1.

TRACE THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Today, psychology is defined as "the scientific study of behavior and mental processes".
Philosophical interest in the mind and behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations
of Egypt, Persia, Greece, China, and India. For a condensed overview, see the Timeline of
Psychology article The history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates
back to the Ancient Greeks. There is also evidence of psychological thought in ancient
Egypt. Psychology was a branch of philosophy until the 1870s, when it developed as an
independent scientific discipline in Germany and the United States. Psychology borders on
various other fields including physiology, neuroscience, artificial
intelligence, sociology, anthropology, as well as philosophy and other components of
the humanities.
Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study began in 1879, when Wilhelm
Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig,
Germany. Wundt was also the first person to refer to himself as a psychologist. Other important
early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study
of memory), William James (the American father of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who
developed the procedures associated with classical conditioning).
Soon after the development of experimental psychology, various kinds of applied psychology
appeared. G. Stanley Hall brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany in the
early 1880s. John Dewey's educational theory of the 1890s was another example. Also in the
1890s, Hugo Mnsterberg began writing about the application of psychology to industry, law,
and other fields. Lightner Witmer established the first psychological clinic in the 1890s. James
McKeen Cattell adapted Francis Galton's anthropometric methods to generate the first program
of mental testing in the 1890s. In Vienna, meanwhile, Sigmund Freud developed an independent
approach to the study of the mind called psychoanalysis, which has been widely influential.
The 20th century saw a reaction to Edward Titchener's critique of Wundt's empiricism. This
contributed to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.
F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed emphasizing the study of overt behavior, because that could be
quantified and easily measured. Early behaviorists considered study of the "mind" too vague for
productive scientific study. However, Skinner and his colleagues did study thinking as a form of
covert behavior to which they could apply the same principles as overt (publicly observable)
behavior. The final decades of the 20th century saw the rise of cognitive science, an
interdisciplinary approach to studying the human mind. Cognitive science again considers the
"mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary
psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, behaviorism, and neurobiology. This
form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and
that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial
intelligence.
Early psychological thought
Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of the mind, heart, soul, spirit,
brain, etc. For instance, in Ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains an early description
of the brain, and some speculations on its functions (though in a medical/surgical context).
Though other medical documents of ancient times were full of incantations and applications
meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, the Edwin Smith Papyrus
gives remedies to almost 50 conditions and only two contain incantations to ward off evil.
Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (fl. 550 BC) through even to the Roman period,
developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the psuch (from which the first half of
"psychology" is derived), as well as other "psychological" terms nous, thumos, logistikon, etc.
The most influential of these are the accounts of Plato (especially in
the Republic), Pythagoras and of Aristotle (esp. Peri Psyches, better known under its Latin
title, De Anima). Hellenistic philosophers (viz., the Stoics and Epicurians) diverged from the
Classical Greek tradition in several important ways, especially in their concern with questions of
the physiological basis of the mind. The Roman physician Galen addressed these issues most
elaborately and influentially of all. The Greek tradition influenced some Christian and Islamic
thought on the topic.
In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Manual of Discipline (from the Dead Sea Scrolls, ca. 21
BC61 AD) notes the division of human nature into two temperaments.
Walter M Freeman proposes that Thomism is the philosophical system explaining cognition that
is most compatible with neurodynamics, in a 2008 article in the journal Mind and Matter entitled
"Nonlinear Brain Dynamics and Intention According to Aquinas.
In Asia, China had a long history of administering tests of ability as part of its education system.
In the 6th century AD, Lin Xie carried out an early experiment, in which he asked people to draw
a square with one hand and at the same time draw a circle with the other (ostensibly to test
people's vulnerability to distraction). Some have claimed that this is the first psychology
experiment, and, therefore, the beginnings of psychology as an experimental science.[
India, too, had an elaborate theory of "the self" in its Vedanta philosophical writings.
Medieval Muslim physicians also developed practices to treat patients suffering from a variety of
"diseases of the mind".
Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (850934) was among the first, in this tradition, to discuss disorders
related to both the body and the mind, arguing that "if the nafs [psyche] gets sick, the body may
also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physical illness." Al-Balkhi recognized that
the body and the soul can be healthy or sick, or "balanced or imbalanced". He wrote that
imbalance of the body can result in fever, headaches and other bodily illnesses, while imbalance
of the soul can result in anger, anxiety, sadness and other nafs-related symptoms. He recognized
two types of what we now call depression: one caused by known reasons such as loss or failure,
which can be treated psychologically; and the other caused by unknown reasons possibly caused
by physiological reasons, which can be treated through physical medicine.[
The scientist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) carried out experiments in visual perception and the
other senses, including variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colors,
perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular
vision. Al-Biruni also employed such experimental methods in examining reaction time.
Avicenna, similarly, did early work in the treatment of nafs-related illnesses, and developed a
system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings. Avicenna also described
phenomena we now recognize as neuropsychiatric conditions,
including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis,
stroke, vertigo and tremor.
Other medieval thinkers who discussed issues related to psychology included:

Ibn Sirin, who wrote a book on dreams and dream interpretation;

Al-Kindi (Alkindus), who developed forms of music therapy

Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, who developed al-ilaj al-nafs (sometimes translated as
"psychotherapy"),

Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), who discussed subjects related to social

psychology and consciousness studies;

Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (Haly Abbas), described neuroanatomy and neurophysiology;

Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), described neurosurgery

Ab Rayhn al-Brn, who described reaction time;

Ibn Tufail, who anticipated the tabula rasa argument and nature versus nurture debate.
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) described disorders similar to meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis,
and mediastinal germ cell tumors; Averroes attributed photoreceptor properties to the retina;
and Maimonides described rabies and belladonna intoxication.
Witelo is considered a precursor of perception psychology. His Perspectiva contains much
material in psychology, outlining views that are close to modern notions on the association of
ideas and on the subconscious.

Beginnings of Western psychology[

Many of the Ancients' writings would have been lost had it not been for the efforts of the
Christian, Jewish and Persian translators in the House of Wisdom, the House of Knowledge, and
other such institutions in the Islamic Golden Age, whose glosses and commentaries were later
translated into Latin in the 12th century. However, it is not clear how these sources first came to
be used during the Renaissance, and their influence on what would later emerge as the discipline
of psychology is a topic of scholarly debate.
Etymology and early usage of word
The first use of the term "psychology" is often attributed to
the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Gckel (15471628, often known under the Latin
form Rodolphus Goclenius), who published the Psychologia hoc est: de hominis perfectione,
animo et imprimis ortu hujus in Marburg in 1590. However, the term seems to have been used
more than six decades earlier by the Croatian humanist Marko Maruli (14501524) in the title
of his Latin treatise, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae. Although the treatise itself has not
been preserved, its title appears in a list of Marulic's works compiled by his younger
contemporary, Franjo Bozicevic-Natalis in his "Vita Marci Maruli Spalatensis" (Krsti, 1964).
The term did not come into popular usage until the German Rationalist philosopher, Christian
Wolff (16791754) used it in his works Psychologia empirica (1732) and Psychologia
rationalis (1734). This distinction between empirical and rational psychology was picked up
in Denis Diderot's (17131780) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's (1717
1783) Encyclopdie (17511784) and was popularized in France by Maine de Biran (1766
1824). In England, the term "psychology" overtook "mental philosophy" in the middle of the
19th century, especially in the work of William Hamilton (17881856).
Enlightenment psychological thought
Early psychology was regarded as the study of the soul (in the Christian sense of the term). The
modern philosophical form of psychology was heavily influenced by the works of Ren
Descartes (15961650), and the debates that he generated, of which the most relevant were the
objections to his Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), published with the text. Also important
to the later development of psychology were his Passions of the Soul (1649) and Treatise on
Man (completed in 1632 but, along with the rest of The World, withheld from publication after
Descartes heard of the Catholic Church's condemnation of Galileo; it was eventually published
posthumously, in 1664).
Although not educated as a physician, Descartes did extensive anatomical studies of bulls' hearts
and was considered important enough that William Harvey responded to him. Descartes was one
of the first to endorse Harvey's model of the circulation of the blood, but disagreed with his
metaphysical framework to explain it. Descartes dissected animals and human cadavers and as a
result was familiar with the research on the flow of blood leading to the conclusion that the body
is a complex device that is capable of moving without the soul, thus contradicting the "Doctrine
of the Soul". The emergence of psychology as a medical discipline was given a major boost
by Thomas Willis, not only in his reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms
of brain function, but through his detailed 1672 anatomical work, and his treatise De anima
brutorum quae hominis vitalis ac sentitiva est: exercitationes duae ("Two Discourses on the
Souls of Brutes"meaning "beasts"). However, Willis acknowledged the influence of
Descartes's rival, Pierre Gassendi, as an inspiration for his work.
The philosophers of the British Empiricist and Associationist schools had a profound impact on
the later course of experimental psychology. John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding (1689), George Berkeley's Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human
Knowledge (1710), and David Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature (17391740) were
particularly influential, as were David Hartley's Observations on Man (1749) and John Stuart
Mill's A System of Logic. (1843). Also notable was the work of some
Continental Rationalist philosophers, especially Baruch Spinoza's (16321677) On the
Improvement of the Understanding (1662) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's (16461716) New
Essays on Human Understanding (completed 1705, published 1765). Also was an important
contribution Friedrich August Rauch's (18061841) book Psychology: Or, A View of the Human
Soul; Including Anthropology (1840), the first English exposition of Hegelian philosophy for an
American audience.
The Danish philosopher Sren Kierkegaard also influenced the humanistic, existential, and
modern psychological schools with his works The Concept of Anxiety (1844) and The Sickness
Unto Death (1849).
Transition to contemporary psychology
Also influential on the emerging discipline of psychology were debates surrounding the efficacy
of Mesmerism (a precursor to hypnosis) and the value of phrenology. The former was developed
in the 1770s by Austrian physician Franz Mesmer (17341815) who claimed to use the power of
gravity, and later of "animal magnetism", to cure various physical and mental ills. As Mesmer
and his treatment became increasingly fashionable in both Vienna and Paris, it also began to
come under the scrutiny of suspicious officials. In 1784, an investigation was commissioned in
Paris by King Louis XVI which included American ambassador Benjamin Franklin,
chemist Antoine Lavoisier and physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (later the popularizer of the
guillotine). They concluded that Mesmer's method was useless. Abb Faria, an Indo-Portuguese
priest, revived public attention in animal magnetism. Unlike Mesmer, Faria claimed that the
effect was 'generated from within the mind by the power of expectancy and cooperation of the
patient. Although disputed, the "magnetic" tradition continued among Mesmer's students and
others, resurfacing in England in the 19th century in the work of the physician John
Elliotson (17911868), and the surgeons James Esdaile (18081859), and James Braid (1795
1860) (who reconceptualized it as property of the subject's mind rather than a "power" of the
Mesmerist's, and relabeled it "hypnotism"). Mesmerism also continued to have a strong social (if
not medical) following in England through the 19th century (see Winter, 1998). Faria's approach
was significantly extended by the clinical and theoretical work of Ambroise-Auguste
Libeault and Hippolyte Bernheim of the Nancy School. Faria's theoretical position, and the
subsequent experiences of those in the Nancy School made significant contributions to the later
autosuggestion techniques of mile Cou. It was adopted for the treatment of hysteria by the
director of Paris's Salptrire Hospital, Jean-Martin Charcot (18251893).
Phrenology began as "organology", a theory of brain structure developed by the German
physician, Franz Joseph Gall (17581828). Gall argued that the brain is divided into a large
number of functional "organs", each responsible for particular human mental abilities and
dispositions hope, love, spirituality, greed, language, the abilities to detect the size, form, and
color of objects, etc. He argued that the larger each of these organs are, the greater the power of
the corresponding mental trait. Further, he argued that one could detect the sizes of the organs in
a given individual by feeling the surface of that person's skull. Gall's ultra-localizationist position
with respect to the brain was soon attacked, most notably by French anatomist Pierre
Flourens (17941867), who conducted ablation studies (on chickens) which purported to
demonstrate little or no cerebral localization of function. Although Gall had been a serious (if
misguided) researcher, his theory was taken by his assistant, Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776
1832), and developed into the profitable, popular enterprise of phrenology, which soon spawned,
especially in Britain, a thriving industry of independent practitioners. In the hands of Scottish
religious leader George Combe (17881858) (whose book The Constitution of Man was one of
the best-sellers of the century), phrenology became strongly associated with political reform
movements and egalitarian principles (see, e.g., Shapin, 1975; but also see van Wyhe, 2004).
Phrenology soon spread to America as well, where itinerant practical phrenologists assessed the
mental well-being of willing customers (see Sokal, 2001).

Emergence of German experimental psychology

Until the middle of the 19th century, psychology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy.
Whether it could become an independent scientific discipline was questioned already earlier
on: Immanuel Kant (17241804) declared in his Metaphysical Foundations of Natural
Science (1786) that psychology might perhaps never become a "proper" natural science because
its phenomena cannot be quantified, among other reasons. Kant proposed an alternative
conception of an empirical investigation of human thought, feeling, desire, and action, and
lectured on these topics for over twenty years (1772/73-1795/96). His Anthropology from a
Pragmatic Point of View (1798), which resulted from these lectures, looks like an empirical
psychology in many respects.
Johann Friedrich Herbart (17761841) took issue with what he viewed as Kant's conclusion and
attempted to develop a mathematical basis for a scientific psychology. Although he was unable to
empirically realize the terms of his psychological theory, his efforts did lead scientists such
as Ernst Heinrich Weber (179518 78) and Gustav Theodor Fechner (18011887) to attempt to
measure the mathematical relationships between the physical magnitudes of external stimuli and
the psychological intensities of the resulting sensations. Fechner (1860) is the originator of the
term psychophysics.
Meanwhile, individual differences in reaction time had become a critical issue in the field of
astronomy, under the name of the "personal equation". Early researches by Friedrich Wilhelm
Bessel (17841846) in Knigsberg and Adolf Hirsch led to the development of a highly
precise chronoscope by Matthus Hipp that, in turn, was based on a design by Charles
Wheatstone for a device that measured the speed of artillery shells (Edgell & Symes, 1906).
Other timing instruments were borrowed from physiology (e.g., Carl Ludwig's kymograph) and
adapted for use by the Utrecht ophthalmologist Franciscus Donders (18181899) and his
student Johan Jacob de Jaager in measuring the duration of simple mental decisions.
The 19th century was also the period in which physiology, including neurophysiology,
professionalized and saw some of its most significant discoveries. Among its leaders
were Charles Bell (17741843) and Franois Magendie (17831855) who independently
discovered the distinction between sensory and motor nerves in the spinal column, Johannes
Mller (18011855) who proposed the doctrine of specific nerve energies, Emil du Bois-
Reymond (18181896) who studied the electrical basis of muscle contraction, Pierre Paul
Broca (18241880) and Carl Wernicke (18481905) who identified areas of the brain responsible
for different aspects of language, as well as Gustav Fritsch (18371927), Eduard Hitzig (1839
1907), and David Ferrier (18431924) who localized sensory and motor areas of the brain. One
of the principal founders of experimental physiology, Hermann Helmholtz (18211894),
conducted studies of a wide range of topics that would later be of interest to psychologists the
speed of neural transmission, the natures of sound and color, and of our perceptions of them, etc.
In the 1860s, while he held a position in Heidelberg, Helmholtz engaged as an assistant a young
M.D. named Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt employed the equipment of the physiology
laboratory chronoscope, kymograph, and various peripheral devices to address more
complicated psychological questions than had, until then, been investigated experimentally. In
particular he was interested in the nature of apperception the point at which a perception
occupies the central focus of conscious awareness.
In 1874 Wundt took up a professorship in Zrich, where he published his landmark
textbook, Grundzge der physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology,
1874). Moving to a more prestigious professorship in Leipzig in 1875, Wundt founded a
laboratory specifically dedicated to original research in experimental psychology in 1879, the
first laboratory of its kind in the world. In 1883, he launched a journal in which to publish the
results of his, and his students', research, Philosophische Studien (Philosophical Studies) (For
more on Wundt, see, e.g., Bringmann & Tweney, 1980; Rieber & Robinson, 2001). Wundt
attracted a large number of students not only from Germany, but also from abroad. Among his
most influential American students were G. Stanley Hall (who had already obtained a PhD from
Harvard under the supervision of William James), James McKeen Cattell (who was Wundt's first
assistant), and Frank Angell (who founded laboratories at both Cornell and Stanford). The most
influential British student was Edward Bradford Titchener (who later became professor
at Cornell).
Experimental psychology laboratories were soon also established at Berlin by Carl
Stumpf (18481936) and at Gttingen by Georg Elias Mller (18501934). Another major
German experimental psychologist of the era, though he did not direct his own research institute,
was Hermann Ebbinghaus (18501909).

Psychoanalysis
Experimentation was not the only approach to psychology in the German-speaking world at this
time. Starting in the 1890s, employing the case study technique, the Viennese physician Sigmund
Freud developed and applied the methods of hypnosis, free association, and dream interpretation
to reveal putatively unconscious beliefs and desires that he argued were the underlying causes of
his patients' "hysteria." He dubbed this approach psychoanalysis. Freudian psychoanalysis is
particularly notable for the emphasis it places on the course of an individual's sexual
development in pathogenesis. Psychoanalytic concepts have had a strong and lasting influence
on Western culture, particularly on the arts. Although its scientific contribution is still a matter of
debate, both Freudian and Jungian psychology revealed the existence of compartmentalized
thinking, in which some behavior and thoughts are hidden from consciousness yet operative as
part of the complete personality. Hidden agendas, a bad conscience, or a sense of guilt, are
examples of the existence of mental processes in which the individual is not conscious, through
choice or lack of understanding, of some aspects of their personality and subsequent behavior.
Psychoanalysis examines mental processes which affect the ego. An understanding of these
theoretically allows the individual greater choice and consciousness with a healing effect in
neurosis and occasionally in psychosis, both of which Richard von Krafft-Ebing defined as
"diseases of the personality". Carl G. Jung was an associate of Freud's who later broke with him
over Freud's emphasis on sexuality. Working with concepts of the unconscious first noted during
the 1800s (by John Stuart Mill, Krafft-Ebing, Pierre Janet, Thodore Flournoy and others), Jung
defined four mental functions which relate to and define the ego, the conscious self:

1. Sensation, which tell consciousness that something is there.

 2. Feelings, which consist of value judgments, and motivate our reaction to what we have
sensed.

3. Intellect, an analytic function that compares the sensed event to all known others and
gives it a class and category, allowing us to understand a situation within a historical
process, personal or public.

4. And intuition, a mental function with access to deep behavioral patterns, being able to
suggest unexpected solutions or predict unforeseen consequences, "as if seeing around
corners" as Jung put it.
Jung insisted on an empirical psychology on which theories must be based on facts and not on
the psychologist's projections or expectations.

Early American psychology

Around 1875 the Harvard physiology instructor (as he then was), William James, opened a small
experimental psychology demonstration laboratory for use with his courses. The laboratory was
never used, at that time, for original research, and so controversy remains as to whether it is to be
regarded as the "first" experimental psychology laboratory or not. In 1878, James gave a series of
lectures at Johns Hopkins University entitled "The Senses and the Brain and their Relation to
Thought" in which he argued, contra Thomas Henry Huxley, that consciousness is
not epiphenomenal, but must have an evolutionary function, or it would not have been naturally
selected in humans. The same year James was contracted by Henry Holt to write a textbook on
the "new" experimental psychology. If he had written it quickly, it would have been the first
English-language textbook on the topic. It was twelve years, however, before his two-
volume The Principles of Psychology would be published. In the meantime textbooks were
published by George Trumbull Ladd of Yale (1887) and James Mark Baldwin then of Lake
Forest College (1889).
In 1879 Charles Sanders Peirce was hired as a philosophy instructor at Johns Hopkins
University. Although better known for his astronomical and philosophical work, Peirce also
conducted what are perhaps the first American psychology experiments, on the subject of color
vision, published in 1877 in the American Journal of Science (see Cadwallader, 1974). Peirce
and his student Joseph Jastrow published "On Small Differences in Sensation" in the Memoirs of
the National Academy of Sciences, in 1884. In 1882, Peirce was joined at Johns Hopkins by G.
Stanley Hall, who opened the first American research laboratory devoted to experimental
psychology in 1883. Peirce was forced out of his position by scandal and Hall was awarded the
only professorship in philosophy at Johns Hopkins. In 1887 Hall founded the American Journal
of Psychology, which published work primarily emanating from his own laboratory. In 1888 Hall
left his Johns Hopkins professorship for the presidency of the newly founded Clark University,
where he remained for the rest of his career.
Soon, experimental psychology laboratories were opened at the University of Pennsylvania (in
1887, by James McKeen Cattell), Indiana University (1888, William Lowe Bryan),
the University of Wisconsin (1888, Joseph Jastrow), Clark University (1889, Edmund Sanford),
the McLean Asylum (1889, William Noyes), and the University of Nebraska (1889, Harry Kirke
Wolfe). However, it was Princeton University's Eno Hall, built in 1924, that became the first
university building in the United States to be devoted entirely to experimental psychology when
it became the home of the university's Department of Psychology.
In 1890, William James' The Principles of Psychology finally appeared, and rapidly became the
most influential textbook in the history of American psychology. It laid many of the foundations
for the sorts of questions that American psychologists would focus on for years to come. The
book's chapters on consciousness, emotion, and habit were particularly agenda-setting.
One of those who felt the impact of James' Principles was John Dewey, then professor of
philosophy at the University of Michigan. With his junior colleagues, James Hayden Tufts (who
founded the psychology laboratory at Michigan) and George Herbert Mead, and his
student James Rowland Angell, this group began to reformulate psychology, focusing more
strongly on the social environment and on the activity of mind and behavior than the
psychophysics-inspired physiological psychology of Wundt and his followers had heretofore.
Tufts left Michigan for another junior position at the newly founded University of Chicago in
1892. A year later, the senior philosopher at Chicago, Charles Strong, resigned, and Tufts
recommended to Chicago president William Rainey Harper that Dewey be offered the position.
After initial reluctance, Dewey was hired in 1894. Dewey soon filled out the department with his
Michigan companions Mead and Angell. These four formed the core of the Chicago School of
psychology.
In 1892, G. Stanley Hall invited 30-some psychologists and philosophers to a meeting
at Clark with the purpose of founding a new American Psychological Association (APA). (On the
history of the APA, see Evans, Staudt Sexton, & Cadwallader, 1992.) The first annual meeting of
the APA was held later that year, hosted by George Stuart Fullerton at the University of
Pennsylvania. Almost immediately tension arose between the experimentally and philosophically
inclined members of the APA. Edward Bradford Titchener and Lightner Witmer launched an
attempt to either establish a separate "Section" for philosophical presentations, or to eject the
philosophers altogether. After nearly a decade of debate, a Western Philosophical
Association was founded and held its first meeting in 1901 at the University of Nebraska. The
following year (1902), an American Philosophical Association held its first meeting at Columbia
University. These ultimately became the Central and Eastern Divisions of the modern American
Philosophical Association.
In 1894, a number of psychologists, unhappy with the parochial editorial policies of
the American Journal of Psychology approached Hall about appointing an editorial board and
opening the journal out to more psychologists not within Hall's immediate circle. Hall refused,
so James McKeen Cattell (then of Columbia) and James Mark Baldwin (then of Princeton) co-
founded a new journal, Psychological Review, which rapidly grew to become a major outlet for
American psychological researchers.
Beginning in 1895, James Mark Baldwin (Princeton, Hopkins) and Edward Bradford
Titchener (Cornell) entered into an increasingly acrimonious dispute over the correct
interpretation of some anomalous reaction time findings that had come from
the Wundt laboratory (originally reported by Ludwig Lange and James McKeen Cattell). In
1896, James Rowland Angell and Addison W. Moore (Chicago) published a series of
experiments in Psychological Review appearing to show that Baldwin was the more correct of
the two. However, they interpreted their findings in light of John Dewey's new approach to
psychology, which rejected the traditional stimulus-response understanding of the reflex arc in
favor of a "circular" account in which what serves as "stimulus" and what as "response" depends
on how one views the situation. The full position was laid out in Dewey's landmark article "The
Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" which also appeared in Psychological Review in 1896.
Titchener responded in Philosophical Review (1898, 1899) by distinguishing his austere
"structural" approach to psychology from what he termed the Chicago group's more applied
"functional" approach, and thus began the first major theoretical rift in American psychology
between Structuralism and Functionalism. The group at Columbia, led by James McKeen
Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth, was often regarded as a second (after
Chicago) "school" of American Functionalism (see, e.g., Heidbredder, 1933), although they
never used that term themselves, because their research focused on the applied areas of mental
testing, learning, and education. Dewey was elected president of the APA in 1899, while
Titchener dropped his membership in the association. (In 1904, Titchener formed his own group,
eventually known as the Society of Experimental Psychologists.) Jastrow promoted the
functionalist approach in his APA presidential address of 1900, and Angell adopted Titchener's
label explicitly in his influential textbook of 1904 and his APA presidential address of 1906. In
reality, Structuralism was, more or less, confined to Titchener and his students. (It was
Titchener's former student E. G. Boring, writing A History of Experimental Psychology [1929
1950, the most influential textbook of the 20th century about the discipline], who launched the
common idea that the structuralism/functionalism debate was the primary fault line in American
psychology at the turn of the 20th century.) Functionalism, broadly speaking, with its more
practical emphasis on action and application, better suited the American cultural "style" and,
perhaps more important, was more appealing to pragmatic university trustees and private funding
agencies.

Early French psychology

In no small measure because of the conservatism of the reign of Louis Napolon (president,
18481852; emperor as "Napolon III", 18521870), academic philosophy in France through the
middle part of the 19th century was controlled by members of the eclectic and spiritualist
schools, led by figures such as Victor Cousin (17921867), Thdodore Jouffroy (17961842),
and Paul Janet (18231899). These were traditional metaphysical schools, opposed to regarding
psychology as a natural science. With the ouster of Napolon III after the dbacle of the Franco-
Prussian War, new paths, both political and intellectual, became possible. From the 1870
forward, a steadily increasing interest in positivist, materialist, evolutionary,
and deterministic approaches to psychology developed, influenced by, among others, the work
of Hyppolyte Taine (18281893) (e.g., De L'Intelligence, 1870) and Thodule Ribot (1839
1916) (e.g., La Psychologie Anglaise Contemporaine, 1870).
In 1876, Ribot founded Revue Philosophique (the same year as Mind was founded in Britain),
which for the next generation would be virtually the only French outlet for the "new" psychology
(Plas, 1997). Although not a working experimentalist himself, Ribot's many books were to have
profound influence on the next generation of psychologists. These included especially
his L'Hrdit Psychologique (1873) and La Psychologie Allemande Contemporaine (1879). In
the 1880s, Ribot's interests turned to psychopathology, writing books on disorders of memory
(1881), will (1883), and personality (1885), and where he attempted to bring to these topics the
insights of general psychology. Although in 1881 he lost a Sorbonne professorship in the History
of Psychological Doctrines to traditionalist Jules Soury (18421915), from 1885 to 1889 he
taught experimental psychology at the Sorbonne. In 1889 he was awarded a chair at the Collge
de France in Experimental and Comparative Psychology, which he held until 1896 (Nicolas,
2002).
France's primary psychological strength lay in the field of psychopathology. The chief
neurologist at the Salptrire Hospital in Paris, Jean-Martin Charcot (18251893), had been
using the recently revivied and renamed (see above) practice of hypnoisis to "experimentally"
produce hysterical symptoms in some of his patients. Two of his students, Alfred Binet (1857
1911) and Pierre Janet (18591947), adopted and expanded this practice in their own work.
In 1889, Binet and his colleague Henri Beaunis (18301921) co-founded, at the Sorbonne, the
first experimental psychology laboratory in France. Just five years later, in 1894, Beaunis, Binet,
and a third colleague, Victor Henri (18721940), co-founded the first French journal dedicated to
experimental psychology, L'Anne Psychologique. In the first years of the 20th century, Binet
was requested by the French government to develop a method for the newly founded universal
public education system to identify students who would require extra assistance to master the
standardized curriculum. In response, with his collaborator Thodore Simon (18731961), he
developed the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, first published in 1905 (revised in 1908 and 1911).
Although the test was used to effect in France, it would find its greatest success (and
controversy) in the United States, where it was translated into English by Henry H.
Goddard (18661957), the director of the Training School for the Feebleminded in Vineland,
New Jersey, and his assistant, Elizabeth Kite (a translation of the 1905 edition appeared in the
Vineland Bulletin in 1908, but much better known was Kite's 1916 translation of the 1908
edition, which appeared in book form). The translated test was used by Goddard to advance
his eugenics agenda with respect to those he deemed congenitally feeble-minded, especially
immigrants from non-Western European countries. Binet's test was revised
by Stanford professor Lewis M. Terman (18771956) into the Stanford-Binet IQ test in 1916.
With Binet's death in 1911, the Sorbonne laboratory and L'Anne Psychologique fell to Henri
Piron (18811964). Piron's orientation was more physiological that Binet's had been.
Pierre Janet became the leading psychiatrist in France, being appointed to the Salptrire (1890
1894), the Sorbonne (18951920), and the Collge de France (19021936). In 1904, he co-
founded the Journale de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique with
fellow Sorbonne professor Georges Dumas (18661946), a student and faithful follower of
Ribot. Whereas Janet's teacher, Charcot, had focused on the neurologial bases of hysteria, Janet
was concerned to develop a scientific approach to psychopathology as a mental disorder. His
theory that mental pathology results from conflict between unconscious and conscious parts of
the mind, and that unconscious mental contents may emerge as symptoms with symbolic
meanings led to a public priority dispute with Sigmund Freud.

Early British psychology

Although the British had the first scholarly journal dedicated to the topic of psychology Mind,
founded in 1876 by Alexander Bain and edited by George Croom Robertson it was quite a long
while before experimental psychology developed there to challenge the strong tradition of
"mental philosophy." The experimental reports that appeared in Mind in the first two decades of
its existence were almost entirely authored by Americans, especially G. Stanley Hall and his
students (notably Henry Herbert Donaldson) and James McKeen Cattell.
Francis Galton's (18221911) anthropometric laboratory opened in 1884. There people were
tested on a wide variety of physical (e.g., strength of blow) and perceptual (e.g., visual acuity)
attributes. In 1886 Galton was visited by James McKeen Cattell who would later adapt Galton's
techniques in developing his own mental testing research program in the United States. Galton
was not primarily a psychologist, however. The data he accumulated in the anthropometric
laboratory primarily went toward supporting his case for eugenics. To help interpret the mounds
of data he accumulated, Galton developed a number of important statistical techniques, including
the precursors to the scatterplot and the product-moment correlation coefficient (later perfected
by Karl Pearson, 18571936).
Soon after, Charles Spearman (18631945) developed the correlation-based statistical procedure
of factor analysis in the process of building a case for his two-factor theory of intelligence,
published in 1901. Spearman believed that people have an inborn level of general
intelligence or g which can be crystallized into a specific skill in any of a number of narrow
content area (s, or specific intelligence).
Laboratory psychology of the kind practiced in Germany and the United States was slow in
coming to Britain. Although the philosopher James Ward (18431925) urged Cambridge
University to establish a psychophysics laboratory from the mid-1870s forward, it was not until
the 1891 that they put so much as 50 toward some basic apparatus (Bartlett, 1937). A laboratory
was established through the assistance of the physiology department in 1897 and a lectureship in
psychology was established which first went to W. H. R. Rivers (18641922). Soon Rivers was
joined by C. S. Myers (18731946) and William McDougall (18711938). This group showed as
much interest in anthropology as psychology, going with Alfred Cort Haddon (18551940) on
the famed Torres Straits expedition of 1898.
In 1901 the Psychological Society was established (which renamed itself the British
Psychological Society in 1906), and in 1904 Ward and Rivers co-founded the British Journal of
Psychology.

Second generation German psychology

Wrzburg School
In 1896, one of Wundt's former Leipzig laboratory assistants, Oswald Klpe (18621915),
founded a new laboratory in Wrzburg. Klpe soon surrounded himself with a number of
younger psychologists, most notably Narzi Ach (18711946), Karl Bhler (18791963), Ernst
Drr (18781913), Karl Marbe (18691953), and Henry Jackson Watt (18791925).
Collectively, they developed a new approach to psychological experimentation that flew in the
face of many of Wundt's restrictions. Wundt had drawn a distinction between the old
philosophical style of self-observation (Selbstbeobachtung) in which one introspected for
extended durations on higher thought processes, and inner perception (innere Wahrnehmung) in
which one could be immediately aware of a momentary sensation, feeling, or image
(Vorstellung). The former was declared to be impossible by Wundt, who argued that higher
thought could not be studied experimentally through extended introspection, but only
humanistically through Vlkerpsychologie (folk psychology). Only the latter was a proper
subject for experimentation.
The Wrzburgers, by contrast, designed experiments in which the experimental subject was
presented with a complex stimulus (for example a Nietzschean aphorism or a logical problem)
and after processing it for a time (for example interpreting the aphorism or solving the problem),
retrospectively reported to the experimenter all that had passed through his consciousness during
the interval. In the process, the Wrzburgers claimed to have discovered a number of new
elements of consciousness (over and above Wundt's sensations, feelings, and images)
including Bewutseinslagen (conscious sets), Bewutheiten (awarenesses),
and Gedanken (thoughts). In the English-language literature, these are often collectively termed
"imageless thoughts", and the debate between Wundt and the Wrzburgers, the "imageless
thought controversy".
Wundt referred to the Wrzburgers' studies as "sham" experiments and criticized them
vigorously. Wundt's most significant English student, Edward Bradford Titchener, then working
at Cornell, intervened in the dispute, claiming to have conducted extended introspective studies
in which he was able to resolve the Wrzburgers' imageless thoughts into sensations, feelings,
and images. He thus, paradoxically, used a method of which Wundt did not approve in order to
affirm Wundt's view of the situation.
The imageless thought debate is often said to have been instrumental in undermining the
legitimacy of all introspective methods in experimental psychology and, ultimately, in bringing
about the behaviorist revolution in American psychology. It was not without its own delayed
legacy, however. Herbert A. Simon (1981) cites the work of one Wrzburg psychologist in
particular, Otto Selz (18811943), for having inspired him to develop his famous problem-
solving computer algorithms (such as Logic Theorist and General Problem Solver) and his
"thinking out loud" method for protocol analysis. In addition, Karl Popper studied psychology
under Bhler and Selz, and appears to have brought some of their influence, unattributed, to his
philosophy of science.
Gestalt psychology
Whereas the Wrzburgers debated with Wundt mainly on matters of method, another German
movement, centered in Berlin, took issue with the widespread assumption that the aim of
psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. Instead, they
argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the
structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. Thus, the school was named Gestalt, a German
term meaning approximately "form" or "configuration." It was led by Max Wertheimer (1880
1943), Wolfgang Khler (18871967), and Kurt Koffka (18861941). Wertheimer had been a
student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (18591932), who claimed that in
addition to the sensory elements of a perceived object, there is an extra element which, though in
some sense derived from the organization of the standard sensory elements, is also to be regarded
as being an element in its own right. He called this extra element Gestalt-qualitt or "form-
quality." For instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition
to them which binds them together into a tune the Gestalt-qualitt. It is the presence of
this Gestalt-qualitt which, according to Von Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to a new
key, using completely different notes, but still retain its identity. Wertheimer took the more
radical line that "what is given me by the melody does not arise ... as a secondary process from
the sum of the pieces as such. Instead, what takes place in each single part already depends upon
what the whole is", (1925/1938). In other words, one hears the melody first and only then may
perceptually divide it up into notes. Similarly in vision, one sees the form of the circle first it is
given "im-mediately" (i.e. its apprehension is not mediated by a process of part-summation).
Only after this primary apprehension might one notice that it is made up of lines or dots or stars.
Gestalt-Theorie was officially initiated in 1912 in an article by Wertheimer on the phi-
phenomenon; a perceptual illusion in which two stationary but alternately flashing lights appear
to be a single light moving from one location to another. Contrary to popular opinion, his
primary target was not behaviorism, as it was not yet a force in psychology. The aim of his
criticism was, rather, the atomistic psychologies of Hermann von Helmholtz (18211894),
Wilhelm Wundt (18321920), and other European psychologists of the time.
The two men who served as Wertheimer's subjects in the phi experiment were Khler and
Koffka. Khler was an expert in physical acoustics, having studied under physicist Max
Planck (18581947), but had taken his degree in psychology under Carl Stumpf (18481936).
Koffka was also a student of Stumpf's, having studied movement phenomena and psychological
aspects of rhythm. In 1917 Khler (1917/1925) published the results of four years of research on
learning in chimpanzees. Khler showed, contrary to the claims of most other learning theorists,
that animals can learn by "sudden insight" into the "structure" of a problem, over and above the
associative and incremental manner of learning that Ivan Pavlov (18491936) and Edward Lee
Thorndike (18741949) had demonstrated with dogs and cats, respectively.
The terms "structure" and "organization" were focal for the Gestalt psychologists. Stimuli were
said to have a certain structure, to be organized in a certain way, and that it is to this structural
organization, rather than to individual sensory elements, that the organism responds. When an
animal is conditioned, it does not simply respond to the absolute properties of a stimulus, but to
its properties relative to its surroundings. To use a favorite example of Khler's, if conditioned to
respond in a certain way to the lighter of two gray cards, the animal generalizes the relation
between the two stimuli rather than the absolute properties of the conditioned stimulus: it will
respond to the lighter of two cards in subsequent trials even if the darker card in the test trial is of
the same intensity as the lighter one in the original training trials.
In 1921 Koffka published a Gestalt-oriented text on developmental psychology, Growth of the
Mind. With the help of American psychologist Robert Ogden, Koffka introduced the Gestalt
point of view to an American audience in 1922 by way of a paper in Psychological Bulletin. It
contains criticisms of then-current explanations of a number of problems of perception, and the
alternatives offered by the Gestalt school. Koffka moved to the United States in 1924, eventually
settling at Smith College in 1927. In 1935 Koffka published his Principles of Gestalt
Psychology. This textbook laid out the Gestalt vision of the scientific enterprise as a whole.
Science, he said, is not the simple accumulation of facts. What makes research scientific is the
incorporation of facts into a theoretical structure. The goal of the Gestaltists was to integrate the
facts of inanimate nature, life, and mind into a single scientific structure. This meant that science
would have to swallow not only what Koffka called the quantitative facts of physical science but
the facts of two other "scientific categories": questions of order and questions of Sinn, a German
word which has been variously translated as significance, value, and meaning. Without
incorporating the meaning of experience and behavior, Koffka believed that science would doom
itself to trivialities in its investigation of human beings.
Having survived the onslaught of the Nazis up to the mid-1930s, all the core members of the
Gestalt movement were forced out of Germany to the United States by 1935. Khler published
another book, Dynamics in Psychology, in 1940 but thereafter the Gestalt movement suffered a
series of setbacks. Koffka died in 1941 and Wertheimer in 1943. Wertheimer's long-awaited book
on mathematical problem-solving, Productive Thinking, was published posthumously in 1945
but Khler was now left to guide the movement without his two long-time colleagues.
Emergence of behaviorism in America
Main article: Behaviorism
As a result of the conjunction of a number of events in the early 20th century, behaviorism
gradually emerged as the dominant school in American psychology. First among these was the
increasing skepticism with which many viewed the concept of consciousness: although still
considered to be the essential element separating psychology from physiology, its subjective
nature and the unreliable introspective method it seemed to require, troubled many. William
James' 1904 Journal of Philosophy... article "Does Consciousness Exist?", laid out the worries
explicitly.
Second was the gradual rise of a rigorous animal psychology. In addition to Edward Lee
Thorndike's work with cats in puzzle boxes in 1898, the start of research in which rats learn to
navigate mazes was begun by Willard Small (1900, 1901 in American Journal of
Psychology). Robert M. Yerkes's 1905 Journal of Philosophy... article "Animal Psychology and
the Criteria of the Psychic" raised the general question of when one is entitled to attribute
consciousness to an organism. The following few years saw the emergence of John Broadus
Watson (18781959) as a major player, publishing his dissertation on the relation between
neurological development and learning in the white rat (1907, Psychological Review Monograph
Supplement; Carr & Watson, 1908, J. Comparative Neurology & Psychology). Another important
rat study was published by Henry H. Donaldson (1908, J. Comparative Neurology &
Psychology). The year 1909 saw the first English-language account of Ivan Pavlov's studies of
conditioning in dogs (Yerkes & Morgulis, 1909, Psychological Bulletin).
A third factor was the rise of Watson to a position of significant power within the psychological
community. In 1908, Watson was offered a junior position at Johns Hopkins by James Mark
Baldwin. In addition to heading the Johns Hopkins department, Baldwin was the editor of the
influential journals, Psychological Review and Psychological Bulletin. Only months after
Watson's arrival, Baldwin was forced to resign his professorship due to scandal. Watson was
suddenly made head of the department and editor of Baldwin's journals. He resolved to use these
powerful tools to revolutionize psychology in the image of his own research. In 1913 he
published in Psychological Review the article that is often called the "manifesto" of the
behaviorist movement, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." There he argued that
psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science", "introspection forms
no essential part of its methods..." and "The behaviorist... recognizes no dividing line between
man and brute". The following year, 1914, his first textbook, Behavior went to press. Although
behaviorism took some time to be accepted as a comprehensive approach (see Samelson, 1981),
(in no small part because of the intervention of World War I), by the 1920s Watson's revolution
was well underway. The central tenet of early behaviorism was that psychology should be a
science of behavior, not of the mind, and rejected internal mental states such as beliefs, desires,
or goals. Watson himself, however, was forced out of Johns Hopkins by scandal in 1920.
Although he continued to publish during the 1920s, he eventually moved on to a career in
advertising (see Coon, 1994).
Among the behaviorists who continued on, there were a number of disagreements about the best
way to proceed. Neo-behaviorists such as Edward C. Tolman, Edwin Guthrie, Clark L. Hull,
and B. F. Skinner debated issues such as (1) whether to reformulate the traditional psychological
vocabulary in behavioral terms or discard it in favor of a wholly new scheme, (2) whether
learning takes place all at once or gradually, (3) whether biological drives should be included in
the new science in order to provide a "motivation" for behavior, and (4) to what
degree any theoretical framework is required over and above the measured effects of
reinforcement and punishment on learning. By the late 1950s, Skinner's formulation had become
dominant, and it remains a part of the modern discipline under the rubric of Behavior Analysis.
Its application (Applied Behavior Analysis) has become one of the most useful fields of
psychology.
Behaviorism was the ascendant experimental model for research in psychology for much of the
20th century, largely due to the creation and successful application (not least of which in
advertising) of conditioning theories as scientific models of human behaviour.

Second generation francophone psychology

Genevan School
In 1918, Jean Piaget (18961980) turned away from his early training in Natural History and
began post-doctoral work in psychoanalysis in Zurich. In 1919, he moved to Paris to work at the
Binet-Simon Lab. However, Binet had died in 1911 and Simon lived and worked in Rouen. His
supervision therefore came (indirectly) from Pierre Janet, Binet's old rival and a professor at
the Collge de France.
The job in Paris was relatively simple: to use the statistical techniques he had learned as a natural
historian, studying molluscs, to standardize Cyril Burt's intelligence test for use with French
children. Yet without direct supervision, he soon found a remedy to this boring work: exploring
why children made the mistakes they did. Applying his early training in psychoanalytic
interviewing, Piaget began to intervene directly with the children: "Why did you do that?" (etc.)
It was from this that the ideas formalized in his later stage theory first emerged.
In 1921, Piaget moved to Geneva to work with douard Claparde at the Rousseau Institute.
In 1936, Piaget received his first honorary doctorate from Harvard.
In 1955, the International Center for Genetic Epistemology was founded: an interdisciplinary
collaboration of theoreticians and scientists, devoted to the study of topics related to Piaget's
theory.
In 1969, Piaget received the "distinguished scientific contributions" award from the American
Psychological Association.

Cognitivism
Main articles: Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Science
Noam Chomsky's (1957) review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior (that aimed to
explain language acquisition in a behaviorist framework) is considered one of the major
theoretical challenges to the type of radical (as in 'root') behaviorism that Skinner taught.
Chomsky claimed that language could not be learned solely from the sort of operant conditioning
that Skinner postulated. Chomsky's argument was that people could produce an infinite variety of
sentences unique in structure and meaning and that these could not possibly be generated solely
through experience of natural language. As an alternative, he concluded that there must be
internal mental structures states of mind of the sort that behaviorism rejected as illusory. The
issue is not whether mental activities exist; it is whether they can be shown to be the causes of
behavior. Similarly, work by Albert Bandura showed that children could learn by social
observation, without any change in overt behaviour, and so must (according to him) be
accounted for by internal representations.
The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as information
processing. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in
internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as the dominant model of the mind.
Links between brain and nervous system function were also becoming common, partly due to the
experimental work of people like Charles Sherrington and Donald Hebb, and partly due to
studies of people with brain injury (see cognitive neuropsychology). With the development of
technologies for accurately measuring brain function, neuropsychology and cognitive
neuroscience have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology.
With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such as philosophy, computer science,
and neuroscience) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of cognitive
science has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way
2. DETERMINE THE DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology Perspectives
There are various different approaches in contemporary psychology.
An approach is a perspective (i.e. view) that involves certain assumptions (i.e. beliefs) about
human behavior: the way they function, which aspects of them are worthy of study and what
research methods are appropriate for undertaking this study. There may be several different
theories within an approach, but they all share these common assumptions.
You may wonder why there are so many different psychology perspectives and whether one
approach is correct and others wrong. Most psychologists would agree that no one perspective is
correct, although in the past, in the early days of psychology, the behaviorist would have said
their perspective was the only truly scientific one.
Each perspective has its strengths and weaknesses, and brings something different to our
understanding of human behavior. For this reason, it is important that psychology does have
different perspectives to the understanding and study of human and animal behavior.
Below is a brief summary of the six main psychological approaches (sometimes called
perspectives) in psychology.

Behaviorist Perspective
If your layperson's idea of psychology has always been about people in laboratories wearing
white coats and watching hapless rats try to negotiate mazes in order to get to their dinner, then
you are probably thinking about behavioral psychology.
Behaviorism is different from most other approaches because they view people (and animals) as
controlled by their environment and specifically that we are the result of what we have learned
from our environment. Behaviorism is concerned with how environmental factors (called
stimuli) affect observable behavior (called the response).
The behaviorist approach proposes two main processes whereby people learn from their
environment: namely classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning
involves learning by association, and operant conditioning involves learning from the
consequences of behavior.
Classical conditioning (CC) was studied by the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Though
looking into natural reflexes and neutral stimuli he managed to condition dogs to salivate to the
sound of a bell through repeated associated with the sound of the bell and food. The principles of
CC have been applied in many therapies. These include systematic desensitization for phobias
(step-by-step exposed to a feared stimulus at once) and aversion therapy.
B.F. Skinner investigated operant conditioning of voluntary and involuntary behavior. Skinner
felt that some behavior could be explained by the person's motive. Therefore behavior occurs for
a reason, and the three main behavior shaping techniques are positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement and punishment.
Behaviorism also believes in scientific methodology (e.g. controlled experiments), and that only
observable behavior should be studied because this can be objectively measured. Behaviorism
rejects the idea that people have free will, and believes that the environment determines all
behavior. Behaviorism is the scientific study of observable behavior working on the basis that
behavior can be reduced to learned S-R (Stimulus-Response) units.
Behaviorism has been criticized in the way it under-estimates the complexity of human behavior.
Many studies used animals which are hard to generalize to humans and it cannot explain, for
example the speed in which we pick up language. There must be biological factors involved.

Psychodynamic Perspective
Who hasn't heard of Sigmund Freud? So many expressions of our daily life come from Freud's
theories of psychoanalysis - subconscious, denial, repression and anal personality to name only a
few.

Freud believes that events in our childhood can have a significant impact on our behavior as
adults. He also believed that people have little free will to make choices in life. Instead, our
behavior is determined by the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.
Freuds psychoanalysis is both a theory and a therapy. It is the original psychodynamic theory
and inspired psychologists such as Jung and Erikson to develop their own psychodynamic
theories. Freuds work is vast and he has contributed greatly to psychology as a discipline.
Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, explained the human mind as like an iceberg, with only a
small amount of it being visible, that is our observable behavior, but it is the unconscious,
submerged mind that has the most, underlying influence on our behavior. Freud used three main
methods of accessing the unconscious mind: free association, dream analysis and slips of the
tongue.
He believed that the unconscious mind consisted of three components: the 'id' the 'ego' and the
'superego'. The 'id' contains two main instincts: 'Eros', which is the life instinct, which involves
self-preservation and sex which is fuelled by the 'libido' energy force. 'Thanatos' is the death
instinct, whose energies, because they are less powerful than those of 'Eros' are channeled away
from ourselves and into aggression towards others.
The 'id' and the 'superego' are constantly in conflict with each other, and the 'ego' tries to resolve
the discord. If this conflict is not resolved, we tend to use defense mechanisms to reduce our
anxiety. Psychoanalysis attempts to help patients resolve their inner conflicts.
An aspect of psychoanalysis is Freud's theory of psychosexual development. It shows how early
experiences affect adult personality. Stimulation of different areas of the body is important as the
child progresses through the important developmental stages. Too much or too little can have bad
consequences later.
The most important stage is the phallic stage where the focus of the libido is on the genitals.
During this stage little boys experience the 'Oedipus complex', and little girls experience the
'Electra complex'. These complexes result in children identifying with their same-sex parent,
which enables them to learn sex-appropriate behavior and a moral code of conduct.
However, it has been criticized in the way that it over emphasizes of importance of sexuality and
under emphasized of the role of social relationships. The theory is not scientific, and can't be
proved as it is circular. Nevertheless psychoanalysis has been greatly contributory to psychology
in that it has encouraged many modern theorists to modify it for the better, using its basic
principles, but eliminating its major flaws.

Humanism
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole
person (know as holism). Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior, not only through
the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving.
Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual's behavior is connected to his inner feelings
and self-image. The humanistic perspective centers on the view that each person is unique and
individual, and has the free will to change at any time in his or her lives.
The humanistic perspective suggests that we are each responsible for our own happiness and
well-being as humans. We have the innate (i.e. inborn) capacity for self-actualization, which is
our unique desire to achieve our highest potential as people.
Because of this focus on the person and his or her personal experiences and subjective perception
of the world the humanists regarded scientific methods as inappropriate for studying behavior.
Two of the most influential and enduring theories in humanistic psychology that emerged in the
1950s and 1960s are those of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Cognitive Psychology
Psychology was institutionalized as a science in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt, who found the first
psychological laboratory.
His initiative was soon followed by other European and American Universities. These early
laboratories, through experiments, explored areas such as memory and sensory perception, both
of which Wundt believed to be closely related to physiological processes in the brain. The whole
movement had evolved from the early philosophers, such as Aristotle and Plato. Today this
approach is known as cognitive psychology.
Cognitive Psychology revolves around the notion that if we want to know what makes people
tick then the way to do it is to figure out what processes are actually going on in their minds. In
other words, psychologists from this perspective study cognition which is the mental act or
process by which knowledge is acquired.
The cognitive perspective is concerned with mental functions such
as memory, perception, attention etc. It views people as being similar to computers in the way
we process information (e.g. input-process-output). For example, both human brains and
computers process information, store data and have input an output procedure.
This had led cognitive psychologists to explain that memory comprises of three stages: encoding
(where information is received and attended to), storage (where the information is retained) and
retrieval (where the information is recalled).
It is an extremely scientific approach and typically uses lab experiments to study human
behavior. The cognitive approach has many applications including cognitive
therapy and eyewitness testimony.

Biological Psychology
We can thank Charles Darwin (1859) for demonstrating in the idea that genetics and evolution
play a role in influencing human behavior through natural selection.
Theorists in the biological perspective who study behavioral genomics consider how genes affect
behavior. Now that the human genome is mapped, perhaps, we will someday understand more
precisely how behavior is affected by the DNA we inherit. Biological factors such as
chromosomes, hormones and the brain all have a significant influence on human behavior, for
example gender.
The biological approach believes that most behavior is inherited and has an adaptive (or
evolutionary) function. For example, in the weeks immediately after the birth of a child, levels of
testosterone in fathers drop by more than 30 per cent. This has an evolutionary function.
Testosterone-deprived men are less likely to wander off in search of new mates to inseminate.
They are also less aggressive, which is useful when there is a baby around.
Biological psychologists explain behaviors in neurological terms, i.e. the physiology and
structure of the brain and how this influences behavior. Many biological psychologists have
concentrated on abnormal behavior and have tried to explain it. For example, biological
psychologists believe that schizophrenia is affected by levels of dopamine (a neurotransmitter).
These findings have helped psychiatry take off and help relieve the symptoms of the mental
illness through drugs. However, Freud and other disciplines would argue that this just treats the
symptoms and not the cause. This is where health psychologists take the finding that biological
psychologists produce and look at the environmental factors that are involved to get a better
picture.

Evolutionary Psychology
A central claim of evolutionary psychology is that the brain (and therefore the mind) evolved to
solve problems encountered by our hunter-gatherer ancestors during the upper Pleistocene period
over 10,000 years ago.
The Evolutionary approach explains behavior in terms of the selective pressures that shape
behavior. Most behaviors that we see/display are believed to have developed during our EEA
(environment of evolutionary adaptation) to help us survive.

Observed behavior is likely to have developed because it is adaptive. It has been naturally
selected, i.e., individuals who are best adapted survive and reproduce. Behaviors may even be
sexually selected, i.e., individuals who are most successful in gaining access to mates leave
behind more offspring.
The mind is therefore equipped with instincts that enabled our ancestors to survive and
reproduce.
A strength of this approach is that it can explain behaviors that appear dysfunctional, such as
anorexia, or behaviors that make little sense in a modern context, such as our biological stress
response when finding out we are overdrawn at the bank.

Perspectives Conclusion
Therefore, in conclusion, there are so many different perspectives in psychology to explain the
different types of behavior and give different angles. No one perspective has explanatory powers
over the rest.
Only with all the different types of psychology, which sometimes contradict one another (nature-
nurture debate), overlap with each other (e.g. psychoanalysis and child psychology) or build
upon one another (biological and health psychologist) can we understand and create effective
solutions when problems arise so we have a healthy body and a healthy mind.
The fact that there are different perspectives represents the complexity and richness of human
(and animal) behavior. A scientific approach, such as behaviorism or cognitive psychology, tends
to ignore the subjective (i.e. personal) experiences that people have.
The humanistic perspective does recognize human experience, but largely at the expense of
being non-scientific in its methods and ability to provide evidence. The psychodynamic
perspective concentrates too much on the unconscious mind and childhood. As such, it tends to
lose sight of the role of socialization (which is different in each country) and the possibility of
free will.
The biological perspective reduces humans to a set of mechanisms and physical structures that
are clearly essential and important (e.g. genes). However, it fails to account for consciousness
and the influence of the environment on behavior.

Psychology Perspectives At a Glance

There are many different ways of thinking about human behavior. Psychologists utilize a
variety of perspectives when studying how people think, feel, and behave.
Some researchers focus on one specific perspective, such as the biological perspective,
while others take a more eclectic approach that incorporates multiple points of view.
There is no single perspective that is "better" than another; each simply emphasizes
different aspects of human behavior.
Seven Major Perspectives in Psychology
The early years of psychology were marked by the domination of a succession of different
schools of thought. If you have ever taken a psychology course in school, you probably
remember learning about these different schools which included structuralism, functionalism,
psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanism. As psychology has grown, so has the number and
variety of topics that psychologists investigate. Since the early 1960s, the field of psychology has
flourished and continued to grow at a rapid pace, and so has the depth and breadth of subjects
studied by psychologists.
Today, few psychologists identify their outlook according to a particular school of thought.
While you may still find some pure behaviorists or psychoanalysts, the majority of psychologists
instead categorize their work according to their specialty area and perspective.
Every topic in psychology can be looked at in a number of different ways.
For example, let's consider the subject of aggression. Someone who emphasizes a biological
perspective would look at the how the brain and nervous system impact aggressive behavior. A
professional who stresses a behavioral perspective would look at how environmental
variables reinforce aggressive actions.
Another psychologist who utilizes a cross-cultural approach might consider how cultural and
social influences contribute to aggressive or violent behaviors.
The following are just a few of the major perspectives in modern psychology.

1. The Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This view of
psychology and human behavior emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood
experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior and to treat people
suffering from mental illnesses.
Psychoanalysis became one of the earliest major forces within psychology thanks to Freud's
work and influence. Freud conceived of the mind as being composed of three key elements: the
id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the part of the psyche that includes all the primal and
unconscious desires. The ego is the aspect of the psyche that must deal with the demands of the
real world. The superego is the last part of the psyche to develop and is tasked with managing all
of our internalized morals, standards, and ideals.
2. The Behavioral Perspective
Behavioral psychology is a perspective that focuses on learned behaviors. Behaviorism differed
from many other perspectives because instead of emphasizing internal states, it focused solely on
observable behaviors.
While this school of thought dominated psychology early in the twentieth century, it began to
lose its hold during the 1950s. Today, the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how
behaviors are learned and reinforced. Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health
settings, where therapists and counselors use these techniques to explain and treat a variety of
illnesses.

3. The Cognitive Perspective

During the 1960s, a new perspective known as cognitive psychology began to take hold. This
area of psychology focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem-solving,
language and decision-making.
Influenced by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura, this perspective has grown
tremendously in recent decades.
Cognitive psychologists often utilize an information-processing model, comparing the human
mind to a computer, to conceptualize how information is acquired, processed, stored, and
utilized.

4. The Biological Perspective

The study of physiology played a major role in the development of psychology as a separate
science. Today, this perspective is known as biological psychology. Sometimes referred to
as biopsychology or physiological psychology, this point of view emphasizes the physical and
biological bases of behavior.
Researchers who take a biological perspective on psychology might look at how genetics
influence different behaviors or how damage to specific areas of the brain influence behavior and
personality. Things like the nervous system, genetics, the brain, the immune system and the
endocrine systems are just a few of the subjects that interest biological psychologists.
This perspective has grown significantly over the last few decades, especially with advances in
our ability to explore and understand the human brain and nervous system. Tools such as MRI
scans and PET scans allow researchers to look at the brain under a variety of conditions.
Scientists can now look at the effects of brain damage, drugs, and disease in ways that were
simply not possible in the past.

5. The Cross-Cultural Perspective

Cross-cultural psychology is a fairly new perspective that has grown significantly over the last
twenty years. These psychologists and researchers look at human behavior across different
cultures. By looking at these differences, we can learn more about how our culture influences our
thinking and behavior.
For example, researchers have looked at how social behaviors differ in individualistic
and collectivistic cultures. In individualistic cultures, such as the U.S., people tend to exert less
effort when they are part of a group, a phenomenon known as social loafing. In collectivistic
cultures such as China, however, people tend to work harder when they are part of a group.
6. The Evolutionary Perspective
Evolutionary psychology is focused on the study of how evolution explains physiological
processes. Psychologists and researchers take the basic principles of evolution, including natural
selection, and apply them to psychological phenomena. This perspective suggests that these
mental processes exist because they serve an evolutionary purpose they aid in survival and
reproduction.

7. The Humanistic Perspective

During the 1950s, a school of thought known as humanistic psychology emerged. Influenced
greatly by the work of prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, this
perspective emphasizes the role of motivation on thought and behavior.
Concepts such as self-actualization are an essential part of this perspective. Those who take the
humanist perspective focus on the ways that human beings are driven to grow, change, and
develop their personal potential. Positive psychology is one relatively recent movement in
psychology that has its roots in the humanist perspective.
3. RELATE PSYCHOLOGY TO YOUR PROGRAM/COURSE (BS ARCHITECTURE)

We spend our lives inside buildings, our thoughts shaped by their walls. Nevertheless, there's
surprisingly little research on the psychological implications of architecture. How do different
spaces influence cognition? Is there an ideal kind of architectural structure for different kinds of
thinking?

At the moment, I think we're only beginning to grasp the relevant variables of design. Christian
Jarrett, for instance, highlights a new study on curved versus rectilinear furniture. The study itself
was simple: subjects viewed a series of rooms filled with different kinds of couches and lounge
chairs. The results were bad for fans of high modernism - furniture defined by straight edges was
rated as far less appealing and approachable. Sorry, Corbusier.

Or consider this 2009 experiment, published in Science. The psychologists, at the University of
British Columbia, were interested in looking at how the color of interior walls influence the
imagination. They recruited six hundred subjects, most of them undergraduates, and had them
perform a variety of basic cognitive tests displayed against red, blue or neutral colored
backgrounds.

The differences were striking. When people took tests in the red condition they were
surrounded by walls the color of a stop sign - they were much better at skills that required
accuracy and attention to detail, such as catching spelling mistakes or keeping random numbers
in short-term memory. According to the scientists, this is because people automatically associate
red with danger, which makes them more alert and aware.

The color blue, however, carried a completely different set of psychological benefits. While
people in the blue group performed worse on short-term memory tasks, they did far better on
those requiring some imagination, such as coming up with creative uses for a brick or designing
a childrens toy out of simple geometric shapes. In fact, subjects in the blue condition
generated twice as many creative outputs as subjects in the red condition. That's right: the
color of a wall doubled our imaginative power.

What accounts for this effect? According to the scientists, the color blue automatically triggers
associations with the sky and ocean. We think about expansive horizons and diffuse light, sandy
beaches and lazy summer days. This sort of mental relaxation makes it easier for us daydream
and think in terms of tangential associations; were less focused on whats right in front of us and
more aware of the possibilities simmering in our imagination.

Lastly, the psychologist Joan Meyers-Levy, at the Carlson School of Management, conducted an
interesting experiment that examined the relationship between ceiling height and thinking style.
She demonstrated that, when people are in a low-ceilinged room, they are much quicker at
solving anagrams involving confinement, such as "bound," "restrained" and "restricted." In
contrast, people in high-ceilinged rooms excel at puzzles in which the answer touches on the
theme of freedom, such as "liberated" and "unlimited." According to Levy, this is because airy
spaces prime us to feel free.
Furthermore, Levy found that rooms with lofty ceilings also lead people to engage in more
abstract styles of thinking. Instead of focusing on the particulars of things, they're better able to
zoom out and see what those things have in common. (It's the difference between "item-specific"
versus "relational" processing.) Sometimes, of course, we want to focus on the details of an
object or problem, in which case a claustrophobic basement is probably ideal. However, when
we need to come up with a creative solution, then we should probably seek out a more expansive
space. Especially if it has blue walls.

Needless to say, we're only beginning to grasp how the insides of buildings influence the inside
of the mind. For now, it's safe to say that tasks involving accuracy and focus - say, copyediting a
manuscript, or doing some algebra - are best suited for short spaces with red walls. In contrast,
tasks that require a little bit of creativity and abstract thinking benefit from high ceilings, lots of
windows and bright blue walls that match the sky. The point is that architecture has real
cognitive consequences, even if we're just beginning to learn what they are.

Imagine how much more effective the design process would be if you knew what your clients
were really thinking.

What colors inspire them? How do they interact with their physical environments? How does
sunlight make them feel?

Answers to such questions are rarely gathered during typical pre-design planning sessions. For
one thing, design teams rarely delve that deeply into the human psyche of end users. And most
people have difficulty verbalizing this kind of subjective information, says Christine Del Sole.
"Research shows that only 5% of what the average person thinks can be expressed verbally,"
says Del Sole. The other 95% is hidden deep within the subconscious.

Del Sole's Pittsburgh-based consulting firm, fathom, applies a staid research technique to probe
the conscious and subconscious thoughts of user groups and then translates these thoughts into
design approaches. Think of it as a shrink session for building occupants.
Developed by Harvard Business School professor Gerald Zaltman, the technique has been used
for years by Coca-Cola, DuPont, and other Fortune 500 companies as a market research tool for
product and brand development. Now, fathom is bringing it to the architectural community to
help designers create better environments.

"We ask questions a typical designer would not ask, and in ways that uncover the deepest
thoughts," says Del Sole.

Key to the process is the use of art therapy during initial one-on-one interviews with end users.
"We ask them to bring six to eight images that explain their thoughts and feelings about their
most recent experience at the facility," says Del Sole. "It's a snapshot of what's going on inside
their head."

Fathom consultants then analyze the resulting graphical collages to look for common
metaphorsideas like "transformation," "energy," "control"among the group of end users. "With
the metaphors, we're able conduct brainstorming sessions where we come up with design and
human objectives that tie back to those metaphors," she says.
These objectives are then matched with the client's programmatic needs to come up with a
prioritized design guide.

Del Sole points to the Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, currently under construction, as an
example. One-on-one interviews with 29 patients, nurses, and doctors resulted in metaphors like
"control," "energy," and "connection."

"The children wanted the new hospital to feel home-like and comfortable, but not too much like
home because they felt that they wanted to be able to leave [the hospital]," says Del Sole. As a
result, the architects reworked the design scheme, introducing bright, vibrant colors, softer
materials, and patient-friendly features: a healing garden, private rooms, and individual
temperature controls for patient rooms.

"We also found that the kids were very intimated by the height of the beds," says Del Sole.
"We're working with a manufacturer to design a bed that is much lower to the ground, but can be
raised when nurses and doctors come in."

Since launching in June 2004, fathom has completed research programs for eight projects,
including a public library, a high-rise condo tower, and a public park. Healthcare and residential
have been its strongest markets, says Del Sole, and she is looking to expand into the K-12
market. "Figuring out what the kids need and want in a learning environment would be
fascinating," she says.

Human psychology is the science of studying human nature and behaviour. It includes both mind
and body. Every individual in this world is entirely different from one another and so is their
behaviour. Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and constructing
forms, space and ambiance. Moreover architecture is an art of creating a space be it a closed or
open space. It is, in Vitruvius' words, the art which combines utilias, firmitasand
venustas or function, firmness and beauty.

In order to understand this relationship between human psychology and architecture with space,
we first need to know how we become aware of it. Firstly of course we see it, since it is largely
evident to us visually. It's a complex interaction of the eye and brain. Human psychology is
directly related with architecture. The building form, the function incorporated in it, the colour,
lighting, landscape, materials, negative and positive spaces in and around it but architecture is
directly attached with human psychology from conscious to subconscious level. It is the
influence of the environment on human behaviour." Architecture can have a profound effect
upon those that experience it".-Maria Lorena Lehman.

Spencer, the realist, and Emerson, the idealist, each affirm that the nature of the inner man
determines the outer..... that the spirit moulds the body. "Buildings had souls- The plan, the
purpose, the inner soul of the building, determine the exterior, its forms and features..."
In architecture and spatial design, Atmosphere refers to the sensorial qualities that a space emits.
Vitruvius noted that since the human body is the measure of architecture, it is also that which
determines atmospheric qualities. It is the human body that emanates the structural qualities of
architecture.

The design of their buildings impact the consciousness of the users and it becomes a part of
people's lives.For example, it has been found that patients in rooms with views of a tree out of
their window actually recover faster than patients in rooms with no views of nature. There is
reciprocity between humans and the built environment. The architecture affects our behaviour,
but at the same time we also influence the architecture in order to make it suit the activities that
we want to carry out in certain buildings. In this context, Architectural Psychology can contribute
with a number of methods that can be used in order to consider different forms of behaviour and
therefore achieve well-functioning buildings.
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