Aviation

Aviation
Contents
1 Main article 1
1.1 Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Operations of aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Aviation accidents and incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.4 Air trac control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.5 Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 History 7
2.1 Aviation history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Primitive beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.2 Lighter than air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 Heavier than air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.4 The Pioneer Era (19031914) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.5 World War I (19141918) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.6 Between the World Wars (19181939) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.7 World War II (19391945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.8 The postwar era (19451979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.9 The digital age (1980present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Civil aviation 27
3.1 Civil aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.2 Civil aviation authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.3 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
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3.1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.1.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 Airline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.2 Regulatory considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.3 Economic considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.4 Environmental impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.5 Call signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.6 Airline personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.7 Industry trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.9 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.10 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 General aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.1 General aviation in the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.2 Regulation and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4 Military aviation 48
4.1 Aerial warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.2 Aerial reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.3 Air combat manoeuvring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.4 Airborne forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.5 Airstrike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.6 Strategic bombing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.7 Anti-aircraft warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.8 Missiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.9 UAVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.1.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5 Air trac control 51

5.1 Air trac control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.1.1 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
CONTENTS iii
5.1.3 Airport control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5.1.4 En route, center, or area control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.1.6 Call signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.1.7 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1.8 Air navigation service providers (ANSPs) and air trac service providers (ATSPs) . . . . . 61
5.1.9 Proposed changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1.10 ATC regulations in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2 Environmental impact of aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2.1 Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2.2 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.2.3 Water pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.2.4 Air quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.2.5 Radiation exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.2.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.2.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6 Piloting 78
6.1 Aviator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.1.2 Civilian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1.3 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1.4 Unmanned aerial vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1.5 Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.1.6 Pilot certications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.1.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7 Aviation Best Practices and Training 82

7.1 Air safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.1.1 Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.1.2 Navigation aids and instrument ight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.1.3 Aviation safety hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.1.4 Accident survivability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.1.5 Accidents and incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.1.6 Air safety investigators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.1.7 Safety improvement initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
iv CONTENTS
7.1.8 Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.1.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.2 Federal Aviation Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.2.1 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.2.2 Regulations of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.2.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.2.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8 Aviation Weather 97
8.1 Thunderstorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.1.1 Life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.1.2 Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.1.3 Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.1.4 Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.1.5 Safety precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.1.6 Frequent occurrences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.1.7 Types of lightning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.1.8 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.1.9 Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.1.10 Mythology and religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.1.11 Outside of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.1.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.1.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.1.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.1.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2 Crosswind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.2 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 114

9.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
9.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Chapter 1
Main article
1.1 Aviation
This article is about aircraft. For the cocktail, see
Aviation (cocktail). For the album, see Aviation (album).
Aviation is the practical aspect or art of aeronautics, be-

ing the design, development, production, operation and
use of aircraft, especially heavier than air aircraft. The
word aviation was coined by French writer and former
naval ocer Gabriel La Landelle in 1863,[1] from the
verb avier (synonymous ying), itself derived from the
Latin word avis (bird) and the sux -ation.[2]
1.1.1 History LZ 129 Hindenburg at Lakehurst Naval Air Station, 1936
Main article: History of aviation

aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German
Zeppelin company.
The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin.
Early beginnings It ew over one million miles, including an around-the-
world ight in August 1929. However, the dominance of
There are early legends of human ight such as the the Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, which had
story of Icarus in Greek myth and Jamshid in Persian a range of only a few hundred miles, was diminishing as
myth, and later, somewhat more credible claims of short- airplane design advanced. The Golden Age of the air-
distance human ights appear, such as the ying au- ships ended on May 6, 1937 when the Hindenburg caught
tomaton of Archytas of Tarentum (428347 BC),[3] the re, killing 36 people. The cause of the Hindenburg acci-
winged ights of Abbas Ibn Firnas (810887), Eilmer of dent was initially blamed on the use of hydrogen instead
Malmesbury (11th century), and the hot-air Passarola of of helium as the lift gas. An internal investigation by
Bartholomeu Loureno de Gusmo (16851724). the manufacturer revealed the coating used to protect the
covering material over the frame was highly ammable
and allowed static electricity to build up in the airship.[4]
Lighter than air
Changes to the coating formulation reduced the risk of
further Hindenburg type accidents. Although there have
The modern age of aviation began with the rst unteth-
been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have
ered human lighter-than-air ight on November 21, 1783,
seen only niche application since that time.
of a hot air balloon designed by the Montgoler broth-
ers. The practicality of balloons was limited because they
could only travel downwind. It was immediately recog- Heavier than air
nized that a steerable, or dirigible, balloon was required.
Jean-Pierre Blanchard ew the rst human-powered diri- In 1799 Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the
gible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in one in modern airplane as a xed-wing ying machine with
1785. separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control.[5][6]
Rigid airships became the rst aircraft to transport pas- Early dirigible developments included machine-powered
sengers and cargo over great distances. The best known propulsion (Henri Giard, 1852), rigid frames (David
1
2 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE
Schwarz, 1896) and improved speed and maneuverability jet aircraft and the rst liquid-fueled rockets.
(Alberto Santos-Dumont, 1901)
First powered and controlled ight by the Wright Brothers, De-

NASA's Helios researches solar powered ight.
cember 17, 1903
There are many competing claims for the earliest pow- After World War II, especially in North America, there
ered, heavier-than-air ight. The rst recorded powered was a boom in general aviation, both private and commer-
ight was carried out by Clment Ader on October 9, cial, as thousands of pilots were released from military
1890 when he reportedly made the rst manned, pow- service and many inexpensive war-surplus transport and
ered, heavier-than-air ight of a signicant distance (50 training aircraft became available. Manufacturers such
m (160 ft)) but insignicant altitude from level ground in as Cessna, Piper, and Beechcraft expanded production to
his bat-winged, fully self-propelled xed-wing aircraft, provide light aircraft for the new middle-class market.
the Ader ole.[7][8][9] Seven years later, on 14 October By the 1950s, the development of civil jets grew, begin-
1897, Aders Avion III was tested without success in front ning with the de Havilland Comet, though the rst widely
of two ocials from the French War ministry. The report used passenger jet was the Boeing 707, because it was
on the trials was not publicized until 1910, as they had much more economical than other aircraft at that time.
been a military secret. In November 1906 Ader claimed At the same time, turboprop propulsion began to appear
to have made a successful ight on 14 October 1897, for smaller commuter planes, making it possible to serve
achieving an uninterrupted ight of around 300 metres small-volume routes in a much wider range of weather
(980 feet) on. Although widely believed at the time, these conditions.
claims were later discredited.[10][11]
Since the 1960s composite material airframes and qui-
The Wright brothers made the rst successful powered, eter, more ecient engines have become available,
controlled and sustained airplane ight on December 17, and Concorde provided supersonic passenger service for
1903, a feat made possible by their invention of three-axismore than two decades, but the most important lasting
control. Only a decade later, at the start of World War innovations have taken place in instrumentation and con-
I, heavier-than-air powered aircraft had become practi- trol. The arrival of solid-state electronics, the Global Po-
cal for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and even attacks
sitioning System, satellite communications, and increas-
against ground positions. ingly small and powerful computers and LED displays,
Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs have dramatically changed the cockpits of airliners and,
grew larger and more reliable. The Wright brothers took increasingly, of smaller aircraft as well. Pilots can navi-
aloft the rst passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their me- gate much more accurately and view terrain, obstructions,
chanics, on May 14, 1908.[12][13] and other nearby aircraft on a map or through synthetic
vision, even at night or in low visibility.
During the 1920s and 1930s great progress was made
in the eld of aviation, including the rst transatlantic On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne became the rst pri-
ight of Alcock and Brown in 1919, Charles Lindbergh's vately funded aircraft to make a spaceight, opening the
solo transatlantic ight in 1927, and Charles Kingsford possibility of an aviation market capable of leaving the
Smith's transpacic ight the following year. One of the Earths atmosphere. Meanwhile, ying prototypes of
most successful designs of this period was the Douglas aircraft powered by alternative fuels, such as ethanol,
DC-3, which became the rst airliner to be protable electricity, and even solar energy, are becoming more
carrying passengers exclusively, starting the modern era common.
of passenger airline service. By the beginning of World
War II, many towns and cities had built airports, and
there were numerous qualied pilots available. The war 1.1.2 Operations of aircraft
brought many innovations to aviation, including the rst
1.1. AVIATION 3
Civil aviation
See also: Civil aviation
Civil aviation includes all non-military ying, both

general aviation and scheduled air transport.
Air transport Main article: Airline

There are ve major manufacturers of civil transport air-
1947 Cessna 120
General aviation Main article: General aviation

General aviation includes all non-scheduled civil ying,
both private and commercial. General aviation may in-
clude business ights, air charter, private aviation, ight
training, ballooning, parachuting, gliding, hang gliding,
aerial photography, foot-launched powered hang gliders,
air ambulance, crop dusting, charter ights, trac report-
ing, police air patrols and forest re ghting.
Northwest Airlines Airbus A330-323X
Each country regulates aviation dierently, but general
craft (in alphabetical order): aviation usually falls under dierent regulations depend-
ing on whether it is private or commercial and on the type
of equipment involved.
Airbus, based in Europe
Many small aircraft manufacturers serve the general avi-
Boeing, based in the United States ation market, with a focus on private aviation and ight
training.
Bombardier, based in Canada The most important recent developments for small air-
craft (which form the bulk of the GA eet) have been
Embraer, based in Brazil the introduction of advanced avionics (including GPS)
that were formerly found only in large airliners, and the
United Aircraft Corporation, based in Russia introduction of composite materials to make small air-
craft lighter and faster. Ultralight and homebuilt aircraft
have also become increasingly popular for recreational
Boeing, Airbus, Ilyushin and Tupolev concentrate on
use, since in most countries that allow private aviation,
wide-body and narrow-body jet airliners, while Bom-
they are much less expensive and less heavily regulated
bardier, Embraer and Sukhoi concentrate on regional
than certied aircraft.
airliners. Large networks of specialized parts suppliers
from around the world support these manufacturers, who
sometimes provide only the initial design and nal assem-
bly in their own plants. The Chinese ACAC consortium Military aviation
will also soon enter the civil transport market with its
Comac ARJ21 regional jet.[14] Main articles: Military aviation and Aerial warfare
Until the 1970s, most major airlines were ag carriers,
sponsored by their governments and heavily protected Simple balloons were used as surveillance aircraft as early
from competition. Since then, open skies agreements as the 18th century. Over the years, military aircraft
have resulted in increased competition and choice for have been built to meet ever increasing capability require-
consumers, coupled with falling prices for airlines. The ments. Manufacturers of military aircraft compete for
combination of high fuel prices, low fares, high salaries, contracts to supply their governments arsenal. Aircraft
and crises such as the September 11, 2001 attacks and are selected based on factors like cost, performance, and
the SARS epidemic have driven many older airlines to the speed of production.
government-bailouts, bankruptcy or mergers. At the
same time, low-cost carriers such as Ryanair, Southwest
and Westjet have ourished. Types of military aviation
The Lockheed SR-71 remains unsurpassed in many areas of per-

formance.
Fighter aircraft's primary function is to destroy other

aircraft. (e.g. Sopwith Camel, A6M Zero, F-15,
MiG-29, Su-27, and F-22).
A USAF Thunderbird pilot ejecting from his F-16 aircraft at an
Ground attack aircraft are used against tactical airshow in 2003
earth-bound targets. (e.g. Junkers Stuka, A-10, Il-2,
J-22 Orao, AH-64 and Su-25). seriously injured, the aircraft sustains damage or struc-
tural failure or the aircraft is missing or is completely
Bombers are generally used against more strategic
inaccessible.[15]
targets, such as factories and oil elds. (e.g.
Zeppelin, Tu-95, Mirage IV, and B-52). The rst fatal aviation accident occurred in a Wright
Model A aircraft at Fort Myer, Virginia, USA, on
Transport aircraft are used to transport hardware September 17, 1908, resulting in injury to the pilot,
and personnel. (e.g. C-17 Globemaster III, C-130 Orville Wright, and death of the passenger, Signal Corps
Hercules and Mil Mi-26). Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge.[16]
Surveillance and reconnaissance aircraft obtain in- An aviation incident is dened as an occurrence, other
formation about enemy forces. (e.g. Rumpler than an accident, associated with the operation of
Taube, Mosquito, U-2, OH-58 and MiG-25R). an aircraft that aects or could aect the safety of
operations.[17]
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used primar- An accident in which the damage to the aircraft is such
ily as reconnaissance xed-wing aircraft, though that it must be written o, or in which the plane is de-
many also carry payloads. Cargo aircraft are in destroyed, is called a hull loss accident.[17]
velopment. (e.g. RQ-7B Shadow, MQ-8 Fire Scout,
and MQ-1C Gray Eagle).
1.1.4 Air trac control
Missiles deliver warheads, normally explosives, but
also things like leaets. Main article: Air trac control
Air trac control (ATC) involves communication with
aircraft to help maintain separation that is, they ensure
Air safety that aircraft are suciently far enough apart horizontally
or vertically for no risk of collision. Controllers may co-
1.1.3 Aviation accidents and incidents ordinate position reports provided by pilots, or in high
trac areas (such as the United States) they may use radar
Main article: Aviation accidents and incidents to see aircraft positions.
An aviation accident is dened by the Convention on There are generally four dierent types of ATC:
International Civil Aviation Annex 13 as an occurrence
associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes
center controllers, who control aircraft en route be-
place between the time any person boards the aircraft
tween airports
with the intention of ight until such time as all such per-
sons have disembarked, in which a person is fatally or control towers (including tower, ground control,
1.1. AVIATION 5
1.1.5 Environmental impact

Main article: Environmental impact of aviation
Like all activities involving combustion, operating pow-

ered aircraft (from airliners to hot air balloons) re-
lease soot and other pollutants into the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ) are also
produced. In addition, there are environmental impacts
specic to aviation:
Water vapor contrails left by high-altitude jet airliners. These

may contribute to cirrus cloud formation.
Air trac control towers at Amsterdam Airport

Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the
tropopause (mainly large jet airliners) emit aerosols
clearance delivery, and other services), which con- and leave contrails, both of which can increase cirrus
trol aircraft within a small distance (typically 1015 cloud formation cloud cover may have increased
km horizontal, and 1,000 m vertical) of an airport. by up to 0.2% since the birth of aviation.[18]
oceanic controllers, who control aircraft over inter- Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the
national waters between continents, generally with- tropopause can also release chemicals that interact
out radar service. with greenhouse gases at those altitudes, particularly
nitrogen compounds, which interact with ozone, in-
terminal controllers, who control aircraft in a wider creasing ozone concentrations.[19][20]
area (typically 5080 km) around busy airports.
Most light piston aircraft burn avgas, which contains
tetraethyllead (TEL). Some lower-compression pis-
ATC is especially important for aircraft ying under
ton engines can operate on unleaded mogas, and tur-
instrument ight rules (IFR), where they may be in
bine engines and diesel engines neither of which
weather conditions that do not allow the pilots to see other
requires lead are appearing on some newer light
aircraft. However, in very high-trac areas, especially
aircraft.
near major airports, aircraft ying under visual ight rules
(VFR) are also required to follow instructions from ATC.
Another environmental impact of aviation is noise pollu-
In addition to separation from other aircraft, ATC may tion, mainly caused by aircraft taking o and landing.
provide weather advisories, terrain separation, navigation
assistance, and other services to pilots, depending on their
workload. 1.1.6 See also
ATC do not control all ights. The majority of VFR
ights in North America are not required to talk to ATC Aeronautics
(unless they are passing through a busy terminal area
Environmental impact of aviation
or using a major airport), and in many areas, such as
northern Canada and low altitude in northern Scotland, List of aviation topics
Air trac control services are not available even for IFR
ights at lower altitudes. Timeline of aviation
1.1.7 Notes 1.1.8 Bibliography

[1] Aviation ou Navigation aerienne par G. de La Landelle. Berliner, Don (1996). Aviation: Reaching for the
Sky. The Oliver Press, Inc. ISBN 1-881508-33-1.
[2] Cassard 2008, p. 77.
Cassard, Jean-Christophe (2008). Dictionnaire
[3] Berliner 1996, p. 28. dhistoire de Bretagne (in French). Morlaix: Skol
Vreizh. ISBN 978-2-915623-45-1.
[4] De Angelis 1997, pp. 87101.
De Angelis, Gina (2001). The Hindenburg.
[5] Aviation History. Retrieved 2009-07-26. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-
7910-5272-9.
[6] Sir George Carley (British Inventor and Scientist)". Bri-
tannica. Retrieved 2009-07-26. English pioneer of aerial
navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of 1.1.9 External links
the rst successful glider to carry a human being aloft.
Flying travel guide from Wikivoyage
[7] Clement Ader - French inventor.
Media related to Aviation at Wikimedia Commons
[8] FLYING MACHINES - Clement Ader.
Learning materials related to Aviation at Wikiversity
[9] EADS N.V. - Eole/Clment Ader. 20 October 2007.
Archived from the original on 20 October 2007. The dictionary denition of aviation at Wiktionary
[10] Gibbs-Smith, C. H., Aviation. London, NMSO 2003, p.

Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms
75.
[11] L'homme, l'air et l'espace, p. 96
[12] Tom D. Crouch (August 29, 2008). 1908: The Year the
Airplane Went Public. Air & Space/Smithsonian. Re-
trieved August 21, 2012.
[13] This Month in Exploration: May. NASA. Retrieved

August 21, 2012.
[14] Kingsbury, Kathleen (October 11, 2007). Eyes on the

Skies. Time. Retrieved April 26, 2010.
[15] The Investigation Process Research Resource Site.

International Investigation Standards. Retrieved 7 May
2012.
[16] About.com Inventors. Wright Brothers First Fatal Air-

plane Crash in 1908. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
[17] AirSafe.com. Denitions of Key Terms Used by Air-

Safe.com. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
[18] Aviation and the Global Atmosphere.
[19] Lin, X.; Trainer, M. & Liu, S.C. (1988). On

the nonlinearity of the tropospheric ozone produc-
tion. Journal of Geophysical Research. 93 (D12):
1587915888. Bibcode:1988JGR....9315879L.
doi:10.1029/JD093iD12p15879.
[20] Grewe, V.; D. Brunner; M. Dameris; J. L. Gren-

fell; R. Hein; D. Shindell; J. Staehelin (July 2001).
Origin and variability of upper tropospheric nitro-
gen oxides and ozone at northern mid-latitudes.
Atmospheric Environment. 35 (20): 34213433.
Bibcode:2001AtmEn..35.3421G. doi:10.1016/S1352-
2310(01)00134-0. Retrieved 2007-11-20.
Chapter 2
History
2.1 Aviation history
The Wright Military Flyer aboard a wagon in 1908.
The history of aviation has extended over more than

two thousand years, from the earliest forms of aviation,
kites and attempts at tower jumping, to supersonic, and
hypersonic ight by powered, heavier-than-air jets.
Kite ying in China dates back to several hundred years
BC and slowly spread around the world. It is thought to
be the earliest example of man-made ight.
Leonardo da Vinci's 15th-century dream of ight found
expression in several rational but unscientic designs, French reconnaissance balloon L'Intrpide of 1796, the oldest
though he did not attempt to construct any of them. existing ying device, in the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Vi-
enna.
The discovery of hydrogen gas in the 18th century led to
the invention of the hydrogen balloon, at almost exactly
the same time that the Montgoler brothers rediscovered
the hot-air balloon and began manned ights.[1] Various was coined in 1863 by French pioneer Guillaume Joseph
theories in mechanics by physicists during the same pe- Gabriel de La Landelle (18121886) in Aviation ou
riod of time, notably uid dynamics and Newtons laws of Navigation arienne sans ballons.[3][4]
motion, led to the foundation of modern aerodynamics,
most notably by Sir George Cayley. Experiments with gliders provided the groundwork for
heavier-than-air craft, and by the early-20th century, ad-
Balloons, both free-ying and tethered, began to be used vances in engine technology and aerodynamics made con-
for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, trolled, powered ight possible for the rst time. The
with the French government establishing Balloon Com- modern aeroplane with its characteristic tail was estab-
panies during the Revolution.[2] lished by 1909 and from then on the history of the aero-
The term aviation, noun of action from stem of Latin plane became tied to the development of more and more
avis bird with sux -ation meaning action or progress, powerful engines.
7
8 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
1500 2000 20.000

History of aviation commercial
militar sound barrier 15.000
1-5
1000 2500 2500
sperimental 10.000 6-10
11-20
5.000 21-100
500 3000
0 100+
0
Hot air balloons MAX SPEED (kmh)
MAX ALTITUDE (m) SEATS (n)
1783
M
on m
1793
tg eric ri
ol
A
20 4060 80 100
er n b
1852
bro all
H
a
en
th
er n
1884
s
La
oo
5 1015 20 35
i
ard e
Fr
an
WING SPAN (m)
c
Airships
Z
ep
pe
lin
1900
LZ
-1
W
Aircrafts
rig
ht
A ull
ir i S
y
N
1905
sh e
er
ip cu
I
LZ nd
-2 us
B
A
l
tr
ro
a
t
To
X
rr
I
es
1910
V
A
Fo
in
Sik Br
ir
sh
rla
Fiz
or eg
ip
nin
sk ue Fo
i B t B kk
iA
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ir
sh
ho lan E-II
Wright Flyer
ed
ip
i e I
B
ar
on
1915
s
Fo
kk
er
D
Ju
r
nk
I
er
s
Fir
J-1
st
3
su
1920
cc
Helicopters
es
Fo
Red Barons
s
rd
fu
Fokker
lr
Tr
B
ot
u
iM
o
m
rc
ot
er
ra
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ft
Sa
us
Sp
e
1925
w
ir
in
it
d
of
S.L
ou
is
Spirit of S.Louis
Lip
pis
1930
h
D
Lo
D he D rm ock
elt
ou e ou ar h B in its chm Su
c
Pic
a
k
gla d 1 gla in ee oe ke ub
ca
s 0E s
Ke
rd
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ll
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H
et
pe
Fo
-
eli
B
1 ta 3 re 5
12
K
oe
um
ke
D
9
in
-1
-W
Leonardo da Vinci's Ornithopter design.
C
g
B
D P X g
1935
in
ie
ulf
alo
24
e
rv
de
-
Cierva C.30
S d
B
Fw
a
7
on
n
all
em
bu
C
.3
oo
61
rg
ph
0
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n
is
Ex
in l H ish t er
M in
B
B
es g
p
ell
oe
lo
se B
V
e
re
S-
4
e i M fo
B
r
30
17
Lo
2
K S
0
ay ik
ck
Fle
8
1940
on
it p
ab or
he
tt
so
a sky
ne
ed
lid
r
a- R-
L-
Fl
at
62 s
04
1 4
Fo Fo
ed
26
Boeing 314
ck ck
9
5
B
e
C
e- e-
B
-2
on
ris
s
A A
4
ch ch
N
st
The rst great ships of the air were the rigid dirigible bal-
to
Lib
or
ell
ge ge
l1
th
Sik Mk
er
at
lis lis
71
B sky Sy
at
A
io
Lo
ell
C
or 3
Fa Fa
m
1945
es B P- HC
or
c
47 -5 mo
er
kh
22 33
na e 86 C
ic
ee
3 0
S a
an
14 X Sa om
D
d
0
1
c
ra
X D
loons pioneered by Ferdinand von Zeppelin, which soon
ll
P-
ch
Sik
8
-
0
1
e
H
B
or
re
Sh
ug
oe
Pia
sk
o
he
in
ot
y
se
re t
g
S-
in
s
ck
B
55
PD 21
e
-5
iH
-4
St
G
1950
4 W
became synonymous with airships and dominated long-
en
-
a
H
St B ckh M 17
Pia or
r
er
er
ra oe e Q- 2
Sikorsky S-55
cu
gg kho
al
to in ed 1
le
io rs
A
fo g
Lo ic sn
s
to Ce
rt B- C-1 red ha
m s
re 1
ss 7
e
s a
Convertiplane
distance ight until the 1930s, when large ying boats
B ors R
B
Sik ire
ell k o
ell
3
P ky
Fa
B
0 to k
U y S od
X
1955
oe
H
V-
S
-1 -56 ne
in
a
Sik
3
y
g
r
or
36
t
w
sk
Pip Ce
became popular. After World War II, the ying boats
7-
Piper PA-28
y
80
y
er ssn
S-
B
Cherokee
Sim
A
H
oe
61 M -4
PA a
lo
ille
in Be
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ue
no
Se il M C t R
r
g ll
8 5
t
X-
ns
ak I- hin an
te
C 20
C Sk AC
H
he y
in 10 oo ge
II
8
H
Lo
g
ro wa Pu
1960
eli
were in their turn replaced by land planes, and the new
7 Je
c
ur
ke g
um
kh
6
t
e on n
P
is
ee
s-W
B
d
all
B
k r
SR
ris
rig
oo
B ell
olk A
-7
to
ht
n
B
1
l1
ow H-
X-
Boeing CH-47
B
and immensely powerful jet engine revolutionised both
92
1
la
B C
9
Chinhook
ck
o.4 o
bir
6 ra
Le
B
d
1965
ell No
a
b
rje
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t
22 5
23
A 0
air travel and military aviation.
M
A
il
G
gu
B
0
en
M
oe
st
I-
Va
er
12
in on raft
aW
al
ns
g co
C irc
es
D
74 rd RV
Boeing 747
A
yn
tla
7 e -3
am
1970
nd
ic
AW
s
R S
F-
10
In the latter part of the 20th century the advent of digital
ob ik
16
9
in or
so sk
Fig
n yS
ht
R
in
22 -80
g
Fa
lc
electronics produced great advances in ight instrumen-

on
1975
Sik B
F-16
or ein
G
D
Fighting Falcon
sk g
os
ou
y
sa
ble
SH Ver
m
-6 tol
Ea
er
0
tation and y-by-wire systems. The 21st century saw
gle
Se o
lb
ah de
at
D
II
M
es
ou
ro
aw l 2
G
sn
ss
ble
A ag
k 4
1980
a
-4 le
E
20
2
3
8
M
the large-scale use of pilotless drones for military, civilian

C
od
ar
V
av
Piaggio P180
Sh
el
an
Sik
76
ky
Avanti
Pia
s
or
Vo
hip
gg
sk
ya
io
y
60
ge
H
A
P1 Air An ea
and leisure use. With digital controls, inherently unstable

0
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1985
80 bu -22 th
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B
on B
ell
0
ov 2 S
Av s A 5 M om
Pa
B
an 32 riy b
oe
v e
ti 0
in
H
t
aw
V-
aircraft such as ying wings became possible.

22
B
Antonov An-225
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re
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1990
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30
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br
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ae

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2.1.1 Primitive beginnings

N
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D
A
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40
n
d
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M
ug nd
ia
ar
m
B
tin
us S
ir Ecli g F
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it
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O
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nd
D
Airbus A380
it
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0
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m
er
60
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ic
to
9
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Main article: Early ying machines

lc
B
on
2005
lim
7X
p
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ir
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C
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Corvalis
2015
Tower jumping
The origin of mankinds desire to y is lost in the distant Aviation timeline

past. From the earliest legends there have been stories
of men strapping birdlike wings, stiened cloaks or other
devices to themselves and attempting to y, typically by Eilmer of Malmesbury soon followed and many others
jumping o a tower. The Greek legend of Daedalus and have continued to do so over the centuries. As late as
Icarus is one of the earliest known, others originated from 1811, Albrecht Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and
India, China and the European Middle Age. During this jumped into the Danube at Ulm.[7]
early period the issues of lift, stability and control were
not understood, and most attempts ended in serious injury
Kites
or death.
In medieval Europe, the earliest recorded tower jump The kite may have been the rst form of man-made
dates from 852 AD, when Armen Firman, also known aircraft.[1] It was invented in China possibly as far back
as Abbas ibn Firnas (810887 A.D.), made a jump in as the 5th century BC by Mozi (Mo Di) and Lu Ban
Cordoba, Spain, reportedly covering his body with vul- (Gongshu Ban).[8] Later designs often emulated ying
ture feathers and attaching two wings to his arms.[5][6] insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical.
2.1. AVIATION HISTORY 9
Kites spread from China around the world. After its in-
troduction into India, the kite further evolved into the
ghter kite, where an abrasive line is used to cut down
other kites.
Man-carrying kites Man-carrying kites are believed

to have been used extensively in ancient China, for both
civil and military purposes and sometimes enforced as a
punishment. An early recorded ight was that of the pris-
oner Yuan Huangtou, a Chinese prince, in the 6th Cen-
tury AD.[13] Stories of man-carrying kites also occur in
Japan, following the introduction of the kite from China
around the seventh century AD. It is said that at one time
there was a Japanese law against man-carrying kites.[14]
Rotor wings
Main article: Bamboo-copter
The use of a rotor for vertical ight has existed since 400
BC in the form of the bamboo-copter, an ancient Chinese
toy.[15][16] The similar moulinet noix (rotor on a nut)
Daedalus working on Icarus' wings. appeared in Europe in the 14th century AD.[17]
Hot air balloons
Woodcut print of a kite from John Bates 1635 book The Mys-
teryes of Nature and Art.
Some were tted with strings and whistles to make mu- A sky lantern.
sical sounds while ying.[9][10][11] Ancient and medieval
Chinese sources describe kites being used to measure dis- From ancient times the Chinese have understood that hot
tances, test the wind, lift men, signal, and communicate air rises and have applied the principle to a type of small
and send messages.[12] hot air balloon called a sky lantern. A sky lantern consists
of a paper balloon under or just inside which a small lamp copper foil spheres that, containing a vacuum, would be
is placed. Sky lanterns are traditionally launched for plea- lighter than the displaced air to lift an airship. While the-
sure and during festivals. According to Joseph Needham, oretically sound, his design was not feasible: the pressure
such lanterns were known in China from the 3rd century of the surrounding air would crush the spheres. The idea
BC. Their military use is attributed to the general Zhuge of using vacuum to produce lift is now known as vacuum
Liang (180234 AD, honoric title Kongming), who is airship but remains unfeasible with any current materials.
said to have used them to scare the enemy troops.[18] In 1709 Bartolomeu de Gusmo presented a petition to
There is evidence that the Chinese also solved the prob- King John V of Portugal, begging for support for his in-
lem of aerial navigation using balloons, hundreds of vention of an airship, in which he expressed the greatest
years before the 18th century.[19] condence. The public test of the machine, which was
set for June 24, 1709, did not take place. According to
contemporary reports, however, Gusmo appears to have
The Renaissance made several less ambitious experiments with this ma-
chine, descending from eminences. It is certain that Gus-
mo was working on this principle at the public exhibition
he gave before the Court on August 8, 1709, in the hall
of the Casa da ndia in Lisbon, when he propelled a ball
to the roof by combustion.
Balloons
Main article: History of ballooning
1783 was a watershed year for ballooning and aviation,

between June 4 and December 1 ve aviation rsts were
achieved in France:
One of Leonardos sketches
On 4 June, the Montgoler brothers demonstrated
Eventually some investigators began to discover and de- their unmanned hot air balloon at Annonay, France.
ne some of the basics of rational aircraft design. Most
On 27 August, Jacques Charles and the Robert
notable of these was Leonardo da Vinci, although his
brothers (Les Freres Robert) launched the worlds
work remained unknown until 1797, and so had no inu-
rst unmanned hydrogen-lled balloon, from the
ence on developments over the next three hundred years.
Champ de Mars, Paris.
While his designs were at least rational, they were not
based on particularly good science.[20] On 19 October, the Montgolers launched the rst
Leonardo studied bird ight, analyzing it and anticipating manned ight, a tethered balloon with humans on
many principles of aerodynamics. He did at least under- board, at the Folie Titon in Paris. The aviators were
stand that An object oers as much resistance to the air the scientist Jean-Franois Piltre de Rozier, the
as the air does to the object.[21] Newton would not pub- manufacture manager Jean-Baptiste Rveillon, and
lish the Third law of motion until 1687. Giroud de Villette.
From the last years of the 15th century on he wrote On 21 November, the Montgolers launched the
about and sketched many designs for ying machines rst free ight with human passengers. King Louis
and mechanisms, including ornithopters, xed-wing glid- XVI had originally decreed that condemned crim-
ers, rotorcraft and parachutes. His early designs were inals would be the rst pilots, but Jean-Franois
man-powered types including ornithopters and rotorcraft, Piltre de Rozier, along with the Marquis Franois
however he came to realise the impracticality of this and d'Arlandes, successfully petitioned for the honor.
later turned to controlled gliding ight, also sketching They drifted 8 km (5.0 mi) in a balloon powered
some designs powered by a spring.[22] by a wood re.
On 1 December, Jacques Charles and the Nicolas-

2.1.2 Lighter than air Louis Robert launched their manned hydrogen bal-
loon from the Jardin des Tuileries in Paris, as a
Beginnings of modern theory crowd of 400,000 witnessed. They ascended to a
height of about 1,800 feet (550 m)[15] and landed
In 1670 Francesco Lana de Terzi published a work that at sunset in Nesles-la-Valle after a ight of 2 hours
suggested lighter than air ight would be possible by using and 5 minutes, covering 36 km. After Robert
alighted Charles decided to ascend alone. This time continued sporadically throughout the 19th century. The
he ascended rapidly to an altitude of about 9,800 feet rst powered, controlled, sustained lighter-than-air ight
(3,000 m), where he saw the sun again, suered ex- is believed to have taken place in 1852 when Henri Gif-
treme pain in his ears, and never ew again. fard ew 15 miles (24 km) in France, with a steam engine
driven craft.
Ballooning became a major rage in Europe in the late Another advance was made in 1884, when the rst
18th century, providing the rst detailed understanding fully controllable free-ight was made in a French Army
of the relationship between altitude and the atmosphere. electric-powered airship, La France, by Charles Renard
Non-steerable balloons were employed during the and Arthur Krebs. The 170-foot (52 m) long, 66,000-
3
American Civil War by the Union Army Balloon Corps. cubic-foot (1,900 m ) airship covered 8 km (5.0 mi) in
The young Ferdinand von Zeppelin rst ew as a balloon 23 minutes with the aid of an 8 horsepower electric mo-
passenger with the Union Army of the Potomac in 1863. tor.
In the early 1900s ballooning was a popular sport in However, these aircraft were generally short-lived and ex-
Britain. These privately owned balloons usually used coal tremely frail. Routine, controlled ights would not occur
gas as the lifting gas. This has half the lifting power of until the advent of the internal combustion engine (see
hydrogen so the balloons had to be larger, however coal below.)
gas was far more readily available and the local gas works The rst aircraft to make routine controlled ights were
sometimes provided a special lightweight formula for bal- non-rigid airships (sometimes called blimps.) The most
looning events.[23] successful early pioneering pilot of this type of aircraft
was the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont who eectively
Airships combined a balloon with an internal combustion engine.
On October 19, 1901 he ew his airship Number 6
Main articles: Airship and Zeppelin over Paris from the Parc de Saint Cloud around the Eiel
Airships were originally called dirigible balloons and Tower and back in under 30 minutes to win the Deutsch
de la Meurthe prize. Santos-Dumont went on to design
and build several aircraft. Subsequent controversy sur-
rounding his and others competing claims with regard to
aircraft overshadowed his great contribution to the devel-
opment of airships.
At the same time that non-rigid airships were starting to
have some success, the rst successful rigid airships were
also being developed. These would be far more capable
than xed-wing aircraft in terms of pure cargo carrying
capacity for decades. Rigid airship design and advance-
ment was pioneered by the German count Ferdinand von
Zeppelin.
Construction of the rst Zeppelin airship began in 1899 in
a oating assembly hall on Lake Constance in the Bay of
Manzell, Friedrichshafen. This was intended to ease the
starting procedure, as the hall could easily be aligned with
the wind. The prototype airship LZ 1 (LZ for Luftschi
Zeppelin) had a length of 128 m (420 ft) was driven by
two 10.6 kW (14.2 hp) Daimler engines and balanced by
moving a weight between its two nacelles.
Its rst ight, on July 2, 1900, lasted for only 18 minutes,
as LZ 1 was forced to land on the lake after the winding
mechanism for the balancing weight had broken. Upon
repair, the technology proved its potential in subsequent
ights, bettering the 6 m/s speed attained by the French
airship La France by 3 m/s, but could not yet convince
Santos-Dumonts Number 6 rounding the Eiel Tower in the possible investors. It would be several years before the
process of winning the Deutsch de la Meurthe Prize, October Count was able to raise enough funds for another try.
1901.
Although airships were used in both World War I and II,
are still sometimes called dirigibles today. and continue on a limited basis to this day, their develop-
ment has been largely overshadowed by heavier-than-air
Work on developing a steerable (or dirigible) balloon
craft. ous century he had begun the rst rigorous study of the
physics of ight and would later design the rst modern
heavier-than-air craft. Among his many achievements,
2.1.3 Heavier than air his most important contributions to aeronautics include:
Main article: Early ying machines Clarifying our ideas and laying down the principles
of heavier-than-air ight.
Reaching a scientic understanding of the principles
The 17th and 18th centuries of bird ight.
Italian inventor, Tito Livio Burattini, invited by the Polish Conducting scientic aerodynamic experiments
King Wadysaw IV to his court in Warsaw, built a model demonstrating drag and streamlining, movement of
aircraft with four xed glider wings in 1647.[24] De- the centre of pressure, and the increase in lift from
scribed as four pairs of wings attached to an elaborate curving the wing surface.
'dragon'", it was said to have successfully lifted a cat in Dening the modern aeroplane conguration com-
1648 but not Burattini himself.[25] He promised that only prising a xed wing, fuselage and tail assembly.
the most minor injuries would result from landing the
craft.[26] His Dragon Volant is considered the most Demonstrations of manned, gliding ight.
elaborate and sophisticated aeroplane to be built before
the 19th Century.[27] Setting out the principles of power-to-weight ratio
in sustaining ight.
The rst published paper on aviation was Sketch of a
Machine for Flying in the Air by Emanuel Sweden- Cayleys rst innovation was to study the basic science of
borg published in 1716. This ying machine consisted lift by adopting the whirling arm test rig for use in air-
of a light frame covered with strong canvas and pro- craft research and using simple aerodynamic models on
vided with two large oars or wings moving on a hori- the arm, rather than attempting to y a model of a com-
zontal axis, arranged so that the upstroke met with no plete design.
resistance while the downstroke provided lifting power.
Swedenborg knew that the machine would not y, but In 1799 he set down the concept of the modern aeroplane
suggested it as a start and was condent that the prob- as a xed-wing ying machine with separate systems for
lem would be solved. He wrote: It seems easier to talk lift, propulsion, and control.[29][30]
of such a machine than to put it into actuality, for it re- In 1804 Cayley constructed a model glider which was the
quires greater force and less weight than exists in a human rst modern heavier-than-air ying machine, having the
body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest layout of a conventional modern aircraft with an inclined
a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advan- wing towards the front and adjustable tail at the back with
tages and requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come both tailplane and n. A movable weight allowed adjust-
some one might know how better to utilize our sketch and ment of the models centre of gravity.[31]
cause some addition to be made so as to accomplish that
which we can only suggest. Yet there are sucient proofs In 1809, goaded by the farcical antics of his contempo-
and examples from nature that such ights can take place raries (see above), he began the publication of a landmark
without danger, although when the rst trials are made three-part treatise titled On Aerial Navigation (1809
you may have to pay for the experience, and not mind 1810).[32] In it he wrote the rst scientic statement of the
an arm or leg. Swedenborg would prove prescient in his problem, The whole problem is conned within these
observation that a method of powering of an aircraft was limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight
one of the critical problems to be overcome. by the application of power to the resistance of air. He
identied the four vector forces that inuence an aircraft:
thrust, lift, drag and weight and distinguished stability and
The 19th Century control in his designs. He also identied and described
the importance of the cambered aerofoil, dihedral, diag-
Throughout the 19th century, tower jumping was re- onal bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to the
placed by the equally fatal but equally popular balloon understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes.
jumping as a way to demonstrate the continued useless- In 1848 he had progressed far enough to construct a glider
ness of man-power and apping wings. Meanwhile, the in the form of a triplane large and safe enough to carry
scientic study of heavier-than-air ight began in earnest. a child. A local boy was chosen but his name is not
known.[33][34]
Sir George Cayley and the rst modern aircraft Sir He went on to publish in 1852 the design for a full-size
George Cayley was rst called the father of the aero- manned glider or governable parachute to be launched
plane in 1846.[28] During the last years of the previ- from a balloon and then to construct a version capable of
the aspect ratio of a wing.

The latter part of the 19th century became a period of
intense study, characterized by the "gentleman scientists"
who represented most research eorts until the 20th cen-
tury. Among them was the British scientist-philosopher
and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton, who studied
lateral ight control and was the rst to patent an aileron
control system in 1868.[38][39][40][41]
In 1871 Wenham and Browning made the rst wind tun-
nel.[42]
Flix du Temple's 1874 Monoplane.
Meanwhile, the British advances had galvanised French

researchers. In 1857 Flix du Temple proposed a mono-
plane with a tail plane and retractable undercarriage. De-
Governable parachute design of 1852 veloping his ideas with a model powered rst by clock-
work and later by steam, he eventually achieved a short
hop with a full-size manned craft in 1874. It achieved
launching from the top of a hill, which carried the rst lift-o under its own power after launching from a ramp,
adult aviator across Brompton Dale in 1853. glided for a short time and returned safely to the ground,
Minor inventions included the rubber-powered motor, making it the rst successful powered glide in history.
which provided a reliable power source for research mod- In 1865 Louis Pierre Mouillard published an inuential
els. By 1808 he had even re-invented the wheel, de- book The Empire Of The Air (l'Empire de l'Air).
vising the tension-spoked wheel in which all compres-
sion loads are carried by the rim, allowing a lightweight
undercarriage.[35]
The age of steam Drawing directly from Cayleys

work, Hensons 1842 design for an aerial steam carriage
broke new ground. Although only a design, it was the rst
in history for a propeller-driven xed-wing aircraft.
1866 saw the founding of the Aeronautical Society of
Great Britain and two years later the worlds rst aeronau-
tical exhibition was held at the Crystal Palace, London,
where John Stringfellow was awarded a 100 prize for the
Jean-Marie Le Bris and his ying machine, Albatros II, 1868.
steam engine with the best power-to-weight ratio.[36][37]
Francis Herbert Wenham presented the rst paper to the
newly formed Aeronautical Society (later the Royal Aero- In 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the rst
nautical Society), On Aerial Locomotion. He advanced ight higher than his point of departure, by having his
Cayleys work on cambered wings, making important glider L'Albatros articiel pulled by a horse on a beach.
ndings. To test his ideas, from 1858 he had constructed He reportedly achieved a height of 100 meters, over a
several gliders, both manned and unmanned, and with up distance of 200 meters.
to ve stacked wings. He realised that long, thin wings are Alphonse Pnaud, a Frenchman, advanced the theory
better than bat-like ones because they have more leading of wing contours and aerodynamics and constructed
edge for their area. Today this relationship is known as successful models of aeroplanes, helicopters and or-
Clment Ader Avion III (1897 photograph).
plane to take o under its own power.[45] His Avion III of

1897, notable only for having twin steam engines, failed
to y:[46] Ader would later claim success and was not de-
bunked until 1910 when the French Army published its
report on his attempt.
Planophore model aeroplane by Alphonse Pnaud, 1871
nithopters. In 1871 he ew the rst aerodynamically sta-

ble xed-wing aeroplane, a model monoplane he called
the Planophore, a distance of 40 m (130 ft). Pnauds
model incorporated several of Cayleys discoveries, in-
cluding the use of a tail, wing dihedral for inherent sta-
bility, and rubber power. The planophore also had lon-
gitudinal stability, being trimmed such that the tailplane Maxims ying machine
was set at a smaller angle of incidence than the wings,
an original and important contribution to the theory of Sir Hiram Maxim was an American engineer who had
aeronautics.[44] Pnauds later project for an amphibian moved to England. He built his own whirling arm rig
aeroplane, although never built, incorporated other mod- and wind tunnel, and constructed a large machine with a
ern features. A tailless monoplane with a single verti- wingspan of 105 feet (32 m), a length of 145 feet (44 m),
cal n and twin tractor propellers, it also featured hinged fore and aft horizontal surfaces and a crew of three. Twin
rear elevator and rudder surfaces, retractable undercar- propellers were powered by two lightweight compound
riage and a fully enclosed, instrumented cockpit. steam engines each delivering 180 hp (130 kW). Overall
weight was 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg). It was intended as a
test rig to investigate aerodynamic lift: lacking ight con-
trols it ran on rails, with a second set of rails above the
wheels to restrain it. Completed in 1894, on its third run
it broke from the rail, became airborne for several hun-
dred feet at two to three feet altitude[47] and was badly
damaged upon falling back to the ground. It was subse-
quently repaired, but Maxim abandoned his experiments
shortly afterwards.[48]
The Aeroplane of Victor Tatin, 1879. Learning to glide In the last decade or so of the 19th
century, a number of key gures were rening and den-
Equally authoritative as a theorist was Pnauds fellow ing the modern aeroplane. Lacking a suitable engine,
countryman Victor Tatin. In 1879 he ew a model which, aircraft work focused on stability and control in gliding
like Pnauds project, was a monoplane with twin tractor ight. In 1879 Biot constructed a bird-like glider with
propellers but also had a separate horizontal tail. It was the help of Massia and ew in it briey. It is preserved
powered by compressed air. Flown tethered to a pole, in the Musee de l'Air, France, and is claimed to be the
this was the rst model to take o under its own power. earliest man-carrying ying machine still in existence.
In 1884 Alexandre Goupil published his work La Loco- The Englishman Horatio Phillips made key contributions
motion Arienne (Aerial Locomotion), although the ying to aerodynamics. He conducted extensive wind tunnel
machine he later constructed failed to y. research on aerofoil sections, proving the principles of
In 1890 the French engineer Clment Ader completed aerodynamic lift foreseen by Cayley and Wenham. His
the rst of three steam-driven ying machines, the ole. ndings underpin all modern aerofoil design.
On October 9, 1890 Ader made an uncontrolled hop Otto Lilienthal became known as the Glider King or
of around 50 m (165 ft); this was the rst manned air- Flying Man of Germany. He duplicated Wenhams
Australian Lawrence Hargrave would lead to the devel-

opment of the practical biplane. In 1894 Hargrave linked
four of his kites together, added a sling seat, and ew
16 feet (4.9 m). Later pioneers of manned kite ying
included Samuel Franklin Cody in England and Captain
Gnie Saconney in France.
Langley
Main article: Samuel Pierpont Langley

After a distinguished career in astronomy and shortly
The Biot-Massia glider, restored and on display in the Musee de

l'Air.
First failure of Langleys manned Aerodrome on the Potomac

River, October 7, 1903
before becoming Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-

tion, Samuel Pierpont Langley started a serious investi-
gation into aerodynamics at what is today the University
Otto Lilienthal, May 29, 1895. of Pittsburgh. In 1891 he published Experiments in Aero-
dynamics detailing his research, and then turned to build-
ing his designs. He hoped to achieve automatic aero-
work and greatly expanded on it in 1884, publishing his dynamic stability, so he gave little consideration to in-
research in 1889 as Birdight as the Basis of Aviation ight control.[49] On May 6, 1896, Langleys Aerodrome
(Der Vogelug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst). He also No. 5 made the rst successful sustained ight of an un-
produced a series of hang gliders, including bat-wing, piloted, engine-driven heavier-than-air craft of substan-
monoplane and biplane forms, such as the Derwitzer tial size. It was launched from a spring-actuated catapult
Glider and Normal soaring apparatus. Starting in 1891 mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near
he became the rst person to make controlled untethered Quantico, Virginia. Two ights were made that after-
glides routinely, and the rst to be photographed ying noon, one of 1,005 metres (3,297 ft) and a second of 700
a heavier-than-air machine, stimulating interest around metres (2,300 ft), at a speed of approximately 25 miles
the world. He rigorously documented his work, includ- per hour (40 km/h). On both occasions the Aerodrome
ing photographs, and for this reason is one of the best No. 5 landed in the water as planned, because in order to
known of the early pioneers. Lilienthal made over 2,000 save weight, it was not equipped with landing gear. On
glides until his death in 1896 from injuries sustained in a November 28, 1896, another successful ight was made
glider crash. with the Aerodrome No. 6. This ight, of 1,460 metres
(4,790 ft), was witnessed and photographed by Alexander
Picking up where Lilienthal left o, Octave Chanute took Graham Bell. The Aerodrome No. 6 was actually Aero-
up aircraft design after an early retirement, and funded drome No. 4 greatly modied. So little remained of the
the development of several gliders. In the summer of original aircraft that it was given a new designation.
1896 his team ew several of their designs eventually de-
ciding that the best was a biplane design. Like Lilienthal, With the successes of the Aerodrome No. 5 and No.
he documented and photographed his work. 6, Langley started looking for funding to build a full-
scale man-carrying version of his designs. Spurred by the
In Britain Percy Pilcher, who had worked for Maxim, SpanishAmerican War, the U.S. government granted
built and successfully ew several gliders during the mid him $50,000 to develop a man-carrying ying machine
to late 1890s. for aerial reconnaissance. Langley planned on build-
The invention of the box kite during this period by the ing a scaled-up version known as the Aerodrome A,
and started with the smaller Quarter-scale Aerodrome, half years before the Wright Brothers ight, he claimed
which ew twice on June 18, 1901, and then again with a to have carried out a controlled, powered ight in his
newer and more powerful engine in 1903. Number 21 monoplane at Faireld, Connecticut. The
With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he ight was reported in the Bridgeport Sunday Herald local
then turned to the problem of a suitable engine. He con- newspaper. About 30 years later, several people ques-
tracted Stephen Balzer to build one, but was disappointed tioned by a researcher claimed to have seen that or other
when it delivered only 8 hp (6.0 kW) instead of 12 hp (8.9 Whitehead ights.
kW) he expected. Langleys assistant, Charles M. Manly, In March 2013 Janes All the Worlds Aircraft, an author-
then reworked the design into a ve-cylinder water-cooled itative source for contemporary aviation, published an
radial that delivered 52 hp (39 kW) at 950 rpm, a feat that editorial which accepted Whiteheads ight as the rst
took years to duplicate. Now with both power and a de- manned, powered, controlled ight of a heavier-than-
sign, Langley put the two together with great hopes. air craft.[51] The Smithsonian Institution (custodians of
To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too frag- the original Wright Flyer) and many aviation histori-
ile. Simply scaling up the original small models resulted ans continue to maintain that Whitehead did not y as
[52][53]
in a design that was too weak to hold itself together. Two suggested.
launches in late 1903 both ended with the Aerodrome im-
mediately crashing into the water. The pilot, Manly, was
rescued each time. Also, the aircrafts control system was The Wright brothers
inadequate to allow quick pilot responses, and it had no
method of lateral control, and the Aerodrome's aerial sta- Main article: Wright brothers
bility was marginal.[49]
Using a methodological approach and concentrating on
Langleys attempts to gain further funding failed, and
the controllability of the aircraft, the brothers built and
his eorts ended. Nine days after his second abortive
tested a series of kite and glider designs from 1900 to
launch on December 8, the Wright brothers successfully
ew their Flyer. Glenn Curtiss made 93 modications1902 before attempting to build a powered design. The
gliders worked, but not as well as the Wrights had ex-
to the Aerodrome and ew this very dierent aircraft
pected based on the experiments and writings of their
in 1914.[49] Without acknowledging the modications,
19th-century predecessors. Their rst glider, launched in
the Smithsonian Institution asserted that Langleys Aero-
drome was the rst machine capable of ight.[50] 1900, had only about half the lift they anticipated. Their
second glider, built the following year, performed even
more poorly. Rather than giving up, the Wrights con-
Whitehead structed their own wind tunnel and created a number of
sophisticated devices to measure lift and drag on the 200
Main article: Gustave Whitehead wing designs they tested.[54] As a result, the Wrights cor-
Gustave Weikopf was a German who emigrated to the rected earlier mistakes in calculations regarding drag and
lift. Their testing and calculating produced a third glider
with a higher aspect ratio and true three-axis control.
They ew it successfully hundreds of times in 1902, and
it performed far better than the previous models. By us-
ing a rigorous system of experimentation, involving wind-
tunnel testing of airfoils and ight testing of full-size pro-
totypes, the Wrights not only built a working aircraft, the
Wright Flyer, but also helped advance the science of aero-
nautical engineering.
The Wrights appear to be the rst to make serious stud-
ied attempts to simultaneously solve the power and con-
trol problems. Both problems proved dicult, but they
never lost interest. They solved the control problem by
inventing wing warping for roll control, combined with
simultaneous yaw control with a steerable rear rudder.
The No. 21 monoplane seen from the rear. Whitehead sits be- Almost as an afterthought, they designed and built a low-
side it with daughter Rose in his lap; others in the photo are not powered internal combustion engine. They also designed
identied. and carved wooden propellers that were more ecient
than any before, enabling them to gain adequate perfor-
U.S., where he soon changed his name to Whitehead. mance from their low engine power. Although wing-
From 1897 to 1915 he designed and built early ying warping as a means of lateral control was used only briey
machines and engines. On August 14, 1901, two and a during the early history of aviation, the principle of com-
intended landing. Modern analysis by Professor Fred

E. C. Culick and Henry R. Rex (1985) has demonstrated
that the 1903 Wright Flyer was so unstable as to be al-
most unmanageable by anyone but the Wrights, who had
trained themselves in the 1902 glider.[59]
The Wrights continued ying at Human Prairie near
Dayton, Ohio in 190405. In May 1904 they introduced
the Flyer II, a heavier and improved version of the original
Flyer. On June 23, 1905 they rst ew a third machine,
the Flyer III. After a severe crash on 14 July 1905, they
rebuilt the Flyer III and made important design changes.
They almost doubled the size of the elevator and rudder
The Wright Flyer: the rst sustained ight with a powered, con- and moved them about twice the distance from the wings.
trolled aircraft. They added two xed vertical vanes (called blinkers)
between the elevators, and gave the wings a very slight
dihedral. They disconnected the rudder from the wing-
bining lateral control in combination with a rudder was warping control, and as in all future aircraft, placed it on
a key advance in aircraft control. While many aviation a separate control handle. When ights resumed the re-
pioneers appeared to leave safety largely to chance, the sults were immediate. The serious pitch instability that
Wrights design was greatly inuenced by the need to hampered Flyers I and II was signicantly reduced, so
teach themselves to y without unreasonable risk to life repeated minor crashes were eliminated. Flights with the
and limb, by surviving crashes. This emphasis, as well as redesigned Flyer III started lasting over 10 minutes, then
low engine power, was the reason for low ying speed and 20, then 30. Flyer III became the rst practical aircraft
for taking o in a head wind. Performance, rather than (though without wheels and needing a launching device),
safety, was the reason for the rear-heavy design, because ying consistently under full control and bringing its pi-
the canard could not be highly loaded; anhedral wings lot back to the starting point safely and landing without
were less aected by crosswinds and were consistent with damage. On 5 October 1905, Wilbur ew 24 miles (39
the low yaw stability. km) in 39 minutes 23 seconds.[60]
According to the Smithsonian Institution and Fdration According to the April 1907 issue of the Scientic Amer-
Aronautique Internationale (FAI),[55][56] the Wrights ican magazine,[61] the Wright brothers seemed to have
made the rst sustained, controlled, powered heavier- the most advanced knowledge of heavier-than-air naviga-
than-air manned ight at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, tion at the time. However, the same magazine issue also
four miles (8 km) south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina claimed that no public ight had been made in the United
on December 17, 1903.[57] States before its April 1907 issue. Hence, they devised
The rst ight by Orville Wright, of 120 feet (37 m) in the Scientic American Aeronautic Trophy in order to
12 seconds, was recorded in a famous photograph. In encourage the development of a heavier-than-air ying
the fourth ight of the same day, Wilbur Wright ew 852 machine.
feet (260 m) in 59 seconds. The ights were witnessed
by three coastal lifesaving crewmen, a local businessman,
and a boy from the village, making these the rst public 2.1.4 The Pioneer Era (19031914)
ights and the rst well-documented ones.[57]
Main article: Aviation in the pioneer era
Orville described the nal ight of the day: The rst
few hundred feet were up and down, as before, but by
the time three hundred feet had been covered, the ma- This period saw the development of practical aeroplanes
chine was under much better control. The course for the and airships and their early application, alongside bal-
next four or ve hundred feet had but little undulation. loons and kites, for private, sport and military use.
However, when out about eight hundred feet the machine
began pitching again, and, in one of its darts downward,
European pioneers
struck the ground. The distance over the ground was mea-
sured to be 852 feet (260 m); the time of the ight was
59 seconds. The frame supporting the front rudder was Although full details of the Wright Brothers system of
badly broken, but the main part of the machine was not ight control had been published in l'Aerophile in January
injured at all. We estimated that the machine could be 1906 the importance of this advance was not recognised,
put in condition for ight again in about a day or two.[58] and European experimenters generally concentrated on
They ew only about ten feet above the ground as a safety attempting to produce inherently stable machines.
precaution, so they had little room to maneuver, and all Short powered ights were performed in France by Ro-
four ights in the gusty winds ended in a bumpy and un- manian engineer Traian Vuia on March 18 and August
a kilometer and landed at the point where it had taken

o. The ight lasted 1 minute and 28 seconds.[68]
In 1914, just before the start of World War I, Roma-
nia completed the worlds rst metal-built aircraft, Vlaicu
III.[69] It was captured by the Germans in 1916 and last
seen at a 1942 aviation exhibition in Berlin.[70][71]
Flight as an established technology
The 14-bis, or Oiseau de proie.
19, 1906 when he ew 12 and 24 meters, respectively, in

a self-designed, fully self-propelled, xed-wing aircraft,
that possessed a fully wheeled undercarriage.[62][63] He
was followed by Jacob Ellehammer who built a mono-
plane which he tested with a tether in Denmark on
September 12, 1906, ying 42 meters.[64]
On September 13, 1906, a day after Ellehammers teth-
ered ight and three years after the Wright Brothers
ight, the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont made a pub-
lic ight in Paris with the 14-bis, also known as Oiseau
de proie (French for bird of prey). This was of canard Alberto Santos-Dumont ying the Demoiselle over Paris
conguration with pronounced wing dihedral, and cov-
ered a distance of 60 m (200 ft) on the grounds of the Santos-Dumont later added ailerons, between the wings
Chateau de Bagatelle in Paris Bois de Boulogne before in an eort to gain more lateral stability. His nal design,
a large crowd of witnesses. This well-documented event rst own in 1907, was the series of Demoiselle mono-
was the rst ight veried by the Aro-Club de France of planes (Nos. 19 to 22). The Demoiselle No 19 could
a powered heavier-than-air machine in Europe and won be constructed in only 15 days and became the worlds
the Deutsch-Archdeacon Prize for the rst ocially ob- rst series production aircraft. The Demoiselle achieved
served ight greater than 25 m (82 ft). On November 120 km/h.[72] The fuselage consisted of three specially
12, 1906, Santos-Dumont set the rst world record rec- reinforced bamboo booms: the pilot sat a seat between
ognized by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale by the main wheels of a conventional landing gear whose
ying 220 m (720 ft) in 21.5 seconds.[65][66] Only one pair of wire-spoked mainwheels were located at the lower
more brief ight was made by the 14bis in March 1907, front of the airframe, with a tailskid half-way back be-
after which it was abandoned.[67] neath the rear fuselage structure. The Demoiselle was
controlled in ight by a cruciform tail unit hinged on a
form of universal joint at the aft end of the fuselage struc-
ture to function as elevator and rudder, with roll control
provided through wing warping (No. 20), with the wings
only warping down.
In 1908 Wilbur Wright travelled to Europe, and start-
ing in August gave a series of ight demonstrations at
Le Mans in France. The rst demonstration, made on
8 August, attracted an audience including most of the
major French aviation experimenters, who were aston-
ished by the clear superiority of the Wright Brothers
Vlaicu III aircraft, particularly its ability to make tight controlled
turns.[73] The importance of using roll control in making
In March 1907 Gabriel Voisin ew the rst example of turns was recognised by almost all the European exper-
his Voisin biplane. On 13 January 1908 a second exam- imenters: Henri Farman tted ailerons to his Voisin bi-
ple of the type was own by Henri Farman to win the plane and shortly afterwards set up his own aircraft con-
Deutsch-Archdeacon Grand Prix d'Aviation prize for a struction business, whose rst product was the inuential
ight in which the aircraft ew a distance of more than Farman III biplane.
The following year saw the widespread recognition of lost on any of the major forces. All of the major forces in
powered ight as something other than the preserve of Europe had light aircraft, typically derived from pre-war
dreamers and eccentrics. On 25 July Louis Blriot won sporting designs, attached to their reconnaissance depart-
worldwide fame by winning a 1,000 prize oered by ments. Radiotelephones were also being explored on air-
the British Daily Mail newspaper for a ight across the planes, notably the SCR-68, as communication between
English Channel, and in August around half a million pilots and ground commander grew more and more im-
people, including the President of France Armand Fal- portant.
lires and David Lloyd George, attended one of the rst
aviation meetings, the Grande Semaine d'Aviation at
Reims. 2.1.5 World War I (19141918)
Main article: Aviation in World War I
Rotorcraft
In 1877, Enrico Forlanini developed an unmanned

helicopter powered by a steam engine. It rose to a height
of 13 meters, where it remained for some 20 seconds,
after a vertical take-o from a park in Milan.
Paul Cornu's helicopter, built in 1907, was the rst manned y-

ing machine to have risen from the ground using rotating wings
instead of xed wings.
The rst time a manned helicopter is known to have

risen o the ground was on a tethered ight in 1907
by the Breguet-Richet Gyroplane. Later the same year
the Cornu helicopter, also French, made the rst rotary-
winged free ight at Lisenux, France. However, these
were not practical designs.
Military use
Main article: Early ying machines
Almost as soon as they were invented, airplanes were German Taube monoplane, illustration from 1917
used for military purposes. The rst country to use them
for military purposes was Italy, whose aircraft made re-
connaissance, bombing and artillery correction ights in
Libya during the Italian-Turkish war (September 1911 Combat schemes
October 1912). The rst mission (a reconnaissance) oc-
curred on 23 October 1911. The rst bombing mission See also: Flying ace, List of World War I ying aces,
was own on 1 November 1911.[74] Then Bulgaria fol- and Aerial victory standards of World War I
lowed this example. Its airplanes attacked and reconnoi-
tered the Ottoman positions during the First Balkan War It was not long before aircraft were shooting at each other,
191213. The rst war to see major use of airplanes in but the lack of any sort of steady point for the gun was a
oensive, defensive and reconnaissance capabilities was problem. The French solved this problem when, in late
World War I. The Allies and Central Powers both used 1914, Roland Garros attached a xed machine gun to the
airplanes and airships extensively. front of his plane, but while Adolphe Pegoud would be-
While the concept of using the airplane as an oensive come known as the rst "ace", getting credit for ve vic-
weapon was generally discounted before World War I,[75] tories, before also becoming the rst ace to die in action,
the idea of using it for photography was one that was not it was German Luftstreitkrfte Leutnant Kurt Wintgens,
who, on July 1, 1915, scored the very rst aerial victory paying passengers for rides. Eventually the barnstorm-
by a purpose-built ghter plane, with a synchronized ma- ers grouped into more organized displays. Air shows
chine gun. sprang up around the country, with air races, acrobatic
Aviators were styled as modern-day knights, doing in- stunts, and feats of air superiority. The air races drove
dividual combat with their enemies. Several pilots be- engine and airframe developmentthe Schneider Tro-
came famous for their air-to-air combat; the most well phy, for example, led to a series of ever faster and sleeker
known is Manfred von Richthofen, better known as the monoplane designs culminating in the Supermarine S.6B.
Red Baron, who shot down 80 planes in air-to-air com- With pilots competing for cash prizes, there was an incen-
tive to go faster. Amelia Earhart was perhaps the most fa-
bat with several dierent planes, the most celebrated of
which was the Fokker Dr.I. On the Allied side, Ren Paul mous of those on the barnstorming/air show circuit. She
was also the rst female pilot to achieve records such as
Fonck is credited with the most all-time victories at 75,
even when later wars are considered. crossing of the Atlantic and Pacic Oceans.
France, Britain, Germany and Italy were the leading man-

ufacturers of ghter planes that saw action during the
war,[76] with German aviation technologist Hugo Junkers
showing the way to the future through his pioneering use
of all-metal aircraft from late 1915.
2.1.6 Between the World Wars (1918

1939)
Main article: Aviation between the World Wars
The years between World War I and World War II saw Qantas De Havilland biplane, c. 1930
great advancements in aircraft technology. Airplanes
evolved from low-powered biplanes made from wood and Other prizes, for distance and speed records, also drove
fabric to sleek, high-powered monoplanes made of alu- development forwards. For example, on June 14, 1919,
minum, based primarily on the founding work of Hugo Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Brown co-
Junkers during the World War I period and its adoption piloted a Vickers Vimy non-stop from St. Johns,
by American designer William Bushnell Stout and Soviet Newfoundland to Clifden, Ireland, winning the 13,000
designer Andrei Tupolev. The age of the great rigid air- ($65,000)[77] Northclie prize. The rst ight across the
ships came and went. The rst successful rotorcraft ap- South Atlantic and the rst aerial crossing using astro-
peared in the form of the autogyro, invented by Spanish nomical navigation, was made by the naval aviators Gago
engineer Juan de la Cierva and rst own in 1919. In this Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral in 1922, from Lisbon,
design, the rotor is not powered but is spun like a wind- Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with only internal
mill by its passage through the air. A separate powerplant means of navigation, in an aircraft specically tted for
is used to propel the aircraft forwards. himself with an articial horizon for aeronautical use, an
invention that revolutionized air navigation at the time
(Gago Coutinho invented a type of sextant incorporat-
ing two spirit levels to provide an articial horizon).[78][79]
Five years later Charles Lindbergh took the Orteig Prize
of $25,000 for the rst solo non-stop crossing of the At-
lantic. Months after Lindbergh, Paul Redfern was the
rst to solo the Caribbean Sea and was last seen ying
over Venezuela.
Australian Sir Charles Kingsford Smith was the rst to
y across the larger Pacic Ocean in the Southern Cross.
His crew left Oakland, California to make the rst trans-
Pacic ight to Australia in three stages. The rst (from
Oakland to Hawaii) was 2,400 miles, took 27 hours 25
Flagg biplane from 1933. minutes and was uneventful. They then ew to Suva, Fiji
3,100 miles away, taking 34 hours 30 minutes. This was
After World War I, experienced ghter pilots were eager the toughest part of the journey as they ew through a
to show o their skills. Many American pilots became massive lightning storm near the equator. They then ew
barnstormers, ying into small towns across the country on to Brisbane in 20 hours, where they landed on 9 June
and showing o their ying abilities, as well as taking 1928 after approximately 7,400 miles total ight. On ar-
rival, Kingsford Smith was met by a huge crowd of 25,000 tubing framework, a four blade main rotor, and twin sets
at Eagle Farm Airport in his hometown of Brisbane. Ac- of 1.8-meter (5.9 ft) diameter anti-torque rotors; one set
companying him were Australian aviator Charles Ulm as of two at the nose and one set of two at the tail. Powered
the relief pilot, and the Americans James Warner and by two M-2 powerplants, up-rated copies of the Gnome
Captain Harry Lyon (who were the radio operator, nav- Monosoupape rotary radial engine of World War I, the
igator and engineer). A week after they landed, Kings- TsAGI 1-EA made several successful low altitude ights.
ford Smith and Ulm recorded a disc for Columbia talking By 14 August 1932, Cheremukhin managed to get the 1-
about their trip. With Ulm, Kingsford Smith later contin- EA up to an unocial altitude of 605 meters (1,985 feet)
ued his journey being the rst in 1929 to circumnavigate with what is likely to be the rst successful single-lift rotor
the world, crossing the equator twice. helicopter design ever tested and own.
The rst lighter-than-air crossings of the Atlantic were Only ve years after the German Dornier Do-X had
made by airship in July 1919 by His Majestys Airship own, Tupolev designed the largest aircraft of the 1930s
R34 and crew when they ew from East Lothian, Scot- era, the Maksim Gorky in the Soviet Union by 1934, as
land to Long Island, New York and then back to Pulham, the largest aircraft ever built using the Junkers methods
England. By 1929, airship technology had advanced to of metal aircraft construction.
the point that the rst round-the-world ight was com- In the 1930s development of the jet engine began in Ger-
pleted by the Graf Zeppelin in September and in Octo- many and in Britain both countries would go on to de-
ber, the same aircraft inaugurated the rst commercial velop jet aircraft by the end of World War II.
transatlantic service. However, the age of the rigid airship
ended following the destruction by re of the zeppelin
LZ 129 Hindenburg just before landing at Lakehurst, 2.1.7 World War II (19391945)
New Jersey on May 6, 1937, killing 35 of the 97 peo-
ple aboard. Previous spectacular airship accidents, from Main article: Aviation in World War II
the Wingfoot Express disaster (1919) to the loss of the See also: Air warfare of World War II, List of aircraft of
R101 (1930), the Akron (1933) and the Macon (1935) World War II, List of helicopters used in World War II,
had already cast doubt on airship safety, but with the dis- and World War II aircraft production
asters of the U.S. Navys rigids showing the importance
of solely using helium as the lifting medium; following
the destruction of the Hindenburg, the remaining airship World War II saw a great increase in the pace of de-
making international ights, the Graf Zeppelin was retired velopment and production, not only of aircraft but also
(June 1937). Its replacement, the rigid airship Graf Zep- the associated ight-based weapon delivery systems. Air
pelin II, made a number of ights, primarily over Ger- combat tactics and doctrines took advantage. Large-
many, from 1938 to 1939, but was grounded when Ger- scale strategic bombing campaigns were launched, ghter
many began World War II. Both remaining German zep- escorts introduced and the more exible aircraft and
pelins were scrapped in 1940 to supply metal for the Ger- weapons allowed precise attacks on small targets with
man Luftwae; the last American rigid airship, the Los dive bombers, ghter-bombers, and ground-attack air-
Angeles, which had not own since 1932, was dismantled craft. New technologies like radar also allowed more co-
in late 1939. ordinated and controlled deployment of air defense.
Meanwhile, Germany, which was restricted by the

Treaty of Versailles in its development of powered air-
craft, developed gliding as a sport, especially at the
Wasserkuppe, during the 1920s. In its various forms, in
the 21st century sailplane aviation now has over 400,000
participants.[80][81]
In 1929 Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument ight.
1929 also saw the rst ight of by far the largest plane
ever built until then: the Dornier Do X with a wing span
of 48 m. On its 70th test ight on October 21 there were
169 people on board, a record that was not broken for 20
years.
Me 262, world rst operational jet ghter
Less than a decade after the development of the rst prac-
tical rotorcraft of any type with the autogyro, in the So-
The rst jet aircraft to y was the Heinkel He 178 (Ger-
viet Union, Boris N. Yuriev and Alexei M. Cheremukhin,
many), own by Erich Warsitz in 1939, followed by the
two aeronautical engineers working at the Tsentralniy
worlds rst operational jet aircraft, the Me 262, in July
Aerogidrodinamicheskiy Institut, constructed and ew the
1942 and worlds rst jet-powered bomber, the Arado Ar
TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter, which used an open
234, in June 1943. British developments, like the Gloster
Meteor, followed afterwards, but saw only brief use in 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104. The Boeing 707 and DC-
World War II. The rst cruise missile (V-1), the rst bal- 8 which established new levels of comfort, safety and pas-
listic missile (V-2), the rst (and to date only) operational senger expectations, ushered in the age of mass commer-
rocket-powered combat aircraft Me 163 with attained cial air travel, dubbed the Jet Age.
velocities of up to 1,130 km/h (700 mph) in test ights
In October 1947 Chuck Yeager took the rocket-powered
and the rst vertical take-o manned point-defense inter-
Bell X-1 through the sound barrier. Although anecdotal
ceptor, the Bachem Ba 349 Natter, were also developed evidence exists that some ghter pilots may have done so
by Germany. However, jet and rocket aircraft had only while dive bombing ground targets during the war, this
limited impact due to their late introduction, fuel short-
was the rst controlled, level ight to exceed the speed
ages, the lack of experienced pilots and the declining war
of sound. Further barriers of distance fell in 1948 and
industry of Germany.
1952 with the rst jet crossing of the Atlantic and the
Not only airplanes, but also helicopters saw rapid de- rst nonstop ight to Australia.
velopment in the Second World War, with the introduc- The 1945 invention of nuclear bombs briey increased
tion of the Focke Achgelis Fa 223, the Flettner Fl 282 the strategic importance of military aircraft in the Cold
synchropter in 1941 in Germany and the Sikorsky R-4 in War between East and West. Even a moderate eet of
1942 in the USA. long-range bombers could deliver a deadly blow to the en-
emy, so great eorts were made to develop countermea-
2.1.8 The postwar era (19451979) sures. At rst, the supersonic interceptor aircraft were
produced in considerable numbers. By 1955 most de-
velopment eorts shifted to guided surface-to-air mis-
siles. However, the approach diametrically changed when
a new type of nuclear-carrying platform appeared that
could not be stopped in any feasible way: intercontinental
ballistic missiles. The possibility of these was demon-
strated in 1957 with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet
Union. This action started the Space Race between the
nations.
In 1961, the sky was no longer the limit for manned ight,
as Yuri Gagarin orbited once around the planet within
108 minutes, and then used the descent module of Vostok
I to safely reenter the atmosphere and reduce speed from
Mach 25 using friction and converting the kinetic energy
of the velocity into heat. The United States responded by
D.H. Comet, the worlds rst jet airliner. As in this picture, it also launching Alan Shepard into space on a suborbital ight in
saw RAF service a Mercury space capsule. With the launch of the Alouette
I in 1963, Canada became the third country to send a
Main article: Postwar aviation
satellite into space. The space race between the United
States and the Soviet Union would ultimately lead to the
After World War II, commercial aviation grew rapidly, landing of men on the moon in 1969.
using mostly ex-military aircraft to transport people and
In 1967, the X-15 set the air speed record for an aircraft
cargo. This growth was accelerated by the glut of heavy
at 4,534 mph (7,297 km/h) or Mach 6.1. Aside from
and super-heavy bomber airframes like the B-29 and
vehicles designed to y in outer space, this record was
Lancaster that could be converted into commercial air-
renewed by X-43 in the 21st century.
craft. The DC-3 also made for easier and longer commer-
cial ights. The rst commercial jet airliner to y was the The Harrier Jump Jet, often referred to as just Har-
British de Havilland Comet. By 1952, the British state rier or the Jump Jet, is a British designed military
airline BOAC had introduced the Comet into scheduled jet aircraft capable of Vertical/Short Takeo and Land-
service. While a technical achievement, the plane suf- ing (V/STOL) via thrust vectoring. It rst ew in 1969,
fered a series of highly public failures, as the shape of the the same year that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set
windows led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue foot on the moon, and Boeing unveiled the Boeing 747
was caused by cycles of pressurization and depressuriza- and the Arospatiale-BAC Concorde supersonic passen-
tion of the cabin, and eventually led to catastrophic failure ger airliner had its maiden ight. The Boeing 747 was
of the planes fuselage. By the time the problems were the largest commercial passenger aircraft ever to y, and
overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to still carries millions of passengers each year, though it has
the skies. been superseded by the Airbus A380, which is capable of
carrying up to 853 passengers. In 1975 Aeroot started
USSRs Aeroot became the rst airline in the world to
regular service on the Tu-144the rst supersonic pas-
operate sustained regular jet services on September 15,
part of the century instead saw the spreading of the digi-

tal revolution both in ight avionics and in aircraft design
and manufacturing techniques.
In 1986 Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager ew an aircraft, the
Rutan Voyager, around the world unrefuelled, and with-
out landing. In 1999 Bertrand Piccard became the rst
person to circle the earth in a balloon.
Digital y-by-wire systems allow an aircraft to be de-
signed with relaxed static stability. Initially used to in-
crease the manoeuvrability of military aircraft such as the
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, this is now be-
ing used to reduce drag on commercial airliners.
In the beginning of the 21st century, digital technology
allowed subsonic military aviation to begin eliminating
the pilot in favor of remotely operated or completely au-
tonomous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In April
2001 the unmanned aircraft Global Hawk ew from Ed-
wards AFB in the US to Australia non-stop and unrefu-
elled. This is the longest point-to-point ight ever under-
taken by an unmanned aircraft, and took 23 hours and
23 minutes. In October 2003 the rst totally autonomous
ight across the Atlantic by a computer-controlled model
Apollo 11 lifts o on its mission to land a man on the moon aircraft occurred. UAVs are now an established feature
of modern warfare, carrying out pinpoint attacks under
senger plane. In 1976 British Airways and Air France the control of a remote operator.
began supersonic service across the Atlantic, with Con- The U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission was established
corde. A few years earlier the SR-71 Blackbird had set in 1999 to encourage the broadest national and interna-
the record for crossing the Atlantic in under 2 hours, and tional participation in the celebration of 100 years of
Concorde followed in its footsteps. powered ight.[82] It publicized and encouraged a num-
In 1979 the Gossamer Albatross became the rst hu- ber of programs, projects and events intended to educate
man powered aircraft to cross the English channel. This people about the history of aviation.
achievement nally saw the realization of centuries of Major disruptions to air travel in the 21st century included
dreams of human ight. the closing of U.S. airspace due to the September 11 at-
tacks, and the closing of most of European airspace after
the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajkull.
2.1.9 The digital age (1980present)
In 2015, Andr Borschberg ew a record distance of
Main article: Aviation in the digital age 4481 miles (7212 km) from Nagoya, Japan to Honolulu,
The last quarter of the 20th century saw a change of em- Hawaii in a solar-powered plane, Solar Impulse 2. The
ight took nearly ve days, during the nights the aircraft
used its batteries and the potential energy gained during
the day.[83]
2.1.10 See also

Aviation archaeology
Claims to the rst powered ight
Early ying machines

Concorde, G-BOAB, in storage at London Heathrow Airport fol-
List of rsts in aviation
lowing the end of all Concorde ying. This aircraft ew for
22,296 hours between its rst ight in 1976 and nal ight in Timeline of aviation
2000.
phasis. No longer was revolutionary progress made in 2.1.11 References

ight speeds, distances and materials technology. This
Notes [27] ["Burattinis Flying Dragon, FLIGHT International, 9

May 1963 | Archived copy. Archived from the original
[1] Crouch, Tom (2004). Wings: A History of Aviation from on 2016-08-19. Retrieved 2013-08-23.]
Kites to the Space Age. New York, New York: W.W. Nor-
ton & Co. ISBN 0-393-32620-9. [28] Fairlie & Cayley 1965, p. 158.
[2] Hallion (2003) [29] Aviation History. Retrieved 26 July 2009. In 1799 he
set forth for the rst time in history the concept of the
[3] Archived copy. Archived from the original on 2016-03- modern aeroplane. Cayley had identied the drag vector
04. Retrieved 2013-07-18. (parallel to the ow) and the lift vector (perpendicular to
the ow).
[4] Vreizh, Skol (2008). Dictionnaire dhistoire de Bretagne
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[5] White 1961, pp. 100101. navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of
[6] First Flights. Saudi Aramco World. 15 (1): 89. the rst successful glider to carry a human being aloft.
JanuaryFebruary 1964. Cayley established the modern conguration of an aero-
plane as a xed-wing ying machine with separate systems
[7] Wragg 1974, p. 57. for lift, propulsion, and control as early as 1799.
[8] Deng & Wang 2005, p. 122. [31] Gibbs-Smith 2003, p. 35
[9] Amazing Musical Kites. Cambodia Philately. [32] Cayley, George. On Aerial Navigation Part 1 Archived
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[10] Kite Flying for Fun and Science (pdf). The New York May 11, 2013, at the Wayback Machine., Part 3 Archived
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[11] Sarak, Sim; Yarin, Cheang (2002). Khmer Kites. Min-
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[12] Needham 1965a, p. 127.
[33] Wragg 1974, p. 60.
[13] Hallion (2003) page 9.
[34] Angelucci & Matricardi 1977, p. 14.
[14] Pelham, D.; The Penguin book of kites, Penguin (1976)
[35] Pritchard, J. Laurence. Summary of First Cayley Memo-
[15] Leishman, J. Gordon (2006). Principles of Helicopter rial Lecture at the Brough Branch of the Royal Aeronau-
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of how to construct the lightest possible wheel for aerial
[16] Donahue, Topher (2009). Bugaboo Dreams: A Story navigation cars, an entirely new mode of manufacturing
of Skiers, Helicopters and Mountains. Rocky Mountain this most useful part of locomotive machines occurred to
Books Ltd. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-897522-11-0. me: vide, to do away with wooden spokes altogether, and
refer the whole rmness of the wheel to the strength of
[17] Wragg 1974, p. 10. the rim only, by the intervention of tight cording.
[18] Deng & Wang 2005, p. 113. [36] Jarrett 2002, p. 53.
[19] Ege 1973, p. 6. [37] Stokes 2002, pp. 163166, 167168.
[20] Wragg 1974, p. 11. [38] Magoun, F. Alexander; Hodgins, Eric (1931). A History
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[24] Needham, Joseph (1965). Science and Civilisation in
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[26] Qtd. in O'Conner, Patricia T. (1985-11-17). In Short: [42] Frank H. Wenham, inventor of the wind tunnel, 1871, was
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[43] Wind Tunnels (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original [62] Nouveaux essais de l'Aroplane Vuia, L'Arophile v.14
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[46] Jarrett 2002, p. 87.
[65] Jines. Ernest. Santos Dumont in France 19061916:
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[48] Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2000). Aviation. London: NMSI. pp.
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[68] Gibbs-Smith, C. H. Aviation: An Historical Survey. Lon-
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[71] Gheorghiu, Constantin C. (1960). Aurel Vlaicu, un pre-
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[72] Hartmann, Grard. Clment-Bayard, sans peur et sans
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US Naval Academy Technical Report, USNA-334, re- [73] Gibbs-Smith, C. H. Aviation: An Historical Survey. Lon-
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[55] Smithsonian Institution, The Wright Brothers & The In- [74] Ferdinando Pedriali. Aerei italiani in Libia (1911
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[56] " 100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality. [75] with the exception of Clment Ader, who had visionary
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l'aviation militaire en France (The rst step of military
[57] Telegram from Orville Wright in Kitty Hawk, North Car-
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olina, to His Father Announcing Four Successful Flights,
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[59] Abzug, Malcolm J. and E. Eugene Larrabee.Airplane
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[79] History of the Sextant Archived March 3, 2016, at the
[60] Dayton Metro Library Archived February 13, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. includes a photograph of a Gago
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[61] Reprinted in Scientic American, April 2007, page 8. [80] FAI membership summary, retrieved 2006-08-24
[81] FAI web site Archived August 11, 2011, at the Wayback Squier, George Owen (1908), The Present Status of
Machine. Military Aeronautics, Annual Report of the Board
of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 117144,
[82] Executive Summary, U.S. Centennial of Flight Commis- retrieved 2009-08-07 Includes photos and specics
sion
of many c. 1908 dirigibles and airplanes.
[83] 8th leg from Nagoya to Hawaii, Solar Impulse RTW
Van Vleck, Jenifer (2013). Empire of the Air: Avi-
ation and the American Ascendancy. Cambridge,
Bibliography MA: Harvard University Press.
Deng, Yinke; Wang, Pingxing (2005). Ancient Chi-

nese Inventions. China Intercontinental Press. ISBN 2.1.13 External links
7-5085-0837-8.
Carroll F. Gray. Flying Machines.
Ege, L. (1973). Balloons and airships. Blandford.
Peter Whalley. History of Flight - Key events.
Fairlie, Gerard; Cayley, Elizabeth (1965). The life Knowledge Media Institute. Open University.
of a genius. Hodder and Stoughton.
Julian Rubin. Wright Brothers Early Experiments
Hallion, Richard P. (2003). Taking Flight:Inventing With Kites and Gliders. Following the Path of Dis-
the Aerial Age, from Antiquity through the First covery.
World War. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0195160355. Articles
Needham, Joseph (1965a). Science and Civilisation Carroll F. Gray (August 2002). The ve rst
in China. IV (part 1). ights. WW1 AERO - The Journal Of The Early
Aeroplane.
Needham, Joseph (1965a). Science and Civilisation
in China. IV (part 1). Jrgen Schmidhuber (2003). First Powdered Flight
- Plane Truth. Nature (421). p. 689.
White, Lynn Townsend, Jr. (Spring 1961). Eilmer
of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Richard Harris (December 2003). First Flyers
Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Con- They're not who you think.... In Flight USA.
text and Tradition. Technology and Culture. 2 (2):
97111. doi:10.2307/3101411. Richard P. Hallion (July 2008). Airplanes that
Transformed Aviation. Air & space magazine.
Wragg, D.W. (1974). Flight before ying. Osprey. Smithsonian.
ISBN 0850451655.
American Aviation Heritage (PDF). National
Park Service. March 2011.
2.1.12 Further reading
Media
Celebrating a History of Flight, NASA Oce of
Aerospace Technology HQ, United States Air Force Transportation Photographs - Airplanes. Digital
Collections. University of Washington Libraries. in
Harry Bruno (1944) Wings over America: The Story the Pacic Northwest region and Western United
of American Aviation, Halcyon House, Garden City, States during the rst half of the 20th century.
New York.
strut design airplanes. University of Houston Dig-
Jourdain, Pierre-Roger (1908), Aviation In Frances ital Library. 1911.
In 1908, Annual Report of the Board of Regents
of the Smithsonian Institution: 145159, retrieved Michael Maloney (2009). A Dream of Flight (Doc-
2009-08-07 umentary on the rst powered ight by a Briton in
Britain, JTC Moore Brabazon, in 1909). Country-
Post, Augustus (September 1910), How To Learn wide Productions.
To Fly: The Dierent Machines And What They
Cost, The Worlds Work: A History of Our Time,
XX: 1338913402, retrieved 2009-07-10 Includes
photos, diagrams and specications of many c.
1910 aircraft.
Chapter 3
Civil aviation
3.1 Civil aviation Private aviation includes pilots ying for their own
purposes (recreation, business meetings, etc.) with-
out receiving any kind of remuneration.
Scheduled airline trac in 2009
Civil aviation is one of two major categories of y-

ing, representing all non-military aviation, both private
and commercial. Most of the countries in the world
are members of the International Civil Aviation Organi-
zation (ICAO) and work together to establish common
standards and recommended practices for civil aviation A British Airways Boeing 747-400 departs London Heathrow
through that agency. Airport. This is an example of a commercial aviation service.
Civil aviation includes two major categories:
All scheduled air transport is commercial, but general avi-
Scheduled air transport, including all passenger and ation can be either commercial or private. Normally, the
cargo ights operating on regularly scheduled routes; pilot, aircraft, and operator must all be authorized to per-
and form commercial operations through separate commer-
cial licensing, registration, and operation certicates.
General aviation (GA), including all other civil
ights, private or commercial
3.1.1 History
Although scheduled air transport is the larger operation in
terms of passenger numbers, GA is larger in the number Postwar aviation
of ights (and ight hours, in the U.S.[1] ) In the U.S., GA
carries 166 million passengers each year,[2] more than any Main article: Postwar aviation
individual airline, though less than all the airlines com-
bined. Since 2004, the US Airlines combined have car-
ried over 600 million passengers each year, and in 2014, After World War , commercial aviation grew rapidly,
they carried a combined 662,819,232 passengers.[3] using mostly ex-military aircraft to transport people and
cargo. This growth was accelerated by the glut of heavy
Some countries also make a regulatory distinction based and super-heavy bomber airframes like the B-29 and Lan-
on whether aircraft are own for hire like: caster that could be converted into commercial aircraft.
The DC-3 were also made for easier and longer commer-
Commercial aviation includes most or all ying done cial ights. The rst commercial jet airliner to y was the
for hire, particularly scheduled service on airlines; British de Havilland Comet. By 1952, the British state
and airline BOAC had introduced the Comet into scheduled
27
28 CHAPTER 3. CIVIL AVIATION
service. While a technical achievement, the plane suf- 3.1.4 See also
fered a series of highly public failures, as the shape of the
windows led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue Air travel
was caused by cycles of pressurization and depressuriza- Military aviation
tion of the cabin, and eventually led to catastrophic failure
of the planes fuselage. By the time the problems were Private aviation
overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to CUNY Aviation Institute
the skies.
International Civil Aviation Organization
3.1.2 Civil aviation authorities National Aviation Intelligence Integration Oce
The Convention on International Civil Aviation (the 3.1.5 References

Chicago Convention) was originally established in
1944; it states that signatories should collectively work to [1] http://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/Table1.htm
harmonize and standardize the use of airspace for safety,
[2] http://www.gaservingamerica.com/Advantages_of_GA.
eciency and regularity of air transport.[4] Each signa-
htm
tory country, of which there are at least 188, has a civil
aviation authority (such as the FAA in the United States) [3] United States Depart of Transportation. "Bureau of
to oversee the following areas of civil aviation: Transportation Statistics". Retrieved 24 July 2015
[4] http://www.icao.int/icaonet/dcs/7300.html
Personnel licensing regulating the basic training
[5] Air transport, passengers carried - International Civil
and issuance of licenses and certicates.
Aviation Organization, Civil Aviation Statistics of the
Flight operations carrying out safety oversight of World and ICAO sta estimates.
commercial operators. [6] Air transport, registered carrier departures worldwide-
International Civil Aviation Organization, Civil Aviation
Airworthiness issuing certicates of registration Statistics of the World and ICAO sta estimates..
and certicates of airworthiness to civil aircraft, and
overseeing the safety of aircraft maintenance orga- [7] U.S. Passenger-Miles. Bureau of Transportation Statis-
nizations. tics.
[8] Press Release No.: 11 / Strong Passenger Demand Con-
Aerodromes designing and constructing
tinues into 2016. IATA. 8 March 2016.
aerodrome facilities.
[9] http://www.iata.org/pressroom/facts_figures/fact_
Air trac services managing the trac inside of sheets/Documents/fact-sheet-industry-facts.pdf
a countrys airspace.
3.1.6 External links

3.1.3 Statistics
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
The World Bank lists monotonously growing numbers for the U.N. agency responsible for civil aviation
the number of passengers transported per year worldwide
Colombian Civil Aviation Authority; the Colombian
with a preliminary all-time high in 2015 of 3.44 billion
agency responsible for civil aviation
passengers.[5] Likewise, the number of registered carrier
departures worldwide has reached a peak in 2015 with
almost 33 million takeos.[6] In the US alone, the pas-
senger miles computed by summing the products of the 3.2 Airline
aircraft-miles own on each inter airport segment mul-
tiplied by the number of passengers carried on that seg- For other uses, see Airline (disambiguation).
ment have reached 607,772 million miles (978,114106 Airlines
km) in 2014 (as compared to highway car trac with
4,371,706 million miles (7,035,579106 km)).[7] The
global seasonally adjusted revenue passenger kilometers
(RPK) per month peaked at more than 550 billion kilo-
metres (3,700 AU) (~6.6 trillion per year, corresponding
to roughly 2000 km per passenger) in January 2016, a 7%
rise over one year.[8][9]
See also: Passenger load factor Boeing 767-
300ER of Delta Air Lines at Frankfurt Airport
3.2. AIRLINE 29
FedEx Express
McDonnell Douglas MD-11
Air India Boeing 747-400 taxiing
Ryanair Boeing
737-800 shortly after take-o
First class passen-

ger cabin (Boeing 747830, Lufthansa at LAX)
A British Airways A320 at Berlin Tegel.
partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare

agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized
with an air operating certicate or license issued by a
governmental aviation body.
Airlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full-
Iran Air Cargo service international airlines. Airline services can be cat-
Boeing 747-200 taking o from Dubai International egorized as being intercontinental, domestic, regional, or
Airport international, and may be operated as scheduled services
An airline is a company that provides air transport or charters. The largest airline currently is American Air-
lines Group.
3.2.1 History
The rst airlines
DELAG, Deutsche Luftschiahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was

the worlds rst airline.[1] It was founded on November
16, 1909 with government assistance, and operated air-
ships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its
headquarters were in Frankfurt. The rst xed wing
scheduled air service was started on January 1, 1914 from
Polet Airlines Antonov An-124 RA-82075 on nal approach to St. Petersburg, Florida to Tampa, Florida. The four
Moscow Sheremetyevo airport. oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Nether-
lands KLM (1919), Colombias Avianca (1919), Aus-
services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines tralias Qantas (1921), and the Czech Republics Czech
utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form Airlines (1923).
European airline industry
Junkers F.13 D-190 of Junkers Luftverkehr
The Handley Page W.8b was used by Handley Page Transport, was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which
an early British airline established in 1919. started operating in February 1919. In its rst year, the
D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled ights on routes with
Beginnings The earliest xed wing airline in Europe a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the
was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles)
Holt Thomas in 1916. Using a eet of former military long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scan-
Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modied to carry dinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important Ger-
two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief ights man airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began op-
between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the erations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft man-
company ew a proving ight across the English Channel, ufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company
despite a lack of support from the British government. in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria,
Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway,
Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport, the ight took 2 Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.
hours and 30 minutes at 21 per passenger.
On 25 August 1919, the company used DH.16s to pio-
neer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome
to Le Bourget, the rst regular international service in the
world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliabil-
ity, despite problems with bad weather and began to at-
tract European competition. In November 1919, it won
the rst British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force
Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to oper-
ate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne.
In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force.[2]
Other British competitors were quick to follow - Handley
Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the
companys converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with
a capacity for 19 passengers, to run a London-Paris pas-
senger service.
The rst French airline was Socit des lignes Latcore,
later known as Aropostale, which started its rst service
in late 1918 to Spain. The Socit Gnrale des Trans-
ports Ariens was created in late 1919, by the Farman
brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane ew sched-
uled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near
Croydon, England. Another early French airline was
the Compagnie des Messageries Ariennes, established
in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, oering a mail and A 1919 advertisement for the Dutch airline KLM
freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and
Lesquin Airport, Lille.[3] The Dutch airline KLM made its rst ight in 1920,
The rst German airline to use heavier than air aircraft and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the
3.2. AIRLINE 31
world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman,[4] it was

immediately awarded a Royal predicate from Queen
Wilhelmina.[5] Its rst ight was from Croydon Airport,
London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport
and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists
and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started
scheduled services.
In Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now
Finnair) was signed in the city of Helsinki on September
12, 1923. Junkers F.13 D-335 became the rst aircraft of
the company, when Aero took delivery of it on March 14,
1924. The rst ight was between Helsinki and Tallinn,
capital of Estonia, and it took place on March 20, 1924,
one week later.
In the Soviet Union, the Chief Administration of the Civil
Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its rst acts
was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G.
(Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air
transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service
began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started op-
erations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni
Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried
under the name Aeroot.
Early European airlines tend to favour comfort - the pas- The Imperial Airways Empire Terminal, Victoria, London.
senger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interi- Trains ran from here to ying boats in Southampton, and to
ors - over speed and eciency. The relatively basic nav- Croydon Airport.
igational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that
delays due to the weather were commonplace.
other airlines at the time, became a major investor in air-
lines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and
Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and
Rationalization By the early 1920s, small airlines
Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the
were struggling to compete, and there was a movement
time.
towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In
1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of
Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Naviga- Global expansion In 1926, Alan Cobham surveyed a
tion, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport Co ight route from the UK to Cape Town, South Africa, fol-
Ltd., to allow British airlines to compete with sti com- lowing this up with another proving ight to Melbourne,
petition from French and German airlines that were en- Australia. Other routes to British India and the Far East
joying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pi- were also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regu-
oneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the lar services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and were
world to serve far-ung parts of the British Empire and extended to Karachi in 1929. The London-Australia ser-
to enhance trade and integration.[6] vice was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP
The rst new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was 42 airliners. Further services were opened up to Calcutta,
the Handley Page W8f City of Washington, delivered on 3 Rangoon, Singapore, Brisbane and Hong Kong passen-
November 1924.[7] In the rst year of operation the com- gers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the
pany carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong.
April 1925, the lm The Lost World became the rst lm Imperials aircraft were small, most seating fewer than
to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner ight
twenty passengers, and catered for the rich - only about
when it was shown on the London-Paris route. 50,000 passengers used Imperial Airways in the 1930s.
Two French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 Most passengers on intercontinental routes or on services
January 1923. This later merged with four other French within and between British colonies were men doing colo-
airlines to become Air France, the countrys agship car- nial administration, business or research.[8]
rier to this day, on 7 October 1933. Like Imperial Airways, Air France and KLM's early
Germanys Deutsche Luft Hansa was created in 1926 by growth depended heavily on the needs to service links
merger of two airlines, one of them Junkers Luftverkehr. with far-ung colonial possessions (North Africa and
Luft Hansa, due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most Indochina for the French and the East Indies for the
cluding Italys Alitalia, have suered - particularly with

the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008.
U.S. airline industry
Main article: Air transportation in the United States
April 1935 map showing Imperial Airways' routes from the UK

to Australia and South Africa
Dutch). France began an air mail service to Morocco in

1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aropostale,
and injected with capital to become a major international
carrier. In 1933, Aropostale went bankrupt, was nation-
alized and merged into Air France.
Although Germany lacked colonies, it also began expand-
ing its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zep- TWA Douglas DC-3 in 1940. The DC-3, often regarded as one
pelin began oering regular scheduled passenger service of the most inuential aircraft in the history of commercial avi-
ation, revolutionized air travel.
between Germany and South America, usually every two
weeks, which continued until 1937.[9] In 1936, the airship
Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully Early development Tony Jannus conducted the United
crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lake- States rst scheduled commercial airline ight on 1 Jan-
hurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937.[10] uary 1914 for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line.[13]
The 23-minute ight traveled between St. Petersburg,
From February 1934 until World War II began in 1939 Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some 50 feet (15
Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from m) above Tampa Bay in Jannus Benoist XIV wood and
Stuttgart, Germany via Spain, the Canary Islands and muslin biplane ying boat. His passenger was a former
West Africa to Natal in Brazil. This was the rst time mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privi-
an airline ew across an ocean.[11][12] lege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit.
By the end of the 1930s Aeroot had become the worlds The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying
largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each.[14] Chalks
60,000 other service personnel and operating around International Airlines began service between Miami and
3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919. Based in Ft.
by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroot was Lauderdale, Chalks claimed to be the oldest continuously
synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only operating airline in the United States until its closure in
air carrier. It became the rst airline in the world to oper- 2008.[15]
ate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 Following World War I, the United States found itself
with the Tupolev Tu-104. swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-
surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, perform-
ing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, the
EU airline deregulation Deregulation of the United States Postal Service won the nancial backing of
European Union airspace in the early 1990s has Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service,
had substantial eect on the structure of the industry initially using Curtiss Jenny[16] aircraft that had been pro-
there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter cured by the United States Army Air Service. Private
routes has been signicant. Airlines such as EasyJet operators were the rst to y the mail but due to numer-
and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the ous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail deliv-
traditional national airlines. ery. During the Armys involvement they proved to be
There has also been a trend for these national airlines too unreliable and lost their air mail duties. By the mid-
themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer 1920s, the Postal Service had developed its own air mail
Lingus and British Airways. Other national airlines, in- network, based on a transcontinental backbone between
3.2. AIRLINE 33
New York City and San Francisco.[17] To supplement this tries were ush from lease contracts to the military, and
service, they oered twelve contracts for spur routes to foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air trans-
independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these port, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager
routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan to invest in the newly emerging agships of air travel
Am, Delta Air Lines, Brani Airways, American Air- such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constella-
lines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), tion, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were
Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern based on American bombers such as the B-29, which
Air Lines. had spearheaded research into new technologies such as
pressurization. Most oered increased eciency from
Service during the early 1920s was sporadic: most air-
lines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In both added speed and greater payload.
1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the In the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707,
Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the
all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the rst success- rst agships of the Jet Age in the West, while the East-
ful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the ern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the
Trimotor made passenger service potentially protable. eets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak SA,
Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the Soviet Aeroot and East-German Interug. The Vickers
American transportation network. Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated tur-
At the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create boprop transport.
an air network that would link America to the world, and The next big boost for the airlines would come in
he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas
World Airways, with a eet of ying boats that linked DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody
Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am (jumbo jet) service, which is still the standard in in-
and Northwest Airways (which began ights to Canada in ternational travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western
the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality.
before the 1940s. Concorde rst ew in 1969 and operated through 2003.
In 1972, Airbus began producing Europes most commer-
With the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas
DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally cially successful line of airliners to date. The added ef-
ciencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but
protable, even during the Great Depression. This trend
continued until the beginning of World War II. in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also
features modern electronic cockpits that were common
across their aircraft to enable pilots to y multiple mod-
els with minimal cross-training.
In October 1945, the American Export Airlines became the rst

airline to oer regular commercial ights between North America
and Europe.[18] Shown here is Am Ex Boeing 377 Stratocruiser
in 1949.
Pan Am Boeing 747 Clipper Neptunes Car in 1985. The dereg-
Development since 1945 As governments met to set ulation of the American airline industry increased the nancial
troubles of the airline which ultimately led for bankruptcy in
the standards and scope for an emergent civil air indus-
December 1991.[19]
try toward the end of the war, the U.S. took a position
of maximum operating freedom; U.S. airline companies US airline deregulation The 1978 U.S. airline indus-
were not as hard-hit as European and the few Asian ones try deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for
had been. This preference for open skies operating new airlines just as a downturn in the nations economy
regimes continues, with limitations, to this day. occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn,
World War II, like World War I, brought new life to during which time they found aircraft and funding, con-
the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied coun- tracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new
employees, and recruited laid o sta from other airlines. rial, nancial, and board of directors control of distressed
Major airlines dominated their routes through aggressive airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of
pricing and additional capacity oerings, often swamp- capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into
ing new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry a protable organization or liquidating an air carrier of
imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented their protable and worthwhile routes and business oper-
an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing.[20] In ations.
this strategy an already established and dominant airline Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied
stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on spe- from reasonably protable, to devastatingly depressed.
cic routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking As the rst major market to deregulate the industry in
out any chance a start-up airline may have. The indus- 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence
try side eect is an overall drop in revenue and service than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S.
quality.[21] Since deregulation in 1978 the average do- legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Amongst the
mestic ticket price has dropped by 40%.[22] So has airline outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of Amer-
employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of ican Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated:
the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11
bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business.[23]
America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection l-
Airways) remained a signicant survivor from this new ing shows airline industry deregulation was a
entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under. mistake.[24] "
In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated envi-
ronment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively
attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an
explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many mil- The airline industry bailout Congress passed the Air
lions who had never or rarely own before became reg- Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act (P.L.
ular iers, even joining frequent yer loyalty programs 107-42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the
and receiving free ights and other benets from their already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the
ying. New services and higher frequencies meant that September 11th terrorist attacks. Through the ATSB
business iers could y to another city, do business, and Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers
return the same day, from almost any point in the country. for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of
Air travels advantages put long distance intercity railroad the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through
travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter December 31, 2001 as a result of the terrorist attacks.
having withered away, whilst the former is still protected This resulted in the rst government bailout of the 21st
under nationalization through the continuing existence of century.[25] Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30
Amtrak. billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000
employees laid o.[26]
By the 1980s, almost half of the total ying in the world
took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry In recognition of the essential national economic role of
operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide. a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial
compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to re-
Toward the end of the century, a new style of low cost air-
view by the U.S. Department of Transportation and up to
line emerged, oering a no-frills product at a lower price.
$10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly
Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus
created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB).
Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent
The applications to DOT for reimbursements were sub-
a serious challenge to the so-called legacy airlines, as
jected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT
did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries.
program personnel but also by the Government Account-
Their commercial viability represented a serious compet-
ability Oce[27] and the DOT Inspector General.[28][29]
itive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA
and Skybus have since ceased operations. Ultimately, the federal government provided $4.6 bil-
lion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to
Increasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincor-
427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment,
porated and spun o by newly created and internally
essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carri-
led management companies, and thus becoming nothing
ers operating scheduled service received approximately
more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited -
$4 billion, subject to tax.)[30] In addition, the ATSB ap-
nancially decisive control. Among some of these holding
proved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approxi-
companies and parent companies which are relatively well
mately $1.6 billion. Data from the U.S. Treasury Depart-
known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR
ment show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion
Corporation, among a long list of airline holding compa-
and a prot of $339 million from the fees, interest and
nies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized
purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan
are the private equity rms which often seize manage-
guarantees.[31]
3.2. AIRLINE 35
Asian airline industry Air India, which was founded as Tata Airlines in 1932, a
division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline
was founded by Indias leading industrialist, JRD Tata.
On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself ew a single
engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal
mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via
Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bel-
lary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent.
Tata Airlines was also one of the worlds rst major air-
lines which began its operations without any support from
the Government.[35]
With the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence
in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new ag carri-
ers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses.
Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial
A Biman Bangladesh Airlines Boeing 777-300ER parked at service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became
Shahjalal International Airport, Dhaka. Biman is the ag carrier a public limited company on July 29, 1946 under the
of Bangladesh.
name Air India. After the independence of India, 49%
of the airline was acquired by the Government of India.
Although Philippine Airlines (PAL) was ocially
In return, the airline was granted status to operate inter-
founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as
national services from India as the designated ag carrier
an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial
under the name Air India International.
Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate
Emmanuel N. Bachrach on December 3, 1930, making it On July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL)
Asias oldest scheduled carrier still in operation.[32] Com- DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland,
mercial air service commenced three weeks later from California, from Nielson Airport in Makati City with
Manila to Baguio, making it Asias rst airline route. stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and
Bachrachs death in 1937 paved the way for its even- Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the rst Asian airline
tual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and to cross the Pacic Ocean. A regular service between
made it Asias oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It
Asia still operating under its current name.[33] Bachrachs was during this year that the airline was designated as the
majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate ag carrier of Philippines.
Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General During the era of decolonization, newly born Asian coun-
Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed tries started to embrace air transport. Among the rst
Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. So- Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacic of
riano has controlling interest in both airlines before the Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Air-
merger. PAL restarted service on March 15, 1941 with a ways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in
single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines;
daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947
Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in
DC-3 and Vickers Viscount. 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1949, Japan Airlines in 1951,
Thai Airways International in 1960, and Korean National
Airlines in 1947.
Latin American airline industry
Among the rst countries to have regular airlines in

Latin America were Bolivia with Lloyd Areo Boli-
viano, Cuba with Cubana de Aviacin, Colombia with
Avianca, Argentina with Aerolineas Argentinas, Chile
with LAN Chile (today LAN Airlines), Brazil with Varig,
Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviacin,
Mexico with Mexicana de Aviacin, Trinidad and To-
Philippine Airlines Boeing 747-400. Taxiing in Cebu, Philippines bago with BWIA West Indies Airways (today Caribbean
Airlines), Venezuela with Aeropostal, and TACA based
India was also one of the rst countries to embrace civil in El Salvador and representing several airlines of
aviation.[34] One of the rst Asian airline companies was Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and
TAM Airlines is the largest airline in Latin America in terms of Garuda Indonesia Boeing 737-800 parked at Perth International
number of annual passengers own.[36] Airport. This Indonesian ag carrier is owned by the Indonesian
Government
Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular op-

erations well before World War II.
The air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years ating arrangements with dierent airports, enter and exit
in Latin America. Some industry estimates indicate that routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply ights ac-
over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next cording to market demand.
ve years in this region.[37]
These airlines serve domestic ights within their coun-
tries, as well as connections within Latin America and
also overseas ights to North America, Europe, Australia,
and Asia.
Only three airlines: Avianca, LAN, and TAM Airlines
have international subsidiaries and cover many desti-
nations within the Americas as well as major hubs in
other continents. LAN with Chile as the central opera-
tion along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Argentina
and some operations in the Dominican Republic. The
recently formed AviancaTACA group has control of
Avianca Brazil, VIP Ecuador and a strategic alliance with
AeroGal. And TAM with its Mercosur base in Asuncion,
Paraguay. As of 2010, talks of uniting LAN and TAM Cyprus Airways, the now defunct national airline of Cyprus
have strongly developed to create a joint airline named
LATAM.
The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a dereg-
ulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of air-
3.2.2 Regulatory considerations
lines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating pe-
riod). This has produced far greater competition than
National
before deregulation in most markets. The added com-
Many countries have national airlines that the government petition, together with pricing freedom, means that new
owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates
great deal of government regulation for economic, politi- that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match.
cal, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often This is a major constraint on protability for established
intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.
ow of people, communications, and goods between dif- As a result, protability in a deregulated market is uneven
ferent regions without compromising safety. for most airlines. These forces have caused some major
The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the
Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have poorly established new entrants.
deregulated their airlines. In the past, these govern- In the United States, the airline industry is dominated by
ments dictated airfares, route networks, and other opera- four large rms. Because of industry consolidation, after
tional requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the
airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own oper- savings were passed on to consumers.[38]
3.2. AIRLINE 37
Singapore Airlines Airbus A380 landing at Changi Airport. Sin-

gapore Airlines is the rst international airline to operate the
A380, the worlds largest passenger airliner.[39]
International
Groups such as the International Civil Aviation Organi-

zation establish worldwide standards for safety and other
vital concerns. Most international air trac is regulated
by bilateral agreements between countries, which desig-
nate specic carriers to operate on specic routes. The
model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement
between the US and UK following World War II, which
designated airports to be used for transatlantic ights and
gave each government the authority to nominate carriers Juan Trippe, the founder of Pan American World Airways, sur-
to operate routes. veying his globe. The collapse of Pan Am, an airline often cred-
ited for shaping the international airline industry, in December
Bilateral agreements are based on the "freedoms of the 1991 highlighted the nancial complexities faced by major air-
air", a group of generalized trac rights ranging from the line companies.
freedom to overy a country to the freedom to provide do-
mestic ights within a country (a very rarely granted right
known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to nomic losses and justify continuing government interven-
y from their home country to designated airports in the tion. A historically high level of government intervention
other country: some also extend the freedom to provide in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider po-
continuing service to a third country, or to another des-litical consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as
tination in the other country while carrying passengers highways and railways, both of which receive public fund-
from overseas. ing in most parts of the world. Although many coun-
tries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal air-
In the 1990s, "open skies" agreements became more lines, many large airlines today are privately owned and
common. These agreements take many of these regu- are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to
latory powers from state governments and open up in- maximize shareholder prot.
ternational routes to further competition. Open skies
agreements have met some criticism, particularly within In July 2016, the total airline capacity was 181.1 bil-
the European Union, whose airlines would be at a com- lion Available Seat Kilometers (+6.9% compared to July
parative disadvantage with the United States because of 2015): 57.6bn in Asia-Pacic, 47.7bn in Europe, 46.2bn
cabotage restrictions. in North America, 12.2bn in Middle East, 12.0bn in Latin
America and 5.4bn in Africa.[42]
3.2.3 Economic considerations Largest airlines

Historically, air travel has survived largely through state The worlds largest airlines can be dened in several ways.
support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. American Airlines Group is the largest by its eet size,
The airline industry as a whole has made a cumula- revenue, prot, passengers carried and revenue passenger
tive loss during its 100-year history, once the costs mile. Delta Air Lines is the largest by assets value and
include subsidies for aircraft development and airport market capitalization. Lufthansa Group is the largest by
construction.[40][41] number of employees, FedEx Express by freight tonne-
One argument is that positive externalities, such as higher kilometers, Ryanair by number of international passen-
growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeco- gers carried and Turkish Airlines by number of countries
served. lines to easily perform cost-benet analyses on dierent

Main article: Worlds largest airlines pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price dis-
crimination in some cases (that is, lling each seat on an
aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without
driving the consumer elsewhere).
Ticket revenue The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term
"fare war" to describe eorts by airlines to undercut other
Airlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to
airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new
maximize protability. The pricing of airline tickets has
airfares can be published quickly and eciently to the air-
become increasingly complicated over the years and is
lines sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the
now largely determined by computerized yield manage-
Airline Tari Publishing Company (ATPCO), who dis-
ment systems.
tribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer
Because of the complications in scheduling ights and Reservation Systems across the world.
maintaining protability, airlines have many loopholes
The extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in
that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of
legacy carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually
these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known
oer pre-announced and simplied price structure, and
to the general public, so airlines are forced to make con-
sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.
stant adjustments.
Computers also allow airlines to predict, with some accu-
Most airlines use dierentiated pricing, a form of price
racy, how many passengers will actually y after making
discrimination, to sell air services at varying prices si-
a reservation to y. This allows airlines to overbook their
multaneously to dierent segments. Factors inuencing
ights enough to ll the aircraft while accounting for no-
the price include the days remaining until departure, the
shows, but not enough (in most cases) to force paying
booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price
passengers o the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative
point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day
pricing for low demand ights coupled with overbooking
of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers of-
on high demand ights can help reduce this gure. This
ten accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the air-
is especially crucial during tough economic times as air-
craft (rst, business and economy) into a number of travel
lines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain
classes for pricing purposes.
demand.[43]
A complicating factor is that of origin-destination con-
trol (O&D control). Someone purchasing a ticket from
Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is com- Operating costs
peting with someone else who wants to y Melbourne
to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same ight, and
who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer
the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possi-
ble Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300?
Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar
pricing decisions daily.
An Airbus A340600 of Virgin Atlantic Airways. In October

2008, Virgin Atlantic oered to combine its operations with BMI
in an eort to reduce operating costs.[44]
Full-service airlines have a high level of xed and oper-

ating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor,
fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and
networks, airport equipment, airport handling services,
sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance
Lufthansa Boeing 747-400. Lufthansa is the ag carrier airline
and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the
of Germany.
income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of
The advent of advanced computerized reservations sys- external providers or internal cost centers.
tems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed air- Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines of-
3.2. AIRLINE 39
ten act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because

of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket
prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges be-
yond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible
for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry
passengers without proper documentation on an interna-
tional ight, they are responsible for returning them back
to the original country.
Analysis of the 19921996 period shows that every player
in the air transport chain is far more protable than the
airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to
them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned
6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost
of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-
13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, The 'Golden Lounge' of Malaysia Airlines at Kuala Lumpur In-
ternational Airport (KLIA). The airline has ownership of special
aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution com-
slots at KLIA, giving it a competitive edge over other airlines op-
panies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted erating at the airport.
in Doganis, 2002)
The widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost air-
lines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated
the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many 17 dierent aircraft types, each with varying pilot, en-
of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines gine, maintenance, and support needs.
in various respects, and like Southwest, they can eke out
A second nancial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel
a consistent prot throughout all phases of the business
purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its
cycle.
relative cost to the company. However, with the current
As a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an air-
U.S. and elsewhere. American Airlines, United Air- line. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have
lines, Continental Airlines (twice), US Airways (twice), been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the run-
Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared ning of older, less fuel ecient aircraft.[26] While hedg-
Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Some argue that it would be ing instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for
far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of ac- themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel
tual closures were to reduce the number of undead air- costs, such as in the 20002005 period.
lines competing with healthy airlines while being arti-
In view of the congestion apparent at many international
cially protected from creditors via bankruptcy law. On
airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the
the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction
right to take-o or land an aircraft at a particular time
in capacity would be short lived given that there would be
of day or night) has become a signicant tradable asset
large quantities of relatively new aircraft that bankrupt-
for many airlines. Clearly take-o slots at popular times
cies would want to get rid of and would re-enter the mar-
of the day can be critical in attracting the more protable
ket either as increased eets for the survivors or the basis
business traveler to a given airlines ight and in establish-
of cheap planes for new startups.
ing a competitive advantage against a competing airline.
Where an airline has established an engineering base at
If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces
an airport, then there may be considerable economic ad-
will tend to attract the less protable routes, or those on
vantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus
which competition is weakest, to the less congested air-
(or hub) for its scheduled ights.
port, where slots are likely to be more available and there-
fore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport at-
Assets and nancing tracts protable routes due partly to its congestion, leav-
ing less-protable routes to Baltimore-Washington Inter-
Airline nancing is quite complex, since airlines are national Airport and Dulles International Airport.
highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and on-
(or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they ward connections, will also aect the relative appeal of
must make major long-term eet decisions with the goal dierent airports and some long distance ights may
of meeting the demands of their markets while producing need to operate from the one with the longest runway.
a eet that is relatively economical to operate and main- For example, LaGuardia Airport is the preferred airport
tain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their reliance on for most of Manhattan due to its proximity, while long-
a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), distance routes must use John F. Kennedy International
with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated Airport's longer runways.
Airline partnerships service oerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.

A more recent development is the airline alliance, which
became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances
can act as virtual mergers to get around government
AC SU restrictions. Alliances of airlines such as Star Al-
SK AY S7
KLAB LO
AA UA
BA SN
LH OK
OS
AF LX JP RO CA OZ NH
liance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam coordinate their pas-
DL UX OU
TK KE JL
TP IB AZ
A3 ME RJ
QR
MF MU BR
ZH senger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-
AM MS AI CZ CXCI
CM SV TG VN
yer programs), oer special interline tickets, and of-
ET MH
AV KQ UL SQ ten engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes sys-
JJ GA
temwide). These are increasingly integrated busi-
QF ness combinationssometimes including cross-equity
LA AR SA
NZ arrangementsin which products, service standards,
schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and
combined for higher eciency. One of the rst airlines
Home countries of airlines in the largest airline alliances: Star to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who
Alliance (grey), SkyTeam (blue) and Oneworld (purple). IATA
partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later en-
codes of founders are outlined in red.
tered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and
Air France in 2004.
Often the companies combine IT operations, or purchase
fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining
power. However, the alliances have been most successful
at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel.
Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their
passengers to dierentiate themselves from local com-
petitors. If an airlines main domestic competitor ies
Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus
aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.
Fuel hedging
A Japan Airlines Boeing 777-300 with special Oneworld livery. Main article: Fuel Hedging
Oneworld is the third largest airline alliance after Star Alliance
and SkyTeam.
Fuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation
Codesharing is the most common type of airline partner- companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile
ship; it involves one airline selling tickets for another air- and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low cost carriers
[45]
lines ights under its own airline code. An early exam- such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice.
ple of this was Japan Airlines (JAL) codesharing part- Southwest is credited with maintaining strong business
nership with Aeroot in the 1960s on TokyoMoscow prots between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its
ights; Aeroot operated the ights using Aeroot air- fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating
craft, but JAL sold tickets for the ights as if they were Southwests hedging policy to control their fuel costs.
JAL ights. This practice allows airlines to expand their
operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where
they cannot aord to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Seasonality
Another example was the AustrianSabena partnership
on the ViennaBrusselsNew York/JFK route during the Airlines often have a strong seasonality, with trac low
late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery. in Winter and peaking in Summer. In Europe the most
extreme market are the Greek islands with July/August
Since airline reservation requests are often made by city- having more than ten times the winter trac, as Jet2 is the
pair (such as show me ights from Chicago to Dssel- most seasonal among Low cost carriers with July having
dorf), an airline that can codeshare with another airline seven times the January trac, whereas legacy carriers
for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as in- are much less with only 85/115% variability.[46]
deed oering a ChicagoDsseldorf ight. The passen-
ger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the
ight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and airline no. 3.2.4 Environmental impacts
2 operates the continuing ight (on a dierent airplane,
sometimes from another terminal) to Dsseldorf. Thus Main article: Environmental impact of aviation
the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand ones Aircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particu-
3.2. AIRLINE 41
sion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a

view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation
are taken into account.[55]
The airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of
greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sec-
tor. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce ight-
related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent.
The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing
jet fuel:[56]
Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating

with leading Brazilian biofuel maker Tecbio, New
Zealand's Aquaow Bionomic and other jet biofuel
developers around the world.
MODIS tracking of contrails generated by air trac over the Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking
southeastern United States on January 29, 2004. into the technology as part of a biofuel initiative.[57]
KLM has made the rst commercial ight with bio-
late emissions, and contribute to global dimming.[47] fuel in 2009.
Growth of the industry in recent years raised a number of There are projects on electric aircraft, and some of them
ecological questions. are fully operational as of 2013.
Domestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent an-
nually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally
increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In 3.2.5 Call signs
the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased
by 87% between 1990 and 2006.[48] However it must be Each operator of a scheduled or charter ight uses an
compared with the ights increase, only in UK, between airline call sign when communicating with airports or air
1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 trac control centres. Most of these call-signs are de-
000 thousands to 250 000 thousands.,[49] according to rived from the airlines trade name, but for reasons of
AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in
by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchan- spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make
dise value in and out of Europe.[50] Without even pres- navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a
sure from green activists, targeting lower ticket prices, dierent aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-
generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel con- signs less obviously connected with their trading name.
sumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Fur- For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign,
ther, according to some reports, it can be concluded that named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC, while
the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-ecient as SkyEurope used Relax.
the average jet in 2005.[51]
Despite continuing eciency improvements from the 3.2.6 Airline personnel
major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for
global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, includ-
ing US domestic and global international travel, make ap-
proximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG
emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly
40 percent of the worlds GHG emissions from aviation
fuel use.[52]
CO2 emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger
on an average 3,200 kilometers (2,000 mi) airline ight
is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds).[53] Loss of natu-
ral habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned
per passenger on a 3,200 kilometers (2,000 mi) airline
ight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square
Air Bishkek Airbus A320 landing at Domodedovo Airport (2012)
feet).[54]
In the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a The various types of airline personnel include: Flight op-
debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclu- erations personnel including ight safety personnel.
Flight crew, responsible for the operation of the air- Flight dispatchers
craft. Flight crew members include: Baggage handlers
Pilots (Captain and First Ocer: some older Ramp Agents
aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and/or Remote centralised weight and balancing[58]
a Navigator)
Gate agents
Flight attendants (led by a purser on larger air-
craft) Ticket agents
In-ight security personnel on some airlines Passenger service agents (such as airline
(most notably El Al) lounge employees)
Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at
Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports. facilities outside the airport.
Ground crew members include:
Crew schedulers
Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible
for certifying the aircraft for ight and man- Airlines follow a corporate structure where each broad
agement of aircraft maintenance area of operations (such as maintenance, ight operations
Aerospace engineers, responsible for air- (including ight safety), and passenger service) is super-
frame, powerplant and electrical systems vised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint
maintenance vice presidents to oversee each of the airlines hubs as
well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory pro-
cedures and other administrative tasks.
3.2.7 Industry trends
Malaysia Airlines Airbus A380-800 departs London Heathrow

Airport, England.
Avionics engineers responsible for avion- Map of scheduled airline trac in 2009
ics and instruments maintenance
Airframe and powerplant technicians The pattern of ownership has been privatized in the recent
years, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from
Electric System technicians, responsible for
governments to private and individual sectors or organi-
maintenance of electrical systems
zations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom
and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually
decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in
all regions.
Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but coun-
tries with a de-regulated airline industry have more com-
petition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower
fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in trac growth.
The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and
other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been
observed to be cyclical in its nancial performance. Four
or ve years of poor earnings precede ve or six years of
improvement. But protability even in the good years is
A Philippine Airlines Airbus A340-300 taxiing to stand at T4. generally low, in the range of 2-3% net prot after interest
and tax. In times of prot, airlines lease new generations
Avionics technicians, responsible for mainte- of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher
nance of avionics demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back
3.2. AIRLINE 43
the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, International Air Transport Association
in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren
Buett in 1999 said the money that had been made since International ight
the dawn of aviation by all of this countrys airline com- Legacy carrier
panies was zero. Absolutely zero.[59] He believes it is
one of the hardest businesses to manage. Low-cost carrier
As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Red-eye ight
Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral part-
nerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between car- Regional airline
riers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since
Transportation Security Administration
governments often restrict ownership and merger be-
tween companies in dierent countries, most consolida- Worlds busiest passenger air routes
tion takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200
airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of
business since deregulation in 1978. Many international Airline related lists
airline managers are lobbying their governments to per-
mit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and Airline codes
eciency. Airline liveries and logos
List of airlines
3.2.8 See also
List of accidents and incidents involving commercial
Air charter aircraft
Air ferry List of airline holding companies
Airline alliance List of airline mergers and acquisitions
Airline complaints List of defunct airlines
Airline social networking services List of helicopter airlines
Airline timetable List of hub airports
Airliners.net List of low-cost airlines
Airlines of Africa List of national airlines
Airlines of North America (book) List of regional airlines
Airport security Airline bankruptcies in the United States
Aviation safety Worlds largest airlines
Beyond rights
3.2.9 Notes and references
Cargo airline
[1] DELAG: The Worlds First Airline. Airships.net. Re-
Domestic ight trieved 2010-08-22.
Environmental impact of aviation [2] The Putnam Aeronautical Review edited by John Motum,
p170 Volume one 1990 Naval Institute Press
Federal Aviation Administration
[3] World Aviation in 1919 - Part 1. Royal Air Force Mu-
Flight length seum. Archived from the original on 5 January 2011. Re-
trieved 28 February 2011.
Flight planning
[4] Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij, N.V. History.
FlightAware International Directory of Company Histories. 28. 1999.
Retrieved 30 July 2013.
Government contract ight
[5] History. KLM Corporate. KLM. Retrieved 30 July
Hyper-mobile travel 2013.
Inight magazine [6] Appointment of Government Directors Flight 1923

[7] http://www.century-of-flight.net/Aviation%20history/ [31] U.S. Treasury - Air Transportation Stabilization Board.

coming%20of%20age/imperial%20airways.htm Treas.gov. 2001-09-22. Archived from the original on
July 9, 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
[8] Pirie, G.H. Incidental tourism: British imperial air travel
in the 1930s. Journal of Tourism History, 1 (2009) 49-66. [32] Horvat, William Joseph (1966). Above the Pacic.
Hawaii.gov. ISBN 978-0-8168-0000-1. Retrieved 2010-
[9] LZ-127 Graf Zeppelin. Airships.net. Retrieved 2010- 08-22.
08-22.
[33] Jane, Janes airlines & airliners By Jeremy Flack, First Edi-
[10] Hindenburg. Airships.net. 2009-06-10. Archived from tion, 2003, ISBN 978-0-00-715174-5
the original on 5 October 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
[34] An Introduction To Travel And Tourism By Pran Nath Seth,
[11] First Tranatlantic air line, Popular Science, February
Sushma Seth Bhat. Books.google.com. 2005. ISBN 978-
1933
81-207-2482-2. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
[12] James W. Graue & John Duggan Deutsche Lufthansa
[35] International Environmental Law By Bhatt.
South Atlantic Airmail Service 1934 - 1939, Zeppelin
Books.google.com. 2007-01-01. ISBN 978-81-
Study Group, Ickenham, UK 2000 ISBN 0-9514114-5-4
313-0125-8. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
[13] Tony Jannus, an enduring legacy of aviation. Tony Jan-
[36] Top 10 Airlines in Latin America By Arlene Fleming.
nus Distinguished Aviation Society. tonyjannusaward.com.
Airtravel.about.com. 2010-06-10. Retrieved 2010-08-
Retrieved 2010-12-02.
22.
[14] Carey, Susan, First airline oered no frills, many thrills,
[37] Latin America needs more than 2,000 new passenger air-
Wall Street Journal, December 31, 2013, p. B4
craft in next 20 years. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
[15] Chalks Airlines Loses Flight License. airportbusi-
[38] Too Much of a Good Thing. The Economist 26 March
ness.com. Retrieved 2010-12-02.
2016: 23. print.
[16] Amick, George. How The Airmail Got O The
Ground. American History 33.3 (1998): 48. Academic [39] Singapore Airlines - News Releases
Search Premier. Web. 3 Nov. 2011. [40] Wings of Desire, Guardian, Thursday February 23, 2006
[17] Clark, Anders (22 August 2014). "Now Thats a Big Ar- [41] Airlines and the canine features of unprotable industries,
row". Disciples of Flight. Retrieved 16 July 2015 Financial Times, September 27, 2005
[18] Air Transportation: The Beginnings of Commercial
[42] Capacity snapshot. Airline Business. Flight Global.
Transatlantic Service. centennialoight.net. Retrieved
JulyAugust 2016. p. 78.
2010-08-22.
[43] Recession prompts surge in cheap ights - Cheap-
[19] Air Transportation: The Airline Bankruptcies of the
ights.co.uk. News.cheapights.co.uk. 2009-05-13.
1980s. centennialoight.net. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
[20] Mr. Soft Landing: Airline Industry Strategy, Service,
[44] Robertson, David (October 29, 2008). Virgin proposes
and Safety. Apress. 2007.
tieup with BMI and Lufthansa. The Times. London. Re-
[21] American Society of Quality (ASQ)". trieved April 23, 2010.
[22] Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [45] Gambles that haven't paid o. The Economist. ISSN
0013-0613. Retrieved 2016-05-13.
[23] Business Week.
[46] Seasonality: Jet2.com and Greek Islands most extreme
[24] Robert Cranall former CEO AA, CNBC. Archived in anna.aero leisure-legacy comparison. Airline Network
from the original on 2013-04-29. News and Analysis. 1 Mar 2017.
[25] http://ostpxweb.ost.dot.gov/aviation/Data/ [47] Travis, David J.; Carleton, Andrew M.; Lauritsen, Ryan
stabilizationact.pdf G (2002). Contrails reduce daily temperature range
(PDF). Nature. 418 (6898): 601. PMID 12167846.
[26] Bamber, G.J., Gittell, J.H., Kochan, T.A. & von Norden-
doi:10.1038/418601a. Archived from the original (PDF)
ytch, A. (2009). chapter 5. Up in the Air: How Airlines
on 2006-05-03.
Can Improve Performance by Engaging their Employees.
Cornell University Press, Ithaca. [48] Climate change: Commission proposes bringing air
[27] http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04725r.pdf transport into EU Emissions Trading Scheme (Press re-
lease). EU press release. 2006-12-20. Archived from the
[28] Archived July 17, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. original on 12 January 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-02.
[29] Archived July 17, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. [49] http://www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN03760.pdf
[30] U. Dot.gov. Archived from the original on 2010-05-27. [50] Archived copy. Archived from the original on 2013-07-
Retrieved 2010-08-22. 24. Retrieved 2014-01-01.
3.3. GENERAL AVIATION 45
[51] http://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/default/files/
/docs/Publications/2005pubs/2005-12_nlr_aviation_
fuel_efficiency.pdf
[52] David McCollum, Gregory Gould, and David Greene.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Aviation and Marine
Transportation: Mitigation Potential and Policies, 2009.
[53] carbon-footprint-calculator. TerraPass.com. Archived

from the original on 2009-01-31. Retrieved Feb 19, 2008.
[54] environmental impact of airline ights. ecofx.org. Re-

trieved Apr 26, 2015.
[55] Including Aviation into the EU ETS: Impact on EU

allowance prices Archived February 15, 2006, at the General aviation aircraft at Helsinki-Malmi Airport, Finland
Wayback Machine. ICF Consulting for DEFRA Febru-
ary 2006
[56] A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy. The Wash-

ington Post. January 6, 2008. Retrieved April 23, 2010.
[57] ngel Gonzlez (2007-08-30). Boeing/aerospace | To

go green in jet fuel, Boeing looks at algae | Seattle
Times Newspaper. Seattletimes.nwsource.com. Re-
trieved 2010-08-22.
[58] http://www.globalloadcontrol.com
[59] Buetts spot-on advice. Money Sense. Retrieved 2008-

10-20.
3.2.10 Bibliography
A Diamond DA20, a popular trainer used by many ight schools
1. A history of the worlds airlines, R.E.G. Davies,
Oxford U.P, 1964
2. The airline encyclopedia, 19092000. Myron J.

Smith, Scarecrow Press, 2002
3. Flying O Course: The Economics of International

Airlines, 3rd edition. Rigas Doganis, Routledge,
New York, 2002.
4. The Airline Business in the 21st Century. Rigas

Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2001.
A general aviation scene at Kemble Aireld, England

Chasing the Sun - History of commercial aviation, powered parachutes to corporate business jet ights. The
from PBS majority of the worlds air trac falls into this category,
Global Aviation Markets Whitepaper on global mar- and most of[2]the worlds airports serve general aviation
kets for airlines exclusively.
General aviation covers a large range of activities, both
commercial and non-commercial, including ying clubs,
3.3 General aviation ight training, agricultural aviation, light aircraft manu-
facturing and maintenance.[3]
General aviation (GA) is the term for all civil avia-
tion operations other than scheduled air services and non-
scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or 3.3.1 General aviation in the world
hire.[1] General aviation ights range from gliders and
jobs in professional services and manufacturing.[8]
3.3.2 Regulation and safety

Most countries have authorities that oversee all civil avi-
ation, including general aviation, adhering to the stan-
dardized codes of the International Civil Aviation Or-
ganization (ICAO). Examples include the Federal Avia-
tion Administration (FAA) in the United States, the Civil
Aviation Authority (CAA) in the United Kingdom, the
Luftfahrt-Bundesamt (LBA) in Germany, the Bundesamt
fr Zivilluftfahrt in Switzerland, Transport Canada in
Canada, the Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA)
The General Aviation Terminal at Raleigh-Durham Interna- in Australia, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation
tional Airport (DGCA) in India and Iran Civil Aviation Organization
in Iran.
Europe Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates.

According to the U.S. National Transportation Safety
Main article: General aviation in Europe Board, in 2005 general aviation in the United States (ex-
cluding charter) suered 1.31 fatal accidents for every
100,000 hours of ying in that country, compared to
In 2003 the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) 0.016 for scheduled airline ights.[9] In Canada, recre-
was established as the central EU regulator, taking over ational ying accounted for 0.7 fatal accidents for every
responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environ- 1000 aircraft, while air taxi accounted for 1.1 fatal acci-
mental regulation from the national authorities.[4] dents for every 100,000 hours.[10] More experienced GA
pilots appear generally safer, although the relations be-
tween ight hours, accident frequency, and accident rates
United Kingdom Main article: General aviation in are complex and often dicult to assess.[11][12][13]
the United Kingdom
Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the UK,[5] 96 per 3.3.3 See also
cent are engaged in GA operations, and annually the GA
eet accounts for between 1.25 and 1.35 million hours Environmental impact of aviation
own. There are 28,000 Private Pilot Licence holders,
and 10,000 certied glider pilots. Some of the 19,000 Associations
pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in
GA activities. GA operates from more than 1,800 air-
Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
ports and landing sites or aerodromes, ranging in size
from large regional airports to farm strips. Canadian Owners and Pilots Association
GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA),
although regulatory powers are being increasingly trans- Experimental Aircraft Association
ferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). National Business Aviation Association
The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot
licensing, and the objective is to promote high standards
of safety. 3.3.4 References
[1] Glossary. Transport Canada. 14 March 2012. Re-
General aviation in North America trieved 19 December 2016.
General aviation is particularly popular in North Amer- [2] iaopa.org, What is GA?". Retrieved 17 November 2012
ica, with over 6,300 airports available for public use by
pilots of general aviation aircraft (around 5,200 airports [3] Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edi-
tion, pp. 238239. Aviation Supplies & Academics,
in the U.S., and over 1,000 in Canada[6] ). In comparison,
1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2
scheduled ights operate from around 560 airports in the
U.S.[7] According to the U.S. Aircraft Owners and Pilots [4] 5. Strategic Review of General Aviation in the UK
Association, general aviation provides more than one per- (PDF). CAA. July 2006. pp. 5253, paras. 5.185.24.
cent of the United States GDP, accounting for 1.3 million Retrieved 19 December 2016.
3.3. GENERAL AVIATION 47
[5] UK Registered Aircraft January 2010 (PDF). CAA.

Retrieved 19 December 2016.
[6] Nav Canada: Canada Flight Supplement - Canada and

North Atlantic Terminal and Enroute Data Nav Canada,
2010.
[7] FAA Administrators Fact Book (PDF). U.S. Department

of Transportation. March 2010. p. 16.
[8] AOPA USAs General Aviation website Archived 14

February 2015 at the Wayback Machine..
[9] NTSB accident rates by ying category (PDF).

Ntsb.gov. Retrieved 19 December 2016.
[10] Aviation Safety Program Manual for the Civil Aviation

Directorate. Tc.gc.ca. 2015-12-31. Retrieved 19 De-
cember 2016.
[11] Knecht, WR (2012). DOT/FAA/AM-12/15 Predicting

general aviation accident frequency from pilot total ight
hours (Technical Report). Washington, D.C.: Federal
Aviation Administration.
[12] Knecht, WR (2015). The 'killing zone' revisited: Serial

nonlinearities predict general aviation accident rates from
pilot total ight hours. Accident Analysis & Prevention,
60, 5056.
[13] Knecht, WR (2015). DOT/FAA/AM-15/3 Predict-

ing accident rates from general aviation pilot total ight
hours (Technical Report). Washington, D.C.: Federal
Aviation Administration.

International Aircraft Owners and Pilots Associa-
tions
European General Aviation Safety Team (EGAST)
No Plane No Gain site about business aviation

Save-GA.org Site concerned with General Aviation
in the United States
Chapter 4
Military aviation
4.1 Aerial warfare veloped many missile and precision-guided munition sys-
tems, including the rst cruise missile, the rst short-
For military aviation forces and equipment, see Military range ballistic missile, the rst guided surface-to-air mis-
aviation. For strategic theory on the use of air forces, siles, and the rst anti-ship missiles.
see Airpower. Ballistic missiles became of key importance during the
Cold War, were armed with nuclear warheads, and were
Aerial warfare is the battlespace use of military aircraft stockpiled by the superpowersthe United States and
and other ying machines in warfare. Aerial warfare in- the Soviet Unionto deter each other from using them.
cludes bombers attacking enemy installations or a con- The rst military satellites were used for reconnaissance
centration of enemy troops or strategic targets; ghter in the 1950s, and their use has progressed to world-
aircraft battling for control of airspace; attack aircraft en- wide communication and information systems that sup-
gaging in close air support against ground targets; naval port globally distributed military users with intelligence
aviation ying against sea and nearby land targets; gliders, from orbit.
helicopters and other aircraft to carry airborne forces such
as paratroopers; aerial refueling tankers to extend opera-
tion time or range; and military transport aircraft to move
4.1.2 Aerial reconnaissance
cargo and personnel.[1] Historically, military aircraft have
Main article: Aerial reconnaissance
included lighter-than-air balloons carrying artillery ob-
servers; lighter-than-air airships for bombing cities; vari-
ous sorts of reconnaissance, surveillance and early warn- Aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance for a military or
ing aircraft carrying observers, cameras and radar equip- strategic purpose that is conducted using reconnaissance
ment; torpedo bombers to attack enemy shipping; and aircraft. This role can full a variety of requirements,
military air-sea rescue aircraft for saving downed airmen. including the collection of imagery intelligence, observa-
Modern aerial warfare includes missiles and unmanned tion of enemy maneuvers and artillery spotting.
aerial vehicles. Surface forces are likely to respond to en-
emy air activity with anti-aircraft warfare.
4.1.3 Air combat manoeuvring
4.1.1 History Main article: Air combat manoeuvring
Main article: History of aerial warfare Air combat manoeuvring (also known as ACM or
dogghting) is the tactical art of moving, turning and sit-
uating a ghter aircraft in order to attain a position from
The history of aerial warfare began in ancient times, with
which an attack can be made on another aircraft. It re-
the use of man-carrying kites in China. In the third cen-
lies on oensive and defensive basic ghter manoeuvring
tury it progressed to balloon warfare.
(BFM) to gain an advantage over an aerial opponent.
Airplanes were put to use for war starting in 1911, ini-
tially for aerial reconnaissance, and then for aerial com-
bat to shoot down the recon planes. Aircraft continued 4.1.4 Airborne forces
to carry out these roles during World War I, but the use
of planes and zeppelins for strategic bombing emerged in Main article: Airborne forces
World War I.
During World War II, the use of strategic bombing in- Airborne forces are military units, usually light infantry,
creased. Also during World War II, Nazi Germany de- set up to be moved by aircraft and dropped into bat-
48
4.1. AERIAL WARFARE 49
tle, typically by parachute. Thus, they can be placed be- Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is dened by
hind enemy lines, and have the capability to deploy al- NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce
most anywhere with little warning. The formations are the eectiveness of hostile air action.[3] They include
limited only by the number and size of their aircraft, so ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor
given enough capacity a huge force can appear out of systems, command and control arrangements and passive
nowhere in minutes, an action referred to as vertical en- measures (e.g. barrage balloons). It may be used to pro-
velopment. tect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. How-
Conversely, airborne forces typically lack the supplies ever, for most countries the main eort has tended to be
'homeland defence'. NATO refers to airborne air defence
and equipment for prolonged combat operations, and
are therefore more suited for airhead operations than for as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft war-
fare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are
long-term occupation; furthermore, parachute operations
are particularly sensitive to adverse weather conditions. initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting
any projectile in ight.
Advances in helicopter technology since World War II
have brought increased exibility to the scope of airborne
operations, and air assaults have largely replaced large-
scale parachute operations, and (almost) completely re-
4.1.8 Missiles
placed combat glider operations.
Main article: Missile
4.1.5 Airstrike In modern usage, a missile is a self-propelled precision-

guided munition system, as opposed to an unguided self-
Main article: Airstrike propelled munition, referred to as a rocket (although
these too can also be guided). Missiles have four sys-
tem components: targeting and/or missile guidance, ight
An airstrike or air strike[2] is an oensive operation car-
system, engine, and warhead. Missiles come in types
ried out by attack aircraft. Air strikes are commonly de-
adapted for dierent purposes: surface-to-surface and
livered from aircraft such as ghters, bombers, ground
air-to-surface missiles (ballistic, cruise, anti-ship, anti-
attack aircraft, and attack helicopters. The ocial def-
tank, etc.), surface-to-air missiles (and anti-ballistic), air-
inition includes all sorts of targets, including enemy air
to-air missiles, and anti-satellite weapons. All known ex-
targets, but in popular use the term is usually narrowed to
isting missiles are designed to be propelled during pow-
a tactical (small-scale) attack on a ground or naval ob-
ered ight by chemical reactions inside a rocket engine,
jective. Weapons used in an airstrike can range from
jet engine, or other type of engine. Non-self-propelled
machine gun bullets and missiles to various types of
airborne explosive devices are generally referred to as
bombs. It is also commonly referred to as an air raid.
shells and usually have a shorter range than missiles.
In close air support, air strikes are usually controlled by
In ordinary British-English usage predating guided
trained observers for coordination with friendly ground
weapons, a missile is "any thrown object", such as ob-
troops in a manner derived from artillery tactics.
jects thrown at players by rowdy spectators at a sporting
event.[4]
4.1.6 Strategic bombing
Main article: Strategic bombing

4.1.9 UAVs
Main article: Unmanned aerial vehicle

Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war
with the goal of defeating the enemy by destroying their
The advent of the unmanned aerial vehicle has dramat-
morale or their economic ability to produce and transport
ically revolutionized aerial warfare[5] with multiple na-
materiel to the theatres of military operations, or both. It
tions developing and/or purchasing UAV eets. Several
is a systematically organized and executed attack from the
benchmarks have already occurred, including a UAV-
air which can utilize strategic bombers, long- or medium-
ghter jet dogght, probes of adversary air defense with
range missiles, or nuclear-armed ghter-bomber aircraft
UAVs, replacement of an operational ight wings aircraft
to attack targets deemed vital to the enemys war-making
with UAVs, control of UAVs qualifying the operator for
capability.
'combat' status, UAV-control from the other side of the
world, jamming and/or data-hijacking of UAVs in ight,
4.1.7 Anti-aircraft warfare as well as proposals to transfer re authority to AI aboard
a UAV.[6] UAVs have quickly evolved from surveillance
Main article: Anti-aircraft warfare to combat roles.
The growing capability of UAVs has thrown into question
50 CHAPTER 4. MILITARY AVIATION
the survivability and capability of manned ghter jets.[7] Corum, James S. & Johnson, Wray R. (2003). Air-
power in Small Wars - Fighting Insurgents and Ter-
rorists. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of
4.1.10 See also Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1240-8.
Aerial bombing of cities Glines, Carroll V. (1963). Compact History of the
United States Air Force. Hawthorn Books, Inc. ;
Air force New York. ISBN 0-405-12169-5.
Airlift
Gross, Charles J. (2002). American Military Avia-
Airstrike tion: The Indispensable Arm. Texas A&M Univer-
sity Press. ISBN 1-58544-215-1.
Dogght
Higham, Robin (2004). 100 Years of Air Power &
Loss of Strength Gradient Aviation. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1-
Timeline of military aviation 58544-241-0.
Lockee, Garette E. (April 1969). PIRAZ. United
States Naval Institute Proceedings.
4.1.11 Notes
[1] See John Andreas Olsen, ed., A History of Air Warfare Olsen, John Andreas, ed. A History of Air Warfare
(2010) for global coverage since 1900. (2010) 506pp; 16 essays by experts provide global
[2] air strike- DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated
coverage
Terms Archived June 4, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Overy, Richard. Why the Allies Won (1997), ch 3,
[3] AAP-6 on bombing in World War II.
[4] Guardian newspaper: Emmanuel Ebou pelted with mis- Overy, Richard. The Air War - 19391945 (1980),
siles while playing for Galatasaray Example of ordinary global coverage of combat, strategy, technology and
English usage. In this case the missiles were bottles and production
cigarette lighters
[5] How robot drones revolutionized the face of warfare. Web

CNN. 27 July 2009.
[6] http://www.govexec.com/pdfs/072309kp1.pdf War in the Air from Oral Histories of the First
World War: Veterans 19141918 at Library and
[7] http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=8164538& Archives Canada
page=1
Warplane: Military Aviation: Key Innovations.
Thirteen/WNET New York. 2006. Archived from
4.1.12 References the original on 17 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-
11-27.
Bibliography
Boyne, Walter J. (2003). The Inuence of Air 4.1.13 External links

Power upon History. Pelican (www.pelicanpub.
com). ISBN 1-58980-034-6. Middle Eastern Air Power 2009
Buckley, John (1999). Air Power in the Age of Total Aerial Warfare Quotations
War. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33557-
4. Jones, Johnny R.: Air power, Air & Space Power
Journal
Budiansky, Stephen. Air Power: The Men, Ma-
chines, and Ideas That Revolutionized War, from Historic lms showing aerial warfare during World
Kitty Hawk to Iraq (2005) global coverage by jour- War I at europeanlmgateway.eu
nalist
Collier, Basil (1974). A History of Air Power.
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.; New York.
Cooksley, Peter G.; Bruce Robertson (1997). The
Encyclopedia of 20th Century Conict: Air Warfare.
Arms and Armour. ISBN 1-85409-223-5.
Chapter 5
Air trac control
5.1 Air trac control

Air control and Air trac redirect here. For the mil-
itary concept, see Air supremacy. For the English band,
see Air Trac. For the Canadian band, see Air Traf-
c Control (band). For the video game, see Air Control
(video game).
Air trac control (ATC) is a service provided
Airport trac control tower at BordeauxMrignac Airport.

Airport trac control tower (ATCT) at Suvarnabhumi Airport,
Thailand.
by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the
ground and through controlled airspace, and can provide regard. The pilot in command is the nal authority for the
advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace. safe operation of the aircraft and may, in an emergency,
The primary purpose of ATC worldwide is to prevent deviate from ATC instructions to the extent required to
collisions, organize and expedite the ow of air trac, maintain safe operation of their aircraft.
and provide information and other support for pilots.[1]
In some countries, ATC plays a security or defensive role,
or is operated by the military. 5.1.1 Language
To prevent collisions, ATC enforces trac separation
rules, which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum Pursuant to requirements of the International Civil Avi-
amount of empty space around it at all times. Many air- ation Organization (ICAO), ATC operations are con-
craft also have collision avoidance systems, which provide ducted either in the English language or the language used
additional safety by warning pilots when other aircraft get by the station on the ground.[2] In practice, the native lan-
too close. guage for a region is normally used; however, the English
language must be used upon request.[2]
In many countries, ATC provides services to all private,
military, and commercial aircraft operating within its
airspace. Depending on the type of ight and the class 5.1.2 History
of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that pilots are re-
quired to obey, or advisories (known as ight information In 1921, Croydon Airport, London was the rst airport in
in some countries) that pilots may, at their discretion, dis- the world to introduce air trac control.[3]
51
52 CHAPTER 5. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
Airport trac control tower 1 (ATCT-1) at Kuala Lumpur Inter-

national Airport, Malaysia.
Airport trac control tower at Juanda International Airport,

Indonesia.
to direct and track the movements of reconnaissance air-

craft. Over time, the AMRS morphed into ight service
stations. Todays ight service stations do not issue con-
trol instructions, but provide pilots with many other ight
related informational services. They do relay control in-
structions from ATC in areas where ight service is the
only facility with radio or phone coverage. The rst air-
port trac control tower, regulating arrivals, departures
and surface movement of aircraft at a specic airport,
Trac control tower at Oslo-Gardermoen Airport, Norway. opened in Cleveland in 1930. Approach/departure con-
trol facilities were created after adoption of radar in the
1950s to monitor and control the busy airspace around
In the United States, air trac control developed three di- larger airports. The rst air route trac control center,
visions. The rst of air mail radio stations (AMRS) was which directs the movement of aircraft between depar-
created in 1922 after World War I when the U.S. Post ture and destination was opened in Newark, NJ in 1935,
Oce began using techniques developed by the Army followed in 1936 by Chicago and Cleveland.[4]
5.1. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL 53
LaGuardia Airport (LGA) control tower in New York City. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport control tower in
Mumbai, India.
Control tower at Brussels Airport
5.1.3 Airport control
The primary method of controlling the immediate airport

environment is visual observation from the airport control
tower. The tower is a tall, windowed structure located on
the airport grounds. Air trac controllers are responsi-
ble for the separation and ecient movement of aircraft
and vehicles operating on the taxiways and runways of
the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, So PauloGuarulhos International Airport's control tower
generally 5 to 10 nautical miles (9 to 18 km) depending
on the airport procedures. trollers may use a radar system called secondary surveil-
Surveillance displays are also available to controllers at lance radar for airborne trac approaching and depart-
larger airports to assist with controlling air trac. Con- ing. These displays include a map of the area, the posi-
tion of various aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft include the capability to display higher quality mapping,
identication, speed, altitude, and other information de- radar target, data blocks, and safety alerts, and to inter-
scribed in local procedures. In adverse weather condi- face with other systems such as digital ight strips.
tions the tower controllers may also use surface move-
ment radar (SMR), surface movement guidance and con-
trol systems (SMGCS) or advanced SMGCS to control Air control or local control
trac on the manoeuvring area (taxiways and runway).
Air control (known to pilots as tower or tower con-
The areas of responsibility for tower controllers fall into trol) is responsible for the active runway surfaces. Air
three general operational disciplines; local control or control clears aircraft for takeo or landing, ensuring that
air control, ground control, and ight data / clearance prescribed runway separation will exist at all times. If
deliveryother categories, such as Apron control or the air controller detects any unsafe conditions, a land-
ground movement planner, may exist at extremely busy ing aircraft may be instructed to "go-around" and be re-
airports. While each tower may have unique airport- sequenced into the landing pattern. This re-sequencing
specic procedures, such as multiple teams of controllers will depend on the type of ight and may be handled by
('crews) at major or complex airports with multiple run- the air controller, approach or terminal area controller.
ways, the following provides a general concept of the del-
Within the tower, a highly disciplined communications
egation of responsibilities within the tower environment.
process between air control and ground control is an ab-
Remote and virtual tower (RVT) is a system based on air solute necessity. Air control must ensure that ground con-
trac controllers being located somewhere other than at trol is aware of any operations that will impact the taxi-
the local airport tower and still able to provide air trac ways, and work with the approach radar controllers to cre-
control services. Displays for the air trac controllers ate gaps in the arrival trac to allow taxiing trac to
may be live video, synthetic images based on surveillance cross runways and to allow departing aircraft to take o.
sensor data, or both. Ground control need to keep the air controllers aware of
the trac ow towards their runways in order to max-
imise runway utilisation through eective approach spac-
Ground control ing. Crew resource management (CRM) procedures are
often used to ensure this communication process is e-
Ground control (sometimes known as ground movement cient and clear. Within ATC, it is usually known as TRM
control) is responsible for the airport movement areas, (Team Resource Management) and the level of focus on
as well as areas not released to the airlines or other users. TRM varies within dierent ATC organisations.
This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways,
holding areas, and some transitional aprons or intersec-
Flight data and clearance delivery
tions where aircraft arrive, having vacated the runway or
departure gate. Exact areas and control responsibilities Clearance delivery is the position that issues route clear-
are clearly dened in local documents and agreements at
ances to aircraft, typically before they commence taxi-
each airport. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or ing. These clearances contain details of the route that
working in these areas is required to have clearance from the aircraft is expected to y after departure. Clearance
ground control. This is normally done via VHF/UHF delivery or, at busy airports, Ground Movement Planner
radio, but there may be special cases where other pro- (GMP) or Trac Management Coordinator (TMC) will,
cedures are used. Aircraft or vehicles without radios if necessary, coordinate with the relevant radar centre or
must respond to ATC instructions via aviation light sig- ow control unit to obtain releases for aircraft. At busy
nals or else be led by vehicles with radios. People working airports, these releases are often automatic and are con-
on the airport surface normally have a communications trolled by local agreements allowing free-ow depar-
link through which they can communicate with ground tures. When weather or extremely high demand for a
control, commonly either by handheld radio or even cell certain airport or airspace becomes a factor, there may
phone. Ground control is vital to the smooth operation of be ground stops (or slot delays) or re-routes may be
the airport, because this position impacts the sequencing necessary to ensure the system does not get overloaded.
of departure aircraft, aecting the safety and eciency The primary responsibility of clearance delivery is to en-
of the airports operation. sure that the aircraft have the correct aerodrome infor-
Some busier airports have surface movement radar mation, such as weather and airport conditions, the cor-
(SMR), such as, ASDE-3, AMASS or ASDE-X, designed rect route after departure and time restrictions relating
to display aircraft and vehicles on the ground. These are to that ight. This information is also coordinated with
used by ground control as an additional tool to control the relevant radar centre or ow control unit and ground
ground trac, particularly at night or in poor visibility. control in order to ensure that the aircraft reaches the run-
There are a wide range of capabilities on these systems way in time to meet the time restriction provided by the
as they are being modernized. Older systems will dis- relevant unit. At some airports, clearance delivery also
play a map of the airport and the target. Newer systems plans aircraft push-backs and engine starts, in which case
it is known as the Ground Movement Planner (GMP): this at a suitable rate for landing.
position is particularly important at heavily congested air- Not all airports have a radar approach or terminal control
ports to prevent taxiway and apron gridlock. available. In this case, the en-route center or a neighbor-
Flight data (which is routinely combined with clearance ing terminal or approach control may co-ordinate directly
delivery) is the position that is responsible for ensuring with the tower on the airport and vector inbound air-
that both controllers and pilots have the most current in- craft to a position from where they can land visually. At
formation: pertinent weather changes, outages, airport some of these airports, the tower may provide a non-radar
ground delays/ground stops, runway closures, etc. Flight procedural approach service to arriving aircraft handed
data may inform the pilots using a recorded continuous over from a radar unit before they are visual to land.
loop on a specic frequency known as the automatic ter- Some units also have a dedicated approach unit which
minal information service (ATIS). can provide the procedural approach service either all the
time or for any periods of radar outage for any reason.
Approach and terminal control In the U.S., TRACONs are additionally designated by
a three-letter alphanumeric code. For example, the
Chicago TRACON is designated C90.[5]
5.1.4 En route, center, or area control
Potomac Consolidated TRACON in Warrenton, Virginia, United

States.
Many airports have a radar control facility that is associ- The training department at the Washington Air Route Trac
Control Center, Leesburg, Virginia, United States.
ated with the airport. In most countries, this is referred to
as terminal control; in the U.S., it is referred to as a TRA-
CON (terminal radar approach control). While every air- Main article: Area control center
port varies, terminal controllers usually handle trac in a
30-to-50-nautical-mile (56 to 93 km) radius from the air- ATC provides services to aircraft in ight between air-
port. Where there are many busy airports close together, ports as well. Pilots y under one of two sets of rules for
one consolidated terminal control center may service all separation: visual ight rules (VFR) or instrument ight
the airports. The airspace boundaries and altitudes as- rules (IFR). Air trac controllers have dierent respon-
signed to a terminal control center, which vary widely sibilities to aircraft operating under the dierent sets of
from airport to airport, are based on factors such as traf-rules. While IFR ights are under positive control, in the
c ows, neighboring airports and terrain. A large and US VFR pilots can request ight following, which pro-
complex example is the London Terminal Control Cen- vides trac advisory services on a time permitting ba-
tre which controls trac for ve main London airports sis and may also provide assistance in avoiding areas of
up to 20,000 feet (6,100 m) and out to 100 nautical miles weather and ight restrictions. Across Europe, pilots may
(190 km). request for a "ight information service", which is simi-
Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all lar to ight following. In the UK it is known as a trac
ATC services within their airspace. Trac ow is service.
broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and overights. En-route air trac controllers issue clearances and in-
As aircraft move in and out of the terminal airspace, they structions for airborne aircraft, and pilots are required to
are handed o to the next appropriate control facility (a comply with these instructions. En-route controllers also
control tower, an en-route control facility, or a border- provide air trac control services to many smaller air-
ing terminal or approach control). Terminal control is reports around the country, including clearance o of the
sponsible for ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate ground and clearance for approach to an airport. Con-
altitude when they are handed o, and that aircraft arrive trollers adhere to a set of separation standards that dene
the minimum distance allowed between aircraft. These of the trac or when it can ll in a portion of the area
distances vary depending on the equipment and proce- not covered by the long range radar.
dures used in providing ATC services. In the U.S. system, at higher altitudes, over 90% of the
U.S. airspace is covered by radar and often by multiple
radar systems; however, coverage may be inconsistent at
General characteristics
lower altitudes used by unpressurized aircraft due to high
terrain or distance from radar facilities. A center may
En-route air trac controllers work in facilities called air
require numerous radar systems to cover the airspace as-
trac control centers, each of which is commonly re-
signed to them, and may also rely on pilot position reports
ferred to as a center. The United States uses the equiv-
from aircraft ying below the oor of radar coverage.
alent term air route trac control center (ARTCC). Each
This results in a large amount of data being available to
center is responsible for many thousands of square miles
the controller. To address this, automation systems have
of airspace (known as a ight information region) and for
been designed that consolidate the radar data for the con-
the airports within that airspace. Centers control IFR air-
troller. This consolidation includes eliminating duplicate
craft from the time they depart from an airport or terminal
radar returns, ensuring the best radar for each geograph-
areas airspace to the time they arrive at another airport
ical area is providing the data, and displaying the data in
or terminal areas airspace. Centers may also pick up
an eective format.
VFR aircraft that are already airborne and integrate them
into the IFR system. These aircraft must, however, re-
main VFR until the center provides a clearance.
Center controllers are responsible for issuing instructions
to pilots to climb their aircraft to their assigned altitude
while, at the same time, ensuring that the aircraft is prop-
erly separated from all other aircraft in the immediate
area. Additionally, the aircraft must be placed in a ow
consistent with the aircrafts route of ight. This eort
is complicated by crossing trac, severe weather, spe-
cial missions that require large airspace allocations, and
trac density. When the aircraft approaches its destina-
tion, the center is responsible for issuing instructions to
pilots so that they will meet altitude restrictions by spe-
cic points, as well as providing many destination airports Unmanned radar on a remote mountain
with a trac ow, which prohibits all of the arrivals being
bunched together. These ow restrictions often be- Centers also exercise control over trac travelling over
gin in the middle of the route, as controllers will position the worlds ocean areas. These areas are also ight in-
aircraft landing in the same destination so that when the formation regions (FIRs). Because there are no radar
aircraft are close to their destination they are sequenced. systems available for oceanic control, oceanic controllers
provide ATC services using procedural control. These
As an aircraft reaches the boundary of a centers con-
procedures use aircraft position reports, time, altitude,
trol area it is handed o or handed over to the next
distance, and speed to ensure separation. Controllers
area control center. In some cases this hand-o pro-
record information on ight progress strips and in spe-
cess involves a transfer of identication and details be-
cially developed oceanic computer systems as aircraft re-
tween controllers so that air trac control services can
port positions. This process requires that aircraft be sep-
be provided in a seamless manner; in other cases local
arated by greater distances, which reduces the overall ca-
agreements may allow silent handovers such that the re-
pacity for any given route. See for example the North
ceiving center does not require any co-ordination if trac
Atlantic Track system.
is presented in an agreed manner. After the hand-o, the
aircraft is given a frequency change and begins talking to Some air navigation service providers (e.g., Airservices
the next controller. This process continues until the air- Australia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Nav
craft is handed o to a terminal controller (approach). Canada, etc.) have implemented automatic dependent
surveillance broadcast (ADS-B) as part of their surveil-
lance capability. This new technology reverses the radar
Radar coverage concept. Instead of radar nding a target by interro-
gating the transponder, the ADS-equipped aircraft sends
Since centers control a large airspace area, they will typi- a position report as determined by the navigation equip-
cally use long range radar that has the capability, at higher ment on board the aircraft. Normally, ADS operates in
altitudes, to see aircraft within 200 nautical miles (370 the contract mode where the aircraft reports a position,
km) of the radar antenna. They may also use TRACON automatically or initiated by the pilot, based on a prede-
radar data to control when it provides a better picture termined time interval. It is also possible for controllers
to request more frequent reports to more quickly estab- 5.1.5 Problems

lish aircraft position for specic reasons. However, since
the cost for each report is charged by the ADS service Trac
providers to the company operating the aircraft, more
frequent reports are not commonly requested except in For more information see Air trac ow man-
emergency situations. ADS is signicant because it can agement.
be used where it is not possible to locate the infrastruc-
ture for a radar system (e.g., over water). Computerized
radar displays are now being designed to accept ADS in-
puts as part of the display. This technology is currently
used in portions of the North Atlantic and the Pacic by
a variety of states who share responsibility for the control
of this airspace.
Precision approach radars (PAR) are commonly used
by military controllers of airforces of several countries, to
assist the pilot in nal phases of landing in places where
instrument landing system and other sophisticated air-
borne equipment are unavailable to assist the pilots in
marginal or near zero visibility conditions. This proce-
dure is also called talkdowns.
A radar archive system (RAS) keeps an electronic record
of all radar information, preserving it for a few weeks. Intersecting contrails of aircraft over London, an area of high
This information can be useful for search and rescue. air trac.
When an aircraft has 'disappeared' from radar screens,
a controller can review the last radar returns from the air- The day-to-day problems faced by the air trac control
craft to determine its likely position. For example, see system are primarily related to the volume of air traf-
this crash report.[6] RAS is also useful to technicians who c demand placed on the system and weather. Several
are maintaining radar systems. factors dictate the amount of trac that can land at an
airport in a given amount of time. Each landing aircraft
must touch down, slow, and exit the runway before the
Flight trac mapping next crosses the approach end of the runway. This pro-
cess requires at least one and up to four minutes for each
aircraft. Allowing for departures between arrivals, each
The mapping of ights in real-time is based on the air
trac control system. In 1991, data on the location of runway can thus handle about 30 arrivals per hour. A
large airport with two arrival runways can handle about 60
aircraft was made available by the Federal Aviation Ad-
ministration to the airline industry. The National Busi- arrivals per hour in good weather. Problems begin when
ness Aviation Association (NBAA), the General Avia- airlines schedule more arrivals into an airport than can
tion Manufacturers Association, the Aircraft Owners & be physically handled, or when delays elsewhere cause
Pilots Association, the Helicopter Association Interna- groups of aircraft that would otherwise be separated in
tional, and the National Air Transportation Association time to arrive simultaneously. Aircraft must then be de-
petitioned the FAA to make ASDI information available layed in the air by holding over specied locations until
on a need-to-know basis. Subsequently, NBAA advo- they may be safely sequenced to the runway. Up until the
cated the broad-scale dissemination of air trac data. 1990s, holding, which has signicant environmental and
The Aircraft Situational Display to Industry (ASDI) sys- cost implications, was a routine occurrence at many air-
tem now conveys up-to-date ight information to the airports. Advances in computers now allow the sequencing
line industry and the public. Some companies that dis- of planes hours in advance. Thus, planes may be delayed
tribute ASDI information are FlightExplorer, FlightView, before they even take o (by being given a slot), or may
and FlyteComm. Each company maintains a website that reduce speed in ight and proceed more slowly thus sig-
provides free updated information to the public on ight nicantly reducing the amount of holding.
status. Stand-alone programs are also available for dis- Air trac control errors occur when the separation (ei-
playing the geographic location of airborne IFR (instru- ther vertical or horizontal) between airborne aircraft falls
ment ight rules) air trac anywhere in the FAA air traf- below the minimum prescribed separation set (for the do-
c system. Positions are reported for both commercial mestic United States) by the US Federal Aviation Admin-
and general aviation trac. The programs can overlay istration. Separation minimums for terminal control ar-
air trac with a wide selection of maps such as, geo- eas (TCAs) around airports are lower than en-route stan-
political boundaries, air trac control center boundaries, dards. Errors generally occur during periods following
high altitude jet routes, satellite cloud and radar imagery. times of intense activity, when controllers tend to relax
and overlook the presence of trac and conditions that 5.1.6 Call signs
lead to loss of minimum separation.[7] Paradoxically, cur-
rent high precision cruising altitude rules increase the risk
of collision between 10 and 33 times over more sloppy al-
ternatives when air trac control errors occur. A prerequisite to safe air trac separation is the as-
signment and use of distinctive call signs. These are
permanently allocated by ICAO on request usually to
scheduled ights and some air forces for military ights.
They are written callsigns with 3-letter combination like
Weather KLM, BAW, VLG followed by the ight number, like
AAL872, VLG1011. As such they appear on ight plans
and ATC radar labels. There are also the audio or Radio-
telephony callsigns used on the radio contact between pi-
lots and air trac control. These are not always identical
to their written counterparts. An example of an audio
callsign would be Speedbird 832, instead of the written
BAW832. This is used to reduce the chance of confu-
sion between ATC and the aircraft. By default, the call-
sign for any other ight is the registration number (tail
number) of the aircraft, such as N12345, C-GABC
or EC-IZD. The short Radio-telephony callsigns for
these tail numbers is the last 3 letters using the NATO
phonetic alphabet (i.e. ABC spoken alpha-bravo-charlie)
for C-GABC or the last 3 numbers like 345 spoken as
TREE-FORE-FIFE for N12345. In the United States,
the prex may be an aircraft type, model or manufacturer
Airplane taking o from Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport in place of the rst registration character, for example
with the ATC tower behind. N11842 could become Cessna 842.[8] This abbrevi-
ation is only allowed after communications has been es-
tablished in each sector.
Beyond runway capacity issues, weather is a major fac- The ight number part is decided by the aircraft opera-
tor in trac capacity. Rain, ice or snow on the runway tor. In this arrangement, an identical call sign might well
cause landing aircraft to take longer to slow and exit, thus be used for the same scheduled journey each day it is op-
reducing the safe arrival rate and requiring more space erated, even if the departure time varies a little across
between landing aircraft. Fog also requires a decrease in dierent days of the week. The call sign of the return
the landing rate. These, in turn, increase airborne delay ight often diers only by the nal digit from the out-
for holding aircraft. If more aircraft are scheduled than bound ight. Generally, airline ight numbers are even if
can be safely and eciently held in the air, a ground de-
eastbound, and odd if westbound. In order to reduce the
lay program may be established, delaying aircraft on the possibility of two callsigns on one frequency at any time
ground before departure due to conditions at the arrival
sounding too similar, a number of airlines, particularly in
airport. Europe, have started using alphanumeric callsigns that are
In Area Control Centers, a major weather problem is not based on ight numbers. For example, DLH23LG,
thunderstorms, which present a variety of hazards to air- spoken as lufthansa-two-three-lima-golf. Additionally it
craft. Aircraft will deviate around storms, reducing the is the right of the air trac controller to change the 'audio'
capacity of the en-route system by requiring more space callsign for the period the ight is in his sector if there is
per aircraft, or causing congestion as many aircraft try a risk of confusion, usually choosing the tail number in-
to move through a single hole in a line of thunderstorms. stead.
Occasionally weather considerations cause delays to air- Before around 1980 International Air Transport Asso-
craft prior to their departure as routes are closed by thun- ciation (IATA) and ICAO were using the same 2-letter
derstorms. callsigns. Due to the larger number of new airlines af-
Much money has been spent on creating software to ter deregulation ICAO established the 3-letter callsigns
streamline this process. However, at some ACCs, air as mentioned above. The IATA callsigns are currently
trac controllers still record data for each ight on strips used in aerodromes on the announcement tables but never
of paper and personally coordinate their paths. In newer used any longer in air trac control. For example, AA
sites, these ight progress strips have been replaced by is the IATA callsign for American Airlines ATC equiv-
electronic data presented on computer screens. As new alent AAL. Other examples include LY/ELY for El Al,
equipment is brought in, more and more sites are upgrad- DL/DAL for Delta Air Lines, VY/VLG for Vueling Air-
ing away from paper ight strips. lines, etc.
5.1.7 Technology from Lockheed-Martin predominates at the London Area

Control Centre. However, the centre was initially trou-
bled by software and communications problems causing
delays and occasional shutdowns.[9]
Some tools are available in dierent domains to help the
controller further:
Flight data processing systems: this is the system

(usually one per center) that processes all the infor-
mation related to the ight (the ight plan), typically
in the time horizon from gate to gate (airport depar-
ture/arrival gates). It uses such processed informa-
tion to invoke other ight plan related tools (such as
e.g. MTCD), and distributes such processed infor-
mation to all the stakeholders (air trac controllers,
collateral centers, airports, etc.).
Short-term conict alert (STCA) that checks possi-

ble conicting trajectories in a time horizon of about
2 or 3 minutes (or even less in approach context
35 seconds in the French Roissy & Orly approach
centres[10] ) and alerts the controller prior to the loss
of separation. The algorithms used may also provide
in some systems a possible vectoring solution, that
is, the manner in which to turn, descend, or climb
the aircraft in order to avoid infringing the minimum
safety distance or altitude clearance.
The air trac control tower at HartseldJackson Atlanta Inter- Minimum safe altitude warning (MSAW): a tool that
national Airport. alerts the controller if an aircraft appears to be ying
too low to the ground or will impact terrain based on
Many technologies are used in air trac control systems. its current altitude and heading.
Primary and secondary radar are used to enhance a con-
System coordination (SYSCO) to enable controller
trollers situation awareness within his assigned airspace
to negotiate the release of ights from one sector to
all types of aircraft send back primary echoes of vary-
another.
ing sizes to controllers screens as radar energy is bounced
o their skins, and transponder-equipped aircraft reply to Area penetration warning (APW) to inform a con-
secondary radar interrogations by giving an ID (Mode A), troller that a ight will penetrate a restricted area.
an altitude (Mode C) and/or a unique callsign (Mode S).
Certain types of weather may also register on the radar Arrival and departure manager to help sequence the
screen. takeo and landing of aircraft.
These inputs, added to data from other radars, are corre- The departure manager (DMAN): A system
lated to build the air situation. Some basic processing oc- aid for the ATC at airports, that calculates a
curs on the radar tracks, such as calculating ground speed planned departure ow with the goal to main-
and magnetic headings. tain an optimal throughput at the runway, re-
Usually, a ight data processing system manages all the duce queuing at holding point and distribute
ight plan related data, incorporating in a low or high the information to various stakeholders at the
degree the information of the track once the correla- airport (i.e. the airline, ground handling and
tion between them (ight plan and track) is established. air trac control (ATC)).
All this information is distributed to modern operational The arrival manager (AMAN): A system aid
display systems, making it available to controllers. for the ATC at airports, that calculates a
The FAA has spent over US$3 billion on software, but a planned arrival ow with the goal to maintain
fully automated system is still over the horizon. In 2002 an optimal throughput at the runway, reduce
the UK brought a new area control centre into service at arrival queuing and distribute the information
the London Area Control Centre, Swanwick, Hampshire, to various stakeholders.
relieving a busy suburban centre at West Drayton, Mid- Passive nal approach spacing tool (pFAST),
dlesex, north of London Heathrow Airport. Software a CTAS tool, provides runway assignment and
sequence number advisories to terminal con- assistance tools that assist in evaluating resolu-
trollers to improve the arrival rate at congested tion options and pilot requests.
airports. pFAST was deployed and operational
at ve US TRACONs before being cancelled. Mode S: provides a data downlink of ight parame-
NASA research included an active FAST ca- ters via secondary surveillance radars allowing radar
pability that also provided vector and speed processing systems and therefore controllers to see
advisories to implement the runway and se- various data on a ight, including airframe unique
quence advisories. id (24-bits encoded), indicated airspeed and ight
Converging runway display aid (CRDA) enables ap- director selected level, amongst others.
proach controllers to run two nal approaches that
CPDLC: controller-pilot data link communications
intersect and make sure that go arounds are mini-
allows digital messages to be sent between con-
mized.
trollers and pilots, avoiding the need to use ra-
Center TRACON automation system (CTAS) is a diotelephony. It is especially useful in areas where
suite of human centered decision support tools de- dicult-to-use HF radiotelephony was previously
veloped by NASA Ames Research Center. Sev- used for communication with aircraft, e.g. oceans.
eral of the CTAS tools have been eld tested and This is currently in use in various parts of the world
transitioned to the FAA for operational evaluation including the Atlantic and Pacic oceans.
and use. Some of the CTAS tools are: trac
management advisor (TMA), passive nal approach ADS-B: automatic dependent surveillance broadcast
spacing tool (pFAST), collaborative arrival plan- provides a data downlink of various ight param-
ning (CAP), direct-to (D2), en route descent advisor eters to air trac control systems via the transpon-
(EDA) and multi-center TMA. The software is run- der (1090 MHz) and reception of those data by
ning on Linux.[11] other aircraft in the vicinity. The most important
is the aircrafts latitude, longitude and level: such
Trac management advisor (TMA), a CTAS tool, data can be utilized to create a radar-like display
is an en route decision support tool that automates of aircraft for controllers and thus allows a form
time based metering solutions to provide an upper of pseudo-radar control to be done in areas where
limit of aircraft to a TRACON from the center over the installation of radar is either prohibitive on the
a set period of time. Schedules are determined that grounds of low trac levels, or technically not fea-
will not exceed the specied arrival rate and con- sible (e.g. oceans). This is currently in use in Aus-
trollers use the scheduled times to provide the ap- tralia, Canada and parts of the Pacic Ocean and
propriate delay to arrivals while in the en route do- Alaska.
main. This results in an overall reduction in en route
delays and also moves the delays to more ecient The electronic ight strip system (e-strip):
airspace (higher altitudes) than occur if holding near
the TRACON boundary, which is required in order
to prevent overloading the TRACON controllers.
TMA is operational at most en route air route traf-
c control centers (ARTCCs) and continues to be
enhanced to address more complex trac situations
(e.g. adjacent center metering (ACM) and en route
departure capability (EDC))
MTCD & URET
In the US, user request evaluation tool (URET)
takes paper strips out of the equation for en
route controllers at ARTCCs by providing a
display that shows all aircraft that are either in
or currently routed into the sector.
In Europe, several MTCD tools are avail-
able: iFACTS (NATS), VAFORIT (DFS), Electronic ight progress strip system at So Paulo Intl. control
new FDPS (MUAC). The SESAR[12] pro- tower ground control
gramme should soon launch new MTCD con-
cepts. A system of electronic ight strips replacing the old pa-
per strips is being used by several service providers, such
URET and MTCD provide conict advisories as Nav Canada, MASUAC, DFS, DECEA. E-strips al-
up to 30 minutes in advance and have a suite of lows controllers to manage electronic ight data online
without paper strips, reducing the need for manual func- Brazil Departamento de Controle do Espao
tions, creating new tools and reducing the ATCOs work- Areo (ATC/ATM Authority) and ANAC Agn-
load. The rsts electronic ight strips systems were inde- cia Nacional de Aviao Civil (Civil Aviation Au-
pendently and simultaneously invented and implemented thority)
by Nav Canada and Saipher ATC in 1999. The Nav
Canada system known as EXCDS[13] and rebranded in Bulgaria Air Trac Services Authority
2011 to NAVCANstrips and Saiphers rst generation
system known as SGTC, which is now being updated by Canada Nav Canada formerly provided by
its 2nd generation system, the TATIC TWR. DECEA in Transport Canada and Canadian Forces
Brazil is the worlds largest user of tower e-strips system, Cayman Islands CIAA Cayman Islands Air-
ranging from very small airports up to the busiest ones, ports Authority
taking the advantage of real time information and data
collection from each of more than 150 sites for use in air Central America Corporacin Centroamericana
trac ow management (ATFM), billing and statistics. de Servicios de Navegacin Area
Guatemala Direccin General de

Screen content recording: Hardware or software
Aeronutica Civil (DGAC)
based recording function which is part of most mod-
ern automation system and that captures the screen El Salvador
content shown to the ATCO. Such recordings are Honduras
used for a later replay together with audio recording
Nicaragua Empresa Administradora
for investigations and post event analysis.[14]
Aeropuertos Internacionales (EAAI)
Communication navigation surveillance / air trac Costa Rica Direccin General de
management (CNS/ATM) systems are communica- Aviacin Civil
tions, navigation, and surveillance systems, employ- Belize
ing digital technologies, including satellite systems
together with various levels of automation, applied Chile Direccin General de Aeronutica Civil
in support of a seamless global air trac manage- (DGAC)
ment system.[15]
Colombia Aeronutica Civil Colombiana
(UAEAC)
5.1.8 Air navigation service providers
Croatia Hrvatska kontrola zrane plovidbe
(ANSPs) and air trac service (Croatia Control Ltd.)
providers (ATSPs)
Cuba Instituto de Aeronutica Civil de Cuba
Main article: Air Navigation Service Provider (IACC)
Czech Republic zen letovho provozu R

Azerbaijan AzrAeroNaviqasiya
Denmark Naviair (Danish ATC)
Albania Agjencia Nacionale e Trakut Ajror Dominican Republic Instituto Dominicano
de Aviacin Civil (IDAC) Dominican Institute of
Algeria Etablissement National de la Naviga- Civil Aviation
tion Arienne (ENNA)
Ecuador Direccin General de Aviacin
Armenia Armenian Air Trac Services Civil (DGAC) General Direction of Civil Avia-
(ARMATS) tion Government Body
Australia Airservices Australia (State Owned Estonia Estonian Air Navigation Services
Corporation) and Royal Australian Air Force
Europe Eurocontrol (European Organisation
for the Safety of Air Navigation)
Austria Austro Control
Finland Finavia
Belarus Republican Unitary Enterprise
" (Belarusian Air Navigation)" France Direction Gnrale de l'Aviation
Civile (DGAC) : Direction des Services de la Navi-
Belgium Belgocontrol gation Arienne (DSNA) (Government body)
Georgia SAKAERONAVIGATSIA, Ltd. New Zealand Airways New Zealand (State

(Georgian Air Navigation) Owned Enterprise)
Germany Deutsche Flugsicherung (German Norway Avinor (State-owned private com-

ATC State-owned company) pany)
Greece Hellenic Civil Aviation Authority Oman Directorate General of Meteorology &
(HCAA) Air Navigation (Government of Oman)
Hong Kong Civil Aviation Department Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority (under
(CAD) Government of Pakistan)
Hungary HungaroControl Magyar Lgifor- Peru Centro de Instruccin de Aviacin Civil

galmi Szolglat Zrt. (HungaroControl Hungarian CIAC Civil Aviation Training Center
Air Navigation Services Pte. Ltd. Co.)
Philippines Civil Aviation Authority of the
Iceland ISAVIA Philippines (CAAP) (under the Philippine Govern-
ment)
Indonesia AirNav Indonesia
Poland Polish Air Navigation Services
Ireland Irish Aviation Authority (IAA)
Agency (PANSA)
India Airports Authority of India (AAI) (un-
Portugal NAV (Portuguese ATC)
der Ministry of Civil Aviation, Government Of In-
dia and Indian Air Force)
Puerto Rico Administracion Federal de Avia-
Iraq Iraqi Air Navigation ICAA cion
Romania Romanian Air Trac Services Ad-

Israel Israeli Airports Authority (IIA)
ministration (ROMATSA)
Italy ENAV SpA (State-owned company) and
Russia Federal State Unitary Enterprise
Italian Air Force
State ATM Corporation
Jamaica JCAA (Jamaica Civil Aviation Au-
thority) Saudi Arabia General Authority of Civil Avi-
ation (GACA)
Japan JCAB (Japan Civil Aviation Bureau)
Seychelles Seychelles Civil Aviation Author-
Kenya KCAA (Kenya Civil Aviation Author- ity (SCAA)
ity)
Singapore Civil Aviation Authority of Singa-
Latvia LGS (Latvian ATC) pore (CAAS)
Lithuania ANS (Lithuanian ATC) Serbia Serbia and Montenegro Air Trac
Services Agency Ltd. (SMATSA)
Luxembourg Administration de la navigation
arienne (ANA State-owned company) Slovakia Letov prevdzkov sluby
Macedonia DGCA (Macedonian ATC) Slovenskej republiky
Malaysia Department of Civil Aviation Slovenia Slovenia Control

Malaysia (DCA)
South Africa Air Trac and Navigation Ser-
vices (ATNS)
Malta Malta Air Trac Services Ltd
Mexico Servicios a la Navegacin en el Es- South Korea Korea Oce of Civil Aviation
pacio Areo Mexicano
Spain AENA now AENA S.A. (Spanish Air-
ports) and ENAIRe (ATC & ATSP)[16]
Nepal Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal
Sri Lanka Airport & Aviation Services (Sri
Netherlands Luchtverkeersleiding Nederland Lanka) Limited (Government owned company)
(LVNL) (Dutch ATC) Eurocontrol (European area
control ATC) Sweden LFV (Government Body)
Switzerland Skyguide Privatization
Taiwan ANWS (Civil Aeronautical Admin- Many countries have also privatized or corporatized their
istration) air navigation service providers.[18] There are several
models that can be used for ATC service providers. The
rst is to have the ATC services be part of a government
Thailand AEROTHAI (Aeronautical Radio
agency as is currently the case in the United States. The
of Thailand)
problem with this model is that funding can be inconsis-
tent and can disrupt the development and operation of
Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago services. Sometimes funding can disappear when law-
Civil Aviation Authority (TTCAA) makers cannot approve budgets in time. Both proponents
and opponents of privatization recognize that stable fund-
Turkey DHMI (General Directorate Of State ing is one of the major factors for successful upgrades
Airports Authority) of ATC infrastructure. Some of the funding issues in-
clude sequestration and politicization of projects.[19] Pro-
United Arab Emirates General Civil Aviation ponents argue that moving ATC services to a private cor-
Authority (GCAA) poration could stabilize funding over the long term which
will result in more predictable planning and rollout of new
United Kingdom National Air Trac Ser- technology as well as training of personnel.
vices (NATS) (49% State Owned Public-Private Another model is to have ATC services provided by a
Partnership) government corporation. This model is used in Germany,
where funding is obtained through user fees. Yet another
United States Federal Aviation Administra- model is to have a for-prot corporation operate ATC ser-
tion (FAA) (Government Body) vices. This is the model used in the United Kingdom,
but there have been several issues with the system there
Ukraine Ukrainian State Air Trac Service including a large-scale failure in December 2014 which
Enterprise (UkSATSE) caused delays and cancellations and has been attributed to
cost-cutting measures put in place by this corporation. In
fact, earlier that year, the corporation owned by the Ger-
Venezuela Instituto Nacional de Aeronautica man government won the bid to provide ATC services for
Civil (INAC) Gatwick Airport in the United Kingdom. The last model,
which is often the suggested model for the United States
to transition to is to have a non-prot organization that
5.1.9 Proposed changes would handle ATC services as is used in Canada.[20]
The Canadian system is the one most often used as a
In the United States, some alterations to trac control model by proponents of privatization. Air trac con-
procedures are being examined. trol privatization has been successful in Canada with the
creation of Nav Canada, a private nonprot organization
The Next Generation Air Transportation System ex- which has reduced costs and has allowed new technolo-
amines how to overhaul the United States national gies to be deployed faster due to the elimination of much
airspace system. of the bureaucratic red tape. This has resulted in shorter
ights and less fuel usage. It has also resulted in ights be-
Free ight is a developing air trac control method ing safer due to new technology. Nav Canada is funded
that uses no centralized control (e.g. air trac con- from fees that are collected from the airlines based
[21]
on the
trollers). Instead, parts of airspace are reserved dy- weight of the aircraft and the distance own.
namically and automatically in a distributed way us-
ing computer communication to ensure the required
separation between aircraft.[17]
5.1.10 ATC regulations in the United
[12]
In Europe, the SESAR (Single European Sky ATM States
Research) programme plans to develop new methods,
technologies, procedures, and systems to accommodate FAA control tower operators (CTO) / air trac con-
future (2020 and beyond) air trac needs. trollers use FAA Order 7110.65 as the authority for all
Change in regulation in admittance for possible A.T.C.'s procedures regarding air trac. For more information
regarding their eye-refraction and correction thereof by regarding air trac control rules and regulations, refer to
technology has been proposed. the FAAs website.[22]
5.1.11 See also [20] Rinaldi, Paul (2015). Safety and Eciency Must Remain
the Main Mission. The Journal of Air Trac Control. 57
5.1.12 References (2): 2123.
[21] Crichton, John (2015). The NAV CANADA Model.

[1] FAA 7110.65 2-1-1. The Journal of Air Trac Control. 57 (2): 3335.
[2] IDAO FAQ. Archived from the original on 20 February [22] Air Trac Plans and Publications (PDF). FAA. Re-
2009. Retrieved 2009-03-03. trieved 5 December 2010.
[3] Green Jersey Web Design. Heritage Locations South
East Surrey Croydon Airport. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
[4] FAA HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY, 19261996
U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission Air Trac
[5] Terminal Radar Approach Control Facilities (TRA- Control
CON)". Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved 22
February 2014. The short lm A TRAVELER MEETS AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL (1963) is available for free download at
[6] crash report. tsb.gc.ca. retrieved on August 21, 2010
the Internet Archive
[7] Breitler, Alan; Kirk, Kevin (September 1996). Eects of
Sector Complexity and Controller Experience on Proba-
NASA video of US air trac
bility of Operational Errors in Air Route Trac Control
Centers. Center for Naval Analyses Document (IPR 95-
0092){{inconsistent citations}} 5.2 Environmental impact of avia-
[8] What is an Abbreviated Aircraft Call Sign?*". ATC tion
Communication. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
[9] Air Trac Control. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
[10] Le let de sauvegarde resserre ses mailles (PDF).

dgac.fr (in French). Archived from the original (PDF)
on March 27, 2009.
[11] Technical Sessions. usenix.org. Retrieved 5 December

2010.
[12] SESAR Archived September 25, 2008, at the Wayback

Machine.
[13] http://www.navcanada.ca/NavCanada.asp?
Language=en&Content=ContentDefinitionFiles\
char"005C\relax{}TechnologySolutions\char"005C\
relax{}products\char"005C\relax{}IIDS\char"005C\
relax{}excds\char"005C\relax{}default.xml
[14] Solutions using Epiphan products. Epiphan Video cap-

ture, stream, record. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
[15] CNS/ATM SYSTEMS (PDF). icao.int. p. 10.

Archived from the original (PDF) on November 9, 2011.
A C-141 Starlifter leaves contrails over Antarctica.
[16] Acerca de ENAIRE ENAIRE Informacin corpora-
tiva. Retrieved 3 July 2015. The environmental impact of aviation occurs be-
cause aircraft engines emit heat, noise, particulates
[17] Wired 4.04: Free Flight. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
and gases which contribute to climate change[1][2] and
[18] McDougall, Glen; Roberts, Alasdair S (August 15, 2007). global dimming.[3] Among others airplanes emit parti-
Commercializing Air Trac Control: Have the Reforms cles and gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ), water va-
Worked?". Canadian Public Administration: Vol. 51, No. por, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
1, pp. 4569, 2009. SSRN 1317450 . sulfur oxides, lead and black carbon which interact among
themselves and with the atmosphere.[4]
[19] American Federation of Government Employees
(AFGE); et al. FAA Labor Unions Oppose ATC Priva- Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more
tization (PDF). Professional Aviation Safety Specialists. fuel-ecient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop
Retrieved 25 November 2016. engines, the rapid growth of air travel in recent years
5.2. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AVIATION 65
contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable through the burning of fuels such as Jet-A (turbine air-
to aviation. From 1992 to 2005, passenger kilometers craft) or Avgas (piston aircraft), the aviation industry
increased 5.2% per year. And in the European Union, also contributes greenhouse gas emissions from ground
greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% airport vehicles and those used by passengers and sta
between 1990 and 2006.[5] to access airports, as well as through emissions generated
Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated by the production of energy used in airport buildings, the
eciency innovations to airframes, engines, aerodynam- manufacture of aircraft and the construction of airport
[16]
ics and ight operations, there is no end in sight even infrastructure.
many decades out to rapid growth in CO2 emissions While the principal greenhouse gas emission from pow-
from air travel and air freight,[6][7] due to projected con- ered aircraft in ight is CO2 , other emissions may in-
tinual growth in air travel.[8][9] This is because interna- clude nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (together termed
tional aviation emissions have escaped international reg- oxides of nitrogen or NO), water vapour and particulates
ulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October (soot and sulfate particles), sulfur oxides, carbon monox-
2016 agreed on the CORSIA oset scheme, and because ide (which bonds with oxygen to become CO2 immedi-
of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide, lower ately upon release), incompletely burned hydrocarbons,
fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives tetraethyllead (piston aircraft only), and radicals such as
a competitive advantage over other transportation modes. hydroxyl, depending on the type of aircraft in use.[17]
Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in Emissions weighting factor (EWFs) i.e., the factor by
aviations emissions will result in the sectors emissions which aviation CO2 emissions should be multiplied to
amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global CO2 get the CO2 -equivalent emissions for annual eet average
emissions budget by mid-century, if climate change is to conditions is in the range 1.32.9.[18]
be held to a temperature increase of 2 C or less.[10]
There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air Mechanisms and cumulative eects of aviation on cli-
travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading mate
scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external
costs of aviation are taken into account.[11] In 1999 the contribution of civil aircraft-in-ight to global
CO2 emissions was estimated to be around 2%.[17] How-
ever, in the case of high-altitude airliners which fre-
5.2.1 Climate change quently y near or in the stratosphere, non-CO2 altitude-
sensitive eects may increase the total impact on anthro-
pogenic (human-made) climate change signicantly.[17]
A 2007 report from Environmental Change Institute /
Oxford University posits a range closer to 4 percent cu-
mulative eect.[19] Subsonic aircraft-in-ight contribute
to climate change[17] in four ways:
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) CO2 emissions from aircraft-

in-ight are the most signicant and best understood[20]
element of aviations total contribution to climate change.
The level and eects of CO2 emissions are currently be-
lieved to be broadly the same regardless of altitude (i.e.
Radiative forcings from aviation emissions (gases and aerosols) they have the same atmospheric eects as ground based
in 1992 as estimated by the IPCC emissions). In 1992, emissions of CO2 from aircraft were
estimated at around 2% of all such anthropogenic emis-
Like all human activities involving combustion, most sions, and that year the atmospheric concentration of CO2
forms of aviation release carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and other attributable to aviation was around 1% of the total anthro-
greenhouse gases into the Earths atmosphere, contribut- pogenic increase since the industrial revolution, having
ing to the acceleration of global warming[12] and (in the accumulated primarily over just the last 50 years.[21]
case of CO2 ) ocean acidication.[13] These concerns are
highlighted by the present volume of commercial aviation Oxides of nitrogen (NO) At the high altitudes own
and its rate of growth. Globally, about 8.3 million peopleby large jet airliners around the tropopause, emissions
y daily (3 billion occupied seats per year), twice the total
of NO are particularly eective in forming ozone (O3 )
in 1999.[14] U.S. airlines alone burned about 16.2 billionin the upper troposphere. High altitude (813 km) NO
gallons of fuel during the twelve months between October emissions result in greater concentrations of O3 than sur-
2013 and September 2014.[15] face NO emissions, and these in turn have a greater
In addition to the CO2 released by most aircraft in ight global warming eect. The eect of O3 concentrations
are regional and local (as opposed to CO2 emissions, to have a global warming eect over-and-above that of
which are global). contrail formation alone. There is a degree of scien-
NO emissions also reduce ambient levels of methane, tic uncertainty about the contribution of contrail and
another greenhouse gas, resulting in a climate cooling ef- cirrus cloud formation to global warming and attempts
fect. But this eect does not oset the O3 forming eect to estimate aviations overall climate change contribu-
of NO emissions. It is now believed that aircraft sulfur tion do not tend [20]
to include its eects on cirrus cloud
and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete enhancement. However, a 2015 study found that ar-
O3 , partially osetting the NO-induced O3 increases. ticial cloudiness caused by contrail outbreaks reduce
[21] the dierence between daytime and nighttime tempera-
These eects have not been quantied. This problem
does not apply to aircraft that y lower in the troposphere, tures. The former are decreased and the latter are in-
creased, in comparison to temperatures the day before
such as light aircraft or many commuter aircraft.
and the day after such outbreaks.[23] On days with out-
breaks the day/night temperature dierence was dimin-
ished by about 6F in the U.S. South and 5F in the
Midwest.[24]
Particulates Least signicant is the release of soot and

sulfate particles. Soot absorbs heat and has a warming
eect; sulfate particles reect radiation and have a small
cooling eect. In addition, they can inuence the forma-
tion and properties of clouds.[25] All aircraft powered by
combustion will release some amount of soot.
Greenhouse gas emissions per passenger kilometre

Contrails
Averaged emissions Emissions of passenger aircraft
per passenger kilometre vary extensively because of dif-
fering factors such as the size and type aircraft, the alti-
tude and the percentage of passenger or freight capac-
ity of a particular ight, and the distance of the jour-
ney and number of stops en route. Also, the eect of
a given amount of emissions on climate (radiative forc-
ing) is greater at higher altitudes: see below. Some
representative gures for CO2 emissions are provided
by LIPASTOs survey of average direct emissions (not
accounting for high-altitude radiative eects) of airlin-
ers expressed as CO2 and CO2 equivalent per passenger
kilometre:[26]
Domestic, short distance, less than 463 km (288 mi):

257 g/km CO2 or 259 g/km (14.7 oz/mile) CO2 e
Cirrus cloud formation
Domestic, long distance, greater than 463 km (288
Water vapor (H2 O), and contrails One of the prod- mi): 177 g/km CO2 or 178 g/km (10.1 oz/mile)
ucts of burning hydrocarbons in oxygen is water vapour, CO2 e
a greenhouse gas. Water vapour produced by aircraft
engines at high altitude, under certain atmospheric con- Long distance ights: 113 g/km CO2 or 114 g/km
ditions, condenses into droplets to form Condensation (6.5 oz/mile) CO2 e
trails, or contrails. Contrails are visible line clouds that
form in cold, humid atmospheres and are thought to have
These emissions are similar to a four-seat car with one
a global warming eect (though one less signicant than
person on board;[27] however, ying trips often cover
either CO2 emissions or NO induced eects).[22] Con- longer distances than would be undertaken by car, so the
trails are uncommon (though by no means rare) from total emissions are much higher. For perspective, per pas-
lower-altitude aircraft, or from propeller-driven aircraft
senger a typical economy-class New York to Los Ange-
or rotorcraft. les round trip produces about 715 kg (1574 lb) of CO2
Cirrus clouds have been observed to develop after the (but is equivalent to 1,917 kg (4,230 lb) of CO2 when
persistent formation of contrails and have been found the high altitude climatic forcing eect is taken into
account).[28] Within the categories of ights above, emis- aviation to address its total climate change impacts and
sions from scheduled jet ights are substantially higher not simply the impact of CO2 .[34]
than turboprop or chartered jet ights. About 60% of avi- The IPCC has estimated that aviation is responsible for
ation emissions arise from international ights, and these around 3.5% of anthropogenic climate change, a gure
ights are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol and its emis- which includes both CO2 and non-CO2 induced eects.
sions reduction targets.[29] The IPCC has produced scenarios estimating what this
Figures from British Airways suggest carbon dioxide gure could be in 2050. The central case estimate is that
emissions of 100g per passenger kilometre for large jet aviations contribution could grow to 5% of the total con-
airliners (a gure which does not account for the produc- tribution by 2050 if action is not taken to tackle these
tion of other pollutants or condensation trails).[30] emissions, though the highest scenario is 15%.[17] More-
over, if other industries achieve signicant cuts in their
own greenhouse gas emissions, aviations share as a pro-
Emissions by passenger class, and eects of seat- portion of the remaining emissions could also rise.
ing conguration In 2013 the World Bank published
a study of the eect on CO2 emissions of its stas travel
in business class or rst class, versus using economy Future emission levels
class.[31] Among the factors considered was that these
premium classes displace proportionately more economy Even though there have been signicant improvements
seats for the same total aircraft space capacity, and the in fuel eciency through aircraft technology and oper-
associated diering load factors and weight factors. This ational management as described here, these improve-
was not accounted for in prior standard carbon account- ments are being continually eclipsed by the increase in
ing methods. The study concluded that when consider- air trac volume.
ing respective average load factors (percent of occupied A December 2015 report nds that aircraft could gener-
seats) in each of the seating classes, the carbon footprints ate 43 Gt of carbon pollution through to 2050, consum-
of business class and rst class are three-times and nine- ing almost 5% of the remaining global climate budget.
times higher than economy class.[31][32][33] A related arti- Without regulation, global aviation emissions may triple
cle by the International Council on Clean Transport notes by mid-century and could emit more than 3 Gt of car-
further regarding the eect of seating congurations on bon annually under a high-growth, business-as-usual sce-
carbon emissions that:[33] nario. Eorts to bring aviation emissions under an ef-
fective global accord have so far largely failed, despite
The A380 is marketed as a green giant there being a number of technological and operational
and one of the most environmentally advanced improvements on oer.[35][36]
aircraft out there. But that spin is based on
a maximum-capacity aircraft conguration, or Continual increases in travel and freight From 1992
about 850 economy passengers. In reality, a to 2005, passenger kilometers increased 5.2% per year,
typical A380 aircraft has 525 seats. Its fuel even with the disruptions of 9/11 and two signicant wars.
performance is comparable to that of a B747- Since the onset of the current recession:
400 ER and even about 15% worse than a
B777-300ER on a passenger-mile basis (cal-
culated using Piano-5 on a ight from AUH to During the rst three quarters of 2010, air
LHR, assuming an 80% passenger load factor, travel markets expanded at an annualized rate
and in-service eet average seat counts). approaching 10%. This is similar to the rate
seen in the rapid expansion prior to the re-
cession. Novembers results mean the annual-
Total climate eects ized rate of growth so far in Q4 drops back
to around 6%. But this is still in line with
In attempting to aggregate and quantify the total climate long run rates of trac growth seen histori-
impact of aircraft emissions the Intergovernmental Panel cally. The level of international air travel is now
on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that aviations 4% above the pre-recession peak of early 2008
total climate impact is some 2-4 times that of its di- and the current expansion looks to have further
rect CO2 emissions alone (excluding the potential im- to run.[37]
pact of cirrus cloud enhancement).[17] This is measured
as radiative forcing. While there is uncertainty about the Air freight reached a new high point in May
exact level of impact of NO and water vapour, govern- (2010) but, following the end of inventory re-
ments have accepted the broad scientic view that they stocking activity, volumes have slipped back to
do have an eect. Globally in 2005, aviation contributed settle at a similar level seen just before the on-
possibly as much as 4.9% of radiative forcing.[29] UK set of recession. Even so, that means an ex-
government policy statements have stressed the need for pansion of air freight during 2010 of 5-6% on
an annualized basis close to historical trend. ranking would be somewhat lower, as noted in the rank-
With the stimulus of inventory restocking ac- ing study.
tivity removed, further growth in air freight de- Aircraft manufacturers are striving for reductions in both
mand will be driven by end consumer demand CO2 and NOx emissions with each new generation of de-
for goods which utilize the air transport supply sign of aircraft and engine.[47] While the introduction of
chain. ... The end of the inventory cycle does more modern aircraft represents an opportunity to reduce
not mean the end of volume expansion but mar- emissions per passenger kilometre own, aircraft are ma-
kets are entering a slower growth phase.[37] jor investments that endure for many decades, and re-
placement of the international eet is therefore a long-
In a 2008 presentation[12] and paper [38] Professor Kevin term proposition which will greatly delay realizing the cli-
Anderson of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Re- mate benets of many kinds of improvements. Engines
search showed how continued aviation growth in the UK can be changed at some point, but nevertheless airframes
threatens the ability of that nation to meet CO2 emis- have a long life. Moreover, rather than being linear from
sion reduction goals necessary to contain the century-end one year to the next the improvements to eciency tend
temperature increase to even 4 or 6C. (See also: the to diminish over time, as reected in the histories of both
4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference piston and jet powered aircraft.[45]
(2009)[39] and its proceedings.)[40] His charts show the
A 2014 life-cycle assessment of the cradle-to-grave re-
projected domestic aviation carbon emission increase for
duction in CO2 by a carbon-ber-reinforced polymer
the UK as growing from 11 MT in 2006 to 17 MT in
(CFRP) airliner such as a Boeing 787 including its man-
2012, at the UKs historic annual emission growth rate
ufacture, operations and eventual disposal has shown
of 7%. Beyond 2012 if the growth rate were reduced to
that by 2050 such aircraft could reduce the airline indus-
3% yearly, carbon emissions in 2030 would be 28 MT,
trys CO2 emissions by 14-15%, compared use of con-
which is 70% of the UKs entire carbon emissions budget
ventional airliners.[48] The benet of CFRP technology
that year for all sectors of society. This work also sug-
is not higher than that amount of reduction, despite the
gests the foreseeable future which confronts many other
lighter weight and substantially lower fuel consumption
nations that have high dependency on aviation. Hy-
of such aircraft, because of the limited eet penetration
permobile Travelers,[41] an academic study by Stefan
by 2050 and the increased demand for air travel due to
Gssling et al. (2009) in the book Climate Change and
lower operating costs. [48]
Aviation,[42] also points to the dilemma caused by the in-
creasing hypermobility of air travelers both in particular
nations and globally.[43]
Operations eciency Research projects such as Boe-
ings ecoDemonstrator program have sought to iden-
Scope for improvement tify ways of improving the eciency of commercial
aircraft operations. The U.S. government has encour-
Aircraft eciency While it is true that late model jet aged such research through grant programs, including the
aircraft are signicantly more fuel ecient (and thus emit FAAs Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions and Noise
less CO2 in particular) than the earliest jet airliners,[44][45] (CLEEN) program, and NASAs Environmentally Re-
new airliner models in the rst decade of the 21st Cen- sponsible Aviation (ERA) Project.
tury were barely more ecient on a seat-mile basis than
the latest piston-powered airliners of the late 1950s (e.g. Adding an electric drive to the airplanes nose wheel may
improve fuel eciency during ground handling. This ad-
Constellation L-1649-A and DC-7C).[45] Claims for a
high gain in eciency for airliners over recent decades dition would allow taxiing without the use of the main
engines.[49][50][51]
(while true in part) has been biased high in most stud-
ies, by using the early inecient models of jet airlin- Another proposed change is the integrating of an
ers as a baseline. Those aircraft were optimized for in- Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System to the airstrips
creased revenue, including increased speed and cruising of airports. Some companies such as Airbus are cur-
altitude, and were quite fuel inecient in comparison to rently researching this possibility. The adding of EMALS
their piston-powered forerunners.[45] would allow the civilian aircraft to use considerably less
Today, turboprop aircraft probably in part because of fuel (as a lot of fuel is used during take o, in comparison
their lower cruising speeds and altitudes (similar to the to cruising, when calculated per km own). The idea is
earlier piston-powered airliners) compared to jet airlin- to have the aircraft take o at regular aircraft speed, and
[52][53]
ers play an obvious role in the overall fuel eciency of only use the catapult for take-o, not for landing.
major airlines that have regional carrier subsidiaries.[46] Other opportunities arise from the optimization of airline
For example, although Alaska Airlines scored at the top timetables, route networks and ight frequencies to in-
of a 2011-2012 fuel eciency ranking, if its large re- crease load factors (minimize the number of empty seats
gional carrier turbo-prop equipped Horizon Air were own),[54] together with the optimization of airspace.
dropped from the lumped-in consideration, the airlines However, these are each one-time gains, and as these op-
portunities are successively fullled, diminishing returns able biofuel to power a commercial aircraft for the rst
can be expected from the remaining opportunities. time in North America. This marks the rst sustainable
Another possible reduction of the climate-change impact biofuel demonstration ight by a commercial carrier us-
is the limitation of cruise altitude of aircraft. This would ing a twin-engined aircraft, a Boeing 737-800, powered
lead to a signicant reduction in high-altitude contrails by CFM International CFM56-7B engines. The biofuel
for a marginal trade-o of increased ight time and an blend included [62]
components derived from algae and jat-
estimated 4% increase in CO emissions. Drawbacks ropha plants.
2
of this solution include very limited airspace capacity to One fuel biofuel alternative to avgas that is under devel-
do this, especially in Europe and North America and in- opment is Swift Fuel. Swift fuel was approved as a test
creased fuel burn because jet aircraft are less ecient at fuel by ASTM International in December 2009, allowing
lower cruise altitudes.[55] the company to continue their research and to pursue cer-
While they are not suitable for long-haul or transoceanic tication testing. Mary Rusek, president and co-owner
ights, turboprop aircraft used for commuter ights bring of Swift Enterprises predicted at that time that 100SF
two signicant benets: they often burn considerably less will be comparably priced, environmentally friendlier and
fuel per passenger mile, and they typically y at lower more fuel-ecient than other general aviation fuels on the
altitudes, well inside the tropopause, where there are no market.[63][64]
concerns about ozone or contrail production. As of June 2011, revised international aviation fuel stan-
dards ocially allow commercial airlines to blend con-
ventional jet fuel with up to 50 percent biofuels. The re-
Alternative fuels Main article: Aviation_fuel newable fuels can be blended with conventional com-
Chemical_composition mercial and military jet fuel through requirements in
Main article: Aviation_fuel LNG the newly issued edition of ASTM D7566, Specica-
tion for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized
Hydrocarbons.[65]
Some scientists and companies such as GE Aviation and
Virgin Fuels are researching biofuel technology for use In December 2011, the FAA announced it is awarding
in jet aircraft.[56] Some aircraft engines, like the Wilksch $7.7 million to eight companies to advance the devel-
WAM120 can (being a 2-stroke Diesel engine) run on opment of drop-in commercial aviation biofuels, with a
straight vegetable oil. Also, a number of Lycoming en- special focus on ATJ (alcohol to jet) fuel. As part of
gines run well on ethanol. its CAAFI (Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuel Ini-
tiative) and CLEEN (Continuous Lower Emissions, En-
In addition, there are also several tests done combining
ergy and Noise) programs, the FAA plans to assist in the
regular petrofuels with a biofuel. For example, as part
development of a sustainable fuel (from alcohols, sugars,
of this test Virgin Atlantic Airways ew a Boeing 747
biomass, and organic matter such as pyrolysis oils) that
from London Heathrow Airport to Amsterdam Schiphol
can be dropped in to aircraft without changing current
Airport on 24 February 2008, with one engine burn-
infrastructure. The grant will also be used to research
ing a combination of coconut oil and babassu oil.[56]
how the fuels aect engine durability and quality control
Greenpeace's chief scientist Doug Parr said that the ight
standards.[66]
was high-altitude greenwash" and that producing organic
oils to make biofuel could lead to deforestation and a large Finally, liquied natural gas is another fuel that is used in
increase in greenhouse gas emissions.[56] Also, the major- some airplanes. Besides the lower GHG emissions (de-
ity of the worlds aircraft are not large jetliners but smaller pending from where the natural gas was obtained from),
piston aircraft, and with major modications many are another major benet to airplane operators is the price,
capable of using ethanol as a fuel.[57] Another consider- which is far lower than the price for jet fuel.
ation is the vast amount of land that would be necessary
to provide the biomass feedstock needed to support the
needs of aviation, both civil and military.[58] Reducing air travel
In December 2008, an Air New Zealand jet completed Personal choices and social pressure The German
the worlds rst commercial aviation test ight partially
video short The Bill[67] explores how travel and its impacts
using jatropha-based fuel. Jatropha, used for biodiesel,
are commonly viewed in everyday developed-world life,
can thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees
and the social pressures that are at play. British writer
and crops won't grow, or would produce only slow growth
George Marshall has investigated common rationaliza-
yields.[59][60] Air New Zealand set several general sustain-
tions that act as barriers to making personal choices to
ability criteria for its Jatropha, saying that such biofuels
travel less, or to justify recent trips. In an informal re-
must not compete with food resources, that they must be
search project, one you are welcome to join, he says,
as good as traditional jet fuels, and that they should be
he deliberately steered conversations with people who are
cost competitive with existing fuels.[61] attuned to climate change problems to questions about re-
In January 2009, Continental Airlines used a sustain- cent long-distance ights and why the travel was justied.
Reecting on actions contrary to their beliefs, he noted, expense bills charged to an employer, frequent yer points
"(i)ntriguing as their dissonance may be, what is espe- can be racked up quickly.[73] Thus, free travelfor which
cially revealing is that every one of these people has a the individual has to pay nothing extrabecomes a re-
career that is predicated on the assumption that informa- ality. Across society, this too can be expected to lead
tion is sucient to generate change an assumption that to much air traveland greenhouse gas emissionsthat
a moments introspection would show them was deeply otherwise would not occur.[75]
awed.[68] Several studies have contemplated the elimination of
frequent yer programmes (FFPs), on the grounds of
Business and professional choices anti-competitiveness,[76] ethics,[77] conict with societys
overall well-being,[78] or climate eects.[79] There is a
record of governments disallowing or banning FFPs and
With most international conferences hav-
of industry players requesting bans. Denmark did not al-
ing hundreds if not thousands of participants,
low the programs until 1992, then changing its policy be-
and the bulk of these usually traveling by plane,
cause its airlines were disadvantaged.[76] In 2002, Norway
conference travel is an area where signicant
banned domestic FFPs in order to promote competition
reductions in air-travel-related GHG emissions
among its airlines.[80] In the U.S. in 1989, a vice president
could be made. ... This does not mean non-
of Brani said the government should consider ordering
attendance. (Reay 2004)[69]
an end to frequent-yer programs, which he said allow
unfair competition.[81]
For example, by 2003 Access Grid technology has al-
ready been successfully used to host several international A Canadian study said that because of competition no
conferences,[69] and technology has likely progressed sub- airline could unilaterally end its FFP, but that a national
stantially since then. The Tyndall Centre for Climate government could use its regulatory power to end the pro-
Change Research has been systematically studying means grams broadly, which in Canadas case would also require
to change common institutional and professional prac- North America-wide cooperation.[78] In further analysis,
tices that have led to large carbon footprints of travel by a Scandinavian study which recommended an end to fre-
research scientists, and issued a report. (Le Qur et al. quent yer plans said, the only possible way of prohibit-
2015).[70][71][72] ing FFPs successfully now that they have spread from the
US to Europe to the Far East would be to do so on a
global basis. The basis exists: it could be done by the
Ending incentives to yfrequent yer programs World Trade Organization.[76] A recent study which sur-
Over 130 airlines have "frequent yer programs" based veyed frequent yers in the U.K. and Norway, looked
at least in part on miles, kilometers, points or segments into behavioral addition to frequent ying and the yers
for ights taken. Globally, such programs included about dilemma of the conict between the social and per-
163 million people as reported in 2006.[73] These pro- sonal benets of ying and air travels impact on climate
grams benet airlines by habituating people to air travel change.[79] It concluded that:
and, through the mechanics of partnerships with credit
card companies and other businesses, in which high prot Continued growth in both frequent ying
margin revenue streams can amount to selling free seats practices and concern over air travels climate
for a high price.[73] The only part of United Airlines busi- impacts are in a dynamic relationship and the
ness that was making money when the company led for question of whether one or the other will reach
bankruptcy in 2002 was its frequent yer program.[73] a tipping point cannot yet be determined. Self-
Concerning business travel, The ease of international air regulation, external regulation, social norms,
travel and the fact that, for most of us, the costs are met technology and physical resources will con-
by our employers, means that ... globe trotting conference tinue to co-constitute the balance. An increas-
travel is often regarded as a perk of the job.[69] However, ing stigmatisation of 'excessive' air travel may
the perk usually is not only the business trip itself, but also (re)frame ying as more open to collective ex-
the frequent yer points which the individual accrues by ternal mitigation.[79]
taking the trip, and which can be redeemed later for per-
sonal air travel. Thus a conict of interest is established, This means government action.
whereby bottom-up pressure may be created within a rm
or government agency for travel that is really not neces- Potential for governmental constraints on demand
sary. Even when such conict is not a motivation, the One means for reducing the environmental impact of avi-
perk of frequent yer miles can be expected to lead in ation is to constrain demand for air travel, through in-
many cases to personal trips that would not be taken if a creased fares in place of expanded airport capacity. Sev-
ticket had to be paid for with personal funds.[74] eral studies have explored this:
By just using an airline-sponsored credit card to pay ones
household expenses, personal or business bills, or even The UK study Predict and Decide Aviation, climate
change and UK policy, notes that a 10% increase in new directive was adopted by the European Parliament in
fares generates a 5% to 15% reduction in demand, July 2008 and approved by the Council in October 2008.
and recommends that the British government should It became eective on 1 January 2012.[92]
manage demand rather than provide for it.[82] This Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute inves-
would be accomplished via a strategy that presumes tigated the possible eects on Small Island Developing
" against the expansion of UK airport capacity States (SIDS) of the European Union's decision to limit
and constrains demand by the use of economic in- the supply of Certied Emission Reductions (CERs) to its
struments to price air travel less attractively.[83] ETS market to Least Developed Countries (LDCs) from
A study published by the campaign group Aviation 2013.[93] Most SIDS are highly vulnerable to the eects
Environment Federation (AEF) concludes that by of climate change and rely heavily on tourism as a basis
levying 9 billion of additional taxes, the annual rate for their economies, so this decision could place them at
of growth in demand in the UK for air travel would some disadvantage. The researchers therefore highlight
be reduced to 2%.[84] the need to ensure that any regulatory frameworks put in
place to tackle climate change take into account the devel-
The ninth report of the House of Commons opment needs of the most vulnerable countries aected.
Environmental Audit Select Committee, published
A report published by researchers at the Centre for
in July 2006, recommends that the British govern-
Aviation, Transport and Environment at Manchester
ment rethinks its airport expansion policy and con-
Metropolitan University found that the only way to have
siders ways, particularly via increased taxation, in
a signicant impact on emissions was to put a price on
which future demand can be managed in line with
carbon and to use a market-based measure (MBM), such
industry performance in achieving fuel eciencies,
as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).[94]
so that emissions are not allowed to increase in ab-
solute terms.[85]
International Civil Aviation Organization agreement

International regulation of air travel GHG emissions 2016 In October 2016 the UN agency International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) nalized an agree-
Kyoto Protocol 2005 Greenhouse gas emissions from ment among its 191 member nations to address the more
fuel consumption in international aviation, in contrast to than 458 Mt (2010)[95] of carbon dioxide emitted an-
those from domestic aviation and from energy use by nually by international passenger and cargo ights. The
airports, are excluded from the scope of the rst pe- agreement will use an osetting scheme called COR-
riod (2008-2012) of the Kyoto Protocol, as are the non- SIA (the Carbon Osetting and Reduction Scheme for
CO2 climate eects. Instead, governments agreed to International Aviation) under which forestry and other
work through the International Civil Aviation Organiza- carbon-reducing activities are directly funded, amount-
tion (ICAO) to limit or reduce emissions and to nd a ing to about 2% of annual revenues for the sector. Rules
solution to the allocation of emissions from international against 'double counting' should ensure that existing forest
aviation in time for the second period of the Kyoto Proto- protection eorts are not recycled. The scheme does not
col starting from 2009; however, the Copenhagen climate take eect until 2021 and will be voluntary until 2027,
conference failed to reach an agreement.[86] but many countries, including the US and China, have
Recent research points to this failure as a substantial ob- promised to begin at its 2020 inception date. Under the
stacle to global policy including a CO2 emissions reduc- agreement, the global aviation emissions target is an 80%
tion pathway that would avoid dangerous climate change reduction by 2035 [96]
relative to 2020. NGO reaction to the
by keeping the increase in the average global temperature deal was mixed.
below a 2 C rise.[87][88][89] The agreement has critics. It is not aligned with the 2015
Paris climate agreement, which set the objective of re-
stricting global warming to 1.5 to 2C. A late draft of the
Approaches toward emissions trading As part of agreement would have required the air transport indus-
that process the ICAO has endorsed the adoption of an try to assess its share of global carbon budgeting to meet
open emissions trading system to meet CO2 emissions re- that objective, but the text was removed in the agreed
duction objectives. Guidelines for the adoption and im- version.[97][98] CORSIA will regulate only about 25 per-
plementation of a global scheme are currently being de- cent of aviations international emissions, since it grand-
veloped, and will be presented to the ICAO Assembly fathers all emissions below the 2020 level, allowing un-
in 2007,[90] although the prospects of a comprehensive regulated growth until then.[99] Only 65 nations will par-
inter-governmental agreement on the adoption of such a ticipate in the initial voluntary period, not including sig-
scheme are uncertain. nicant emitters Russia, India and perhaps Brazil. The
Within the European Union, however, the European agreement does not cover domestic emissions, which are
Commission has resolved to incorporate aviation in the 40% of the global industrys overall emissions.[98] One
European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).[91] A observer of the ICAO convention made this summary:
Airline claims that ying will now be green sumed when microbial populations decompose propylene
are a myth. Taking a plane is the fastest and glycol.[105]:223
cheapest way to fry the planet and this deal Sucient dissolved oxygen levels in surface waters are
won't reduce demand for jet fuel one drop. In- critical for the survival of sh, macroinvertebrates, and
stead osetting aims to cut emissions in other other aquatic organisms. If oxygen concentrations drop
industries, below a minimum level, organisms emigrate, if able and
possible, to areas with higher oxygen levels or eventually
although another critic called it a timid step in the right die. This eect can drastically reduce the amount of us-
direction.[100] able aquatic habitat. Reductions in DO levels can reduce
or eliminate bottom feeder populations, create conditions
that favor a change in a communitys species prole, or
Eects of climate change on aviation alter critical food-web interactions.[105]:230
Increased turbulence A report published in the sci-

ence journal Nature Climate Change forecasts that in- 5.2.4 Air quality
creasing CO2 levels will result in a signicant increase
in in-ight turbulence experienced by transatlantic airline Main article: Avgas Environmental regulation
ights by the middle of the 21st century. The lead au-
thor of the study, Paul Williams, a researcher at the Na-
tional Center for Atmospheric Science, at the University
Lead emissions
of Reading stated, air turbulence does more than just in-
terrupt the service of in-ight drinks. It injures hundreds
Some 167,000 piston engine aircraftabout three-
of passengers and aircrew every year sometimes fatally.
quarters of private planes in the United Statesrelease
It also causes delays and damage to planes.[101]
lead (Pb) into the air due to leaded aviation fuel. [106]
From 1970 to 2007, general aviation aircraft emitted
about 34,000 tons of lead into the atmosphere according
5.2.2 Noise
to the Environmental Protection Agency. [107] Lead is
recognized as a serious environmental threat by the Fed-
Main article: Aircraft noise
eral Aviation Administration if inhaled or ingested lead-
ing to adverse eects on the nervous system, red blood
Aircraft noise is seen by advocacy groups as being very cells and cardiovascular and immune systems with infants
hard to get attention and action on. The fundamental is- and young children especially sensitive to even low levels
sues are increased trac at larger airports and airport ex- of lead, which may contribute to behavioral and learning
pansion at smaller and regional airports.[102] problems, lower IQ [108] and autism. [109]
5.2.3 Water pollution 5.2.5 Radiation exposure
Airports can generate signicant water pollution due to Flying 12 kilometres (39,000 ft) high, passengers and
their extensive use and handling of jet fuel, lubricants and crews of jet airliners are exposed to at least 10 times the
other chemicals. Airports install spill control structures cosmic ray dose that people at sea level receive. Several
and related equipment (e.g., vacuum trucks, portable times a decade, a geomagnetic storm permits a solar par-
berms, absorbents) to prevent chemical spills, and mit- ticle event to penetrate down to jetliner altitudes. Aircraft
igate the impacts of spills that do occur.[103] ying polar routes near the geomagnetic poles are at par-
ticular risk.[110][111][112][113]
In cold climates, the use of deicing uids can also cause
water pollution, as most of the uids applied to air-
craft subsequently fall to the ground and can be car- 5.2.6 See also
ried via stormwater runo to nearby streams, rivers or
coastal waters.[104]:101 Airlines use deicing uids based Air transport and the environment (United King-
on ethylene glycol or propylene glycol as the active dom)
ingredient.[104]:4
Aviation Environment Federation, a UK focused
Ethylene glycol and propylene glycol are known to exert non-prot direct action group
high levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) dur-
ing degradation in surface waters. This process can ad- Biofuels
versely aect aquatic life by consuming oxygen needed Continuous descent approach
by aquatic organisms for survival. Large quantities of
dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water column are con- Chemtrail conspiracy theory
Electric aircraft [12] Anderson, K. (17 June 2008). Reframing climate change:
from long-term targets to emission pathways (esp. slide
Flying Matters, a pro-aviation coalition in the United 24 onward).
Kingdom
[13] McNeil BI, Matear RJ (2008). Southern Ocean acidica-
Hydrogen powered aircraft tion: A tipping point at 450-ppm atmospheric CO2. Pro-
ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (105:48;
Hypermobility (travel) p.18860). (In the Southern Ocean, an ecological tipping
point due to wintertime aragonite undersaturation is pro-
Plane Mad (direct action group) jected to occur by the year 2030 and no later than 2038.)
Sustainable biofuels [14] Assoc. Press 2014. As air trac grows, safety at fore-
front. By S. Mayerowitz, AP Airlines Writer. 2 August
Sustainable Oils 2014
[15] Why airfare keeps rising despite lower oil prices, by Scott
Mayerowitz, Assoc. Press Airlines Writer. Houston
5.2.7 Notes and references Chron., 17 November 2014.
[1] International Civil Aviation Organization, Air Transport [16] Horvath A, Chester M (2008). Environmental Life-
Bureau (ATB). Aircraft Engine Emissions. Retrieved cycle Assessment of Passenger Transportation An Energy,
2008-03-19. Greenhouse Gas and Criteria Pollutant Inventory of Rail
and Air Transportation. Info: University of California
[2] Enviro.aero. What is the impact of ying?". Archived Transportation Center, UC Berkeley.
from the original on 30 June 2007. Retrieved 2008-03-
19. [17] IPCC, Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A Special Re-
port of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[3] Travis, David J.; Carleton, Andrew M. & Lauritsen, Ryan (1999), Cambridge University Press
G (2002). Contrails reduce daily temperature range
(PDF). Nature. 418 (6898): 601. PMID 12167846. [18] Valuing the non-CO2 climate impacts of aviation Climatic
doi:10.1038/418601a. Archived from the original (PDF) Change, 111 ( 3-4 ) s. 559-579 2012
on 3 May 2006.
[19] http://climatecare.org/wordpress/
[4] Guy Brasseur et al.: Impact of aviation on climate. wp-content/uploads/2013/07/
FAAs Aviation Climate Change Research Initiative (AC- Calculating-the-Environmental-Impact-of-Aviation-Emissions.
CRI) Phase II. Bulletin of the American Meteorological pdf
Society 97, No. 4, 561-584, doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-13-
[20] Sausen; Ivar Isaksen, Volker Grewe, Didier Hauglustaine,
00089.1.
David S. Lee, Gunnar Myhre, Marcus O. Khler, Gio-
[5] Climate change: Commission proposes bringing air vanni Pitari, Ulrich Schumann, Frode Stordal and Chris-
transport into EU Emissions Trading Scheme (Press re- tos Zerefos, Robert (2005). Aviation radiative forcing
lease). EU press release. 2006-12-20. Retrieved 2008- in 2000: an update on IPCC (PDF). Meteorologische
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Chapter 6
Piloting
6.1 Aviator In recognition of the pilots qualications and responsibil-

ities, most militaries and many airlines worldwide award
Aviator and Jet pilot redirect here. For other uses, aviator badges to their pilots, and this includes naval avi-
see Aviator (disambiguation) and Jet pilot (disambigua- ators.
tion).
Aviatrix redirects here. For a discussion of the role
of women in aviation and aeronautics, see Women in 6.1.1 History
aviation.
Hot air balloon pilot and passenger in basket
The rst recorded use of the term aviator (aviateur in

French) was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from
the Latin avis (meaning bird), coined in 1863 by G. de
la Landelle in Aviation Ou Navigation Arienne (Avia-
tion or Air Navigation). The term aviatrix (aviatrice in
French), now archaic, was formerly used for a female avi-
ator. These terms were used more in the early days of avi-
ation, when airplanes were extremely rare, and connoted
bravery and adventure. For example, a 1905 reference
U.S. Army test pilot Lt. F.W. Mike Hunter wearing a ight suit work described the Wright brothers' rst airplane: The
in October 1942 weight, including the body of the aviator, is a little more
than 700 pounds.[1]
An aircraft pilot or aviator is a person who controls the To ensure the safety of people in the air and on the
ight of an aircraft by operating its directional ight con- ground, early aviation soon required that aircraft be un-
trols. While other aircrew members such as navigators der the operational control of a properly trained, certi-
or ight engineers are also considered aviators, because ed pilot at all times, who is responsible for the safe
they are involved in operating the aircrafts ight systems, and legal completion of the ight. The Aro-Club de
they are not pilots and do not command a ight or air- France delivered the rst certicate to Louis Blriot in
craft. Other aircrew members such as ight attendants, 1908followed by Glenn Curtiss, Lon Delagrange, and
mechanics and ground crew, are not classied as aviators. Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The absolute authority given to
78
6.1. AVIATOR 79
the "pilot in command" derives from that of a ships cap- United States
tain.
In 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licens-
ing requirements for American civil aviation.
6.1.2 Civilian Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a
mandatory retirement age of 65, having increased from
age 60 in 2007.[4]
6.1.3 Military
Pilots landing a Boeing 777
Civilian pilots y aircraft of all types privately for plea-

sure, charity, or in pursuance of a business, and/or com-
mercially for non-scheduled (charter) and scheduled pas-
senger and cargo air carriers (airlines), corporate avia-
tion, agriculture (crop dusting, etc.), forest re control, F-16 pilot in ight
law enforcement, etc. When ying for an airline, pilots
are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in Military pilots y with the armed forces of a govern-
command often referred to as the captain. ment or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-
combat operations, including direct hostile engagements
and support operations. Military pilots undergo special-
Airline ized training, often with weapons. Examples of military
pilots include ghter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pi-
There were 290,000 airline pilots in the world in 2017.[2] lots, test pilots and astronauts. Military pilots also serve
as ight crews on aircraft for government personnel, such
as Air Force One and Air Force Two in the United States.
Africa and Asia
Military pilots are trained with a dierent syllabus than
civilian pilots, which is delivered by military instructors.
In some countries, such as Pakistan, Thailand and several
This is due to the dierent aircraft, ight goals, ight sit-
African nations, there is a strong relationship between the
uations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots
military and the principal national airlines, and many air-
do transfer to civilian-pilot qualication after they leave
line pilots come from the military; however, that is no
the military, and typically their military experience pro-
longer the case in the United States and Western Europe.
vides the basis for a civilian pilots license.
While the ight decks of U.S. and European airliners do
have ex-military pilots, many pilots are civilians. Mili-
tary training and ying, while rigorous, is fundamentally
6.1.4 Unmanned aerial vehicles
dierent in many ways from civilian piloting.
Further information: Unmanned aerial vehicle Degree
of autonomy
Canada
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs, also known as
drones) operate without a pilot on-board and are
Operating an aircraft in Canada is regulated by the classed into two categories: autonomous aircraft that op-
Aeronautics Act of 1985 and the Canadian Aviation Reg- erate without active human control during ight and re-
ulations provide rules for Pilot licensing in Canada. motely piloted UAVs which are operated remotely by
Retirement age is provided by each airline with some set one or more persons. The person controlling a remotely
to age 60, but changes to the Canadian Human Rights Act piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or oper-
have restricted retirement age set by the airlines.[3] ator. Depending on the sophistication and use of the
80 CHAPTER 6. PILOTING
Operators in a control room pilot and monitor video feeds from

a remotely piloted UAV.
Military aviation training in a Royal Air Force Nimrod aircraft

UAV, pilots/operators of UAVs may require certication
or training, but are generally not subject to the licens-
ing/certication requirements of pilots of manned air- In the United States, an LSA (Light Sport Aircraft) li-
craft. cense can be obtained in at least 20 hours of ight time.
Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs The next step in a pilots progression is either Instrument
which have greatly limited their use in controlled Rating (IR), or Multi-Engine Rating (MEP) endorse-
airspace; UAVs have mostly been limited to military ments.
and hobbyist use. In the United States, use of UAVs is
very limited in controlled airspace (generally, above 400 If a professional career or professional-level skills are de-
ft/122m and away from airports) and the FAA prohibits sired, a Commercial Pilot License (CPL) endorsement
nearly all commercial use. Once regulations are made would also be required. To captain an airliner, one must
to allow expanded use of UAVs in controlled airspace, obtain an Airline Transport Pilot License (ATPL). After
there is expected to be a large surge of UAVs in use and, 1 August 2013, even [6]
when being a First Ocer (FO), an
consequently, high demand for pilots/operators of these ATPL is required.
aircraft.[5] Some countries/carriers require/use a Multi Crew Coor-
dination (MCC).
6.1.5 Space
6.1.7 See also
The general concept of an airplane pilot can be applied
to human spaceight, as well. The spacecraft pilot is Aircrew (ight crew)
the astronaut who directly controls the operation of a
Airline pilot uniforms
spacecraft, while located within that same craft (not re-
motely). This term derives directly from the usage of Air safety
the word pilot in aviation, where it is synonymous with
aviator. Note that on the N.A.S.A Space Shuttle, the Pilot Fatigue
term pilot is analogous to the term "co-pilot" in avia-
tion, as the "commander" has ultimate responsibility for IMSAFE (mnemonic for pilots tness to y)
the shuttle.
List of aerospace engineers
List of aviators
6.1.6 Pilot certications
List of Russian aviators
Further information: Pilot licensing and certication
Women of Aviation Worldwide Week, an interna-
tional celebration of all women of aviation
Pilots are required to go through many hours of ight
training and theoretical study, that dier depending on
the country. The rst step is acquiring the Private Pilot 6.1.8 References
License (PPL), or Private Pilot Certicate. This takes at
least 40 hours of ight time with a Certied Flight In- [1] Aeronautics in 1904. Colliers Self-Indexing Annual.
structor (CFI). New York: P. F. Collier & Son. 1905. p. 6.
6.1. AVIATOR 81
[2] Airline Pilot Demand Outlook (PDF). CAE Inc. June

2017. 10-year view.
[3] Vanessa Lu (January 24, 2013). Air Canada pilots can

continue ying past age 60 under new rules. Toronto Star.
Retrieved November 5, 2013.
[4] Maxon, Terry (December 15, 2007). Retirement age

raised to 65 in nick of time for pilots turning 60. The
Dallas Morning News. Retrieved October 15, 2009.
[5] Rooney, Ben (November 25, 2014). Drone pilot wanted:

Starting salary $100,000. CNN. Retrieved March 24,
2015.
[6] Pope, Stephen (July 11, 2013). FAA Finalizes ATP Rule
for First Ocers. Flying Magazine. Retrieved October
15, 2014.

Media related to Aviators at Wikimedia Commons
U.S. Women Pilots Statistics 19602010

Chapter 7
Aviation Best Practices and Training
7.1 Air safety comparable with methods of transportation with dier-

ent numbers of passengers, such as one person driving
an automobile for 100,000 miles (160,000 km), which
is also 100,000 person-miles), and thus one of the safest
modes of transportation when measured by distance trav-
eled.
The World Bank has published the reliable data of the fre-
quency of passengers carried by Air Transport in the Year
2012 obtained from the International Civil Aviation Or-
ganization (ICAO). The United States of America has the
largest number of Commercial Air Transport Passengers.
756,617,000 cf. China the next largest with 318,475,924.
The United States had an International Flight frequency
A crewman performing a pre-ight inspection in an Air Malta
of 9,560,451 in 2012. The Civil Aviation Authority, JAR
Airbus A320. and EASA have published that there is a fatal accident ra-
tio of one per million ights. The main cause is Pilot in
Aviation safety is a term encompassing the theory, in- Command error.
vestigation, and categorization of ight failures, and the Between 19902006, there were 1441 commuter and air
prevention of such failures through regulation, education, taxi crashes in the U.S. of which 373 (26%) were fatal,
and training. It can also be applied in the context of cam- resulting in 1063 deaths (142 occupational pilot deaths).
paigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel. A disproportionate number of all U.S. aircraft crashes oc-
cur in Alaska, largely as a result of severe weather condi-
tions. Alaska accounted for 513 (36%) of the total U.S.
7.1.1 Brief History crashes.[1]
During the 1920s, the rst laws were passed in the USA Another aspect of safety is protection from attack cur-
to regulate civil aviation. Of particular signicance was rently known as Security (as the ISO denition of
the Air Commerce Act (1926) which required pilots and safety encompasses non-intentional (safety_safety) and
aircraft to be examined and licensed, for accidents to be intentional (safety_security) causes of harm or property
properly investigated, and for the establishment of safety damage). The terrorist attacks of 2001 are not counted
rules and navigation aids, under the Aeronautics Branch as accidents. However, even if they were counted
of the United States Department of Commerce. as accidents they would have added about 2 deaths
per 2,000,000,000 person-miles. Two months later,
Despite this, in 1926 and 1927 there were a total of 24 American Airlines Flight 587 crashed in New York City,
fatal commercial airline crashes, a further 16 in 1928, killing 256 people including 5 on the ground, causing
and 51 in 1929 (killing 61 people), which remains the 2001 to show a very high fatality rate. Even so, the rate
worst year on record at an accident rate of about 1 for ev- that year including the attacks (estimated here to be about
ery 1,000,000 miles (1,600,000 km) own. Based on the 4 deaths per 1,000,000,000 person-miles), is safe com-
current numbers ying, this would equate to 7,000 fatal pared to some other forms of transport when measured
incidents per year. by distance traveled.
The fatal incident rate has declined steadily ever since, Safety has improved from better aircraft design, engi-
and since 1997 the number of fatal air accidents has been neering and maintenance, the evolution of navigation
no more than 1 for every 2,000,000,000 person-miles aids, and safety protocols and procedures.
own (e.g., 100 people ying a plane for 1,000 miles
(1,600 km) counts as 100,000 person-miles, making it The number of deaths per passenger-mile on commer-
82
7.1. AIR SAFETY 83
cial airlines in the United States between 2000 and 2010 dio ranges and the non-directional beacon (NDB). The
was about 0.2 deaths per 10 billion passenger-miles,[2][3] ground based VOR stations were often co-located with
while for driving, the rate was 150 per 10 billion vehicle- DME transmitters. With the proper receiving equip-
miles for 2000. This computes to a fatality rate for driving ment in the aircraft, pilots could know their radials in de-
to be 750 times higher per mile than for ying in a com- grees to/from the VOR station, as well as the slant range
mercial airplane. There were no fatalities on large sched- distance.[5] A number of ground based Weather radar sys-
uled commercial airlines in the United States in 2015 for tems can detect areas of severe turbulence.
the sixth year running.[4] Ground-based navigation aids are being supplanted
by satellite-based aids like Global Positioning System
7.1.2 Navigation aids and instrument (GPS), which make it possible for pilots to know their po-
sition with great precision anywhere in the world. With
ight the arrival of Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS),
Satellite navigation has become accurate enough for ver-
tical (altitude) as well as horizontal use, and is being used
increasingly for instrument approaches as well as en-route
navigation. However, because the GPS constellation is a
single point of failure, on-board Inertial Navigation Sys-
tem (INS) or ground-based navigation aids are still re-
quired for backup.
In June 2014 the International Air Transport Associa-
tion said it was working on implementing new measures
to track aircraft in ight in real time. A special panel
was considering a range of options including the produc-
tion of equipment especially designed to ensure real time
tracking.[6]
An airborne pulse-Doppler radar antenna. Some airborne

radars can be used as meteorological radars.
7.1.3 Aviation safety hazards
A modern-day Honeywell Intuvue weather system visu- Foreign object debris

alizes weather patterns up to 300 miles away. One of the
rst navigation aids to be introduced (in the USA in the Main article: Foreign object debris
late 1920s) was aireld lighting to assist pilots to make
landings in poor weather or after dark. The Precision Foreign object debris (FOD) includes items left in the
Approach Path Indicator was developed from this in the aircraft structure during manufacture/repairs, debris on
1930s, indicating to the pilot the angle of descent to the runway and solids encountered in ight (e.g. hail and
the aireld. This later became adopted internationally dust). Such items can damage engines and other parts of
through the standards of the International Civil Aviation the aircraft. Air France Flight 4590 crashed after hitting
Organization (ICAO). a part that had fallen from another aircraft.
In 1929 Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument ight.
With the spread of radio technology, several experimen- Misleading information and lack of information
tal radio based navigation aids were developed from the
late 1920s onwards. These were most successfully used in A pilot misinformed by a printed document (manual,
conjunction with instruments in the cockpit in the form of map, this wiki page, etc.), reacting to a faulty instrument
Instrument landing systems (ILS), rst used by a sched- or indicator (in the cockpit or on the ground),[7][8] or fol-
uled ight to make a landing in a snowstorm at Pittsburgh, lowing inaccurate instructions or information from ight
Pennsylvania, in 1938. A form of ILS was adopted by the or ground control can lose spatial orientation, or make
ICAO for international use in 1949. another mistake, and consequently lead to accidents or
Following the development of Radar in World War II, it nearmisses.[9][10][11][12]
was deployed as a landing aid for civil aviation in the form
of ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems, joined in
1948 by distance measuring equipment (DME), and in Lightning
the 1950s by airport surveillance radar as an aid to air
trac control. VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) sta- Boeing studies showed that airliners are struck by
tions became the predominant means of route naviga- lightning twice per year on average; aircraft withstand
tion during the 1960s, superseding the low frequency ra- typical lightning strikes without damage.
84 CHAPTER 7. AVIATION BEST PRACTICES AND TRAINING
The dangers of more powerful positive lightning were not Engine failure
understood until the destruction of a glider in 1999.[13]
It has since been suggested that positive lightning might Further information: Turbine engine failure and ETOPS
have caused the crash of Pan Am Flight 214 in 1963. At
that time, aircraft were not designed to withstand such
An engine may fail to function because of fuel starva-
strikes because their existence was unknown. The 1985
tion (e.g. British Airways Flight 38), fuel exhaustion (e.g.
standard in force in the US at the time of the glider crash,
Gimli Glider), foreign object damage (e.g. US Airways
Advisory Circular AC 20-53A,[13] was replaced by Advi-
Flight 1549), mechanical failure due to metal fatigue (e.g.
sory Circular AC 20-53B in 2006.[14] However, it is un-
Kegworth air disaster, El Al Flight 1862, China Airlines
clear whether adequate protection against positive light-
Flight 358), mechanical failure due to improper main-
ning was incorporated.[15][16]
tenance (e.g. American Airlines Flight 191), mechani-
The eects of typical lightning on traditional metal- cal failure caused by an original manufacturing defect in
covered aircraft are well understood and serious damage the engine (e.g. Qantas Flight 32, United Airlines Flight
from a lightning strike on an airplane is rare. The Boeing 232, Delta Air Lines Flight 1288), and pilot error (e.g.
787 Dreamliner of which the exterior is carbon-ber- Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701).
reinforced polymer received no damage from a lightning
In a multi-engine aircraft, failure of a single engine usu-
strike during testing.[17]
ally results in a precautionary landing being performed,
for example landing at a diversion airport instead of con-
tinuing to the intended destination. Failure of a second
Ice and snow engine (e.g. US Airways Flight 1549) or damage to other
aircraft systems caused by an uncontained engine failure
Ice and snow can be major factors in airline accidents. In (e.g. United Airlines Flight 232) may, if an emergency
2005, Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 slid o the end of landing is not possible, result in the aircraft crashing.
a runway after landing in heavy snow conditions, killing
one child on the ground.
Structural failure of the aircraft
Even a small amount of icing or coarse frost can greatly
impair the ability of a wing to develop adequate lift, which
Examples of failure of aircraft structures caused by metal
is why regulations prohibit ice, snow or even frost on the
fatigue include the de Havilland Comet accidents (1950s)
wings or tail, prior to takeo.[18] Air Florida Flight 90
and Aloha Airlines Flight 243 (1988). Now that the
crashed on takeo in 1982, as a result of ice/snow on its
subject is better understood, rigorous inspection and
wings.
nondestructive testing procedures are in place.
An accumulation of ice during ight can be catastrophic,
Composite materials consist of layers of bers embedded
as evidenced by the loss of control and subsequent crashes
in a resin matrix. In some cases, especially when sub-
of American Eagle Flight 4184 in 1994, and Comair
jected to cyclic stress, the layers of the material separate
Flight 3272 in 1997. Both aircraft were turboprop air-
from each other (delaminate) and lose strength. As the
liners, with straight wings, which tend to be more suscep-
failure develops inside the material, nothing is shown on
tible to inight ice accumulation, than are swept-wing jet
the surface; instrument methods (often ultrasound-based)
airliners.[19]
have to be used to detect such a material failure. In the
Airlines and airports ensure that aircraft are properly de- 1940s several Yakovlev Yak-9s experienced delamina-
iced before takeo whenever the weather involves icing tion of plywood in their construction.
conditions. Modern airliners are designed to prevent
ice buildup on wings, engines, and tails (empennage) by
either routing heated air from jet engines through the Stalling
leading edges of the wing, and inlets, or on slower air-
craft, by use of inatable rubber "boots" that expand to Stalling an aircraft (increasing the angle of attack to a
break o any accumulated ice. point at which the wings fail to produce enough lift) is
Airline ight plans require airline dispatch oces to mon- dangerous and can result in a crash if the pilot fails to
itor the progress of weather along the routes of their make a timely correction.
ights, helping the pilots to avoid the worst of inight ic- Devices to warn the pilot when the aircrafts speed is
ing conditions. Aircraft can also be equipped with an ice decreasing close to the stall speed include stall warning
detector in order to warn pilots to leave unexpected ice horns (now standard on virtually all powered aircraft),
accumulation areas, before the situation becomes critical. stick shakers, and voice warnings. Most stalls are a re-
Pitot tubes in modern airplanes and helicopters have been sult of the pilot allowing the airspeed to be too slow for
provided with the function of Pitot Heating to prevent the particular weight and conguration at the time. Stall
accidents like Air France Flight 447 caused by the pitot speed is higher when ice or frost has attached to the wings
tube freezing and giving false readings. and/or tail stabilizer. The more severe the icing, the
7.1. AIR SAFETY 85
higher the stall speed, not only because smooth airow the aircraft impaired passengers ability to evacuate, with
over the wings becomes increasingly more dicult, but areas such as the forward galley area becoming a bottle-
also because of the added weight of the accumulated ice. neck for escaping passengers, with some dying very close
Crashes caused by a full stall of the airfoils include: to the exits. Much research into evacuation and cabin and
seating layouts was carried out at Craneld Institute to try
to measure what makes a good evacuation route, which
British European Airways Flight 548 (1972) led to the seat layout by Overwing exits being changed by
United Airlines Flight 553 (1972) mandate and the examination of evacuation requirements
relating to the design of galley areas. The use of smoke
Aeroot Flight 7425 (1985) hoods or misting systems were also examined although
both were rejected.
Arrow Air Flight 1285 (1985)
South African Airways Flight 295 was lost in the Indian
Northwest Airlines Flight 255 (1987) Ocean in 1987 after an in-ight re in the cargo hold
could not be suppressed by the crew. The cargo holds
The Paul Wellstone crash (2002) of most airliners are now equipped with automated halon
Colgan Air Flight 3407 (2009) re extinguishing systems to combat a re that might oc-
cur in the baggage holds. In May 1996, ValuJet Flight
Turkish Airlines Flight 1951 crash (2009) 592 crashed into the Florida Everglades a few minutes
after takeo because of a re in the forward cargo hold.
Air France Flight 447 (2009) All 110 people on board were killed.
At one time, re ghting foam paths were laid down be-
Fire fore an emergency landing, but the practice was consid-
ered only marginally eective, and concerns about the de-
pletion of re ghting capability due to pre-foaming led
the United States FAA to withdraw its recommendation
in 1987.
One possible cause of res in airplanes is wiring prob-
lems that involve intermittent faults, such as wires with
breached insulation touching each other, having water
dripping on them, or short circuits. These are dicult
to detect once the aircraft is on the ground. However,
there are methods, such as spread-spectrum time-domain
reectometry, that can feasibly test live wires on aircraft
during ight.[20]
Bird strike
NASA air safety experiment (CID project) Main article: Bird strike
Safety regulations control aircraft materials and the re-

quirements for automated re safety systems. Usually Bird strike is an aviation term for a collision between a
bird and an aircraft. Fatal accidents have been caused
these requirements take the form of required tests. The
tests measure ammability of materials and toxicity of by both engine failure following bird ingestion and bird
smoke. When the tests fail, it is on a prototype in an en- strikes breaking cockpit windshields.
gineering laboratory rather than in an aircraft. Jet engines have to be designed to withstand the ingestion
Fire and its toxic smoke have been the cause of acci- of birds of a specied weight and number and to not lose
dents. An electrical re on Air Canada Flight 797 in 1983 more than a specied amount of thrust. The weight and
caused the deaths of 23 of the 46 passengers, resulting in numbers of birds that can be ingested without hazarding
the introduction of oor level lighting to assist people to the safe ight of the aircraft are related to the engine in-
evacuate a smoke-lled aircraft. In 1985, a re on the take area.[21] The hazards of ingesting birds beyond the
runway caused the loss of 55 lives, 48 from the eects designed-for limit were shown on US Airways Flight
of incapacitating and subsequently lethal toxic gas and 1549 when the aircraft struck Canada geese.
smoke in the British Airtours Flight 28M accident which The outcome of an ingestion event and whether it causes
raised serious concerns relating to survivability some- an accident, be it on a small fast plane, such as military
thing that had not been studied in such detail. The swift jet ghters, or a large transport, depends on the number
incursion of the re into the fuselage and the layout of and weight of birds and where they strike the fan blade
span or the nose cone. Core damage usually results with and external factors.[23] The ability of the ight crew to
impacts near the blade root or on the nose cone. maintain situation awareness is a critical human factor in
The highest risk of a bird strike occurs during takeo and air safety. Human factors training is available to general
landing in the vicinity of airports, and during low-level aviation pilots and called single pilot resource manage-
ying by military aircraft, crop dusters and helicopters ment training.
for example. Some airports use active countermeasures, Failure of the pilots to properly monitor the ight instru-
ranging from a person with a shotgun through recorded ments caused the crash of Eastern Air Lines Flight 401
sounds of predators to employing falconers. Poisonous in 1972. Controlled ight into terrain (CFIT), and error
grass can be planted that is not palatable to birds, nor to during take-o and landing can have catastrophic conse-
insects that attract insectivorous birds. Passive counter- quences, for example causing the crash of Prinair Flight
measures involve sensible land-use management, avoid- 191 on landing, also in 1972.
ing conditions attracting ocks of birds to the area (e.g.
landlls). Another tactic found eective is to let the grass
at the aireld grow taller (approximately 12 inches (30
cm)) as some species of birds won't land if they cannot Pilot fatigue Main article: Pilot Fatigue
see one another.
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
denes fatigue as A physiological state of reduced men-
Human factors
tal or physical performance capability resulting from
sleep loss or extended wakefulness, circadian phase, or
See also: aviation medicine
workload.[24] The phenomenon places great risk on the
Human factors, including pilot error, are another poten-
crew and passengers of an airplane because it signi-
cantly increases the chance of pilot error.[25] Fatigue is
particularly prevalent among pilots because of unpre-
dictable work hours, long duty periods, circadian disrup-
tion, and insucient sleep.[26] These factors can occur
together to produce a combination of sleep deprivation,
circadian rhythm eects, and 'time-on task' fatigue.[26]
Regulators attempt to mitigate fatigue by limiting the
amount of hours pilots are allowed to y over varying pe-
riods of time. Experts in aviation fatigue often nd that
these methods fall short on their goals.
Piloting while intoxicated Rarely, ight crew mem-

bers are arrested or subject to disciplinary action for be-
NASA air safety experiment (CID project). The airplane is a
ing intoxicated on the job. In 1990, three Northwest
Boeing 720 testing a form of jet fuel, known as "antimisting Airlines crew members were sentenced to jail for ying
kerosene", which formed a dicult-to-ignite gel when agitated while drunk. In 2001, Northwest red a pilot who failed
violently, as in a crash. a breathalyzer test after a ight. In July 2002, both pi-
lots of America West Airlines Flight 556 were arrested
tial set of factors, and currently the factor most commonly just before they were scheduled to y because they had
found in aviation accidents. Much progress in apply- been drinking alcohol. The pilots were red and the
ing human factors analysis to improving aviation safety FAA revoked their pilot licenses.[27] At least one fatal air-
was made around the time of World War II by such pi- liner accident involving drunk pilots occurred when Aero
oneers as Paul Fitts and Alphonse Chapanis. However, Flight 311 crashed at Koivulahti, Finland, killing all 25
there has been progress in safety throughout the history of on board in 1961, which underscores the role that poor
aviation, such as the development of the pilots checklist human choices can play in air accidents.
in 1937.[22] CRM, or Crew Resource Management, is a Human factors incidents are not limited to errors by pi-
technique that makes use of the experience and knowl- lots. Failure to close a cargo door properly on Turkish
edge of the complete ight crew to avoid dependence on Airlines Flight 981 in 1974 caused the loss of the aircraft
just one crew member. however, design of the cargo door latch was also a major
Pilot error and improper communication are often fac- factor in the accident. In the case of Japan Airlines Flight
tors in the collision of aircraft. This can take place in the 123, improper repair of previous damage led to explosive
air (1978 Pacic Southwest Airlines Flight 182) (TCAS) decompression of the cabin, which in turn destroyed the
or on the ground (1977 Tenerife disaster) (RAAS). The vertical stabilizer and damaged all four hydraulic systems
barriers to have an eective communication have internal which powered all the ight controls.
7.1. AIR SAFETY 87
Controlled ight into terrain Main article: and the plane departed. Climbing through 26,000 feet
Controlled ight into terrain (7,900 m) the damaged section of the skin gave way un-
der the dierence in pressure between the inside of the
Controlled ight into terrain (CFIT) is a class of acci- aircraft and the outside air. The cabin depressurized ex-
dents in which an aircraft is own under control into ter- plosively necessitating a rapid descent to denser (breath-
rain or man-made structures. CFIT accidents typically able) air and an emergency landing. Post landing exam-
result from pilot error or of navigational system error. ination of the fuselage revealed [32]
a 12 in (30 cm) hole on
Failure to protect ILS critical areas can also cause CFIT the right side of the airplane.
accidents. In December 1995, American Airlines Flight
965 tracked o course while approaching Cali, Colombia Volcanic ash
and hit a mountainside despite a terrain awareness and
warning system (TAWS) terrain warning in the cockpit Main article: Volcanic ash and aviation safety
and desperate pilot attempt to gain altitude after the warn-
ing. Crew position awareness and monitoring of naviga-
Plumes of volcanic ash near active volcanoes can dam-
tional systems are essential to the prevention of CFIT ac-
age propellers, engines and cockpit windows.[33] [34] In
cidents. As of February 2008, over 40,000 aircraft had
1982, British Airways Flight 9 ew through an ash cloud
enhanced TAWS installed, and they had own over 800
and temporarily lost power from all four engines. The
million hours without a CFIT accident.[28]
plane was badly damaged, with all the leading edges be-
Another anti-CFIT tool is the Minimum Safe Altitude ing scratched. The front windscreens had been so badly
Warning (MSAW) system which monitors the altitudes sand blasted by the ash that they could not be used to
transmitted by aircraft transponders and compares that land the aircraft.[35]
with the systems dened minimum safe altitudes for a
Prior to 2010 the general approach taken by airspace reg-
given area. When the system determines the aircraft is
ulators was that if the ash concentration rose above zero,
lower, or might soon be lower, than the minimum safe
then the airspace was considered unsafe and was conse-
altitude, the air trac controller receives an acoustic and
quently closed.[36] Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers enable
visual warning and then alerts the pilot that the aircraft is
liaison between meteorologists, volcanologists, and the
too low.[29]
aviation industry.[37]
Electromagnetic interference See also: Mobile Runway safety

phones on aircraft and Electromagnetic interference
Main article: Runway safety
The use of certain electronic equipment is partially or
entirely prohibited as it might interfere with aircraft Types of runway safety incidents include:
operation,[30] such as causing compass deviations. Use
of some types of personal electronic devices is prohibited Runway excursion an incident involving only a sin-
when an aircraft is below 10,000', taking o, or landing. gle aircraft making an inappropriate exit from the
Use of a mobile phone is prohibited on most ights be- runway.
cause in-ight usage creates problems with ground-based
cells.[30][31] Runway overrun a specic type of excursion where
the aircraft does not stop before the end of the run-
way (e.g., Air France Flight 358).
Ground damage Runway incursion incorrect presence of a vehi-
cle, person, or another aircraft on the runway (e.g.,
Various ground support equipment operate in close prox- Tenerife airport disaster).
imity to the fuselage and wings to service the aircraft
and occasionally cause accidental damage in the form of Runway confusion crew misidentication the run-
scratches in the paint or small dents in the skin. How- way for landing or take-o (e.g., Comair Flight 191,
ever, because aircraft structures (including the outer skin) Singapore Airlines Flight 6).
play such a critical role in the safe operation of a ight,
all damage is inspected, measured, and possibly tested to
Terrorism
ensure that any damage is within safe tolerances.
An example problem was the depressurization incident on Aircrew are normally trained to handle hijack situations.
Alaska Airlines Flight 536 in 2005. During ground ser- Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, stricter airport
vices a baggage handler hit the side of the aircraft with and airline security measures are in place to prevent
a tug towing a train of baggage carts. This damaged the terrorism, such as security checkpoints and locking the
metal skin of the aircraft. This damage was not reported cockpit doors during ight.
Deliberate aircrew action In 1988, the United States shot down Iran Air Flight
655.
Although most air crews are screened for psychological
In 2001, the Ukrainian Air Force accidentally shot
tness, some have taken suicidal actions. In the case of
down Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 during an exer-
EgyptAir Flight 990, it appears that the rst ocer delib-
cise.
erately crashed into the Atlantic Ocean while the captain
was away from his station in 1999 o Nantucket, Mas- In 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down.
sachusetts.
In 1982, Japan Airlines Flight 350 crashed while on ap-
7.1.4 Accident survivability
proach to the Tokyo Haneda Airport, killing 24 of the 174
on board. The ocial investigation found the mentally ill
Further information: Pre-ight safety demonstration,
captain had attempted suicide by placing the inboard en-
Aircraft safety card, Brace position, Aircraft rescue and
gines into reverse thrust, while the aircraft was close to
reghting, and Airport crash tender
the runway. The rst ocer did not have enough time to
countermand before the aircraft stalled and crashed.
In 1997, SilkAir Flight 185 suddenly went into a high dive
from its cruising altitude. The speed of the dive was so Airport design
high that the aircraft began to break apart before it nally
Airport design and location can have a large impact on
crashed near Palembang, Sumatra. After three years of
aviation safety, especially since some airports such as
investigation, the Indonesian authorities declared that the
Chicago Midway International Airport were originally
cause of the accident could not be determined. However,
built for propeller planes and many airports are in con-
the US NTSB concluded that deliberate suicide by the
gested areas where it is dicult to meet newer safety stan-
captain was the only reasonable explanation.
dards. For instance, the FAA issued rules in 1999 calling
In 2015, on March 24, Germanwings Flight 9525 (an Air- for a runway safety area, usually extending 500 feet (150
bus A320-200) crashed 100 kilometres (62 mi) northwest m) to each side and 1,000 feet (300 m) beyond the end
of Nice, in the French Alps, after a constant descent that of a runway. This is intended to cover ninety percent of
began one minute after the last routine contact with air the cases of an aircraft leaving the runway by providing
trac control and shortly after the aircraft had reached a buer space free of obstacles. Many older airports do
its assigned cruise altitude. All 144 passengers and six not meet this standard. One method of substituting for
crew members were killed. The crash was intentionally the 1,000 feet (300 m) at the end of a runway for airports
caused by the co-pilot, Andreas Lubitz. Having been de- in congested areas is to install an engineered materials ar-
clared unt to work without telling his employer, Lub- restor system (EMAS). These systems are usually made
itz reported for duty, and during the ight locked the pilot of a lightweight, crushable concrete that absorbs the en-
out of the cabin. In response to the incident and the cir- ergy of the aircraft to bring it to a rapid stop. As of 2008,
cumstances of Lubitzs involvement, aviation authorities they have stopped three aircraft at JFK Airport.
in Canada, New Zealand, Germany and Australia imple-
mented new regulations that require two authorized per-
sonnel to be present in the cockpit at all times. Three days Emergency airplane evacuations
after the incident the European Aviation Safety Agency
issued a temporary recommendation for airlines to ensure According to a 2000 report by the National Transporta-
that at least two crew members, including at least one pi-tion Safety Board, emergency aircraft evacuations happen
lot, are in the cockpit at all times of the ight. Severalabout once every 11 days in the U.S. While some situ-
airlines announced they had already adopted similar poli- ations are extremely dire, such as when the plane is on
cies voluntarily. re, in many cases the greatest challenge for passengers
can be the use of the evacuation slide. In a Time arti-
cle on the subject, Amanda Ripley reported that when a
Military action new supersized Airbus A380 underwent mandatory evac-
uation tests in 2006, 33 of the 873 evacuating volunteers
Passenger planes have rarely been attacked in both peace- got hurt. While the evacuation was considered a success,
time and war. Examples: one volunteer suered a broken leg, while the remaining
32 received slide burns. Such accidents are common. In
In 1955, Bulgaria shot down El Al Flight 402. her article, Ripley provided tips on how to make it down
the airplane slide without injury.[38]
In 1973, Israel shot down Libyan Arab Airlines
Flight 114.
7.1.5 Accidents and incidents
In 1983, the Soviet Union shot down Korean Air
Lines Flight 007. List of airship accidents
7.1. AIR SAFETY 89
Lists of aviation accidents and incidents It is therefore important to use each statistic in a proper
context. When it comes to a question about risks associ-
Aviation accidents and incidents ated with a particular long-range travel from one city to
List of airliner shootdown incidents another, the most suitable statistic is the third one, thus
giving a reason to name air travel as the safest form of
Flight recorder, includes ight data recorder and long-range transportation. However, if the availability of
cockpit voice recorder an air option makes an otherwise inconvenient journey
possible, then this argument loses some of its force.
Statistics Aviation industry insurers base their calculations on the

deaths per journey statistic while the aviation industry
According to the 2014 ICAO safety report, [39]
the total itself generally uses the deaths per kilometre statistic in
[44]
number of plane accidents in 2013 was 90 worldwide. press releases.
Only 9 of these accidents were fatal accidents, that is, Fatalities have been in constant decline since the mid-
accidents involving fatalities. The Global Fatal Accident 1990s, while the number of passenger ight-hours has
Review of the Civil Aviation Authority gives a total num- kept increasing since the 1950s.
ber of 0.6 fatal accidents per one million ights for the
ten-year period 2002 to 2011.[40] When expressed as per
million hours own, this number is 0.4. The correspond-
ing number of fatalities is 22.0 fatalities per one million
ights or 12.7 when expressed as per million hours own.
The total number of fatalities in 2013 was 173, which is
the smallest number of fatalities since 2000, even though
the total number of departures in 2013 was a record 32.1
million. This corresponds to 5.39 fatalities per one mil-
lion departures in 2013. The following chart shows the
development of the rate of fatal and non-fatal accidents
in recent years.
Not all phases of ight are equally prone to accidents.
Most accidents (55%) occur during landing or take-o. Number of fatalities from airliners (14+ passengers)[45]
hull loss
Only 10% occur when the aircraft is en route. accidents per year. In red is the 5-year average.
In 2016 there has been 19 fatal accidents of civil airliner

of more than 14 passengers, resulting in 325 fatalities :
National investigation organizations
the second safest year ever after 2015 with 16 accidents
[41]
and 2013 with 265 fatalities.
Australian Transport Safety Bureau
Flugunfalluntersuchungsstelle im BMVIT (Austria)

Comparison to other modes of travel There are three
main ways in which risk of fatality of a certain mode of Transportation Safety Board of Canada
travel can be measured: Deaths per billion typical jour-
neys taken, deaths per billion hours traveled, or deaths per Air Accidents Investigation Institute (Czech Repub-
billion kilometers traveled. The following table displays lic)
these statistics for 19902000. Note that aviation safety
Danish Aircraft Accident Investigation Board
does not include the transportation to the airport.[42][43]
The rst two statistics are computed for typical travels for Bureau d'Enqutes et d'Analyses pour la scurit de
respective forms of transport, so they cannot be used di- l'Aviation Civile (France)
rectly to compare risks related to dierent forms of trans-
Bundesstelle fr Flugunfalluntersuchung (Germany)
port in a particular travel from A to B. For example:
according to statistics, a typical ight from Los Angeles Air Accident Investigation Unit (Ireland)
to New York will carry a larger risk factor than a typical
car travel from home to oce. But a car travel from Los Aircraft and Railway Accidents Investigation Com-
Angeles to New York would not be typical. It would be mission (Japan)
as large as several dozens of typical car travels, and as-
sociated risk will be larger as well. Because the journey Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand
would take a much longer time, the overall risk associated Transport Accident Investigation Commission (New
by making this journey by car will be higher than making Zealand)
the same journey by air, even if each individual hour of
car travel can be less risky than an hour of ight. Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines
Comisin de Investigacin de Accidentes e Inci- 7.1.8 Regulation

dentes de Aviacin Civil (Spain)
Rockwell Collins reports it costs more to certify than to
Swedish Accident Investigation Board develop a system, from 75% engineering and 25% certi-
cation in past years.[47]
Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (Switzer-
land) Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)
Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional
Air Accidents Investigation Branch (UK) Development and Local Government (Australia)
European Aviation Safety Agency
National Transportation Safety Board (USA)
Federal Aviation Administration (United States)
European Co-ordination Center for Aircraft Inci-
Federal Aviation Regulations
dent Reporting Systems (ECCAIRS)
Irish Aviation Authority
International Civil Aviation Organisation
Transport Canada
South African Civil Aviation Authority (South
Africa) 7.1.9 See also
Aircraft hijacking
7.1.6 Air safety investigators Airport security
These individuals are trained and authorized to con- Aviation Safety Network
duct aviation accident and incident investigations for the Aviation Safety Reporting System
government organizations responsible for aviation safety.
They possess specialized expertise and training in specic Ballistic parachute
elds, such as aircraft structures, air trac control, ight
Crashworthiness
recorders and human factors. They may be employed
by governments, manufacturers or unions and perform Hazard analysis
fact-nding, analyses, and report writing as part of their
duties.[46] Health hazards of air travel
IATA Operational Safety Audit
Jet Airliner Crash Data Evaluation Centre
7.1.7 Safety improvement initiatives
Lasers and aviation safety
The safety improvement initiatives are aviation safety
Mid-air collision
partnerships between regulators, manufacturers, oper-
ators, professional unions, research organisations, and Pilot error
international aviation organisations to further enhance
safety. Some major safety initiatives worldwide are: Safety of emergency medical services ights
Sensory illusions in aviation
Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) in the Sixty second review, a technique used by ight at-
US. The Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) tendants to focus and prepare for a sudden emer-
was founded in 1998 with a goal to reduce the com- gency
mercial aviation fatality rate in the United States by
80 percent by 2007. SKYbrary
Swiss cheese model
European Strategic Safety Initiative (ESSI) . The
European Strategic Safety Initiative (ESSI) is an avi- Tombstone mentality
ation safety partnership between EASA, other reg- Travel Safety
ulators and the industry. The initiative objective is
to further enhance safety for citizens in Europe and Uncontrolled decompression
worldwide through safety analysis, implementation
Wind shear
of cost eective action plans, and coordination with
other safety initiatives worldwide. Zonal safety analysis
7.1. AIR SAFETY 91
7.1.10 Notes and references [24] Operation of Aircraft (PDF). International Standards
and Recommended Practices. February 25, 2013.
[1] NIOSH Commercial Aviation in Alaska. United States
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. [25] Caldwell, John; Mallis, Melissa (January 2009).
Archived from the original on 16 November 2007. Re- Fatigue Countermeasures in Aviation. Aviation,
trieved 2007-10-15. Space, and Environmental Medicine. 80 (1): 2959.
doi:10.3357/asem.2435.2009.
[2] Fatalities Bureau of Transportation Statistics.
[26] Caldwell, John A.; Mallis, Melissa M.; Caldwell, J. Lynn
[3] Passenger miles Bureau of Transportation Statistics. (January 2009). Fatigue Countermeasures in Aviation.
Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine. 80 (1): 29
[4] 59. doi:10.3357/asem.2435.2009.
[5] The VOR [27] U.S. drops prosecution of allegedly tipsy pilots (second
story)
[6] IATA wants new airline tracking equipment. Malaysia
Sun. Retrieved 10 June 2014. [28] EGPWS
[7] Haaretz: Two planes nearly crash at Ben Gurion Airport [29] ATC MSAW system
due to glitch
[30] Ladkin, Peter B.; with colleagues (October 20, 1997).
[8] Jerusalem Post: Weeds blamed for spate of near-misses Electromagnetic Interference with Aircraft Systems:
at Ben-Gurion Airport why worry?". University of Bielefeld Faculty of Tech-
nology. Retrieved December 24, 2015.
[9] Momento24.com : An error in the control tower almost
caused two planes to collide [31] Hsu, Jeremy (December 21, 2009). The Real Reason
Cell Phone Use Is Banned on Airlines. livescience.com.
[10] ABC local NTSB, FAA investigate near-miss mid-air col- Retrieved December 24, 2015.
lision
[32] National Transportation Safety Board Aviation Acci-
[11] La Guardia Near-Crash Is One of a Rising Number dents: SEA06LA033. National Transportation Safety
Board. 2006-08-29. Retrieved 2007-07-14.
[12] Bundesstelle fr Flugunfalluntersuchung Investigation
Report on crash near Ueberlingen [33] Danger to Aircraft from Volcanic Eruption Clouds
[13] Schleicher ASK 21 two seat glider [34] Guidance for Flight Crews and Controllers
[14] FAA Advisory Circulars [35] Flightglobal archive Flight International 10 July 1982 p59
[15] Hiding requirements = suspicion they're inadequate, [36] http://www.newscientist.com/article/
Nolan Law Group, January 18, 2010 dn18797-can-we-fly-safely-through-volcanic-ash.html
[16] A Proposed Addition to the Lightning Environment Stan- [37] Volcanic AshDanger to Aircraft in the North Pacic
dards Applicable to Aircraft. J. Anderson Plumer. Light-
ning Technologies, Inc. published 2005-09-27. [38] How to Escape Down an Airplane Slide and Still Make
Your Connection! Amanda Ripley. TIME. January 23,
[17] Jason Paur (June 17, 2010). Boeing 787 Withstands 2008.
Lightning Strike. Wired.
[39]
[18] FAA Chapter 27
[40] 7.10 in CAP 1036 Global Fatal Accident Review
[19] airlinesafety.com August 1998, revised June 2000 and
September 2002 Robert J. Boser, Editor-in-Chief, Airli- [41] Preliminary ASN data show 2016 to be one of the safest
neSafety.com years in aviation history. Aviation Safety Network. Flight
Safety Foundation. 29 December 2016.
[20] Smith, Paul; Cynthia Furse & Jacob Gunther (Dec 2005).
Analysis of Spread Spectrum Time Domain Reectom- [42] The risks of travel Archived September 7, 2001, at the
etry for Wire Fault Location.. IEEE Sensors Journal. 5 Wayback Machine.. The site cites the source as an Octo-
(6). Archived from the original on 2010-05-01. ber 2000 article by Roger Ford in the magazine Modern
Railways and based on a DETR survey.
[21] Part33-Airworthiness standards-Aircraft Engines sec-
tion 33.76 Bird ingestion [43] Beck, L. F.; Dellinger, A. M.; O'neil, M. E. (2007).
Motor vehicle crash injury rates by mode of travel,
[22] How the Pilots Checklist Came About United States: using exposure-based methods to quantify
dierences. American Journal of Epidemiology. 166 (2):
[23] Baron, Robert (2014). Barriers to Eective Communi- 212218. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm064.
cation: Implications for the Cockpit. airline safety.com.
The Aviation Consulting Group. Retrieved October 7, [44] Flight into danger 07 August 1999 New Scientist
2015. Space
[45] http://aviation-safety.net/statistics/period/stats.php?cat= 141 contains rules for pilot training schools. The sec-
A1 tions most relevant to aircraft pilots and AMTs (Avia-
tion Maintenance Technicians) are listed below. Many of
[46] Diehl, Alan (2013) Air Safety Investigators: Us- the FARs are designed to regulate certication of pilots,
ing Science to Save Lives-One Crash at a Time.
schools, or aircraft rather than the operation of airplanes.
Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 9781479728930.
http://www.prweb.com/releases/DrAlanDiehl/
Once an airplane design is certied using some parts of
AirSafetyInvestigators/prweb10735591.htm these regulations, it is certied regardless of whether the
regulations change in the future. For that reason, newer
[47] John Croft (Apr 7, 2017). What Is The Certication Tip- planes are certied using newer versions of the FARs, and
ping Point?". Aviation Week & Space Technology. in many aspects may be thus considered safer designs.
Part 1 Denitions and Abbreviations

Part 13 Investigation and Enforcement Procedures
10 Plane Crashes That Changed Aviation
Part 21 Certication Procedures for Products and
Air Safety at DMOZ Parts
Safety Behaviours, a guide for pilots (comprehensive Part 23 Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility,
human factors information) Acrobatic and Commuter Airplanes
NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) Part 25 Airworthiness Standards: Transport Cat-
egory Airplanes
Latest Aviation Safety Occurrences at the Aviation
Safety Network Part 27 Airworthiness Standards: Normal Cate-
gory Rotorcraft
Aviation Safety: Advancements Being Pursued
to Improve Airliner Cabin Occupant Safety and Part 29 Airworthiness Standards: Transport Cat-
Health, 2003 egory Rotorcraft
Part 33 Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines
7.2 Federal Aviation Regulations Part 34 Fuel Venting and Exhaust Emission Re-
quirements for Turbine Engine Powered Airplanes
The Federal Aviation Regulations, or FARs, are rules Part 35 Airworthiness Standards: Propellers
prescribed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
governing all aviation activities in the United States. The Part 39 Airworthiness Directives
FARs are part of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regu-
Part 43 Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance,
lations (CFR). A wide variety of activities are regulated,
Rebuilding, and Alteration
such as aircraft design and maintenance, typical airline
ights, pilot training activities, hot-air ballooning, lighter- Part 45 Identication and Registration Marking
than-air aircraft, man-made structure heights, obstruction
lighting and marking, and even model rocket launches, Part 47 Aircraft Registration
model aircraft operation, sUAS & Drone operation, and
kite ying. The rules are designed to promote safe avi- Part 61 Certication: Pilots, Flight Instructors,
ation, protecting pilots, ight attendants, passengers and and Ground Instructors
the general public from unnecessary risk. Since 1958, Part 63 Certication: Flight Crewmembers Other
these rules have typically been referred to as FARs, Than Pilots
short for Federal Aviation Regulations. However, another
set of regulations (Title 48) is titled Federal Acquisitions Part 65 Certication: Airmen Other Than Flight
Regulations, and this has led to confusion with the use of Crewmembers
the acronym FAR. Therefore, the FAA began to refer
to specic regulations by the term 14 CFR part XX.[1] Part 67 Medical Standards and Certication
Part 71 Designation of Class A, Class B, Class

7.2.1 Organization C, Class D, and Class E Airspace Areas; Airways;
Routes; and Reporting Points
The FARs are organized into sections, called parts due to Part 73 Special Use Airspace
their organization within the CFR. Each part deals with
a specic type of activity. For example, 14 CFR Part Part 91 General Operating and Flight Rules
7.2. FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS 93
Part 97 Standard Instrument Approach Procedures Part 1
Part 101 Moored Balloons, Kites, Unmanned Many other FARs depend on denitions, which are found
Rockets, Unmanned Free Balloons, and Certain in Part 1.1[2]
Model Aircraft
Part 103 Ultralight Vehicles Part 23
Part 105 Parachute Operations Part 23 contains airworthiness standards required for is-
suance and change of type certicates for airplanes in
Part 107 Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems
these categories :[3]
Part 117 Flight and Duty Limitations and Rest Re-
quirements: Flightcrew Members nine or less passengers, 12,500 pounds or less
MTOW :
Part 119 Certication: Air Carriers and Commer-
cial Operators normal : nonacrobatic operation (bank angle <
60);
Part 121 Operating Requirements: Domestic,
Flag, and Supplemental Operations utility : limited acrobatic operation (60 <
bank angle < 90);
Part 125 Certication and Operations: Airplanes acrobatic : no restrictions
Having a Seating Capacity of 20 or More Passengers
or a Payload Capacity of 6,000 Pounds or More commuter category: multiengine airplanes, 19 or
less passengers, 19,000 pounds or less MTOW,
Part 129 Operations: Foreign Air Carriers and nonacrobatic operation (bank angle < 60).
Foreign Operators of U.S. Registered Aircraft En-
gaged in Common Carriage
This part has a large number of regulations to ensure
Part 133 Rotorcraft External-Load Operations airworthiness in areas such as structural loads, airframe,
performance, stability, controllability, and safety mecha-
Part 135 Operating Requirements: Commuter and nisms, how the seats must be constructed, oxygen and air
On Demand Operations and Rules Governing Per- pressurization systems, re prevention, escape hatches,
sons on Board Such Aircraft ight management procedures, ight control communi-
cations, emergency landing procedures, and other limita-
Part 136 Commercial Air Tours and National tions, as well as testing of all the systems of the aircraft.
Parks Air Tour Management
It also determines special aspects of aircraft performance
Part 137 Agricultural Aircraft Operations such as stall speed (e.g., for single engine airplanes not
more than 61 knots), rate of climb (not less than 300
Part 139 Certication of Airports ft/min), take-o speed (not less than 1.2 x VS), and
weight of each pilot and passenger (170 lb for airplanes
Part 141 Flight Schools in the normal and commuter categories, and 190 lb for
airplanes in the acrobatic and utility categories).
Part 142 Training Centers
The Cessna 177, Cirrus SR20 and Piper PA-34 Seneca
Part 145 Repair Stations are well-known airplanes types that were certicated to
FAR Part 23.
Part 147 Aviation Maintenance Technicians Most of the Federal Aviation Regulations, including Part
Schools 23, commenced on February 1, 1965. Prior to that date,
airworthiness standards for airplanes in the normal, util-
Part 183 Representatives of The Administrator
ity and acrobatic categories were promulgated in Part 3
of the US Civil Air Regulations. Many well-known types
7.2.2 Regulations of interest of light airplane are type certicated to CAR Part 3, even
though they remained in production after 1965. For ex-
The FARs are divided into tens of thousands of sepa- ample, the Cessna 150 and Piper Cherokee are type cer-
rate sections, many of which have large numbers of re- ticated to CAR Part 3.
searchers using them on any given day. A few of the reg- The FAA is proposing to institute a new system of
ulations particularly interesting to laypersons, relevant to performance-based airworthiness standards instead of
current political issues, or of historical interest are listed the current prescriptive design requirements. The current
below. weight and propulsion classications of small airplane
regulations could be replaced by performance and risk- more passengers are type certied in this part. Rotorcraft
based standards for aircraft weighing less than 19,000 with more than 20,000 lb (9,100 kg) maximum takeo
pounds and seating 19 or fewer passengers.[4] weight must be certied to additional Category A stan-
dards dened in this part.
Part 25
Part 91
This part contains airworthiness standards for airplanes in
the transport category. Section 91.3(b) This regulation states that the pilot-in-
command is the party directly responsible for, and is the
Transport category airplanes are either:
nal authority as to, an aircraft being operated.
Jets with 10 or more seats or a maximum takeo Additionally, this regulation states that in an emergency
weight (MTOW) greater than 12,500 pounds (5,670 requiring immediate action, the pilot-in-command may
kg); or deviate from any regulation contained within Part 91 to
the extent required to handle the emergency.
Propeller-driven airplanes with greater than 19 seats
or a MTOW greater than 19,000 pounds (8,618 kg).
A rather important section of this part, is the 121 - climb-

ing guaranteed with one engine out for multi-engine air-
craft.
The Boeing 737 and later types, and Airbus A300 series,
are well-known airplane types that were certicated to
FAR Part 25.
Most of the Federal Aviation Regulations, including Part
25, commenced on February 1, 1965. Prior to that date,
airworthiness standards for airplanes in the transport cat-
egory were promulgated in Part 4b of the US Civil Air
Regulations which was in eect by November 1945. Ef-
fective August 27, 1957, Special Civil Air Regulation
(SR) 422 was the basis for certication of the rst turbine-
powered transport airplanes, such as the Boeing 707, the
Lockheed Electra, and the Fairchild 27. SR 422A be-
came eective July 2, 1958, and was superseded by SR
422B, eective August 29, 1959. Only a few airplanes
Example of a presidential TFR surrounding Charleston, South
were certied under SR 422A, such as the Gulfstream I
Carolina.
and the CL-44. First generation turbine-powered trans-
port category airplanes such as the DC-8, DC-9, and B- Temporary ight restrictions The pertinent sections
727, were originally certied under SR 422B. SR 422B of the FAR (14 CFR Sections 91.137, 91.138, 91.139,
was recodied with minor changes to 14 CFR part 25, 91.141, 91.143, 91.145, 99.7)[6][7] describe temporary
which became eective February 1965.[5] ight restrictions (TFR). A TFR is a geographically-
limited, short-term, airspace restriction, typically in the
Part 27 United States. Temporary ight restrictions often en-
compass major sporting events, natural disaster areas,
This part contains airworthiness standards for rotorcraft air shows, space launches, and Presidential movements.
in the normal category. Rotorcraft up to 7,000 lb Before the September 11, 2001 attacks, most TFRs
Maximum Takeo Weight and 9 or fewer passengers are were in the interest of safety to ying aircraft with oc-
type certied in this part. casional small restrictions for Presidential movements.
Since 9/11, TFRs have been routinely used to restrict
Examples of rotorcraft certied in this part are the Robin- airspace for 30 nautical miles around the President, with
son R44, Schweizer 300 and the Bell 429. a 10-nautical-mile (20 km) radius no-y zone for non-
scheduled ights. They are also available to other im-
portant people such as presidential and vice-presidential
Part 29
candidates (though Senator John Kerry did not ask for
This part contains airworthiness standards for rotorcraft any TFR during the 2004 election).[8]
in the transport category. Rotorcraft with more than TFRs are deeply unpopular with pilots in the general avi-
7,000 lb (3,200 kg) maximum takeo weight and 10 or ation sector. Large Presidential TFRs frequently close o
7.2. FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS 95
not only the airport Air Force One is using but nearby air-
aviation are far more intensive than those for general avi-
ports as well.[9] Others, including the Transportation Se-ation, and specic training is required. Hence, ights are
curity Administration, argue that they are necessary for often referred to as Part XX operations, to specify which
national security.[10] one of the dierent sets of rules applies in a particular
The responsibility for screening requests for TFR and for case. Also, ight schools will often designate themselves
subsequent granting or denying them, lies with the FAAs as Part 61 or Part 141 to distinguish between dierent
Oce of System Operations Security.[11] levels of training and dierent study programs they could
oer to the students.
Part 61 is certication for all pilots, ight instructors, and
Two-way radio communications failure Section ground instructors.
91.185 of the Federal Aviation Restrictions deals with
loss of radio communications while in ight. If a loss Part 63 is certication for ight crewmembers other than
of radio communications were to be encountered during pilots; such as ight engineers and ight navigators.
VFR conditions, or if VFR conditions are encountered Part 65 is certication for airmen other than ight
after loss of communication with the ground and other crewmembers; such as Air Trac Control Tower Oper-
aircraft, the pilot of the aircraft shall continue the ight ators, Aircraft Dispatchers, Mechanics, Repairmen and
under VFR and land as soon as practicable. If, however, Parachute Riggers.
the failure occurs in IFR conditions and/or the VFR con-
Part 91 is general operating rules for all aircraft. Gen-
ditions are not forthcoming, the pilot should continue un-
eral aviation ights are conducted under this part. Part
der the following conditions:
91, Subpart (K) prescribes operating rules for fractional
ownership programs.
Route The pilot will follow:
Part 117 species ight and duty-time limitations and
rest requirements for ightcrew members.
The route assigned in the last
contact with ATC before loss Part 121 is scheduled air carrier (airliners).
of communication, or, if being Part 133 is external load (helicopter) operations.
radar vectored, continue direct
to the radar x specied in the Part 135 is a set of rules with more stringent standards
vector clearance; for commuter and on-demand operations.
In the absence of an assigned Part 141 is a more structured method for pilot training,
route, the pilot will follow the based on FAA syllabus and other standards.
route advised by ATC;
In the absence of an ATC as- Maintenance
signed or advised route, the
pilot will follow the route set Part 21 is certication procedures for products and parts.
down in the ight plan.
Part 39 are airworthiness directives.
Altitude The pilot will continue at the Part 43 is maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuild-
highest of the following altitudes or ight ing, and alteration.
levels: Part 145 contains the rules a certicated repair station
must follow as well as any person who holds, or is required
The altitude assigned in the to hold, a repair station certicate issued under this part.
last contact with ATC before
loss of communication;
The minimum altitude for IFR Charter
operations;
Part 380 applies to Public Charter air transportation
The altitude advised by ATC
of passengers in interstate or foreign air transportation;
to be expected in a further
whether furnished by a certicated commuter or foreign
clearance.[12]
air carrier, or an air taxi operator, that directly engages in
the operation of aircraft; or Public Charter operators
Private, commuter, and commercial operations
7.2.3 See also
For all pilots, there is an important distinction in the parts
that address classes of ight. These parts do not distin- Airspace
guish type of aircraft, but rather type of activity done with
the aircraft. Regulations for commuter and commercial Flight permits
Day-night average sound level [12] Federal Aviation Regulation Sec. 91.185 IFR oper-
ations: Two-way radio communications failure.. Risin-
Joint Aviation Requirements gup.com. Retrieved September 26, 2010.
National Security Area
Night aviation regulations 7.2.5 External links
Prohibited airspace Federal Aviation Administrations repository of
FARs and SFARs
Restricted airspace
14 CFR Title 14Aeronautics and Space Legal
Safety pilot
Information Institute
Special ight rules area
FAR/AIM.org Online FAR/AIM and other freely
Special use airspace available FAA documentation
Transport category Aviation Data Systems
7.2.4 References
[1] Overview Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(14 CFR)" (PDF). FAA.gov. Federal Aviation Adminis-
tration. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
[2] Title 14: Aeronautics and Space PART 1 - Deni-

tions. ELECTRONIC CODE OF FEDERAL REGULA-
TIONS. U.S. Government Publishing Oce.
[3] Title 14: Aeronautics and Space PART 23

AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: NORMAL,
UTILITY, ACROBATIC, AND COMMUTER CAT-
EGORY AIRPLANES, 23.3 Airplane categories.
ELECTRONIC CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS.
U.S. Government Publishing Oce.
[4] FAA Proposes New Part 23 Airworthiness Certica-

tion Standards. National Business Aviation Association.
March 14, 2016.
[5] http://fsims.faa.gov/PICDetail.aspx?docId=8900.1,Vol.
4,Ch3,Sec1_SAS
[6] FAA AC 91-63C Temporary Flight Restrictions

(TFRs/TFR)". Faa.gov. 2004-05-20. Retrieved 2012-
09-16.
[7] Michael W. Brown (NovemberDecember 2003). TFR:

Airspace Obstacles and TFR Trivia. A Pilots Guide to
Understanding Restrictions in Todays National Airspace
System (PDF). Retrieved 2011-05-05.
[8] No TFRs for Kerry campaign. Aircraft Owners and Pi-

lots Association Online. 2004-08-03. Retrieved 2008-
08-23.
[9] Temporary ight restrictions: President Bush travels to

Rhode Island
[10] Thurber, Matt (2003-02-01). Meet Big Brother. Avi-

ation Maintenance. Access Intelligence, LLC. Retrieved
2008-08-23.
[11] James Williams. We're on a Mission: Taking the Mys-

tery Out of Temporary Flight Restrictions (PDF). FAA
Safety Brieng (May/June 2011). FAA. pp. 1618. Re-
trieved 2011-05-05.
Chapter 8
Aviation Weather
8.1 Thunderstorm
Electrical storm redirects here. For other uses, see
Electrical storm (disambiguation).
TSTM redirects here. For the musical ensemble, see
Thirty Seconds to Mars.
For the Chinese play, see Thunderstorm (play).
A typical thunderstorm over a eld
A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm,

lightning storm, or thundershower, is a storm charac-
terized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic eect
on the Earths atmosphere, known as thunder.[1] Thunder- Warm, moist updraft from a thunderstorm associated with a
storms occur in association with a type of cloud known southward-moving frontal boundary taken from Texarkana,
as a cumulonimbus. They are usually accompanied by Texas looking north.
strong winds, heavy rain, and sometimes snow, sleet, hail,
or, in contrast, no precipitation at all. Thunderstorms
may line up in a series or become a rainband, known as droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within the thun-
a squall line. Strong or severe thunderstorms, known as derstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance
supercells, rotate as do cyclones. While most thunder- through the clouds towards the Earths surface. As the
storms move with the mean wind ow through the layer droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become
of the troposphere that they occupy, vertical wind shear larger. The falling droplets create a downdraft as it pulls
sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right an-
cold air with it, and this cold air spreads out at the Earths
gle to the wind shear direction. surface, occasionally causing strong winds that are com-
Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement monly associated with thunderstorms.
of warm, moist air, sometimes along a front. As the Thunderstorms can form and develop in any geographic
warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, and location but most frequently within the mid-latitude,
forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of where warm, moist air from tropical latitudes collides
over 20 kilometres (12 mi). As the rising air reaches its with cooler air from polar latitudes.[2] Thunderstorms are
dew point temperature, water vapor condenses into water responsible for the development and formation of many
97
98 CHAPTER 8. AVIATION WEATHER
severe weather phenomena. Thunderstorms, and the phe- clouds.[7] Generally, thunderstorms require three condi-
nomena that occur along with them, pose great hazards. tions to form:
Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly in-
icted by downburst winds, large hailstones, and ash 1. Moisture
ooding caused by heavy precipitation. Stronger thun-
derstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and 2. An unstable airmass
waterspouts.
3. A lifting force (heat)
There are four types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multi-
cell cluster, multi-cell lines, and supercells. Super-
cell thunderstorms are the strongest and most severe. All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three
Mesoscale convective systems formed by favorable ver- stages: the developing stage, the mature stage, and
tical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be the dissipation stage.[8] The average thunderstorm has
responsible for the development of hurricanes. Dry thun- a 24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions
derstorms, with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak present in the atmosphere, each of these three stages take
of wildres from the heat generated from the cloud-to- an average of 30 minutes.[9]
ground lightning that accompanies them. Several means
are used to study thunderstorms: weather radar, weather
stations, and video photography. Past civilizations held Cumulus stage
various myths concerning thunderstorms and their devel-
opment as late as the 18th century. Beyond the Earths The rst stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage or
atmosphere, thunderstorms have also been observed on developing stage. During this stage, masses of moisture
the planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and, probably, are lifted upwards into the atmosphere. The trigger for
Venus. this lift can be solar illumination, where the heating of the
ground produces thermals, or where two winds converge
forcing air upwards, or where winds blow over terrain of
8.1.1 Life cycle increasing elevation. The moisture carried upward cools
into liquid drops of water due to lower temperatures at
high altitude, which appear as cumulus clouds. As the
water vapor condenses into liquid, latent heat is released,
which warms the air, causing it to become less dense than
the surrounding, drier air. The air tends to rise in an
updraft through the process of convection (hence the term
convective precipitation). This process creates a low-
pressure zone within and beneath the forming thunder-
storm. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 500 mil-
lion kilograms of water vapor are lifted into the Earths
atmosphere.[10]
Stages of a thunderstorms life.

Mature stage
See also: Cloud
Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warmer air
rises upwards and cooler air will settle at the bottom[3]
(this eect can be seen with a hot air balloon).[4] Clouds
form as relatively warmer air, carrying moisture, rises
within cooler air. The moist air rises, and, as it does so,
it cools and some of the water vapor in that rising air
condenses.[5] When the moisture condenses, it releases
energy known as latent heat of vaporization, which al- Anvil-shaped thundercloud in the mature stage over Swifts Creek,
lows the rising packet of air to cool less than the cooler Victoria
surrounding air[6] continuing the clouds ascension. If
enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this pro- In the mature stage of a thunderstorm, the warmed air
cess will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds continues to rise until it reaches an area of warmer air
to form and produce lightning and thunder. Meteoro- and can rise no farther. Often this 'cap' is the tropopause.
logical indices such as convective available potential en- The air is instead forced to spread out, giving the storm a
ergy (CAPE) and the lifted index can be used to assist characteristic anvil shape. The resulting cloud is called
in determining potential upward vertical development of cumulonimbus incus. The water droplets coalesce into
8.1. THUNDERSTORM 99
larger and heavier droplets and freeze to become ice par- 8.1.2 Classication
ticles. As these fall, they melt to become rain. If the
updraft is strong enough, the droplets are held aloft long
enough to become so large that they do not melt com-
pletely but fall as hail. While updrafts are still present,
the falling rain drags the surrounding air with it, creat-
ing downdrafts as well. The simultaneous presence of
both an updraft and a downdraft marks the mature stage
of the storm and produces cumulonimbus clouds. Dur-
ing this stage, considerable internal turbulence can occur
within, which manifests as strong winds, severe lightning,
and even tornadoes.[11]
Typically, if there is little wind shear, the storm will
rapidly enter the dissipating stage and 'rain itself out',[8] Conditions favorable for thunderstorm types and complexes
but, if there is sucient change in wind speed and/or di-
rection, the downdraft will be separated from the updraft,
and the storm may become a supercell, where the mature There are four main types of thunderstorms: single-cell,
stage can sustain itself for several hours.[12] multi-cell, squall line (also called multi-cell line) and su-
percell. Which type forms depends on the instability and
relative wind conditions at dierent layers of the atmo-
Dissipating stage sphere ("wind shear"). Single-cell thunderstorms form in
environments of low vertical wind shear and last only 20
30 minutes.
Organized thunderstorms and thunderstorm clusters/lines
can have longer life cycles as they form in environ-
ments of signicant vertical wind shear, normally greater
than 25 knots (13 m/s) in the lowest 6 kilometres (3.7
mi) of the troposphere,[15] which aids the development
of stronger updrafts as well as various forms of severe
weather. The supercell is the strongest of the thunder-
storms, most commonly associated with large hail, high
winds, and tornado formation. Precipitable water values
of greater than 31.8 millimetres (1.25 in) favor the devel-
A thunderstorm in an environment with no winds to shear the opment of organized thunderstorm complexes.[16] Those
storm or blow the anvil in any one direction with heavy rainfall normally have precipitable water val-
ues greater than 36.9 millimetres (1.45 in).[17] Upstream
In the dissipation stage, the thunderstorm is dominated values of CAPE of greater than 800 J/kg are usually re-
by the downdraft. If atmospheric conditions do not sup- quired for the development of organized convection.[18]
port super cellular development, this stage occurs rather
quickly, approximately 2030 minutes into the life of
the thunderstorm. The downdraft will push down out of Single-cell
the thunderstorm, hit the ground and spread out. This
phenomenon is known as a downburst. The cool air Main article: Air-mass thunderstorm
carried to the ground by the downdraft cuts o the in- This term technically applies to a single thunderstorm
ow of the thunderstorm, the updraft disappears and the with one main updraft. Also known as air-mass thun-
thunderstorm will dissipate. Thunderstorms in an at- derstorms, these are the typical summer thunderstorms
mosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken in many temperate locales. They also occur in the cool
as soon as they send out an outow boundary in all di- unstable air that often follows the passage of a cold front
rections, which then quickly cuts o its inow of rela- from the sea during winter. Within a cluster of thunder-
tively warm, moist air, and kills the thunderstorms fur- storms, the term cell refers to each separate principal
ther growth.[13] The downdraft hitting the ground creates updraft. Thunderstorm cells occasionally form in isola-
an outow boundary. This can cause downbursts, a po- tion, as the occurrence of one thunderstorm can develop
tential hazardous condition for aircraft to y through, as an outow boundary that sets up new thunderstorm de-
a substantial change in wind speed and direction occurs, velopment. Such storms are rarely severe and are a re-
resulting in a decrease of airspeed and the subsequent result of local atmospheric instability; hence the term air
duction in lift for the aircraft. The stronger the outow mass thunderstorm. When such storms have a brief pe-
boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear riod of severe weather associated with them, it is known
becomes.[14] as a pulse severe storm. Pulse severe storms are poorly
opment. Mature thunderstorms are found near the center

of the cluster, while dissipating thunderstorms exist on
their downwind side. Multicell storms form as clusters of
storms but may then evolve into one or more squall lines.
While each cell of the cluster may only last 20 minutes,
the cluster itself may persist for hours at a time. They
often arise from convective updrafts in or near mountain
ranges and linear weather boundaries, such as strong cold
fronts or troughs of low pressure. These type of storms
are stronger than the single-cell storm, yet much weaker
than the supercell storm. Hazards with the multicell clus-
ter include moderate-sized hail, ash ooding, and weak
tornadoes.[9]
Multicell lines
Main article: Squall line

See also: List of derecho events
A squall line is an elongated line of severe thunderstorms

that can form along and/or ahead of a cold front.[19][20]
In the early 20th century, the term was used as a syn-
onym for cold front.[21] The squall line contains heavy
precipitation, hail, frequent lightning, strong straight line
winds, and possibly tornadoes and waterspouts.[22] Severe
A single-cell thunderstorm over Wagga Wagga. weather in the form of strong straight-line winds can be
expected in areas where the squall line itself is in the
organized and occur randomly in time and space, mak- shape of a bow echo, within the portion of the line that
[23]
ing them dicult to forecast. Single-cell thunderstorms bows out the most. Tornadoes can be found along
normally last 2030 minutes. [9] waves within a line echo wave pattern, or LEWP, where
mesoscale low pressure areas are present.[24] Some bow
echoes in the summer are called derechos, and move quite
Multi-cell clusters fast through large sections of territory.[25] On the back
edge of the rain shield associated with mature squall lines,
Main article: Multicellular thunderstorm a wake low can form, which is a mesoscale low pressure
This is the most common type of thunderstorm devel- area that forms behind the mesoscale high pressure sys-
tem normally present under the rain canopy, which are
sometimes associated with a heat burst.[26] This kind of
storm is also known as Wind of the Stony Lake (Tradi-
tional Chinese: shi2 hu2 feng1, Simplied Chinese:
) in southern China.[27]
Supercells
Main article: Supercell

Supercell storms are large, usually severe, quasi-
steady-state storms that form in an environment where
wind speed or wind direction varies with height ("wind
shear"), and they have separate downdrafts and updrafts
(i.e., where its associated precipitation is not falling
through the updraft) with a strong, rotating updraft (a
"mesocyclone"). These storms normally have such pow-
erful updrafts that the top of the supercell storm cloud
(or anvil) can break through the troposphere and reach
into the lower levels of the stratosphere, and supercell
A group of thunderstorms over Brazil photographed by the Space storms can be 24 kilometres (15 mi) wide. Research
Shuttle Challenger. has shown that at least 90 percent of supercells cause
Mesoscale convective systems
See also: Mesoscale convective system

A mesoscale convective system (MCS) is a complex
A supercell thunderstorm over Chaparral, New Mexico.
MCC moving through New England: August 2, 2006 0600 UTC
of thunderstorms that becomes organized on a scale

larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than
extratropical cyclones, and normally persists for several
hours or more.[33] A mesoscale convective systems over-
all cloud and precipitation pattern may be round or linear
in shape, and include weather systems such as tropical cy-
clones, squall lines, lake-eect snow events, polar lows,
and Mesoscale Convective Complexes (MCCs), and they
generally form near weather fronts. Most mesoscale
convective systems develop overnight and continue their
[8]
The setting sun illuminates the top of a classic anvil-shaped thun- lifespan through the next day. The type that forms dur-
derstorm cloud in eastern Nebraska, United States. ing the warm season over land has been noted across
North America, Europe, and Asia, with a maximum
in activity noted during the late afternoon and evening
[34][35]
severe weather.[12] These storms can produce destruc- hours.
tive tornadoes, sometimes F3 or higher, extremely large Forms of MCS that develop in the tropics are found in use
hailstones (10 centimetres or 4 inches diameter), straight- either the Intertropical Convergence Zone or monsoon
line winds in excess of 130 km/h (81 mph), and ash troughs, generally within the warm season between spring
oods. In fact, research has also shown that most torna- and fall. More intense systems form over land than over
does occur from this type of thunderstorm.[28] Supercells water.[36][37] One exception is that of lake-eect snow
are the strongest type of thunderstorm, even stronger than bands, which form due to cold air moving across rela-
the most severe thunderstorms.[9] tively warm bodies of water, and occurs from fall through
spring.[38] Polar lows are a second special class of MCS.
They form at high latitudes during the cold season.[39]
Severe thunderstorms Once the parent MCS dies, later thunderstorm develop-
ment can occur in connection with its remnant mesoscale
A thunderstorm is classed as severe if winds reach at least convective vortex (MCV).[40] Mesoscale convective sys-
93 kilometres per hour (58 mph), hail is 25 millimetres (1 tems are important to the United States rainfall climatol-
in) in diameter or larger, or if funnel clouds or tornadoes ogy over the Great Plains since they bring the region about
are reported.[29][30][31] Although a funnel cloud or tornado half of their annual warm season rainfall.[41]
indicates a severe thunderstorm, a tornado warning is is-
sued in place of a severe thunderstorm warning. A se-
vere thunderstorm warning is issued if a thunderstorm 8.1.3 Motion
becomes severe, or will soon turn severe. In Canada, a
rainfall rate greater than 50 millimetres (2 in) in one hour, The two major ways thunderstorms move are via
or 75 millimetres (3 in) in three hours, is also used to indi- advection of the wind and propagation along outow
cate severe thunderstorms.[32] Severe thunderstorms can boundaries towards sources of greater heat and moisture.
occur from any type of storm cell. However, multicell, Many thunderstorms move with the mean wind speed
supercell, and squall lines represent the most common through the Earths troposphere, the lowest 8 kilome-
forms of thunderstorms that produce severe weather.[12] tres (5.0 mi) of the Earths atmosphere. Weaker thun-
8.1.4 Hazards
Each year, many people are killed or seriously injured by
severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning. While
severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and
summer, they can occur at just about any time of the year.
Cloud-to-ground lightning
See also: Lightning and Wildre

Cloud-to-ground lightning frequently occurs within the
Thunderstorm line viewed in reectivity (dBZ) on a plan position

indicator radar display
derstorms are steered by winds closer to the Earths sur-

face than stronger thunderstorms, as the weaker thun-
derstorms are not as tall. Organized, long-lived thun-
derstorm cells and complexes move at a right angle to
the direction of the vertical wind shear vector. If the
gust front, or leading edge of the outow boundary, races
ahead of the thunderstorm, its motion will accelerate in
tandem. This is more of a factor with thunderstorms
with heavy precipitation (HP) than with thunderstorms
with low precipitation (LP). When thunderstorms merge, A return stroke, cloud-to-ground lightning strike during a thun-
which is most likely when numerous thunderstorms ex- derstorm.
ist in proximity to each other, the motion of the stronger
thunderstorm normally dictates the future motion of the phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous haz-
merged cell. The stronger the mean wind, the less likely ards towards landscapes and populations. One of the
other processes will be involved in storm motion. On more signicant hazards lightning can pose is the wild-
weather radar, storms are tracked by using a prominent res they are capable of igniting.[46] Under a regime of
feature and tracking it from scan to scan.[12] low precipitation (LP) thunderstorms, where little pre-
cipitation is present, rainfall cannot prevent res from
starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a
concentrated amount of extreme heat.[47] Direct damage
caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion.[48] In ar-
Back-building thunderstorm eas with a high frequency for cloud-to-ground lightning,
like Florida, lightning causes several fatalities per year,
[49]
A back-building thunderstorm, commonly referred to as most commonly to people working outside.
a training thunderstorm, is a thunderstorm in which new Acid rain is also a frequent risk produced by lightning.
development takes place on the upwind side (usually the Distilled water has a neutral pH of 7. Clean or un-
west or southwest side in the Northern Hemisphere), such polluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of about 5.2, be-
that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in cause carbon dioxide and water in the air react together
a backward direction. Though the storm often appears to form carbonic acid, a weak acid (pH 5.6 in distilled wa-
stationary on radar, or even moving upwind, this is an il- ter), but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals.[50]
lusion. The storm is really a multi-cell storm with new, Nitric oxide present during thunderstorm phenomena,[51]
more vigorous cells that form on the upwind side, re- caused by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen, can re-
placing older cells that continue to drift downwind.[42][43] sult in the production of acid rain, if nitric oxide forms
When this happens, catastrophic ooding is possible. In compounds with the water molecules in precipitation,
Rapid City, South Dakota, in 1972, an unusual alignment thus creating acid rain. Acid rain can damage infrastruc-
of winds at various levels of the atmosphere combined to tures containing calcite or certain other solid chemical
produce a continuously training set of cells that dropped compounds. In ecosystems, acid rain can dissolve plant
an enormous quantity of rain upon the same area, result- tissues of vegetations and increase acidication process in
ing in devastating ash ooding.[44] A similar event oc- bodies of water and in soil, resulting in deaths of marine
curred in Boscastle, England, on 16 August 2004.[45] and terrestrial organisms.[52]
Hail Tornadoes and waterspouts
Main article: Hail

Any thunderstorm that produces hail that reaches the
In June 2007, the town of Elie, Manitoba was struck by an F5

Hailstorm in Bogot, Colombia. tornado.
ground is known as a hailstorm.[53] Thunderclouds that
are capable of producing hailstones are often seen obtain-
ing green coloration. Hail is more common along moun- Main articles: Tornado and Waterspout
tain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds up-
wards (known as orographic lifting), thereby intensify- A tornado is a violent, rotating column of air in contact
ing the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus
more likely.[54] One of the more common regions for cloud (otherwise known as a thundercloud) or, in rare
large hail is across mountainous northern India, which cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Tornadoes come
reported one of the highest hail-related death tolls on in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible
record in 1888.[55] China also experiences signicant condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth
hailstorms.[56] Across Europe, Croatia experiences fre- and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust.[64]
quent occurrences of hail.[57] Most tornadoes have wind speeds between 40 and 110
In North America, hail is most common in the area where mph (64 and 177 km/h), are approximately 75 metres
Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming meet, known as Hail (246 ft) across, and travel several kilometers (a few miles)
Alley.[58] Hail in this region occurs between the months before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds of more than
of March and October during the afternoon and evening 300 mph (480 km/h), stretch more than 1,600 metres (1
mi) across, and stay on the ground for more than 100 kilo-
hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through
September. Cheyenne, Wyoming is North Americas metres (dozens of miles).[65][66][67]
most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hail- The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tor-
storms per season.[59] In South America, areas prone to nadoes by damage caused. An EF0 tornado, the weak-
hail are cities like Bogot, Colombia. est category, damages trees but not substantial structures.
Hail can cause serious damage, notably to automobiles, An EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings
aircraft, skylights, glass-roofed structures, livestock, and o their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers.
most commonly, farmers crops.[59] Hail is one of the The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely
most signicant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft. When weak tornadoes [68]
to T11 for the most powerful known
hail stones exceed 13 millimetres (0.5 in) in diameter, tornadoes. Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and
planes can be seriously damaged within seconds. The [60] ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be ana-
hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be haz- lyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[69]
ardous to landing aircraft. Wheat, corn, soybeans, and to- Waterspouts have similar characteristics as tornadoes,
bacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage.[55] Hail characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current
is one of Canadas most costly hazards.[61] Hailstorms that form over bodies of water, connecting to large cu-
have been the cause of costly and deadly events through- mulonimbus clouds. Waterspouts are generally classi-
out history. One of the earliest recorded incidents oc- ed as forms of tornadoes, or more specically, non-
curred around the 9th century in Roopkund, Uttarakhand, supercelled tornadoes that develop over large bodies of
India.[62] The largest hailstone in terms of maximum cir- water.[70] These spiralling columns of air are frequently
cumference and length ever recorded in the United States developed within tropical areas close to the equator, but
fell in 2003 in Aurora, Nebraska, United States.[63] are less common within areas of high latitude.[71]
Formation of numerous waterspouts in the Great Lakes region.

(North America)
Trees uprooted or displaced by the force of a downburst wind in
northwest Monroe County, Wisconsin.
concentrated amount of force exerted by their straight-

horizontal characteristic. Downburst winds can be haz-
ardous to unstable, incomplete, or weakly constructed
infrastructures and buildings. Agricultural crops, and
other plants in nearby environments can be uprooted and
damaged. Aircraft engaged in takeo or landing can
crash.[8][75] Automobiles can be displaced by the force
exerted by downburst winds. Downburst winds are usu-
A ash ood caused by a severe thunderstorm ally formed in areas when high pressure air systems of
downdrafts begin to sink and displace the air masses be-
low it, due to their higher density. When these down-
Flash ood
drafts reach the surface, they spread out and turn into the
destructive straight-horizontal winds.[8]
Main article: Flash ood
Flash ooding is the process where a landscape, most Thunderstorm asthma

notably an urban environment, is subjected to rapid
oods.[72] These rapid oods occur more quickly and Main article: Thunderstorm asthma
are more localized than seasonal river ooding or areal
ooding[73] and are frequently (though not always) as- Thunderstorm asthma is the triggering of an asthma at-
sociated with intense rainfall.[74] Flash ooding can fre- tack by environmental conditions directly caused by a lo-
quently occur in slow-moving thunderstorms and is usu- cal thunderstorm. During a thunderstorm, pollen grains
ally caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accom- can absorb moisture and then burst into much smaller
panies it. Flash oods are most common in densely pop- fragments with these fragments being easily dispersed by
ulated urban environments, where few plants and bodies wind. While larger pollen grains are usually ltered by
of water are present to absorb and contain the extra water. hairs in the nose, the smaller pollen fragments are able to
Flash ooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure, pass through and enter the lungs, triggering the asthma
such as bridges, and weakly constructed buildings. Plants attack.[76][77][78][79]
and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and dev-
astated by the force of raging water. Automobiles parked
within aected areas can also be displaced. Soil erosion 8.1.5 Safety precautions
can occur as well, exposing risks of landslide phenomena.
See also: Emergency management and Tornado pre-
Downburst paredness
Main article: Downburst Most thunderstorms come and go fairly uneventfully;

Downburst winds can produce numerous hazards to land- however, any thunderstorm can become severe, and
scapes experiencing thunderstorms. Downburst winds all thunderstorms, by denition, present the danger
are generally very powerful, and are often mistaken of lightning.[80] Thunderstorm preparedness and safety
for wind speeds produced by tornadoes,[75] due to the refers to taking steps before, during, and after a thun-
derstorm to minimize injury and damage. during and after a storm. The American Red Cross rec-
ommends that people follow these precautions if a storm
is imminent or in progress:[80]
Preparedness
Preparedness refers to precautions that should be taken Take action immediately upon hearing
before a thunderstorm. Some preparedness takes the thunder. Anyone close enough to the
form of general readiness (as a thunderstorm can occur at storm to hear thunder can be struck by
any time of the day or year).[81] Preparing a family emer- lightning.[83]
gency plan, for example, can save valuable time if a storm Avoid electrical appliances, including
arises quickly and unexpectedly.[82] Preparing the home corded telephones.[80] Cordless and wire-
by removing dead or rotting limbs and trees, which can less telephones are safe to use during a
be blown over in high winds, can also signicantly reduce thunderstorm.[83]
the risk of property damage and personal injury.[83]
Close and stay away from windows and
The National Weather Service (NWS) in the United doors, as glass can become a serious haz-
States recommends several precautions that people ard in high wind.[80]
should take if thunderstorms are likely to occur:[81]
Do not bathe or shower, as plumbing con-
ducts electricity.
Know the names of local counties, cities,
and towns, as these are how warnings are If driving, safely exit the roadway, turn
described.[81] on hazard lights, and park. Remain in the
vehicle and avoid touching metal.[80]
Monitor forecasts and weather condi-
tions and know whether thunderstorms
are likely in the area.[84] The NWS stopped recommending the lightning crouch
in 2008 as it doesn't provide a signicant level of pro-
Be alert for natural signs of an approach- tection and will not signicantly lower the risk of being
ing storm. killed or injured from a nearby lightning strike.[84][85][86]
Cancel or reschedule outdoor events (to
avoid being caught outdoors when a
storm hits).[84] 8.1.6 Frequent occurrences
Take action early so you have time to get
See also: United States rainfall climatology
to a safe place.[84]
Thunderstorms occur throughout the world, even in the
Get inside a substantial building or hard-
topped metal vehicle before threatening
weather arrives.[84]
If you hear thunder, get to the safe place
immediately.[84]
Avoid open areas like hilltops, elds, and
beaches, and don't be or be near the tallest
objects in an area when thunderstorms
are occurring.[81][84]
Don't shelter under tall or isolated trees
during thunderstorms.[84]
If in the woods, put as much dis-
tance between you and any trees during
thunderstorms.[84]
A mild thunderstorm over Niagara Falls, Ontario.
If in a group, spread out so that you
increase the chances for survivors who
could come to the aid of any victims from polar regions, with the greatest frequency in tropical
a lightning strike.[84] rainforest areas, where they may occur nearly daily. At
any given time approximately 2,000 thunderstorms are
occurring on Earth.[87] Kampala and Tororo in Uganda
Safety have each been mentioned as the most thunderous places
on Earth,[88] a claim also made for Singapore and Bogor
While safety and preparedness often overlap, thunder- on the Indonesian island of Java. Other cities known for
storm safety generally refers to what people should do frequent storm activity include Darwin, Caracas, Manila
and Mumbai. Thunderstorms are associated with the var-

ious monsoon seasons around the globe, and they popu-
late the rainbands of tropical cyclones.[89] In temperate
regions, they are most frequent in spring and summer, al-
though they can occur along or ahead of cold fronts at any
time of year.[90] They may also occur within a cooler air
mass following the passage of a cold front over a relatively
warmer body of water. Thunderstorms are rare in polar
regions because of cold surface temperatures.
Some of the most powerful thunderstorms over the
United States occur in the Midwest and the Southern
states. These storms can produce large hail and power-
ful tornadoes. Thunderstorms are relatively uncommon
along much of the West Coast of the United States,[91]
but they occur with greater frequency in the inland ar- Lightning storm over Sydney
eas, particularly the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys
of California. In spring and summer, they occur nearly The temperature of a lightning bolt can be ve times hot-
daily in certain areas of the Rocky Mountains as part of ter than the surface of the sun.[92] Although the light-
the North American Monsoon regime. In the Northeast, ning is extremely hot, the duration is short and 90% of
storms take on similar characteristics and patterns as the strike victims survive. Contrary to the popular idea that
Midwest, but with less frequency and severity. During lightning does not strike twice in the same spot, some
the summer, air-mass thunderstorms are an almost daily people have been struck by lightning over three times,
occurrence over central and southern parts of Florida. and skyscrapers like the Empire State Building have been
struck numerous times in the same storm.[93]
8.1.7 Types of lightning The loud bang that is heard is the super heated air around
the lightning bolt expanding at the speed of sound. Be-
cause sound travels much more slowly than light the ash
is seen before the bang, although both occur at the same
moment.
There are several types of lightning:
In-cloud lightning is the most common. It is light-

ning within a cloud and is sometimes called intra-
cloud or sheet lightning.
Cloud to ground lightning is when a bolt of lightning

from a cloud strikes the ground. This form poses the
greatest threat to life and property.
Ground to cloud lightning is when a lightning bolt is

induced from the ground to the cloud.
Cloud to cloud lightning is rarely seen and is when a

bolt of lightning arcs from one cloud to another.
Cloud to ground lightning over Pentagon City in Arlington,
Ball lightning is extremely rare and has several hy-
Virginia
pothesized explanations. It is seen in the form of a
15 to 50 centimeter radius ball.[94]
Main article: Lightning
Cloud to air lightning is when lightning from a cloud
Lightning is an electrical discharge that occurs in a thun- hits air of a dierent charge.[95]
derstorm. It can be seen in the form of a bright streak (or Dry lightning is a misnomer that refers to a thun-
bolt) from the sky. Lightning occurs when an electrical derstorm whose precipitation does not reach the
charge is built up within a cloud, due to static electric- ground.
ity generated by supercooled water droplets colliding with
ice crystals near the freezing level. When a large enough Heat Lightning refers to a lightning ash that is seen
charge is built up, a large discharge will occur and can be from the horizon that does not have accompanying
seen as lightning. thunder.[96]
Upper-atmospheric lightning occurs above the thun- 8.1.9 Studies

derhead.
In more contemporary times, thunderstorms have taken
on the role of a scientic curiosity. Every spring,
Clear-air lightning is used widely to describe light- storm chasers head to the Great Plains of the United
ning that occurs with no apparent cloud close enough States and the Canadian Prairies to explore the scien-
to have produced it. In the U.S. and Canadian Rock- tic aspects of storms and tornadoes through use of
ies, a thunderstorm can be in an adjacent valley and videotaping.[99] Radio pulses produced by cosmic rays
not be observable, (either visually or audibly), from are being used to study how electric charges develop
the valley where the lightning bolt strikes. Euro- within thunderstorms.[100] More organized meteorolog-
pean and Asian mountainous areas experience sim- ical projects such as VORTEX2 use an array of sensors,
ilar events. Also in clear areas where the storm cell such as the Doppler on Wheels, vehicles with mounted
is on the near horizon (within 26 km (16 mi) a strike automated weather stations, weather balloons, and un-
can occur, and as the storm is so far away, the strike manned aircraft to investigate thunderstorms expected
is referred to as clear-air. to produce severe weather.[101] Lightning is detected re-
motely using sensors that detect cloud-to-ground light-
ning strokes with 95 percent accuracy in detection and
within 250 metres (820 ft) of their point of origin.[102]
8.1.8 Energy
See also: Sprite (lightning), Upper-atmospheric light-

ning, and St. Elmos re
8.1.10 Mythology and religion
If the quantity of water that is condensed in and sub-
Thunderstorms strongly inuenced many early civiliza-
tions. Greeks believed that they were battles waged by
Zeus, who hurled lightning bolts forged by Hephaestus.
Some American Indian tribes associated thunderstorms
with the Thunderbird, who they believed was a servant of
the Great Spirit.[103] The Norse considered thunderstorms
to occur when Thor went to ght Jtnar, with the thunder
and lightning being the eect of his strikes with the ham-
mer Mjlnir. Hinduism recognizes Indra as the god of
rain and thunderstorms. Christian doctrine accepted the
ideas of Aristotle's original work, called Meteorologica,
that winds were caused by exhalations from the Earth and
that erce storms were the work of God. These ideas were
still within the mainstream as late as the 18th century.[104]
How thunderstorms launch particle beams into space Martin Luther was out walking when a thunderstorm be-
gan, causing him to pray to God for being saved and
promising to become a monk.[105]
sequently precipitated from a cloud is known, then the
total energy of a thunderstorm can be calculated. In a
typical thunderstorm, approximately 5108 kg of water
vapor are lifted, and the amount of energy released when 8.1.11 Outside of Earth
this condenses is 1015 joules. This is on the same or-
der of magnitude of energy released within a tropical Thunderstorms, evidenced by ashes of lightning, on
cyclone, and more energy than that released during the Jupiter have been detected and are associated with clouds
atomic bomb blast at Hiroshima, Japan in 1945.[10] where water may exist as both a liquid and ice, suggest-
The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor results show that ing that a similar mechanism may act as on Earth. (Water
gamma rays and antimatter particles (positrons) can be is a polar molecule that can carry a charge, so it is capa-
generated in powerful thunderstorms.[97] It is suggested ble of creating the charge separation needed to produce
that the antimatter positrons are formed in terrestrial lightning.)[106] These electrical discharges can be up to a
gamma-ray ashes (TGF). TGFs are brief bursts occur- thousand times as powerful as lightning on the Earth.[107]
ring inside thunderstorms and associated with lightning. The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the
The streams of positrons and electrons collide higher in heat rising from the interior.[108] The clouds of Venus may
the atmosphere to generate more gamma rays.[98] About also be capable of producing lightning; some observations
500 TGFs may occur every day worldwide, but mostly go suggest that the lightning rate is at least half of that on
undetected. Earth.[109]
8.1.12 See also [11] Pilots Web The Aviators Journal (2009-06-13).
Structural Icing in VMC. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
Barbers pole
[12] Jon W. Zeitler & Matthew J. Bunkers (March 2005).
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view and Case Studies Using Multiple Datasets (PDF).
Convective storm detection National Weather Service Forecast Oce, Riverton,
Wyoming. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
Hector (cloud)
[13] The Weather World 2010 Project (2009-09-03). Vertical
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roburst: SMRP Research Paper 210.
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[15] Markowski, Paul and Yvette Richardson. Mesoscale Me-
Tornado watch
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[16] Maddox, R.A., C.F. Chappell, and L.R. Hoxit, (1979).

Synoptic and mesoscale aspects of ash ood events.
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J. V. Iribarne and W.L. Godson, Atmospheric Ther- the crosswind component perpendicular to the for-
modynamics, published by D. Reidel Publishing mer.
Company, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 1973
A vehicle behaves as though it is directly experiencing
M. K. Yau and R. R. Rogers, Short Course
a lateral eect of the magnitude of the crosswind com-
in Cloud Physics, Third Edition, published by
ponent only. The crosswind component is computed by
Butterworth-Heinemann, January 1, 1989, EAN
multiplying the wind speed by the sine of the angle be-
9780750632157 ISBN 0-7506-3215-1
tween the wind and the direction of travel while the head-
wind component is computed in the same manner, using
8.1.15 External links cosine instead of sine. For example, a 10 knot wind com-
ing at 45 degrees from either side will have a crosswind
Anatomy of a thunderstorm component of 10 knots sin(45) and a head/tailwind
component of 10 knots cos(45), both equals to 7.07
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology knots.
Air trac control display at an airport of aircraft To determine the crosswind component in aviation, avi-
avoiding thunderstorm ators frequently refer to a nomograph chart on which the
wind speed and angle are plotted, and the crosswind com-
ponent is read from a reference line. Direction of travel
8.2 Crosswind relative to the wind may be left or right, up or down, or
oblique.[1]
For other uses, see Crosswinds (disambiguation).
A crosswind is any wind that has a perpendicular com- 8.2.2 Impact
In a crosswind landing, the fuselage of the plane may be skewed

relative to the runway
ponent to the line or direction of travel. This aects the

aerodynamics of many forms of transport. Moving non-
parallel to the winds direction creates a crosswind com-
ponent on the object and thus increasing the apparent
wind on the object; such use of cross wind travel is used
to advantage by sailing craft, kiteboarding craft, power
kiting, etc. On the other side, crosswind moves the path
of vehicles sideways and can be a hazard.
Skilled cyclists can ride in crosswinds using a Belgian tourniquet

8.2.1 Denition (Belgischer Kreisel)
When winds are not parallel to or directly with/against In aviation, a crosswind is the component of wind that
the line of travel, the wind is said to have a crosswindis blowing across the runway, making landings and take-
component; that is, the force can be separated into two os more dicult than if the wind were blowing straight
vector components: down the runway. If a crosswind is strong enough, it can
damage an aircrafts undercarriage upon landing. Cross-
the headwind or tailwind component in the direction winds, sometimes abbreviated as X/WIND, are reported
of motion, in knots, abbreviated kt, and often use the plural form
8.2. CROSSWIND 113
in expressions such as with 40kt crosswinds. Smaller 8.2.5 External links

aircraft are often not limited by their ability to land in a
crosswind, but may see their ability to taxi safely reduced. E6BX Wind Components Illustrator
Crosswinds can also cause diculty with ground vehi- Airplanes and Crosswinds by Bruce Miller, The
cles traveling on wet or slippery roads (snow, ice, stand- Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
ing water, etc.), especially when gusting conditions aect
vehicles that have a large side area such as vans, SUVs,
and tractor-trailers. This can be dangerous for motorists
because of the possible lift force created, causing the ve-
hicle to lose traction or change direction of travel. The
safest way for motorists to deal with crosswinds is by re-
ducing their speed to reduce the eect of the lift force
and to steer into the direction of the crosswind.
Cyclists are also signicantly aected by crosswinds.[2][3]
Saving energy by avoiding riding in wind is a major part
of the tactics of road bicycle racing, and this particu-
larly applies in crosswinds. In crosswinds, groups of cy-
clists form 'echelons', rotating from the windward and lee-
ward side.[3][4] Riders who fail to form part of an echelon
will have to work much harder, and can be dropped by
the group that they are with.[3] Crosswinds are common
on races near the coast, and are often a feature of the
Belgian classic one-day races,[5] or at stages of the Tour
de France.[6]
8.2.3 See also
Headwind and tailwind
Air navigation
E6B
Tacking (sailing)
Crosswind stabilization
8.2.4 References
[1] Miles L. Loyd. Crosswind Kite Power (pdf). Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, Calif.
[2] Howland, Bob. The Physics of Riding in the Wind.

Road Bike Rider. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
[3] Banishki, Nikola. Echelons and You: Riding Smart in

the Crosswind. The Tall Cyclist. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
[4] Echelon the Crosswinds. Cycling Tips. Retrieved 30

July 2015.
[5] Crosswinds, crashes and cobbles Brice makes Team

Velosport debut. Womens Cycling Ireland. Retrieved
30 July 2015.
[6] Tour de France: Froome hails 'huge advantage' over Ni-

bali and Quintana after crosswinds. Cycling News. Re-
trieved 30 July 2015.
Chapter 9
Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses
9.1 Text
Aviation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation?oldid=783302580 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, DavidLevinson, Maury
Markowitz, KF, AntonioMartin, Edward, Patrick, Zocky, Qwitchibo, Blueshade, Kku, Arpingstone, Kosebamse, Blimpguy, Jghiii, Glenn,
Cherkash, GRAHAMUK, Novum, Kenny Moens, Robbot, JoelKatz, Mike Stramba, Altenmann, Syclop, Pingveno, Nilmerg, Wikibot,
Greyengine5, Wolfkeeper, Danio, Siroxo, RivGuySC, Ray Trygstad, Antandrus, Marine 69-71, Trevor MacInnis, Jacooks, Mike Rosoft,
D6, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Marsian~enwiki, Dpm64, Mani1, Martpol, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Loren36, RJHall, Jeerry,
Key45, Dbchip, LuoShengli, Idleguy, Krellis, Mroach, Jumbuck, TheParanoidOne, Ahmad Fauzi HMS, Yamla, CJ, Snowolf, Docboat, Jan
Pospil, Bsadowski1, Stemonitis, Woohookitty, Lupinelawyer, Before My Ken, SDC, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Hulagutten, MarSch, Jmcc150,
Vegaswikian, Bensin, FlaBot, Windchaser, Cherubino, Ahunt, Chobot, Sharkface217, YurikBot, RussBot, Mark Ironie, Splette, Spuri-
ousQ, Van der Hoorn, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, CambridgeBayWeather, CLAES, Cleared as led, Apokryltaros, Cheeser1, Wangi, Bota47,
Nick123, Ms2ger, Zzuuzz, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Th1rt3en, LeonardoRob0t, Richardj311, AGToth, GrinBot~enwiki,
robot, Sardanaphalus, Generaleskimo, Treesmill, SmackBot, TestPilot, Marc Lacoste, SaxTeacher, Jagged 85, Delldot, FMB, Gilliam,
Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Durova, Chris the speller, Joefaust, Persian Poet Gal, Huji, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Snowmanradio, Su-
percowfan, Edivorce, Jamescope, Evil Merlin, Blake-, Martijn Hoekstra, RandomP, Zonk43, SashatoBot, Phydeaux, John, Vgy7ujm, J
1982, SilkTork, MilborneOne, Leopardjferry, CaptainVindaloo, Aleenf1, PseudoSudo, 16@r, MarkSutton, Slakr, Beetstra, SQGibbon,
TastyPoutine, RichardF, MTSbot~enwiki, Fan-1967, Clarityend, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, MarylandArtLover, Lahiru
k, Cyrusc, JForget, CmdrObot, Rurp, Mcmxl, OMGsplosion, Theguru320, Felixboy, Cydebot, Soladee, Rieman 82, Chasingsol, Flyme-
outofhere, Dancter, Christian75, Chrislk02, DonFB, JColgan, PamD, Thijs!bot, Jerelabs, HappyInGeneral, Gralo, Headbomb, John254,
SGGH, Rodrigo Cornejo, James086, Joe d'Eon, Sherbrooke, Tennisuser123, EdJogg, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, BokicaK, Akradecki,
Seaphoto, Quintote, Jj137, Steelpillow, Deadbeef, JackSparrow Ninja, JAnDbot, Jahoe, Unused0029, VoABot II, Soulbot, Jeeh, Battery-
Included, Durksteel, Kristian Finn, WLU, Gun Powder Ma, Oroso, MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, Matt thomas, Arjun01, Ultraviolet scissor
ame, Holwil, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Koplimek, Shellwood, J.delanoy, Trademark123, Mrclean9865, Charlemain, McSly, Mrg3105,
M-le-mot-dit, SmilesALot, Tatrgel, STBotD, WJBscribe, Moondoll, Inter16, Bonadea, Dzenanz, Idioma-bot, Remi0o, Braisim, VolkovBot,
Thedjatclubrock, Them308, Macedonian, RightSideNov, EH101, Aesopos, Philip Trueman, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Marskuzz,
Plenumchamber~enwiki, Vera.Dvoinos, Natg 19, Andy Dingley, Matthewinventor, Kovy999, Turgan, Sue Rangell, EmxBot, SieBot, Hrf,
Bidouilleur, Caltas, Kobek81, Happysailor, Superdudeonre, Oxymoron83, Lightmouse, IdreamofJeanie, PilotFrazee, Chrhardy, Cul-
tureDrone, Dolphin51, Carltzau, ImageRemovalBot, Toprohan, Twinsday, ClueBot, Binksternet, Bob1960evens, Heltzen, TopTopView,
Mild Bill Hiccup, CounterVandalismBot, CharlieRCD, DragonBot, Excirial, Jusdafax, Ottre, NuclearWarfare, Astonfw, Gundersen53,
The Red, Aeronews, DumZiBoT, Peter Bankss, Pvtyer, BarretB, Kes321, XLinkBot, Roxy the dog, MastrPlanner, Rokus2000, Bod-
hisattvaBot, Rror, Jagoboy, The Rationalist, Airplaneman, Addbot, Xp54321, DOI bot, SpellingBot, Stwalkersock, Fieldday-sunday, Ash-
ton1983, CarsracBot, Glane23, AndersBot, Favonian, Azul247, LinkFA-Bot, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Luckas Blade, Genius101, Ale66,
Legobot, Yobot, Themfromspace, OrgasGirl, Imarquecm, KamikazeBot, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Pyrrhus16, Kingpin13,
Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, GB fan, LovesMacs, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Grim23, SassoBot, Aldo samulo, Deectico, EricSkin-
ner, Incidious, iedas, SD5, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, MOSSOT, Tobby72, Leboman, HJ Mitchell, A little insignicant, Rgvis, Cita-
tion bot 1, Pinethicket, Tom.Reding, Serols, Plane Person, Rausch, Hsrc, Deltaker, TobeBot, TheLongTone, Itzalwaysme, Suusion of
Yellow, Nascar1996, Halo13245, Unioneagle, RjwilmsiBot, DexDor, Beyond My Ken, JUtpadel, Look it hobo, EmausBot, Joshp151,
Sp33dyphil, Planedriver27, Patoune08, Tkpowell, Acidplasticman, SporkBot, 999xyzma, Ictglen, Jj98, Donner60, Carmichael, TruckCard,
DASHBotAV, Whoop whoop pull up, Carly88, Planetscared, Sgfaig, ClueBot NG, Spiress, MelbourneStar, Satellizer, Coastwise, Logi-
cUndeed, Bethaso, Delusion23, Twillisjr, Agentblank, Widr, TatyaM, Paj1113, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot,
Broocrew, Iespindia, Motisances, Jhona43, Wheeke, David.moreno72, Khazar2, Brett1726, Dexbot, Mogism, Mxheil, XXzoonamiXX,
Buspirtraz, The Anonymouse, Reatlas, Joeinwiki, Thedude52, XFEM Skier, DavidLeighEllis, Lovergirlllll, PeterDandy, Zxtxtxz, 2lol555,
JWNoctis, Capt burhaan, Madi125, Jianhui68, UY Scuti, N0n3up, Xyzdef, Mikhat, Monkbot, Patient Zero, Theoryofman, Trackteur,
Zachtheboss902, Solimp, Project manager awery, Jshade123, Snabbkae, Delfont, Kourousis, James.bennett.russell, Prinsgezinde, Kas-
parBot, CLCStudent, Pilot2019, InternetArchiveBot, FishsticksAreLife123, FishsticksAreLife13, Zynal.nabi, GreenC bot, Fishsticks13,
Gulumeemee, JamestheAviator, SkyEye MCCIX, BACS Limited, AquaKyle10, SuperSainGouku, Tompop888, Pikabeehappy, DylanFuj,
Xianyunjushi and Anonymous: 455
Aviation history Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation?oldid=786268988 Contributors: Derek Ross, XJaM, Christo-
pher Mahan, Rmhermen, Maury Markowitz, Heron, GrahamN, Hephaestos, Olivier, Lisiate, Rbrwr, Frecklefoot, Infrogmation, Qwitchibo,
114
9.1. TEXT 115
Liftarn, Tannin, Dramatic, Paddu, (, Arpingstone, Paul A, Tiles, Blimpguy, Looxix~enwiki, Ams80, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, G-Man,
Notheruser, Rlandmann, Mark Foskey, , Mihai~enwiki, Bogdangiusca, Jiang, Astudent, Cherkash, Smack, GRAHAMUK,
Beachey, Dysprosia, Daniel Quinlan, Audin, Wik, Zoicon5, Maximus Rex, Mrand, Grendelkhan, Thue, Opus33, Pollinator, Lumos3, Rad-
icalBender, Mrdice, Pigsonthewing, Fredrik, Tlogmer, Chris 73, RedWolf, Nurg, Chris Roy, Academic Challenger, Wikibot, Rsduhamel,
GreatWhiteNortherner, Alan Liefting, Kurohone, Greyengine5, Wolfkeeper, Dissident, Theon~enwiki, Curps, Zinnmann, Avsa, Per Honor
et Gloria, Saaga, Solipsist, Matthead, Bobblewik, Wmahan, Neilc, K7jeb, Gadum, SarekOfVulcan, Yath, HorsePunchKid, Beland, Van-
ished user 1234567890, Mukerjee, 1297, Rlquall, Thincat, Sam Hocevar, Clemwang, Trevor MacInnis, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
FranksValli, Regebro, Dpm64, IlyaHaykinson, Martpol, Shellbell, Bender235, ESkog, Brian0918, CanisRufus, El C, Bikeal, Rgdboer,
Bobo192, Mdd, Alansohn, AnnaP, Guy Harris, Denniss, Snowolf, GeorgeStepanek, Wtshymanski, Edgr, Kusma, Gene Nygaard, Tobyc75,
Akuchling, A D Monroe III, Velho, Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, LOL, Jpers36, Polyparadigm, JBellis, Chochopk, Fred J, Tabletop, HollyI,
Paullb, Stefanomione, Wgmleslie, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Jmcc150, Swerveut, Stilgar135, ElKevbo, The wub, Daderot, Latka,
Ysangkok, Themanwithoutapast, Flowerparty, Leslie Mateus, DrGeoduck, Ahunt, No Swan So Fine, Matt314, MoRsE, VolatileChemi-
cal, RobertWalden, Mollyclare, JarrahTree, RadioFan, Van der Hoorn, Mythsearcher, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Wimt, GeeJo, Marcus
Cyron, David R. Ingham, Herbertxu, NawlinWiki, EWS23, Dialectric, Grafen, Thiseye, Jpbowen, Quadbox, Syrthiss, Gadget850, Dead-
EyeArrow, Mareklug, Spute, Eurosong, Sandstein, Canadia, Michael32710, Acer, Vicarious, Fram, Airodyssey, David Biddulph, Guinness
man, Allens, Katieh5584, robot, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Marc Lacoste, CRKingston, Jagged 85, Fsamuels, Ifnord, Kjb, Can-
thusus, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Durova, Chris the speller, Autarch, MK8, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Grimhelm, Wuapinmon,
RayAYang, Baronnet, Colonies Chris, Trekphiler, AussieLegend, OrphanBot, Snowmanradio, Ww2censor, Greenshed, Napalm Llama,
Ma.rkus.nl, The PIPE, DMacks, Mion, Wilt, Will Beback, Nishkid64, ArglebargleIV, Khazar, Loodog, MilborneOne, AB, Minna Sora no
Shita, RandomCritic, Optakeover, Geologyguy, MAG1, Graufbold, Saxbryn, EmissaryMark, Iridescent, JoeBot, Skapur, J Di, CapitalR,
Courcelles, ChrisCork, INkubusse, CmdrObot, The Font, Dgw, Donaldd23, Ballista, Todowd, Ken Gallager, Yaris678, Slazenger, Cyde-
bot, Grahamec, Bilko2, Phil in the 818, Kazubon~enwiki, Doug Weller, Teratornis, DonFB, Kozuch, Aditya Kabir, Thijs!bot, Epbr123,
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dom Passer-by, Spellcast, VolkovBot, ABF, Macedonian, Leebo, JohnBlackburne, AlnoktaBOT, Gene Hobbs, Chienlit, Maxtremus, Sdsds,
Plenumchamber~enwiki, Moogwrench, Soundofmusicals, Tsarevna, Econterms, Natg 19, Michaeldsuarez, LanceBarber, Sevela.p, OLMu-
seum, Monty845, Magmarch, SieBot, Calliopejen1, Restre419, Tiddly Tom, BotMultichill, Sukram60, Yintan, Revent, Bentogoa, The-
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Internet, Atethnekos, Ronhjones, DrJos, Cst17, FluyWhiteCat, A1a2b3, Jfknrh, LinkFA-Bot, Diglibs2, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish,
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Andrewrp, Georgejdorner, Jim1138, Milibrary, Qdinar, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Eumolpo, LilHelpa, JimVC3, Enldfa, Hi878, Car-
rite, Amaury, Dung3onMast3r, Texas141, Eugene-elgato, Erik9, GliderMaven, Dead Mary, Hyperboreer, FrescoBot, MOSSOT, Leckos,
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de Mendoza, LittleWink, Skyraider1, Kuak, SpaceFlight89, White Shadows, Digitat, Trappist the monk, Drnesari, TheLongTone, Mo-
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the Varangian, HotWinters, Helpful Pixie Bot, Scobuna3, Webmail.za, Calabe1992, Simajim, Howydowy, BG19bot, Bamsa6789, Wiki13,
MusikAnimal, CollinZito, CitationCleanerBot, JeromRP, Zedshort, BattyBot, Tutelary, David.moreno72, Cyberbot II, LaW08, Chris-
Gualtieri, Dexbot, Zeeyanwiki, FoCuSandLeArN, Hmainsbot1, Randombob1, Lugia2453, Kooliqard, Cmckain14, Jimjibone, Tentinator,
Backendgaming, DavidLeighEllis, Vindalen2, David J Hu face, Mfb, StarHOG, Monkbot, PJemus, HACNY, HMSLavender, Izkala, Avi-
ator24, Babymissfortune, Layla, the remover, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, JueLinLi, Savitar1234 and Anonymous:
517
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Robbot, Darrelljon, DVdm, FocalPoint, Chris the speller, BIL, J 1982, Cydebot, Headbomb, Dawnseeker2000, JAnDbot, Magioladitis,
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NG, BG19bot, MR.Incredible12345678910, Northamerica1000, Darylgolden, Mr Imicplatetarium, Maviles13, Shkuru Afshar, DocDerz,
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secon 59, Ortolan88, Qbmessiah, DavidLevinson, Olivier, AntonioMartin, Edward, RTC, Michael Hardy, Zocky, Mahjongg, Kku, Martin-
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cospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Wk muriithi, Autiger, Jovrtn, Bender235, Sc147, Ylee, Jaques O. Carvalho, MBisanz, Neil
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man, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Camw, PoccilScript, Twinjalanugraha, Tboersma, Commander Keane, JeremyA, Ardfern, Kelisi, Dmol,
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led, Anetode, Brandon, Airline, Dave English, Tony1, Samir, N35w101, Barnabypage, Elkman, Deepak~enwiki, User27091, Zzuuzz,
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Dpm64, Andrewferrier, BACbKA, El C, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Jeodesic, Pearle, Pksnn, Ashley Pomeroy, Drat, Woohookitty, Mooingle-
mur, SDC, Graham87, Dpr, Rjwilmsi, Jmcc150, Vegaswikian, SchuminWeb, Ahunt, YurikBot, Arado, Anomalocaris, Geo NoNick,
2ballen, Alarichall, Cleared as led, Wlmsears, PeepP, Mareklug, Ageekgal, LeonardoRob0t, Hyhens, Niblowong, GN4179, SaxTeacher,
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Poutine, Hammerattack, Kvng, GoDawgs, Falconus, Cydebot, Headbomb, Blm07, BK, Captjosh, BilCat, JaGa, Adxp, Jw4nvc, Darkspots,
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yw, Nathan Johnson, Rror, Xp54321, Legobot, Nic Germ, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, Outdoorphilly, Doulos Christos, Eric-
Skinner, Merlin-geezer, FrescoBot, PrairieOjibway, DrWhatIKnow, Elockid, Theo10011, Lammidhania, Myaviationhub, DexDor, Be-
yond My Ken, Perspeculum, Jay-Sebastos, Grandjean.q, Davey2010, Chesipiero, ClueBot NG, AviationAddict11, Loginnigol, Spartan7W,
Delusion23, MerlIwBot, Kndimov, Northamerica1000, Jerrybattle, Tinaishido, Bnewburn, Douchebagg, MapReader, Myoceantravel, Las-
playas4l, Theos Little Bot, Wiggy15, Henry3898383, Shkuru Afshar, Izkala, Kourousis, KasparBot, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot,
Magic links bot and Anonymous: 93
Aerial warfare Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_warfare?oldid=788006545 Contributors: Ed Poor, SimonP, Comte0, Ed-
ward, Liftarn, CORNELIUSSEON, Angela, Jdforrester, , Kroum, DJ Clayworth, Maximus Rex, Warofdreams, Lumos3,
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wei, Ericg, Mike Rosoft, Vsmith, SpookyMulder, Bender235, ESkog, RJHall, El C, Sietse Snel, TomStar81, Harald Hansen, Maur-
reen, La goutte de pluie, Sam Korn, Krellis, Jalefkowit, Jigen III, 119, Hohum, Dhartung, Mahanga, A D Monroe III, Hojimachong,
Nuno Tavares, PatGallacher, Carcharoth, Bkwillwm, Jergen, Wisq, Mandarax, Amorrow, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, FayssalF, RobertG, Ni-
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Johnson, Funandtrvl, Hugo999, Headphonos, Soundofmusicals, Martin451, Wei Xiwu, Usergreatpower, Hoboron, Bahamut0013, Just-
meherenow, Shark kid, Eatmealive, Smobri, Ttony21, WereSpielChequers, Bachcell, Shadoom, Piali, Hawk777, Cobatfor, Andrew647,
JetLover, Lightmouse, Ks0stm, Canglesea, Segregator236, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Binksternet, WikiSkeptic, Chessy999, NiD.29,
9.1. TEXT 117
Kos93, BobKawanaka, Mumia-w-18, NuclearWarfare, ShiningTor, Edsonland, Thewellman, Aitias, SoxBot III, MatthewVanitas, Addbot,
EZ1234, M.nelson, AkhtaBot, IFTIR, MrOllie, ChenzwBot, Blaylockjam10, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT,
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Bot, GoingBatty, Dcirovic, ZroBot, H3llBot, Quite vivid blur, Grampion76, ClueBot NG, Michaelmas1957, Joefromrandb, Primergrey,
Braincricket, Calabe1992, Chorobek, Gob Lofa, Mark Arsten, Jeancey, ProudIrishAspie, DA - DP, Dexbot, Dissident93, XXzoon-
amiXX, F4uids, Numbermaniac, Jwelter2, Jamesmcmahon0, A Certain Lack of Grandeur, Finnusertop, WPGA2345, MrMixtureMan,
Barjimoa, Monkbot, American Starkiller, Moiz Rafay, Atvica, KasparBot, JudgeDfg, MBlaze Lightning, InternetArchiveBot, Curro2,
Nani1992, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, Linesman75 and Anonymous: 186
Air trac control Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control?oldid=789654506 Contributors: Ed Poor, SimonP, Anto-
nioMartin, Patrick, PhilipMW, Michael Hardy, Voidvector, Mdupont, Arpingstone, Pcb21, CesarB, CatherineMunro, Glenn, Jschwa1,
Evercat, Cherkash, Ghewgill, Lommer, GRAHAMUK, Hashar, Darkov, Novum, RodC, Alexs, WhisperToMe, Maximus Rex, SEWilco,
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Iphoting, SimonLyall, Sam Hocevar, Huaiwei, Mr Smoke, Johnwalton, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, DmitryKo, Mormegil, Archer3, Solitude,
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Bobo192, Spalding, Stesmo, R. S. Shaw, Dbchip, Kierano, Krellis, Mareino, Espoo, Yvh11a, Wtmitchell, Juan Toledo, BDD, Mattbrundage,
GiovanniS, Dan100, Kenyon, Oleg Alexandrov, Lkinkade, Novacatz, Woohookitty, LrdChaos, Twinjalanugraha, Jpers36, Yuriybrisk, Fre-
plySpang, JIP, Josh Parris, Kotukunui, Rjwilmsi, Leeyc0, TheRingess, Vegaswikian, XLerate, Mmullens, LjL, Enumclaw, SNIyer12,
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chor Link Bot, Baggj, Markrw, ImageRemovalBot, Mx. Granger, MenoBot, Martarius, ClueBot, Robomanx, EoGuy, Mild Bill Hiccup,
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Yobot, Qwerty1746, Mmxx, Edmedmoped, JayLink1971, Againme, Tempodivalse, Gandolni~enwiki, Mariiwakura, Uscumlic, Rubin-
bot, Galoubet, Materialscientist, Jcs45, RobertEves92, Citation bot, GB fan, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Werner65, Greghm, Ajpralston1,
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pist the monk, Padrulez, FFM784, Lotje, Tofutwitch11, Realatc, Jross.hfdesign, Reaper Eternal, Nursebootsy, Grampjet, RjwilmsiBot,
Dsantiago1997, DexDor, Beyond My Ken, DASHBot, TGCP, EmausBot, John of Reading, Blayvas, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, ST2803,
Kasturi srinivasan, DolphinBGG, Slightsmile, FlugKerl, Dcirovic, AvicBot, ZroBot, Josve05a, Wackywace, Adityanandipinta, Lyncs,
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boquist, Jemappelleungarcon, Sriharsh1234, Flazaza, Eschuh12, Stevo3047, Babitaarora, Pushback approved, Finnusertop, Hjay50, Oct-
moussa, Henry3898383, Param Mudgal, SmackoVector, Nutjaru, Boonstis, Fattymatty15, Dontcallmeshirley, Filedelinkerbot, Meliscar,
DellLenovoHaier, Spacegirl99, Fleivium, Carlo Dani, IOS314, Tybomb124, KasparBot, JebKeb, SDEMVA, Pdfspath, Lbrown110, MB,
UA535, Welshwizzard-71, CLCStudent, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, John Hannibal Smith, Bender the Bot, Redrobo09, Nourhan
Mahmoud and Anonymous: 464
Environmental impact of aviation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_aviation?oldid=786424297 Contrib-
utors: Kku, IceKarma, Raul654, Phil Boswell, UtherSRG, Alan Liefting, Matthew Stannard, Pgan002, Andycjp, Dan aka jack, Nickptar,
Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Tirin, Max Naylor, Uncle G, Rtdrury, Bkwillwm, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ahunt, DVdm, Bgwhite, Wave-
length, Arado, Splette, Gaius Cornelius, Alarichall, Epipelagic, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, Chriswaterguy, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Marc
Lacoste, Verne Equinox, KVDP, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Shalom Yechiel, Ecozeppelin, BrownHairedGirl, John, Vgy7ujm, J 1982,
MilborneOne, Peterlewis, Dl2000, Quartz1, Mctorres, Neelix, DShantz, Cydebot, Wakeyjamie, Rieman 82, Mercury624, Hebrides,
Cimbalom, Headbomb, Mmcknight4, D.Wardle, Hydro, OhanaUnited, MaxPont, Swpb, Indon, A3nm, Gomm, Hans Dunkelberg, Shawn
in Montreal, KylieTastic, DASonnenfeld, Funandtrvl, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, Johnfos, Imme5150, Insanity Incarnate, Saneeta, Jrun,
Flyer22 Reborn, Factotem, Kpaynter, Msrasnw, Dolphin51, Mrfebruary, BSABill, ClueBot, Watti Renew, Moreau1, Djk3, Nathan John-
son, Addbot, DOI bot, Ronhjones, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Trapiella, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Quebec99,
MauritsBot, Xqbot, MerlLinkBot, FrescoBot, Menwith, Brodmont, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Serols, Plane
Person, Reelx09, Irt78, Robvanvee, GregKaye, Diannaa, Wiking, John of Reading, Lorast, Dewritech, Sp33dyphil, Tommy2010, Dcirovic,
H3llBot, Petrb, Mercury miner, ClueBot NG, Barton Campbell, Coastwise, O.Koslowski, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, Denovoid, BG19bot,
NewsAndEventsGuy, Andol, Marcocapelle, CeraBot, ChrisGualtieri, MKR125188, Peterbircak, Dexbot, Pintoch, SambarnardODI, Mel-
onkelon, Sosthenes12, Mr Imicplatetarium, Aqualily6, Monkbot, Ziraios, TerryAlex, Izkala, Rubbish computer, BU Rob13, Jamesimo24,
InternetArchiveBot, Mike4ebooks, RobbieIanMorrison, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, PrimeBOT and Anonymous: 111
Aviator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_pilot?oldid=788833983 Contributors: Mav, Robert Merkel, Deb, SimonP, Im-
ran, Olivier, AntonioMartin, Infrogmation, Zocky, Tannin, Ixfd64, Zanimum, Gbleem, Arpingstone, SebastianHelm, Blimpguy,
Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Suisui, EdH, Palmpilot900, Hashar, Jay, DJ Clayworth, Pearson james, Wernher, Camerong, Cluth,
Shantavira, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Ray Radlein, Donreed, Jondel, Wikibot, Xanzzibar, Sina~enwiki, Jyril, Cobaltbluetony, Netoholic, Ice-
berg3k, Marlonbraga, Bobblewik, Ray Trygstad, DavidBrooks, Xmnemonic, LiDaobing, Margana, Adamsan, Husnock, Bodnotbod, Karl-
Henner, Joyous!, Sonett72, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, N328KF, Monkeyman, Imroy, Xezbeth, Martpol, Bender235, Holford, SpaceGhost,
CanisRufus, Indiver, Keno, Tronno, Nk, Captain433180, Alansohn, Moanzhu, Carbon Caryatid, Lectonar, Milesli, Deacon of Pndapet-
zim, Drat, BDD, Richard Weil, Smoth 007, JeTK, Alvis, Woohookitty, Katyare, RHaworth, Twinjalanugraha, James Kemp, Commander
Keane, Zzyzx11, Prashanthns, GraemeLeggett, Graham87, Cuchullain, Kbdank71, Ketiltrout, Sj, Seidenstud, Rogerd, Jmcc150, UsagiM,
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gawi, LiamE, Tearlach, Malcolma, Ospalh, Nate1481, Northstop, BOT-Superzerocool, Vlad, Zzuuzz, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, GraemeL,
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tanc, Ozipozi, Adam.J.W.C., Falcon8765, AgentCDE, Sesshomaru, Koalorka, Xedatec, Tarheelathlete, MarkBolton, Liljem155, Dagadt,
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jeans, Michaelsbaum, Nimbus227, TonyBallioni, Werdnaxonk, Lartoven, Faireldfencer, NuclearWarfare, Thingg, ChannelNewsAsiaFa-
natic, Versus22, Teleomatic, Antediluvian67, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Peter Bankss, XLinkBot, BodhisattvaBot, WikHead, Silvonen-
Bot, WikiDao, Jwzoom, Addbot, Betterusername, Haruth, Meachly, NjardarBot, Kiiskila, Blaylockjam10, Coope08, Lightbot, Zorrobot,
Greyhood, The Bushranger, Luckas-bot, 2D, Yngvadottir, Robert333, Mo7amedsalim, Twpsyn Pentref, AnomieBOT, Knuter~enwiki,
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DKong27, Tdawson73, TechBot, Ched, BritishWatcher, Hawk820, Almabot, RibotBOT, SassoBot, 737Capt, Doulos Christos, B767-
500, Fabish Boaitey, Edgars2007, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Kierzek, Paine Ellsworth, I dream of horses, Mcmanus1992, Deltaker, AHe-
neen, B737Capt, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Carllikespie, TjBot, TGCP, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Wikiaeroskytech, HTVictor, NoisyJinx,
Dcirovic, K6ka, Darkght, Beach Port, Rijels, 1cheddarosten1, Ida Shaw, Shuipzv3, Bluegreenpea, Hamdun Zadi, Azlewis, H3llBot,
Kilopi, Brandmeister, Donner60, Neil P. Quinn, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Vorno, SusikMkr, Wingtipvortex, Snotbot, Coru-
sant, Alpha7248, Antiqueight, 24 moto, Chickentime, BG19bot, Jay8g, OttawaAC, Pitaboi, David.moreno72, AllThingsThatInvolveAir,
Jeasmeane, XXzoonamiXX, PauloMSimoes, RMCD bot, Capt Sami, William2001, AmaryllisGardener, The Giant Purple Platypus, Dan-
pimlott97, Jwratner1, Elaqueate, Loopy30, BethNaught, Raman2511, Halfhat, NamSor Onomastics, Willhesucceed, Lilgeld, KasparBot,
Mizz mizzi, My Chemistry romantic, Mmiddei4, HeatherPopeTurner, Omni Flames, KGirlTrucker81, El cid, el campeador, Skirts89,
AFBoomer, Hello6927, TwentyOneWiki and Anonymous: 467
Air safety Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_safety?oldid=789715398 Contributors: Danny, DavidSJ, AntonioMartin, Ed-

ward, Patrick, Llywrch, Mahjongg, Arpingstone, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, DJ Clayworth, Jusjih, David.Monniaux, Denelson83, Murray
Langton, Gak, JosephBarillari, Academic Challenger, Rhombus, Hcheney, Laudaka, Kim Bruning, HangingCurve, Micru, Dmmaus, All-
star86, Neilc, FrozenUmbrella, Gscshoyru, Huaiwei, Creidieki, Kmccoy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Dpm64, Aris Katsaris,
Bender235, ESkog, Petersam, BACbKA, J-Star, Koenige, Spalding, Reinyday, Arcadian, Dbchip, Mpulier, Hooperbloob, Musiphil, Sully,
Interiot, Andrewpmk, Mailer diablo, Denniss, Dhartung, Helixblue, Jesvane, Axeman89, Johntex, Ceyockey, Forderud, Dennis Brat-
land, Bobrayner, Bushytails, Woohookitty, Jannex, Scriberius, Ae-a, Uncle G, Bonus Onus, Astrowob, GregorB, PeregrineAY, Graham87,
KyuuA4, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Nneonneo, Bensin, Sepheris, Leslie Mateus, Timo Kouwenhoven, Ahunt, DVdm, Bgwhite, The
Rambling Man, Wavelength, Borgx, Splintercellguy, Ste1n, Pmurph5, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Shaddack, Wimt, Mconst,
Teutsch, Rbarreira, Ospalh, Bigpresh~enwiki, Emesik, ChrisGriswold, Closedmouth, Adamnaylor, Ed de Jonge, JLaTondre, Stephennarm-
strong, That Guy, From That Show!, Narkstraws, Luk, Hardscarf, SmackBot, Marc Lacoste, StephenJMuir, ProveIt, Commander Keane
bot, Bluebot, Stevage, Audriusa, Shalom Yechiel, Krich, Hatcat, Jsding, Acdx, Will Beback, Vanished user 9i39j3, EditorASC, John,
WhiteCat, J 1982, JorisvS, Arbustoo, Petter73, Jam01, Citicat, Clarityend, Joseph Solis in Australia, Pudeo, Chris55, Ylloh, CmdrObot,
ZsinjBot, Clipper471, Omnicog, Cydebot, Tawkerbot4, Satori Son, Shalgrover, Headbomb, Electron9, Dawnseeker2000, Kristoferb,
Born2ie, Richardw, Dogru144, MER-C, GurchBot, Magioladitis, Admin.suetheairlines, Alexandermiller, Indon, Spellmaster, Valerius Ty-
gart, Sox23, IgorSF, Dr Almost, Mike.lifeguard, Nothingofwater, LogaRhythm, Voytech, Youngjim, Ohms law, Skrelk, Cmichael, Dhaluza,
Lizishi, Ross Fraser, HiEv, TWCarlson, Blood Oath Bot, Funandtrvl, Signalhead, Shiggity, Mazin1980, Amikake3, Martinevans123,
Yun77, BwDraco, Bwv1004, Odo1982, BlueH2O, Thanatos666, Pmjones, Asim18, Finnrind, Kgm0001, Manintights28, LeadSongDog,
Hawk777, Jwolcott77, Bert Schlossberg, Dolphin51, YSSYguy, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Blackplate, The Thing That Should Not Be, Eiland,
PolarYukon, Tisdalepardi, Socrates2008, Taifarious1, The Founders Intent, Wprlh, Welcome2solutions, Callinus, Hotcrocodile, Nathan
Johnson, WikHead, Good Olfactory, Robinsuz, DOI bot, Christian Layug 13, MrOllie, CarsracBot, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Pietrow, Helite,
Nic Germ, Yobot, Themfromspace, Flying-now~enwiki, TestEditBot, AnomieBOT, Joule36e5, Etan J. Tal, Materialscientist, LilHelpa,
Ricky Coulson, SamForestell, Acebulf, Tad Lincoln, Anna Frodesiak, Gap9551, Srich32977, Kernel.package, DarkerBlue, SCRECROW,
Tornadowhiz, Jkander59, Armadillo35, V-kaat, FrescoBot, SkyHigher, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, LaFolleCycliste, Tom.Reding,
UnderKneee, Full-date unlinking bot, Stuey85, Andrea105, RjwilmsiBot, DexDor, DASHBot, TGCP, John of Reading, Dewritech, Trav-
elwriter222, Dcirovic, Michael Essmeyer, Brandmeister, Nubifer, ClueBot NG, AeroPsico, Jameswraitih, Mccrackenj, Oddbodz, Helpful
Pixie Bot, KLBot2, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, 1bengalor, IraChestereld, Redearthearth, CitationCleanerBot, Oceanko, Saa.caas, 220
of Borg, BattyBot, Factsearch, Khazar2, TH1980, Pieter1963, Epicgenius, I am One of Many, PraetorianFury, Draldiehl, Mr Imicplate-
9.1. TEXT 119
tarium, Mark James Holland, Pedatomic (c)., Kinostl, Filedelinkerbot, Andymii, Joey1niner, Wynnster8, Kourousis, ChengrongHe, Jkorb,
Yliu929, InternetArchiveBot, BananaCarrot152, Eno Lirpa, GreenC bot, Hyperdraco, Bender the Bot, Magic links bot and Anonymous:
258
Federal Aviation Regulations Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Regulations?oldid=788538640 Contributors:
Justfred, Ellmist, Cherkash, Rrostie, Hadal, Stevei, Scott Wilson, Neilc, Beland, DavidNorris, Rich Farmbrough, Eric Shalov, Giraedata,
PaulHanson, Lectonar, Woohookitty, Miketwo, 051150, Vegaswikian, Margosbot~enwiki, Ahunt, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Milena
Popovic, CambridgeBayWeather, Cleared as led, Voidxor, Tony1, Evrik, CLW, Marc Lacoste, Direktorxxx, Agateller, DMacks, Alan.ca,
Eastlaw, Yeehaw, Altaphon, Hervegirod, Mereda, Alphachimpbot, Guerrid, Froid, ORLANDO, Nono64, RightSideNov, Bodybagger,
SieBot, Chamblyen, Happysailor, Lightmouse, Dolphin51, Joedoedoe, Drewinfo, Freenaulij, LeheckaG, WikHead, Lightbot, Legobot,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Efa, Materialscientist, Bihco, Omnipaedista, Thehelpfulbot, HamburgerRadio, Jakestew, DexDor, Cybergothiche,
AeroPsico, Brankopilic, BattyBot, Joewalko, Cyberbot II, Jtamblyn, Garret.healy, T.Verron, Sam.gov, Katie Henry, Coisabh, Tschantzcc,
GreenC bot, EdRehr, A33321654, Bender the Bot, Mark The Droner and Anonymous: 72
Thunderstorm Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunderstorm?oldid=788331433 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Bryan Derksen,
The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, -- April, Scipius, SimonP, Luckymama58, Frecklefoot, Ubiquity, Lir, Michael Hardy, Fuzzie, Gabbe, Ixfd64,
Arpingstone, SebastianHelm, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Djaquay, Julesd, Andres, Cimon Avaro, Hike395, RadarCzar, Emperorbma, Ike9898,
Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Jerey Smith, Samsara, Metasquares, Slawojarek, Cornellier, Cedars, Timvasquez, MPF, Gtrmp, Wonder al,
SwissMoomin, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Kpalion, Utcursch, Beland, OverlordQ, Herrick~enwiki, Johnwalton, Famartin, Mike Rosoft,
Discospinster, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, Andros 1337, Vsmith, Edibobb, Smyth, Xezbeth, GregBenson, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd,
JoeSmack, El C, Edward Z. Yang, Tom, Bobo192, Grue, Fir0002, Func, Evolauxia, BrokenSegue, Cohesion, Chrisvls, MWS, Helix84,
Jakew, Alansohn, Gary, Lightdarkness, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Skatebiker, Itsmine, Gene Nygaard, Dan100, Mahanga, Shimeru, MONGO,
Hard Raspy Sci, Wayward, Icydid, Enzo Aquarius, Saperaud~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Koavf, Wiktator, Vary, Tangotango, The
wub, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs465465, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Gordin~enwiki, Harmil, Nivix, RexNL, Gurch, Leslie
Mateus, Terrx, Pbulises, Srleer, DVdm, NoAccount, Kummi, Wavelength, Sceptre, Jimp, Epolk, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Eleassar,
Pseudomonas, NawlinWiki, EWS23, Icelight, Retired username, CrazyC83, Cholmes75, Ravedave, Raven4x4x, Dbrs, DeadEyeArrow,
Psy guy, Bota47, JonathanLamb, Wknight94, Bidiot, Ageekgal, Theda, E Wing, Nemu, Dspradau, RenamedUser jaskldjslak904, Tim
R, Staxringold, Katieh5584, Roke, Jro660, Medicinematt, Suburbancow, Sardanaphalus, FearTec, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydro-
gen Iodide, Melchoir, NorthernFire, WilyD, Cormallen, Momoko, Jrockley, Teimu.tm, Frymaster, Ga, Xaosux, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie,
Hmains, Skizzik, Martial Law, Rmosler2100, Lovecz, Bidgee, Keegan, Sirex98, Raymond arritt, EncMstr, SchftyThree, Zinneke, Colonies
Chris, Zsinj, Dethme0w, Vulcanstar6, OrphanBot, Snowmanradio, Rrburke, Homestarmy, Addshore, Jmlk17, E. Sn0 =31337=, Salt Yeung,
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Question, 16@r, Pierre cb, Special-T, Burynew, Mr Stephen, Imagine Wizard, P199, Peter Horn, Laggard, KJS77, Levineps, Iridescent, The
Giant Pun, Paul venter, Tmangray, Devin122, Dragonix, Igoldste, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, The tyr3nt, Tawkerbot2, Annihilatenow,
Xcentaur, JForget, Tanthalas39, Ale jrb, BennyD, JohnCD, Kylu, NickW557, Jonathan8964, ShelfSkewed, Orca1 9904, Natasha2006,
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Cow, AntiVandalBot, Mjl72, Seaphoto, Opelio, Jj137, Wikibryce, PhJ, Danger, Spencer, Lonestar662p3, Storkk, Myanw, Skywatcher68,
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Haines, Acroterion, Guerrid, Canjth, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Think outside the box, Nahog, Avicennasis, Catgut, Theroadislong,
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monsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Theonlysilentbob, Lilac Soul, Themanfromsiam, Paranomia, J.delanoy, AstroHurricane001, Nigholith,
Jesant13, 12dstring, Fleiger, Lttlalb277, Janus Shadowsong, Jeepday, Vanished User 4517, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Kraftlos, Cmichael,
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Erebus Morgaine, Jerry Zhang, Lartoven, Combat1019, Povertypop the 7th, JamieS93, TheRedPenOfDoom, 7&6=thirteen, Yeahbabies,
Thingg, Accas1, Aitias, Adammacia, Scalhotrod, Versus22, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, Dollsworth, DumZiBoT, Guppy22, Nooristani, Death
horn 5, Jax 0677, BodhisattvaBot, Quellyn, Q247, Jimmydeguara, Sickler77, WikiDao, Me, Myself, and I, Miagirljmw14, Cyclonebiskit,
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Dog1990, MrOllie, BepBot, Maslen, SamatBot, AtheWeatherman, Aktsu, Tyw7, Itfc+canes=me, Ehrenkater, Rehman, Tide rolls, Ver-
bal, Lightbot, Luckas Blade, Greyhood, HerculeBot, Rakimambo, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Bunnyhop11, Tohd8BohaithuGh1,
TaBOT-zerem, KingScreamer, Naudefjbot~enwiki, Ojay123, Victoriaearle, Guy1890, Tromba206, Patriiick, KamikazeBot, Jalantucker,
IW.HG, Tempodivalse, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, AmritasyaPutra, IncidentalPoint, Jim1138, IRP, Greenbreen, AdjustShift,
Flewis, Giants27, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, S h i v a (Visnu), Sionus, Phthinosuchusisanances-
tor, Capricorn42, Matt7771, Jmundo, KrisBogdanov, Coretheapple, Danielgibsonfor3, Wuuh, Smallman12q, Arex, Sandcherry, Fres-
coBot, Originalwana, VS6507, Michael93555, Mr. Comodor, Galorr, Fgkljlgjfkjg, Ddjdjd, Citation bot 1, MarB4, Redrose64, JIK1975,
Pinethicket, Ponycide, Back dancer, Tom.Reding, Calmer Waters, Tinton5, Serols, Supportstorm, RandomStringOfCharacters, Full-date
unlinking bot, KnowledgeRequire, White Shadows, Getheren, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Gamemusicmaker, D climacus, GooseYArd,
Lotje, Callanecc, Vrenator, Joshuaxkimchi, Papizan, GGT, Smarty02, Diannaa, Mttcmbs, Titlicker, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth,
Nevin.williams, Hornlitz, Bento00, DexDor, Will research for food, Jackehammond, Regancy42, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Read-
ing, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Fishmander, Ks0alt, Tommy2010, Christlover1, Stormchaser89, Lou1986, AsceticRose, ZroBot, John
Cline, Ida Shaw, NicatronTg, The Lord of the Allosaurs, H3llBot, Scott9999999, Christina Silverman, Kilopi, MonoAV, Donner60, Epic-
stonemason, GrayFullbuster, DASHBotAV, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, Jack Greenmaven, CocuBot, This lousy T-shirt, Wetassas-
sass, Sleddog116, Movses-bot, Snotbot, Frietjes, Go Phightins!, Jeroenelf, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Bcormier1234, Bibcode Bot,
Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Lexicurry, Pine, Harmonicsonic, Nochoje, TCN7JM, Christianmairdrain, S9p9a9r9k, Wiki13, Sporty-
rod, Ashley79746, IraChestereld, Zweatherboy, Altar, CitationCleanerBot, Deonking, Zedshort, Physicsch, Sarah.awesome, MeanMoth-
erJr, BattyBot, Brohnhdon, Bob1234567890bob1234567890, XXmYrAnNdAxX, Cyberbot II, Phnomnes Naturels, Arcandam, Lexter
John, Kanghuitari, Lakshya (razor), Pcdmint, Rburke5786, Lugia2453, 13332O572O86142, Great Purple Way, Little green rosetta, Tel-
lan7, Joshua.murphy2012, Grayowl3, Sosthenes12, Maddiebellbee, Ethanmunkee, Passw, Passwo, Master of Time, Johnytheapple, NY-
Brook098, Pokpok52431, WxBot, Kharkiv07, Miniguy222, Oranjelo100, Glavtech, Jianhui67, Frogger48, Kaptinkrill123, Coastwisenav,
CurtismagnusA, Monkbot, Kinetic37, JustMeAndOnlyMe, JustThinkOfUs, Thelogoontherun, MRD2014, Iamahashtag, Julietdeltalima,
Sangdeboeuf, LolBean21, Luke49237, Mada126, Rb119, VTDK, Kiki715, Grinstorm, Ha1704, Idontcare45678, Ericgrandpre15, CAP-
TAIN RAJU, Brodie Flynn, Cactuslynx, Dcasey98, GSS-1987, Writer Mania, InternetArchiveBot, Mcina9059, TheFancyFedoraWielder,
Taylor94941, GreenC bot, Marvellous Spider-Man, Gods Godzilla, Imminent77, Wikishovel, RHPATE01, Stone4D, Marconi sparks,
Rodshark20005, Magic links bot, Tornado chaser and Anonymous: 970
Crosswind Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosswind?oldid=788302054 Contributors: Danny, Mxn, Lommer, Maximus Rex,
Kiteinthewind, Kjgn, Grutness, Hezery99, Jmcc150, SuperDude115, Armistej, Arado, Change1211, Raraa, Colonies Chris, Pierre cb,
PRRfan, Reswobslc, Thadius856, Darklilac, Kaobear, Pavlik M, Infrangible, STBot, Pleasantville, Maxtremus, Brenont, ClueBot, Unbut-
tered Parsnip, Chaosdruid, XLinkBot, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Yobot, IRP, Innotata, Frankthomas62, John of Reading,
Bdijkstra, Reify-tech, Comatmebro, Super Nintendo Chalmers, WPGA2345 and Anonymous: 21
9.2 Images
File:14-bis_de_Alberto_Santos_Dumont.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/14-bis_de_Alberto_
Santos_Dumont.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
This image is available from Gallica Digital Library under the digital ID btv1b8433366m
Original artist: Jules Beau
File:1874DuTemple.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/1874DuTemple.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Flix du Temple Original artist: Flix du Temple (1823-1890)
File:2010-07-15_B767_Delta_N1611B_EDDF_02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/2010-07-15_
B767_Delta_N1611B_EDDF_02.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: Own work
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wo-st-01_QR-Lizenzcode.png' class='image'><img alt='Wo-st-01 QR-Lizenzcode.png'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Wo-st-01_QR-Lizenzcode.png' width='100' height='100' data-le-
width='100' data-le-height='100' /></a> Original artist:
Wo st 01 (There are 682 Pictures in my Category)
File:8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/
8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/sseop/EFS/
photoinfo.pl?PHOTO=STS41B-41-2347 Original artist: NASA
File:ATL-Tower.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/ATL-Tower.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 us Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: JGlover - Attribute to J. Glover, Atlanta, Georgia in any use outside of WikiMedia Foundation projects.
File:A_Vlaicu_III_02.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/A_Vlaicu_III_02.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: personal collection Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:AderAvion3(1897).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/AderAvion3%281897%29.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:AeroportoGuarulhos_Torre2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/AeroportoGuarulhos_Torre2.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist: Bruno Dantas
File:AirTraffic-8.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/AirTraffic-8.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: http://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/air_traffic/controller_staffing/images/AirTraffic-8.jpg Original artist: Work of the United
States Federal Government under the terms of 17 U.S.C. 105
File:Air_Bishkek_A320-200_EX-32002_DME_Dec_2012.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Air_
Bishkek_A320-200_EX-32002_DME_Dec_2012.png License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/Air-Bishkek/
Airbus-A320-231/2209830/L/ Original artist: Nikiforov Konstantin
File:Air_Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Air_
Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kristoferb
File:Air_india.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Air_india.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Lumikus1
File:Air_traffic_heathrow.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Air_traffic_heathrow.JPG License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kierano
File:Airbus_A340_(Philippine_AL)_RP-C3438_(15656997111).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
8/89/Airbus_A340_%28Philippine_AL%29_RP-C3438_%2815656997111%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: RP-
C343827102014LHR Original artist: John Taggart from Sunbury on Thames, Middlesex
File:Airport_Oslo_Gardermoen_-_Control_tower.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Airport_
Oslo_Gardermoen_-_Control_tower.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Radosaw Drodewski
(Zwiadowca21)
File:Alberto_Santos_Dumont_flying_the_Demoiselle_(1909).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/
Alberto_Santos_Dumont_flying_the_Demoiselle_%281909%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Joao Luiz
Musa; Marcelo Breda Mourao, Ricardo Tilklan
9.2. IMAGES 121
File:AlphonsePenaudPlanaphore.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/AlphonsePenaudPlanaphore.

png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work based on: Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat, penubag
File:Annual_report_of_the_Board_of_Regents_of_the_Smithsonian_Institution_(1901)_-_Flickr_18436256195.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Santos-Dumont_flight_around_the_Eiffel_Tower.jpg License: No restrictions
Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/internetarchivebookimages/18436256195/ Original artist: Internet Archive Book Images
File:Anvil_shaped_cumulus_panorama_edit_crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Anvil_
shaped_cumulus_panorama_edit_crop.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
r0002 | agstaotos.com.au
File:Aviacionavion.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Aviacionavion.png License: Public domain Con-

tributors:
Turkmenistan.airlines.frontview.arp.jpg Original artist: Turkmenistan.airlines.frontview.arp.jpg: elfuser
File:Basket_and_crew.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/28/Basket_and_crew.jpg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:BelgischerKreisel.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/BelgischerKreisel.gif License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: own work basierend auf dem Bild kreisel.gif von Benutzer:Head aus de.wikipedia.org Original artist: Ren Kretzler
File:Biman_Bangladesh_Airlines_Boeing_777-300ER_S2-AFO_DAC_2011-11-8.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Biman_Bangladesh_Airlines_Boeing_777-300ER_S2-AFO_DAC_2011-11-8.png License: GFDL Contribu-
tors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/Biman-Bangladesh/Boeing-777-3E9-ER/2027276/L/ Original artist: Ercan Karaka
File:Blitze_IMGP6376_wp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Blitze_IMGP6376_wp.jpg License:
FAL Contributors: Own work Original artist: smial (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Smial' title='User talk:
Smial'>talk</a>)
File:Boeing_377_Stratocruiser_(B-29)_American_Overseas_1949-50.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/6/69/Boeing_377_Stratocruiser_%28B-29%29_American_Overseas_1949-50.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Boeing_747-830,_Lufthansa_AN2119979.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Boeing_
747-830%2C_Lufthansa_AN2119979.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors:
Gallery page http://www.airliners.net/photo/Lufthansa/Boeing-747-830/2119979/L Original artist: Konstantin von Wedelstaedt
File:Boeing_E-3A_crosswind_landing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Boeing_E-3A_crosswind_
landing.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arcturus
File:Bogota_hailstorm.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Bogota_hailstorm.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: en:Image:Bogota hailstorm.jpg Original artist: Ju98 5
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11Apr2015_arp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: My own photo, taken with a Nikon D5300 DSLR and Tamron 70-300 lens.
Original artist: Myself (Adrian Pingstone).
File:British_Airways_in_TXL.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/British_Airways_in_TXL.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: selbst fotgraert) Original artist: Dj-Fietje / Dj-Fietje at German Wikipedia
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00007,_Berlin,_Start_eines_Junkers-Flugzeuges.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00007%2C_Berlin%2C_Start_eines_Junkers-Flugzeuges.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bunde-
sarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the
originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Origi-
nal artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
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crop1.png License: Public domain Contributors: original source: http://www.af.mil/photos/index.asp?galleryID=22&page=2 Original artist:
Original image cropped by Gralo
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SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pierre_cb
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aerial_vehicle_control.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: CBP http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/newsroom/photo_gallery/archives/
2006_newsphotos/uas103006gln1010.xml (le Uas103006gln1010.jpg) Original artist: Gerald Nino, CBP, U.S. Dept. of Homeland Se-
curity
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tributors: http://www1.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Photo/CID/HTML/ECN-31803.html Original artist: NASA photo (ID: ECN-31803)
File:Cessna.120.g-btbw.arp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Cessna.120.g-btbw.arp.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adrian Pingstone
File:Chaparral_Supercell_2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Chaparral_Supercell_2.JPG Li-

cense: Public domain Contributors: http://web.archive.org/web/20041001073356/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/elp/swww/v8n1/Chaparral%
20Supercell%202.JPG si c'est une photo personnelle, sinon le lien vers la page internet d'o elle vient Original artist: Greg Lundeen
File:Cirrus_clouds_cold_day.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Cirrus_clouds_cold_day.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: PiccoloNamek at English Wikipedia
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Concorde_g-boab_in_storage_arp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Concorde_g-boab_in_
storage_arp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright
claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Arpingstone assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Contrails.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Contrails.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/fgz/science/contrail.php Original artist: NOAA
File:Contrails_southeast_lrg.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Contrails_southeast_lrg.png License:
Public domain Contributors: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=16528 Original artist: Louis
Nguyen, NASA Langley Research Center
File:Controlled_impact_demonstration_dummies.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Controlled_
impact_demonstration_dummies.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www1.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Photo/CID/HTML/
ECN-28307.html Original artist: NASA photo (ID: ECN-28307)
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Contributors:
This Image was released by the United States Air Force with the ID 040130-F-0000C-002 <a class='external text'
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Air_Force_with_known_
IDs,,&,,lefrom=040130-F-0000C-002#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: U.S. Air Force photo by Sta Sgt. Bennie J. Davis III
File:Cumulonimbus_Over_Niagara_Falls.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Cumulonimbus_
Over_Niagara_Falls.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: The Lord of the Allosaurs
File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_
fair_weather.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: legacy.openphoto.net Original artist: Michael Jastremski
File:Cyprus_airways_a330.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Cyprus_airways_a330.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Cyprus_airways_a330.jpg Original artist: Tis Meyer
File:Daedalus_und_Ikarus_MK1888.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Daedalus_und_Ikarus_
MK1888.png License: Public domain Contributors: This le has been extracted from another le: Meyers b4 s0409.jpg
Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
File:DeHavilland_Comet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/DeHavilland_Comet.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:DeHavilland_DH50_biplane.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/DeHavilland_
DH50_biplane.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: State Library of Queensland Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
File:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Design_for_a_Flying_
Machine.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.drawingsofleonardo.org Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Downburst_damage.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Downburst_damage.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Image from the downburst case of July 27th 1998 Original artist: Todd Shea, La Crosse National Weather Service
Oce (NOAA)
File:F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/F5_tornado_Elie_
Manitoba_2007.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Gump Stump using
CommonsHelper. Original artist: Justin Hobson (Justin1569 at English Wikipedia)
File:Fedex-md11-N525FE-051109-21-16.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/
Fedex-md11-N525FE-051109-21-16.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alan Radecki Akradecki
File:Fier_Drake_(1634_kite_woodcut).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Fier_Drake_%281634_
kite_woodcut%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: Woodcut print from John Bates 1635 book, The Mysteryes of Nature and
Art in which it is titled How to make re Drakes (a re drake in Germanic mythology is a ery dragon and drachen is German for kite), as
reprinted at page 296 and described on page 297 of Joseph Strutt's 1801 book, The sports and pastimes of the people of England from the
earliest period. Original artist: John Bate or an artisan of his acquaintance or in his employ.
File:First_flight2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID ppprs.00626.
Original artist: John T. Daniels
9.2. IMAGES 123
File:Flag_of_Albania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Algeria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: SVG implementation of the 63-145 Algerian law "on Characteristics of the Algerian national emblem" ("Caractristiques du
Drapeau Algrien", in English). Original artist: This graphic was originaly drawn by User:SKopp.
File:Flag_of_Armenia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.elibrary.az/docs/remz/pdf/remz_bayraq.pdf and http://www.meclis.gov.az/?/az/topcontent/21 Original
artist: SKopp and others
File:Flag_of_Belarus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.tnpa.by/ViewFileText.php?UrlRid=52178&UrlOnd=%D1%D2%C1%20911-2008 Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Belize.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Flag_of_Belize.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
Used as Air Force insigna seen <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://www.airliners.net/photo/
Belize-Air-Force/Britten-Norman-BN-2A-21-Defender/925855/L'>here</a>
Improved version from xrmap ag collection 2.9.
Original artist: Caleb Moore
File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The ag of Bulgaria. The colors are specied at http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0034&
n=000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Chile.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Colombia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Croatia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?sec=4317 Original artist: Nightstallion, Elephantus, Neoneo13, Denelson83, Rainman,
R-41, Minestrone, Lupo, Zscout370,
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:MaGa' title='User:MaGa'>Ma</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png' class='image'><img alt='Croatian squares Ljubicic.png' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/15px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png' width='15' height='15' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/23px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/30px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png
2x' data-le-width='202' data-le-height='202' /></a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:MaGa' title='User
talk:MaGa'>Ga</a> (based on Decision of the Parliament)
File:Flag_of_Cuba.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: User:Madden
File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Madden
File:Flag_of_Ecuador.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.presidencia.gob.ec/pdf/Simbolos-Patrios.pdf Original artist: President of the Republic of Ecuador, Zscout370
File:Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.riigikantselei.ee/?id=73847 Original artist: Originally drawn by User:SKopp. Blue colour changed by User:PeepP
to match the image at [1].
File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
File based on the specication given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-x-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Finland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1978/19780380 Original artist: SVG drawn by Sebastian Koppehel
File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig-
inal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work based on File:Brdzanebuleba 31.pdf Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work (Original text: own code) Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)
File:Flag_of_Guatemala.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:K21edgo
File:Flag_of_Honduras.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/chi/r_flag/index.html Original artist: Tao Ho
File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors:
Flags of the World Hungary Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Iceland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Proportions: Forsetisruneyti slands Colours: Alingi Original artist: rni Dagur, and Magasjukur2
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/
lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors:
This image is based on the CIA Factbook, and the website of Oce of the President of Iraq, vectorized by User:Militaryace Original artist:
Unknown, published by Iraqi governemt, vectorized by User:Militaryace based on the work of User:Hoshie
File:Flag_of_Ireland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/IsraelAt50/Pages/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem.aspx Original artist: The Pro-
visional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the ocial
specication for the design of the Israeli ag.
File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Jamaica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Flag_of_Jamaica.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: The source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'
href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FFlag_of_
Jamaica.svg,,&,,ss=1#source'>valid</a>.
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Kenya.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.kenyarchives.go.ke/flag_specifications.htm Original artist: User:Pumbaa80
File:Flag_of_Latvia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: SuKopp
File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1972/0051/a051.pdf#page=2, colors from http://www.
legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1993/0731609/0731609.pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Macedonia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Flag_of_Macedonia.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)
Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update
File:Flag_of_Malta.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg License: CC0 Contributors:

File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006
9.2. IMAGES 125
File:Flag_of_Nepal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg License: Public domain Con-

tributors: Constitution of The Kingdom of Nepal, Article 5, Schedule 1 [1] Original artist: Drawn by User:Pumbaa80, User:Achim1999
File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass
and many others
File:Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on: <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='https:
//docs.google.com/viewer?a=v,,&,,q=cache:tRiqYRg_YJ4J:www.casc.gob.ni/index.php?option%3Dcom_
docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D704%26Itemid%3D4+ley+sobre+los+simbolo+patrios+nicaragua+
2002,,&,,hl=es,,&,,gl=ni,,&,,pid=bl,,&,,srcid=ADGEEShaqFptSDRqZyUoeWlWgMGTvcFvWOs
About Characteristics And Use Of Patriotic Symbols of Nicaragua</a> Original artist: C records (talk contribs)
File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn
File:Flag_of_Oman.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
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tributors: Peru Original artist: David Benbennick
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3.1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5 Air trac control 51

5.1.3 Airport control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

7 Aviation Best Practices and Training 82

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 114

Aviation is the practical aspect or art of aeronautics, be-

1.1.1 History LZ 129 Hindenburg at Lakehurst Naval Air Station, 1936

Main article: History of aviation

First powered and controlled ight by the Wright Brothers, De-

See also: Civil aviation

Civil aviation includes all non-military ying, both

Air transport Main article: Airline

1947 Cessna 120

General aviation Main article: General aviation

The Lockheed SR-71 remains unsurpassed in many areas of per-

Fighter aircraft's primary function is to destroy other

1.1.5 Environmental impact

Like all activities involving combustion, operating pow-

Water vapor contrails left by high-altitude jet airliners. These

Air trac control towers at Amsterdam Airport

1.1.7 Notes 1.1.8 Bibliography

[10] Gibbs-Smith, C. H., Aviation. London, NMSO 2003, p.

[11] L'homme, l'air et l'espace, p. 96

[13] This Month in Exploration: May. NASA. Retrieved

[14] Kingsbury, Kathleen (October 11, 2007). Eyes on the

[15] The Investigation Process Research Resource Site.

[16] About.com Inventors. Wright Brothers First Fatal Air-

[17] AirSafe.com. Denitions of Key Terms Used by Air-

[18] Aviation and the Global Atmosphere.

[19] Lin, X.; Trainer, M. & Liu, S.C. (1988). On

[20] Grewe, V.; D. Brunner; M. Dameris; J. L. Gren-

2.1 Aviation history

The Wright Military Flyer aboard a wagon in 1908.

The history of aviation has extended over more than

1500 2000 20.000

distance ight until the 1930s, when large ying boats

were in their turn replaced by land planes, and the new

electronics produced great advances in ight instrumen-

the large-scale use of pilotless drones for military, civilian

and leisure use. With digital controls, inherently unstable

aircraft such as ying wings became possible.

1995 B-2 Stealth

2.1.1 Primitive beginnings

Main article: Early ying machines

2010 Cessna 350

The origin of mankinds desire to y is lost in the distant Aviation timeline

Man-carrying kites Man-carrying kites are believed

Main article: Bamboo-copter

Hot air balloons

Main article: History of ballooning

1783 was a watershed year for ballooning and aviation,

On 1 December, Jacques Charles and the Nicolas-

the aspect ratio of a wing.

Flix du Temple's 1874 Monoplane.

Meanwhile, the British advances had galvanised French

The age of steam Drawing directly from Cayleys

Clment Ader Avion III (1897 photograph).

plane to take o under its own power.[45] His Avion III of

nithopters. In 1871 he ew the rst aerodynamically sta-

Australian Lawrence Hargrave would lead to the devel-

Main article: Samuel Pierpont Langley

The Biot-Massia glider, restored and on display in the Musee de

First failure of Langleys manned Aerodrome on the Potomac