
Corner ceiling/wall, bedroom 19,6 18,9 14,9 Corner ceiling/wall 19,2

Surface temperatures below 15C are marked in grey in this table.
Figure 5.13 Photo of corner floor/exterior walls.

Bottom: Thermographic picture of the same corner at 50 Pa. Minimum
temperature is 17.5C.
136
Figure 5.14 Thermographic picture of the lower part of a window in the living room. The
striped temperature fields indicate that the low surface temperatures are due
to entry of a cold air stream
Conclusions from thermal measurements

The overall air-tightness of the apartments is reasonable, according to the fan pressurization test.
Air-tightness corresponds well to the Swedish Building Regulations (0.8 l/s/m@50Pa) if all the
surfaces of the apartment are considered as part of the building envelope. Insulation of the building
envelope surrounding the apartments is overall fairly good, according to the building thermography.
According to theoretical calculations, exterior walls have U-values of approximately 0.19-0.26 W/mK,
depending on the choice of faade material.
The local problem around the windows was probably due to poor air-tightness. The windows were
placed in the outer part of the building envelope, as shown in Figure 5.15, and so it was difficult to
achieve sufficient air-tightness. The lack of insulating materials surrounding the window contributes
also to the cold surfaces, and there are also a few spots where a temperature below 15C has been
recorded. In the OpenHouse System, the former window construction, which consisted of windows
supported on angles in the outer part of the wall, has been abandoned and the windows are now situated
in the centre of the wall. The improvement will provide a significantly better thermal performance, and
overall air-tightness.
Figure 5.15 Windows located in the outer part of the wall, which affects air-tightness and
thermal insulation. Windows are now placed in the centre of the wall
137
5.2.3 Sound insulation and springiness
Apartments studied
The measurements were performed on floor structures separating the second and third floors, i.e.
horizontally between apartments. The floors of two different apartments (apartment 1 and apartment 2)
were studied. The room height was 2.55 m.
Table 5.12 Locations for field measurements

Case Apartment Location Area
1 1 Living room 20 m
2 1 Bedroom 1 11 m
3 1 Bedroom 2 11 m
4 2 Living room 26 m
Field measurements were performed during the heating season 2003/2004. The apartments were not
inhabited at the time of these measurements.
Results Sound insulation

The results from the measurements of sound insulation show quite similar results for the four different
cases. A summary of the results is shown in Table 5.13. Full presentations of frequencies and
corresponding R-values are found in the field measurement report[20].
The results for the airborne sound reduction were generally better than those for the impact sound
transmission. The limits of the Swedish Regulations are presented in this table.
Table 5.13 Results from the sound insulation measurements

Case Rw+C50-3150 Ln,w+CI,50-2500
Case 1 58 > 56 dB 56 < 58 dB
Case 2 59 > 56 dB 58 = 58 dB
Case 3 60 > 56 dB 58 = 58 dB
Case 4 56 = 56 dB 57 < 58 dB
Results Springiness
Floor springiness was measured at four locations in two apartments. The results are shown in
Table 5.14. The vibrations in the bedrooms was smaller than in the other rooms. The damping value of
6 to 7% takes account of the fitments in the rooms, and is much higher than the normal design value of
3 to 5%.
Table 5.14 Results of measurements of the springiness of floors

Case Natural frequency Damping hmax (mm/s/Ns)
(Hz) Ratio %
Case 1 12 7 14
Case 2 10 6 13
Case 3 10 7 12
Case 4 13 6 15
138
5.3 Tests performed in Finland
5.3.1 Steel roof integrated solar systems
The steel roof integrated solar systems were tested at VTT in Espoo. The efficiency (solar
gains/irradiation on the collector surface) was roughly 10 20% according to the test system
measurements at VTT. Results are presented in Figure 5.16 to Figure 5.20. Parameters such as
orientation, slope, collector area and mode of use affect the efficiency of performance. The following
general conclusions were made of the system:
Low investment costs: existing, typical steel products for sloped roofs
Pre-heater of the mechanical ventilation system: leads to increased efficiency over a year of
operation
Integral part of a ventilation heating system: day time solar heat and reduced auxiliary energy
consumption
Easy to control
A stand-alone solar collector was also tested at VTT. The system consists of a steel roof integrated Si
photovoltaic panel and a supply air system. The PV array output power is directly used for the
ventilation fan. The nominal output voltage and power of 24 V and 128 W give a maximum air flow of
120 150 l/s for the ventilator.
Roof integrated solar air collector
25 500
20 400
O u td o o r
Irradiation [W/m ]
Temperature [ C]
15
300 te m p e ra tu re
o
10 Air flo w to
v e n tila tio n u n it
200
5 In d o o r te m p e ra tu re
100
0 Irra d ia tio n o n
h o riz o n ta l s u rfa c e
-5 0
-1 0 -1 0 0
0 6 12 18 24
M a rc h 1 5 , 2 0 0 2
Figure 5.16 Supply air temperature into the heat exchanger in the ventilation unit for
March. The roof integrated solar air collector acts as a pre-heater .
100
90
80
70
Efficiency [%]
60 38 l/s
58 l/s
50
70 l/s
40 82 l/s
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
2
Hourly irradiance [W/m ]
Figure 5.17 Steel roof-integrated solar air collector Collector efficiency according to total
collector air flow. (Collector area 16 m2)
139
Solar gains > ventilation heat loss => solar heat for space heating
No auxiliary heat (duct heater), all solar heat utilised
45
40
35
Indoor air/Flap valve control

30
Temperature [ C]
Air from collector

o
Heat recovery on
25 Exhaust after heat recovery
Supply air
Heat recovery off
20 Exhaust before heat recovery
15
10
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Hour of day
Figure 5.18 Performance of the integrated solar air heating system

- No ancillary heating
Solar gains >ventilation heat loss

Solar heatin g sto pp ed at heatin g set p oint
50
45 Heating set point:

Collector air mixed with
40 fresh air
Heat recovery off

35
Indoor air/Flap valve control
Temperature [ C]
Air from collector

o
30
Heat recovery on Exhaust after heat recovery
25 Supply air
Heating set point 21 o C
20
15
10
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Hour of day
Figure 5.19 Performance of the integrated solar air heating system

- Solar heating stopped at heating set point
Roof integrated stand-alone solar air collector

30 500
Outdoor temperature [oC]
Air flow temperature [oC] 450
Irradiation on horizontal surface [W/m2]
25 Output power [W]
400
Air flow [l/s]
350
Irradiation [W/m ]
Output power [W]

Air flow [l/s]
20
2
Temperature [ C]
o
300
15 250
200
10
150
100
5
50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Hour of day
Figure 5.20 Performance of a stand-alone solar collector system
140
5.3.2 Monitoring of Villa 2000
Villa 2000 has been continuously occupied from July 2002 and long term monitoring measurements
were started at the same time. Short duration tests were carried out when the building was unoccupied.
Short duration tests

In the short duration tests, the thermal quality of the building envelope was assessed by the following
measurements:
Air tightness n50/50 Pa
- Living area (light steel structure) n5- = 1.0 1/h
Heat loss coefficient of building envelope
- Living area 117 W/K (volume 940 m3)
- Basement 54 W/K (volume 240 m3)
Heating power (at 46 oC temperature difference between indoors and outdoors)
- Living area 5.4 kW
- Basement 2.5 kW
The results show that an excellent level of air-tightness can be achieved by light steel structures. In
comparison, the air-tightness of a typical Finnish timber framed detached house is n50 = 2,5 to 4.5 1/h.
The thermal quality of the building envelope meets the requirements set for a sustainable building. The
total heat loss coefficient of the light steel structures including windows and doors is only 117 W/K or
0.125 W/m3K, or 35% of a building with the same form and volume but with a traditional building
structure. The total heating power demand (living area and basement) is less that 40% of a typical
building according to National Building Code requirements in Finland, as shown in Figure 5.21.
Villa 2000 - heating power
25
Villa 2000, measured

Reference, Low-energy principle
20 Reference Building Code, mechanical ventilation
Reference Building Code, natural ventilation
Heating Power [kW]
15
10
Figure 5.21 Comparison of heating power requirement in Villa 2000 compared to

reference buildings
Monitoring measurements
According to a one year monitoring period, the energy consumption of Villa 2000 is within the target
level. The heating energy consumption (space heating and hot water) of an average detached house built
in 2000 - 2002 is 140 160 kWh/m2, corresponding to 45 50 kWh/m3. The heating energy
consumption of Villa 2000 is 60 kWh/m2, corresponding to 13 kWh/m3 - see Figure 5.22. The target
heating energy consumption of Villa 2000 was 33% of the consumption in a typical house in Finland.
141
The consumption of electrical energy for the monitoring year is shown in Figure 5.23 to Figure 5.25.
The total electricity consumption including electricity used outside the house is about 42 kWh/m2,
corresponding to 9 kWh/m3. The electricity consumption in an average detached house is
50 - 70 kWh/m2, corresponding to 15 - 22 kWh/m3.
Daily consumption of district heat

Space heating and hot water
60
Total 14900 kWh
2
= 60 kWh/m
50 = 12,6 kWh/m
3
40
kWh
30
20
10
0
10.5.2002
19.5.2002
28.5.2002
6.6.2002
15.6.2002
24.6.2002
3.7.2002
12.7.2002
21.7.2002
30.7.2002
8.8.2002
17.8.2002
26.8.2002
4.9.2002
13.9.2002
22.9.2002
1.10.2002
10.10.2002
19.10.2002
28.10.2002
6.11.2002
15.11.2002
24.11.2002
3.12.2002
12.12.2002
21.12.2002
30.12.2002
8.1.2003
17.1.2003
26.1.2003
4.2.2003
13.2.2003
22.2.2003
3.3.2003
12.3.2003
21.3.2003
30.3.2003
8.4.2003
17.4.2003
26.4.2003
5.5.2003
Day
Figure 5.22 Consumption of heating energy in Villa 2000 (including hot water)
Weekly electricity consumption of building service systems

16,00
Total 526 kWh
2
14,00 = 2,1 kWh/m
3
= 0,5 kWh/m
12,00
10,00
kWh
8,00
6,00
4,00
2,00
0,00
.5 2
7. 002
.6 2
5. 002
.7 2
2. 002
.8 2
.8 2
.9 2
.9 2
. 1 02
. 1 02
11 2
. 1 02
12 2
. 1 02
3. 002
.3 3
.1 3
.1 3
.2 3
.2 3
.3 3
.4 3
.4 3
9. 003
03
24 200
21 200
19 200
16 200
31 200
14 200
28 200
14 200
30 200
13 200
27 200
8. 200
6. 200
17 00
28 00
11 200
25 200
25 . 20
20
11 .20
22 .20
20 .20
2
2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
0.
.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
1.
5.
.
.
.5
0
10
Week
Figure 5.23 Consumption of electrical energy for the building services in Villa 2000
142
Electricity consumption of lighting and appliances
20
18
Total: = 2475 kWh
16 2
= 9,9 kWh/m
14
12
kWh
10
0
.6 2
6. 002
17 003
03
19 002
.8 2
8. 002
24 002
7. 02
2. 02
.8 2
13 002
27 002
31 003
14 003
28 003
14 003
28 003
11 003
25 003
9. 03
0
25 200
0
00
11 200
22 200
20 200
0
20
20
20
0
20
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
6.
5.
7.
8.
0.
0.
1.
2.
1.
.5
.5
.7
.9
.9
11
12
.1
.1
.2
.2
.3
.3
.4
.4
.1
5.
.1
.1
.1
3.
10
21
16
30
Day
Figure 5.24 Electricity consumption for lighting and home appliances for Villa 2000
Daily electricity consumption of kitchen and washing equipment
16
Total: = 1445 kWh

14
= 5,8 kWh/m2
12
10
kWh
0
6.6.2002
3.7.2002
8.8.2002
4.9.2002
10.10.2002
19.10.2002
28.10.2002
15.11.2002
24.11.2002
12.12.2002
21.12.2002
30.12.2002
8.1.2003
4.2.2003
3.3.2003
8.4.2003
5.5.2003
10.5.2002
19.5.2002
28.5.2002
15.6.2002
24.6.2002
12.7.2002
21.7.2002
30.7.2002
17.8.2002
26.8.2002
13.9.2002
22.9.2002
1.10.2002
6.11.2002
3.12.2002
17.1.2003
26.1.2003
13.2.2003
22.2.2003
12.3.2003
21.3.2003
30.3.2003
17.4.2003
26.4.2003
Day
Figure 5.25 Electricity consumption for kitchen stove, refrigeration equipment, range hood
and washing machine for Villa 2000
5.3.3 Monitoring of Loiste building

Monitoring of the Loiste building was started in the beginning of November 2002. Due to occasional
malfunctions of the monitoring equipment, only a yearly sum of energy consumption can be given. The
heating energy consumption for space heating is 47 kWh/m2 and for hot water 31 kWh/m2,
corresponding to 14 kWh/m3 and 9 kWh/m3, as shown in Figure 5.26. The total electricity consumption
is 22 kWh/m2.
143
Energy consumption 11/2002 - 10/2003
12000 100
90
10000 Total, kWh
80
Per floor area, kWh/m2
70
8000
60
[kWh/m ]
2
[kWh]
6000 50
40
4000
30
20
2000
10
0 0
Hot water heating Space heating Electricity for HVAC Other electricity
Figure 5.26 Distribution of annual energy consumption in Loiste building
5.3.4 Conclusions from site measurements

The results show that extremely low energy consumption is possible even in cold climates using
existing steel building components, and utilizing modern energy classified home appliances, kitchen
equipment and low voltage lighting fixtures. The total energy saving rate in the demonstration buildings
was 66% for Villa 2000 and 30% for Loiste. For heating energy only, the saving rates were 71% and
51% correspondingly.
If the average fuel mix used by the power plant (co-generation of heat and power) serving the local
district heating network is assumed to have an equivalent CO2eq 236 g/kWh produced primary energy,
the total energy saving corresponds to a reduction of CO2 equivalent emissions of 13,9 kg/m3 building
volume in villa 2000 and 6.5 kg/m3 in Loiste in the use of the buildings, compared to typical buildings
of the same size.
Villa 2000 is highly adaptable to various purposes of use. During the housing fair it was an exhibition
place for new steel intensive products, furniture made of recycled materials and energy saving
technology in general. In the use the building is now a home for a family of 5 persons. The adaptability
has been used in changing the open interior into home with suitable number of individual rooms.
The user satisfaction in both buildings is high. The indoor air quality is good, temperature level in
winter stable, and the indoor environment is draught-free.
5.4 Tests performed in France

The tests were carried out on a form of construction using stainless steel cladding with a primary steel
frame.
5.4.1 In service monitoring hygrothermic and thermal performance

The location of thermal axes is presented in Figure 5.27. Data from individual sensor on each axis were
examined on a common graphic in order to identify any abnormal behaviour.
144
Figure 5.27 Positioning of the monitoring axes and sensors
The sensors in each line are positioned at the:

External face of the envelope within the envelope complex. Sensors were glued on the internal face
of the external steel element,
Internally, on the thermal insulating material,
Internal face of the wall within the envelope complex. Sensors were glued to the internal face of
the internal plasterboard.
One hygrothermic sensor was positioned on (or close to) the steel element or within the thermal
resistant material, depending on the analysis. A monitoring record was made every 20 minutes (also
15 min and 30 min depending of the recorder). Data acquisition covered a period of 16 months from
January 2003 to mid June 2003 (except the missing period of 4 to 15 May 2002).
Data analysis Time of Wetness

It is crucial for the long term durability of the building that the steel elements should not be subject to a
regular or prolonged period of surface wetness. The surface temperature of the steel element should be
kept above the dew point temperature of the ambient air in contact with the steel. Wetness within the
insulating material (glasswool or mineral wool) will dramatically reduce the thermal performance of
such a material and increase the consumption of energy to compensate for the thermal losses of the
building envelope. Hygrometric sensors were positioned both in contact with the external steel element
of the envelope but also within the thickness of the insulation. The initial analysis of the monitoring
data concentrated on determining whether any condensation has occurred, or the risk of condensation
on the steel elements of the envelope or within the insulation.
Hygrometric graphs and analysis

Figure 5.27 (axis 2) shows two typical hydrometric graphs within the wall thickness. High moisture
values are present in the early stage of the building operation, reaching 100% humidity during the 2002
winter period (water condensation). This condensation did not occur in winter 2003, and overall
hygrometry was less than during the first period. This water slowly evacuates during time by air
circulation (controlled or not), which dried out the material progressively. Water was present in the wall
cavity during the early period because the inner part of the wall was not protected from rain during
installation.
145
Hygromtrie : Axe 2 A2H1
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
28/07/2001 05/11/2001 13/02/2002 24/05/2002 01/09/2002 10/12/2002 20/03/2003 28/06/2003 06/10/2003
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
-20
Dates
Figure 5.28 Hygrometry graph on axis 2: west facade wall
For axis 6 (showing the roof in Figure 5.28), the behaviour is more regular, with high values of relative
humidity at the beginning of monitoring, but rapidly decreasing over the following weeks. The relative
humidity reached more than 80% in summer time.
Hygromtrique : Axe 6 A6H1
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10/12/2002 30/12/2002 19/01/2003 08/02/2003 28/02/2003 20/03/2003 09/04/2003 29/04/2003 19/05/2003 08/06/2003 28/06/2003
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
Dates
Hygromtrie : Axe 6 A6H1
120
100
80
Hygromtrie (%)
60
40
20
0
16/09/2001 05/11/2001 25/12/2001 13/02/2002 04/04/2002 24/05/2002 13/07/2002 01/09/2002 21/10/2002 10/12/2002 29/01/2003
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
-20
Dates
Figure 5.29 Hygrometry graph on axis 6: roof
146
Temperature graphs and analysis
A second analysis determined the temperature gradient across the envelope thickness and identified
irregular behaviour. Thermal bridges were identified by carefully positioning the monitoring axes (level
with the contacts between the envelope and the floors, at the contacts between the two facades, and at
contacts between faade and roof, along windows bays, etc.). This improves the understanding of the
building physics behaviour and leads to improvements in the form of the construction of such buildings.
The envelope of this building is light-weight in terms of its thermal inertia. Direct sunshine has a
relatively large effect on its behaviour and the temperature on the roof can be very high. It can clearly
been seen on the section drawings that the roof build-up is more insulated from the outside than the
other parts of the building envelope. Some areas of the external envelope of the building using steel
sheeting show extremely high temperatures of up to 70C, while the internal room temperature reached
around 20/25C. Figure 5.30 shows two examples of temperature graphs of thermal behaviour.
A1T1 Text C
Tempratures de surface : Axe 1
A1T2 Text C
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
16/9/01 5/11/01 25/12/01 13/2/02 4/4/02 0:00 24/5/02 13/7/02 1/9/02 0:00 21/10/02 10/12/02 29/1/03 20/3/03
0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00
-20
Dates
A1T1
A1T2
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
10/12/2002 30/12/2002 19/01/2003 08/02/2003 28/02/2003 20/03/2003 09/04/2003 29/04/2003 19/05/2003 08/06/2003 28/06/2003
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
-20
Dates
Figure 5.30 Thermal graph axis 1, wall on west facade, A1T1 and A1T2
Figure 5.31 indicates the temperature for the roof, which clearly indicates the variation of temperature
range from outside to inside the building. The high range (blue line) in the outside (steel skin
temperature), the medium range for inner wall temperature (pink line) and the small range was the room
plasterboard face (yellow line). The outside temperature reached a peak of nearly 80 C at the end of
summer 2002. A6T1 probe was lost in April 2003 and the indication of 20 C should not be
considered.
147
A6T1
Tempratures de surfaces : Axes 6
A6T2
A6T3
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
16/9/01 5/11/01 25/12/01 13/2/02 4/4/02 24/5/02 13/7/02 1/9/02 21/10/02 10/12/02 29/1/03
-200:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00
Dates
A6T1
Tempratures de surfaces : Axes 6 A6T2
A6T3
80
60
40
20
0
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Figure 5.31 Thermal graph axe 6, roof, A6T1, A6T2 and A6T3
Graphs for the wall, the roof and basement indicate temperature ranges, hot spot temperatures on the
steel wall and roof during summer and normal temperature during winter.
Thermal analysis
The daily temperature fluctuations normally reduce from the outside of a wall to the inside of the
building. From the ambient temperature in any room to the external temperature, a temperature profile
can be analysed Normally thermal inertia has a great influence on this profile, but for this building, the
inertia can be considered as low and thus rapid change of the outdoor external temperature can result in
wide fluctuations in the temperature profile through the thickness of the wall. This is of major
importance as it influences the wetness in the wall and roof (due to condensation within the wall). Some
temperature profiles have been established from monitoring data. This has been made on each thermal
axis with 3 temperature monitoring points. Each of these axes is also provided with a hygrometric probe
to monitor the wetness level.
A theoretical estimation of heat flow across the thickness of the building envelope can be made by
comparison with temperature monitored within the insulation (deduced from temperature profiles).
Infrared scan of the building

The building was subject to an infrared scan during one dry winter night. Variations of temperature can
clearly be seen on the scans. The temperature is not absolute and should be corrected due to surface
conditions wet or dry, emissivity factor.
148
Figure 5.32 shows a typical example of infrared analysis of the wall. Dark colours show cold areas;
bright colours are hot areas. The colder the external temperature, the better the thermal insulation
performs.
LI01 18,9C
AR02 15
10
AR01
3,3C
C IR01
15
10
Ligne Min. Max. Curseur

li01 3,3C 10,2C -
Figure 5.32 Thermo scan of the east faade and temperature graph along vertical line
It can clearly be seen that full vertical wall parts perform well at 5C. One window is partially open and
temperature reach 20C. Wall parts below windows are less thermally isolated and reach a temperature
of about 6 7 C.
A thermal bridge was identified at the level of the wall support beam above the first level. The
temperature reached a peak of 10C, representing a difference of 5C with respect to the normal wall
area. This is typical of a thermal bridge at the junction between slabs at the external support beams. The
relative position of these beams and slabs can clearly be seen in Figure 5.33. Although some effort was
made to isolate the contact between the slabs and the beam, at least one part of the slabs rests on the top
flange of the beam.
Direct contact
Figure 5.33 Contacts between the inner slab and the support beams
149
Conclusions on thermal behaviour
A broad estimation of the U value is 0.41 W/mK, which also includes thermal losses due to thermal
bridges, especially at the junction between the slabs and the support beams in the external walls, as
thermal bridges can lead to an increase of 20 30 % in thermal loss. This compares well with the
theoretical reference value of 0.87 W/mK in the new RT2000 thermal code in France.
The external face of the building envelope is subject to a wide variation of temperature especially on the
roof, where a peak temperature of 80C can be observed and daily amplitude of 60 C has been
recorded. Due to a special arrangement of material within the roof envelope no special loss of comfort
occurs in the rooms below. Discussion with the building manager confirms the excellent behaviour of
the building except for one point: The temperature in first floor rooms is low and less comfortable than
on other floors. Extra heaters used during the cold period of winter days. From our comparison with
monitoring this can be linked to observations made on wall insulation and the eventual possibility of
water condensation in the first floor wall.
5.4.2 Acoustic behaviour

This section presents a summary of the acoustic test data.
A: Interior airborne insulation

13 tests of airborne sound insulation were made between several rooms. Most were adjacent rooms but
one was considered between room and the corridor and one between two vertical rooms.
B: Impact noise transmission

9 tests were made for impact noise between adjacent vertical rooms. There were considered for rooms
distant of two floors.
C: Exterior airborne insulation

Three cases were considered for testing of airborne isolation of the facades. In this case, only one room
was considered which was the most exposed one.
Acoustic testing results

For interior airborne insulation performance, DnTw values were measured as follows:
59 dB to 63 dB between adjacent rooms,
54 dB between one room and the corridor,
64 dB between two rooms at one level.
For impact sound transmission, a reception level of L'nTw,dB was measured as follows:
45 to 37 dB between floors at one level,
29 to 27 dB between floors .
The exterior airborne sound isolation, was measured to find the lowest performance of the walls, the
frame or the windows. The windows were the least efficient at a value of DnTw = 33 dB.
In comparison, the performance required by the building code for this kind of building are as follows:
Airborne insulation between adjacent rooms should be at least DnTw > 42 dB (measured
performances were between 59 and 63 dB),
Reception level L'nTw,dB between vertical adjacent rooms should be less than 60 dB (measured at
29 to 27 dB),
The external airborne insulation DnTw > 30 dB was measured at 33 dB.
This is excellent performance compared with the current practice in France.
150
6 SEMINARS
The following 4 national seminars were held as part of the PROSSUS dissemination activities, and gave
an opportunity to hear about recent residential projects that are both sustainable and adaptable:
6.1 Seminar in the UK

As part of a dissemination initiative on sustainable and adaptable construction technologies in the
housing and residential sectors, SCI has held two half-day seminars on the premises of leading suppliers
in the modular construction industries. The first seminar took place at Corus Shotton (Deeside) facility
on 20 June 2006, and provided an opportunity to visit CLSs new semi-automated modular production
line. This is used to manufacture fully fitted out room-sized modules for the Ministry of Defences
military accommodation initiative.
The presentations to the 35 delegates covered:
1. An introduction to steel technologies R.M. Lawson SCI Professor of Construction Systems,

University of Surrey
2. New regulations for thermal efficiency R.G. Ogden SCI Professor of Architectural
Technology, Oxford Brookes University
3. New coated steel and composite T. Brown Corus Colors

products
4. Architectural aspects of CLS modular S. Thompson Senior Architect of Corus Construction

technology
A series of SCI Case Studies of recent projects was presented, including Corus recently completed
demonstration project near Salisbury for the MoD, which consists of 51 modules in a 3 storey building
and also a 2 storey accommodation block to the Ashorne Hill Management College, Leamington Spa.
The MoD projects are unique because they are the first residential buildings to be fully designed for
counter-terrorism measures, in which the light steel structure resists blast fragmentation and collapse in
these extreme events.
A second seminar was held at Terrapin in Milton Keynes on 29 June, which also included a factory visit
and a viewing of two demonstration buildings using modular technology. The presentation to the
40 delegates covered:
1. An introduction to steel technologies R.M. Lawson SCI Professor of Construction Systems

and opportunities for standardisation at the University of Surrey
2. Sustainability of steel construction M. Sansom SCI
3. New regulations for thermal efficiency K. Francis SCI
4. An architects view on modern R. Bergin and HTA Architects

housing using hybrid light steel and S. Bayliss
modular technologies
Both Seminars were well received and the factory visits gave an opportunity to see modern production
facilities in operation and to ask questions about modern methods of construction.
151
6.2 Seminar in Germany
A day long seminar was held on 27 June 2006 at the University of Dortmund which covered the
following aspects of modern construction technologies in the residential sector:
1. Welcome D. Ungermann/G. Nusse FOSTA
2. Modular construction technologies K. Luig 3L Architects
3. Open house modular concept U. Alberg Openhouse AB
4. Performance of light steel members J. Kalameya University of Dortmund
5. Performance of stainless steel members I. Strohmann University of Dortmund
6. Performance of composite members B. Smith University of Dortmund
This Seminar also includes information on the demonstration project in Sweden
6.3 Seminar in Sweden

A day long seminar was held on 31 May 2006 in Stockholm which covered the following areas:
1. Welcome H. Olsen SBI

2. Efficient residential construction J. Widman SBI
The Prossus Project
3. The Architects view on modular J. Runberger and Scheiwiller Svensson
construction Y. Gunterberg Adelqvist Architects
4. The Contractors view on modular I. Mattson Peab
construction
5. The Industrialists view of modular U. berg Open House Production
construction
6. How will these three meet? J. Andersson Lindab Profil
Discussion
6.4 Seminar in Italy

A day long Seminar was held on 17 June 2006 at CSM in Rome which included the following
presentations on lightweight and modular construction:
1. Welcome C Pagliucci CSM

2. Presentation on the Seminar F Fattorini CSM
3. Presentation of the project M Mallone IPJ
4. Role of the EU in research P Gimondo Steel Unit, EC
5. Living Steel D Rubertelli International Iron & Steel
Inst.
6. Faade system, Trewall M Scampini Heder
7. Lightweight coverings M Bandini Megadar
8. Stainless steel in prefabrication F Colaiacovo CSM
9. Experience on modular construction G Cavallaro/G Coppabianca Trimed Pro/ Shelbox
10. Transportable and extendable modules G Zilli CSM
152
List of tables
Page No
Table 3.1 Table for determination of the environment score profile of a project 71

Table 3.2 VTT ProP building properties classification used in Finland 72
Table 3.3 Sustainability assessment of Openhouse 75
Table 3.4 Sustainability indicators by client, British Land 76
2 [9]
Table 4.1 Maximum U-values (W/m K) required by UK Regulations 101
2
Table 4.2 Maximum U-values (W/m K) required by Finnish Regulations 102
Table 4.3 Maximum U-values (W/m2K) required by Swedish Regulations[10] 102
2
Table 4.4 Maximum U-values (W/m K) required by French Regulations 103
Table 4.5 Maximum U-values in Regulations on energy saving in Germany 103
Table 4.6 Maximum values for linear thermal bridges 104
Table 4.7 Typical thermal conductivities of common insulating materials 105
Table 4.8 Thermal conductivities of common building materials 105
Table 4.9 U-values for different wall constructions in light steel framing 110
Table 4.10 Summary of computed temperatures (for 20C temperature difference across
the wall) 111
Table 4.11 Air-tightness data for typical buildings 117
Table 5.1 Measured temperature differences over the surface of the external faade 123
Table 5.2 Test data and comparison with the UK Building Regulations for separating floor
in demonstration building 124
Table 5.3 Test data and comparison with the Building Regulations for separating wall
between modules in the demonstration building 125
Table 5.4 U-values for different constructions 125
Table 5.5 Summary of computed temperatures (for 20C temperature difference) 126
Table 5.6 Comparison of predicted and actual load displacement for load cycle 1. 132
Table 5.7 Comparison of predicted and actual load displacement for factored loads 133
Table 5.8 Deflections and natural frequency for residential applications (serviceability
loading = 2.4 kN/m2) 133
Table 5.9 Maximum span (m) of ply-web joists at 600 mm centres 133
Table 5.10 Measured air change rates per hour at 50 Pa for the apartments 135
Table 5.11 Indoor surface temperatures from building thermography with a negative
pressure of 50 Pa. 136
Table 5.12 Locations for field measurements 138
Table 5.13 Results from the sound insulation measurements 138
Table 5.14 Results of measurements of the springiness of floors 138
153
List of figures
Page No
Figure 3.1 Front page of the Sustainability Guide 36
Figure 3.2 Back page of the Sustainability Guide 37
Figure 3.3 A 5 storey modular building in the UK showing the internal courtyard 38
Figure 3.4 Page 3 presenting an introduction to sustainability 39
Figure 3.5 Page 4 giving an introduction to the use of steel in housing and residential
buildings 40
Figure 3.6 Page 5 presenting an introduction to steel technologies 41
Figure 3.7 Cost drivers for the use of steel 42
Figure 3.8 Quality and time drivers for construction 43
Figure 3.9 Background on sustainability materials and resources 44
Figure 3.10 Background on sustainability and waste of materials 45
Figure 3.11 Background on sustainability Transport 46
Figure 3.12 Background on sustainability Energy 47
Figure 3.13 Background on sustainability Pollution and performance 48
Figure 3.14 Background on sustainability other measures 49
Figure 3.15 Steel technologies walls, floors and roofing 50
Figure 3.16 Steel technologies in housing continued 51
Figure 3.17 Light steel framing used in housing 52
Figure 3.18 Application and sustainability benefits of light steel framing in housing 53
Figure 3.19 Light steel framing in multi-storey buildings 54
Figure 3.20 Application and sustainability benefits of light steel framing in apartments 55
Figure 3.21 Multi-storey buildings using modular construction 56
Figure 3.22 Application and sustainability benefits of modular construction 57
Figure 3.23 Primary steel frames with light steel infill walls 58
Figure 3.24 Application and sustainability benefits of steel frames with light steel infill walls 59
Figure 3.25 Other examples of the use of steel in residential building 60
Figure 3.26 Application of primary steel frames (continued) 61
Figure 3.27 Sustainability assessment of Open House in Sweden 62
Figure 3.28 Sustainability assessment of a 6 storey residential building 63
Figure 3.29 Sustainability assessment (continued 64
Figure 3.30 Sustainability assessment total score of 72% 65
Figure 3.31 Sustainability check list 66
Figure 3.32 Reference list included in the Sustainability publication 67
existing buildings Indoor climate, Illumination, Service life 73
existing buildings Adaptability in design and use, Safety in use, Functionality
and comfort 74
154
existing buildings Cost properties, Ecology, Energy use, Design and
construction 74
Figure 4.1 Factory production of light steel wall panels 82
Figure 4.2 Typical light steel framing for 2 storey housing 83
Figure 4.3 Single family housing in Finland 83
Figure 4.4 House using light steel framing to create a curved roof, Oxford 84
Figure 4.5 Semi-detached house using light steel framing and brick cladding 84
Figure 4.6 Large pre-fabricated wall panels with perforated C sections 85
Figure 4.7 Multi-storey light steel framing 86
Figure 4.8 3 storey apartment and shop in light steel framing 86
Figure 4.9 Light steel module with internal corridor 88
Figure 4.10 Mixed modules and panels in medium-rise apartments 88
Figure 4.11 Installation of modules in a social housing project, London 89
Figure 4.12 Modules supported by a primary steel structure at first floor 89
Figure 4.13 Composite floor on steel beams 90
Figure 4.14 Slimdek construction using integrated beams 91
Figure 4.15 Integrated beams with precast concrete slabs 91
Figure 4.16 Steel residential building with an inverted concrete slab used in a project in
The Hague, NL 92
Figure 4.17 Light steel infill walls used with Slimdek 93
Figure 4.18 Light steel infill wall in a composite frame 93
Figure 4.19 Separating wall and plasterboard 94
Figure 4.20 Brickwork used in a 3 storey residential building 95
Figure 4.21 Mixed use of clay tiles and metallic cladding 95
Figure 4.22 Boards pre-attached to light steel modules 96
Figure 4.23 Metallic cladding using large cassette panels 96
Figure 4.24 Insulated render combined with brickwork 97
Figure 4.25 Multi-storey composite building with glass faade supported on inclined
columns 97
Figure 4.26 Energy consumption by end use in the domestic sector 98
Figure 4.27 Illustration of thermal energy balance in housing 99
Figure 4.28 FEM illustration of thermal behaviour at a corner of a building with linear and
point cold bridges 101
Figure 4.29 Thermographic camera view of a typical framed structure 104
Figure 4.30 (a) External insulation to light steel frame using brickwork (b) Combined
external and inter-stud insulation 106
Figure 4.31 Externally insulated cladding in a multi-storey residential building 106
Figure 4.32 Slotted C sections used with metallic cladding and inter-stud insulation 107
Figure 4.33 Cross-section through brickwork and light steel wall 108
Figure 4.34 Cross-section through insulated render cladding to light steel wall 108
Figure 4.35 Cross-section through insulated render cladding showing 15 mm cavity for use
in housing 108
Figure 4.36 Cross-section through window pod in insulated render 109
155
Figure 4.37 Attachment of metallic cladding panel 109
Figure 4.38 Metallic cassette panel attached to perforated studs 110
Figure 4.39 Thermal profile for insulated render cladding, consisting of 60 mm EPS board
and 100 mm mineral wool between C sections 111
Figure 4.40 Principle of thermal performance of perforated studs 112
Figure 4.41 FEM illustration: comparison between normal and perforated studs. Different
colours illustrate temperatures in degrees 112
Figure 4.42 U-values of walls with external gypsum boards using C sections with perforated
and solid webs[] 112
Figure 4.43 Wall configuration used in the thermal analysis of perforated C sections 113
Figure 4.44 Influence of the building fabric (with or without cooling) on the heat
consumption of the building 114
Figure 4.45 Principle of heat recovery 115
Figure 4.46 Example of blower door for air-tightness test 117
Figure 4.47 Steel house in Tuusula (Villa 2000) Finland 118
Figure 4.48 Wet time of a perforated light steel frame construction 120
Figure 4.49 Photovoltaics laminated to steel roofing 121
Figure 4.50 Planar solar connectors integrated to steel roofing 121
Figure 4.51 Solar energy collection devices 122
Figure 4.52 Double skin roofing system with heat exchange 122
Figure 5.1 Thermal conductivities of materials used in thermal analyses 126
Figure 5.2 Thermal profile - Render, 60 mm EPS, 100 mm Rockwool 127
Figure 5.3 Thermal profile - Render, 40 mm EPS, 100 mm Rockwool 127
Figure 5.4 Thermal profile - Corium, 50 mm EPS,100 mm Rockwool 128
Figure 5.5 Thermal profile - Corium, 80 mm EPS and 100 mm mineral wool 128
Figure 5.6 Plyweb deep joist configurations using T and C section flanges 128
Figure 5.7 Test specimen adjusted to final location in the vacuum rig 130
Figure 5.8 Test C1: Results from load cycles 4 to 7 130
Figure 5.9 Test C2: Results from load cycles 4 to 7 130
Figure 5.10 Test T1: Results from load cycles 4 to 7 131
Figure 5.11 Test T1: Local deformation at joint in plywood web 131
Figure 5.12 Test T2: Results from load cycles 4 to 7 132
Figure 5.13 Photo of corner floor/exterior walls. Bottom: Thermographic picture of the same
corner at 50 Pa. Minimum temperature is 17.5C. 136
Figure 5.14 Thermographic picture of the lower part of a window in the living room. The
striped temperature fields indicate that the low surface temperatures are due to
entry of a cold air stream 137
Figure 5.15 Windows located in the outer part of the wall, which affects air-tightness and
thermal insulation. Windows are now placed in the centre of the wall 137
Figure 5.16 Supply air temperature into the heat exchanger in the ventilation unit for March.
The roof integrated solar air collector serves as a pre-heater for the ventilation
unit. 139
Figure 5.17 Steel roof-integrated solar air collector Collector efficiency according to total
collector air flow. (Collector area 16 m2) 139
Figure 5.18 Performance of the integrated solar air heating system - No ancillary heating 140
156
Figure 5.19 Performance of the integrated solar air heating system - Solar heating stopped
at heating set point 140
Figure 5.20 Performance of a stand-alone solar collector system 140
Figure 5.21 Comparison of heating power requirement in Villa 2000 compared to reference
buildings 141
Figure 5.22 Consumption of heating energy in Villa 2000 (including hot water) 142
Figure 5.23 Consumption of electrical energy for the building services in Villa 2000 142
Figure 5.24 Electricity consumption for lighting and home appliances for Villa 2000 143
Figure 5.25 Electricity consumption for kitchen stove, refrigeration equipment, range hood
and washing machine for Villa 2000 143
Figure 5.26 Distribution of annual energy consumption in Loiste building 144
Figure 5.27 Positioning of the monitoring axes and sensors 145
Figure 5.28 Hygrometry graph on axis 2: west facade wall 146
Figure 5.29 Hygrometry graph on axis 6: roof 146
Figure 5.30 Thermal graph axis 1, wall on west facade, A1T1 and A1T2 147
Figure 5.31 Thermal graph axe 6, roof, A6T1, A6T2 and A6T3 148
Figure 5.32 Thermo scan of the east faade and temperature graph along vertical line 149
Figure 5.33 Contacts between the inner slab and the support beams 149
157
REFERENCES
1 Steel in residential buildings for adaptable and sustainable construction

European Commission Report EUR 21420, 2005
2 EcoHomes : The environmental study of buildings

Building Research Establishment, UK, 2003
3 VTT ProP Building requirements classification

VTT, Finland, 2002
4 Widman J
Sustainability of modular construction
The Swedish Institute of Steel Construction, Report 229-2, 2004
5 Energy performance of buildings

Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council, 2002
6 Thermal performance of buildings Calculation of energy use for space heating and cooling
prEN ISO 13790, April 2005
7 Thermal performance of buildings Transmission heat loss coefficient Calculation method

EN ISO 13789, 1999
8 Building components and building elements Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance
Calculation method (ISO/DIS 6946: 2005)
9 The Building Regulations (England and Wales) Part L1: Conservation of fuel and power in dwellings,
2006
10 Swedish Building Regulations

The Swedish Board of Housing, Building and Planning, Karlskrona (www.boverket.se)
11 French Regulations
Code RT2005
12 Thermal bridges in building construction Linear thermal transmittance Simplified method and
default values
prEN ISO 14683, 2005
13 Thermal bridges in building construction Heat flow and surface temperature Detailed calculations
ISO/DIS 10211, 2005
14 Hygrothermal performance of light steel-frames wall, VTT Tiedotteita 2070, Nieminen, Salonvaara,
Espoo 2000
15 Integrating building design properties 'air tightness' and ventilation heat recovery for minimum heating
energy consumption in cold climates
Publication 377, Tampere University of Technology, Finland
16 Thermal performance of buildings. Determination of air permeability of buildings. Fan pressurisation

method
prEN 13829, 2001
17 Hygrothermal performance of building components and building elements. Internal surface temperature
to avoid critical surface humidity and interstitial condensation. Calculation methods
ISO 13788, 2002
18 Nieminen J and Salonvaara

Hygrothermal performance of light steel framed walls
VTT Report 2070, Espoo, 2000
159
19 Blomberg T and Ohlsson L
Results from pressurisation test and building thermography of Openhouse, kv Ridskolan
Department of Building Physics, University of Lund, Sweden, 2004
20 Hammer P
Measurement of sound insulation and springiness of lightweight floor
Report TVBA-20042, Department of Acoustics, University of Lund, Sweden
160
European Commission
EUR 23201 P
romotion of steel in sustainable and adaptable buildings
R. M. Lawson, E. Yandzio, P. Beguin, G. Nuesse, K. Luig, J. Kesti, J. Widman
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
2008 160 pp. 21 29.7 cm
Research Fund for Coal and Steel series
ISBN 978-92-79-08181-1
ISSN 1018-5593
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: EUR 20

Tempratures de surfaces : Axes 6
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Dates
Temperature graphs and analysis
A second analysis determined the temperature gradient across the envelope thickness and identified
irregular behaviour. Thermal bridges were identified by carefully positioning the monitoring axes (level
with the contacts between the envelope and the floors, at the contacts between the two facades, and at
contacts between faade and roof, along windows bays, etc.). This improves the understanding of the
building physics behaviour and leads to improvements in the form of the construction of such buildings.
The envelope of this building is light-weight in terms of its thermal inertia. Direct sunshine has a
relatively large effect on its behaviour and the temperature on the roof can be very high. It can clearly
been seen on the section drawings that the roof build-up is more insulated from the outside than the
other parts of the building envelope. Some areas of the external envelope of the building using steel
sheeting show extremely high temperatures of up to 70C, while the internal room temperature reached
around 20/25C. Figure 5.30 shows two examples of temperature graphs of thermal behaviour.
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Hygromtrie : Axe 2
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European Commission

Research Fund for Coal and Steel

R. M. Lawson, E. Yandzio (1), P. Beguin (2), G. Nuesse (3), K. Luig (4),

Directorate-General for Research

2008 EUR 23201 EN

Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers

Freephone number (*):

Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2008

European Communities, 2008

Printed on white chlorine-free paper

2. Comparison of planned activities with work accomplished

3.1. Collection of test data

3.2. Case studies

3.3. Sustainability guide

Building Regulations in the participating countries

4. Exploitation and impact of the results

1.1 Partners in this project

1.2 Project objectives

2.1 UK Case Study

2.2 Swedish Case Study

2.3 German Case Study

2.4 Finnish Case Study

2.5 Italian Case study

The format follows the agreed sequence:

Figure 3.7 Cost drivers for the use of steel

Figure 3.9 Background on sustainability materials and resources

Figure 3.11 Background on sustainability Transport

Figure 3.13 Background on sustainability Pollution and performance

Figure 3.15 Steel technologies walls, floors and roofing

Figure 3.17 Light steel framing used in housing

Figure 3.19 Light steel framing in multi-storey buildings

Figure 3.21 Multi-storey buildings using modular construction

Figure 3.25 Other examples of the use of steel in residential building

Figure 3.27 Sustainability assessment of Open House in Sweden

Figure 3.28 Sustainability assessment of a 6 storey residential building

Figure 3.29 Sustainability assessment (continued

Figure 3.31 Sustainability check list

3.2.1 EcoHomes assessment

3.2.2 Code for Sustainable Homes

3.3 The French approach on sustainability of buildings

3.3.2 Sustainability check list to EcoHomes

Criterion Comment on use of steel in construction

3.3.4 Comfort issues

3.3.5 Health and sanitary issues

3.3.6 Sustainability approach for building

The approach is explicitly derived from:

1 Harmonious relation of the building with the

12 Sanitary quality of the building environment

13 Sanitary quality of the indoor air

HQE is a method of assessment and a tool to define the sustainability level. It is a

Table 3.2 VTT ProP building properties classification used in Finland

A1 Location B1 Indoor conditions C1 Life-cycle costs D1 Briefing/Programming

conformity + performanc e conformity + performanc e

3.4.2 Evaluation of sustainability

Figure 3.33 Sustainability evaluation of Finnish demonstration project and comparison to

Figure 3.35 Sustainability evaluation of Finnish demonstration project and comparison to

Table 3.3 Sustainability assessment of Openhouse

Embodied energy in as-built 215 kWh/m2 2

Transport of components in 6 kWh

Data taken from SBI Report 229-2[4].

Table 3.4 Sustainability indicators by client, British Land

Sustainability criteria Issue Aspect relevant to design & construction