1.

CAUSES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTHQUAKE

A. Causes of Earthquake
-earthquakes are caused by faulting, a sudden lateral or vertical movement of rock along a
rupture (break) surface.
- is the result of a sudden release of energy. Earthquakes are caused when stress,
building up within rocks of the earth's crust, is released in a sudden jolt. Rocks crack and slip past
each other causing the ground to vibrate.
B. Characteristics of Earthquake

1. It is not yet possible to predict magnitude, time and place of occurrence of an

earthquake.

2. The onset is usually sudden.

3. Earthquake prone areas are generally well identified and well known on the basis of
geological features and past occurrences of earthquakes.

4. Major effects arise mainly from ground movement and fracture or slippage of rocks
underground. The obvious effects include damage (usually very severe) to
buildings and infrastructures along with considerable casualties.

5. About 200 large magnitude earthquake (M>6.0) occur in a decade.

6. The world's earthquake problem seems to be increasing with the increased population,
high rise buildings and crowded cities.

2. EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENON

-The phenomena of earthquakes differ greatly in accordance with the number, duration, and
intensity of the shocks, and with the distance of the place of observation from that of the origin of the
disturbance. A great earthquake usually begins suddenly and without warning. A rumbling sound, quickly
becoming a loud roar, accompanies or slightly precedes the movement of the ground, which is at first a
trembling, then a shaking, and finally a rapid swaying, wriggling motion, describing a figure 8, which is
extremely destructive and overthrows the buildings affected, and even in the open country it is impossible
to keep one's feet. The surface of the ground has been repeatedly observed to rise in low, very swiftly
moving waves, somewhat like those on the surface of water, upon the crests of which the soil opens in
cracks, closing again in the wave-troughs. When the earth-waves traverse a forested region, the trees sway
violently from side to side, like a field of ripe grain in the breeze. In the details of movement earthquakes
differ greatly from one another; sudden and extremely violent vertical shocks may come from below, or the
surface may writhe and twist in every direction, instead of rolling in waves; there may be only a single
shock, or many successive ones. Violent earthquakes, which affect extensive areas, are almost always
followed by a succession of after-shocks, which may continue for weeks, months, or even years. These
may be very violent, though never equalling the primary shock in this respect, but gradually die away, until
the region once more comes to rest.
 In the sea the elastic waves producing shock soon die away in the water. Observations made on
the several ships affected by the same quake frequently show a lineal arrangement of the disturbances. A
special manifestation of earthquakes in the bed of the sea is the great sea-wave (sometimes erroneously
called the tidal wave), which is a gravity wave produced by disturbances of the sea-floor or by a
submarine volcanic eruption. The great sea-wave, though not strikingly displayed in the open sea, piles up
on the coast into enormous breakers, which often are more terribly destructive than the earth-waves
themselves.

3. RING OF FIRE

- The Ring of Fire is a major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where a large number
of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. It is also called as Circum-Pacific Belt or Pacific Ring of
Fire, long horseshoe-shaped seismically active belt of earthquake epicenters, volcanoes, and tectonic
plate boundaries that fringes the Pacific basin. For much of its 40,000-km (24,900-mile) length, the belt
follows chains of island arcs such as Tonga and New Hebrides, the Indonesian archipelago,
the Philippines, Japan, the Kuril Islands, and the Aleutians, as well as other arc-shaped geomorphic
features, such as the western coast of North America and the Andes Mountains. Volcanoes are associated
with the belt throughout its length; for this reason it is called the Ring of Fire. A series of troughs frame the
belt on the oceanic side, and continental landmasses lie behind. Most of the worlds earthquakes, the
overwhelming majority of the worlds strongest earthquakes, and approximately 75 percent of the worlds
volcanoes occur within the Ring of Fire.

The Ring of Fire is an arc of mountains, volcanoes, and oceanic trenches that stretch from New
Zealand northward along the eastern edge of Asia, then east across the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, and
then south along the western coasts of North and South America. The Ring of Fire was created by plate
tectonics. Tectonic plates are like giant rafts on the Earth's surface that often slide next to, collide with, and
are forced underneath each other. The Pacific Plate is quite large and thus it borders (and interacts) with a
number of large and small plates. About 90%] of the world's earthquakes and 81% of the world's largest
earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire. The next most seismic region (5-6% of earthquakes and 17% of
the world's largest earthquakes) is the Alpide belt, which extends from Java to Sumatra through the
Himalayas, the Mediterranean, and out into the Atlantic. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the third most prominent
earthquake belt.

4. MAJOR EARTHQUAKE IN THE PHILIPPINES

A. Magnitude 8.0 earthquake in Mindanao (August 17, 1976)

- A magnitude 8.0 earthquake took place near Mindanao and Sulu a little past midnight of
August 17, 1976 that was felt as far as Visayas. It was then followed by a massive 4 to 5 meters
high tsunami covering 700 kilometers of coastline bordering the island. Because it was dark, the people
were caught by the raging water which claimed 8,000 lives, injuring 10,000, and leaving 90,000
more, homeless.

B. Magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Northern and Central Luzon (July 16, 1990)

- A total of 2,412 people died and at least 10-billion worth of damages to public and
private properties was reported after a magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck Northern and Central
Luzon at around 4:00 p.m. of July 16, 1990.Hyatt Terraces Plaza, Nevada Hotel, Baguio Hilltop
Hotel, Baguio Park Hotel, and FRB Hotel, all in Baguio collapsed trapping and burying people
alive. Although the epicenter was recorded in Nueva Ecija, it caused more damage in the City of
Pines. And the quake that just lasted for about a minute was one of the tragedies in the country
that would never be forgotten.

C. Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Luzon (November 30, 1645)

- The magnitude 7.5 earthquake that crushed Luzon on November 30, 1645 at about 8:00
pm was called the most terrible earthquake in Philippines history. The Epicenter of the said quake
was in Nueva Ecija caused by the San Manuel and Gabaldon Faults. The extent of the tremor was
felt as far as Cagayan Valley. It has caused many landslides which buried many people alive and
destroyed many buildings and churches including Manila Cathedral. That time, only Spanish are
counted so the recorded number of casualties was only 600 while the injured was 3,000.

D. Magnitude 7.3 earthquake in Casiguran (August 2, 1968)

- Most of the people in Casiguran, Aurora was still fast asleep when a magnitude 7.3
earthquake struck at 4:19 a.m. of August 2, 1968.It was another deadly and shocking seismic
activity in the country. And the City of Manila got the most severe damage. Many buildings were
either damaged or destroyed totally. The said event was also called the Ruby Tower earthquake
after the said six-story building located in Binondo collapsed, and caused the death of 260 people.
A total of 268 people died that day and 261 more were injured.

E. Magnitude 7.2 earthquake in Bohol (October 15, 2013)

- it was around 8:12 a.m. when a strong earthquake was felt here in Tacloban City. Only to
find out after the lights came back that what they have experienced was nothing compared to the
damage it caused in Bohol which was the epicenter of the magnitude 7.2 earthquake. The quake
affected most of Central Visayas, particularly Bohol and Cebu. It was felt in the whole area of
Visayas and reached as far as Masbate Island in the north and Cotabato in Southern Mindanao.
According to the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC), a total of
222 people died, 8 went missing and 976 others were injured. An estimated 73,000 structures were
damaged wherein more than 14,500 of which were destroyed totally.

F. Magnitude 7.1 earthquake in Mindoro (November 15, 1994)

- November 15, 1994, at around 3:15 a.m., a magnitude 7.1 earthquake rocked Mindoro. A
gigantic 8.5 meters (28 ft) tsunami then followed which devastated the islands of Baco and
Calapan, Mindoro. A total of 7,566 houses were washed out and some 78 people died because of
that tragedy.
 G. Magnitude 6.9 earthquake in Central Visayas (February 6, 2012)

- A total of 51 people died, 62 still missing and 112 were injured when a 6.9 earthquake
Central Visayas, particularly Negros and parts of Mindanao on February 6, 2012. It caused a
landslide which buried a barangay, damaged 15,483 houses, and a total damage of 383-million
on infrastructures and buildings was recorded.

H. Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Central and Southern Mindanao (March 5, 2002)

- A magnitude 7.5 earthquake resulted to the death of 15 people and injuring around a
hundred more in Central and Southern Mindanao on March 5, 2002.The said quake originated near
the Cotabato Trench that was followed by a tsunami. But it was the flood that was generated by
landslides and falling debris that caused damage to an estimated 800 buildings.

I. Magnitude 6.5 quake in Ilocos Norte (August 17, 1983)

- The magnitude 6.5 quake in Ilocos Norte on August 17, 1983 happened around 8:18 p.m.
and resulted to 16 casualties and 47 people got injured. It caused damages on various
establishments such as schools, buildings, malls, residences, and etc. There were also landslides
and sand boils that followed the event.

J. Magnitude 7.6 earthquake happened near Guiuan, Eastern Samar (August 31, 2012)

- A very strong earthquake with a magnitude of 7.6 happened near Guiuan, Eastern Samar
on August 31, 2012 that was felt as far as Mindanao. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology (PHIVOLCS) issued a tsunami warning Level 3, but it was lifted 5 hours later. The
quake caused damage on homes, bridges, and other infrastructures. There were also power
interruptions in the affected areas. But despite the intensity only one person was reported dead
and one injured because of the landslide in Cagayan de Oro City.

5. SEISMOLOGY

- Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves and what they tell us about Earth
structure. Seismology is a data-driven science and its most important discoveries usually result
from analysis of new data sets or development of new data analysis methods. Most seismologists spend
most of their time studying seismograms, which are simply a record of Earth motion at a particular
place as a function of time.
6. MEASURING EARTHQUAKE

A. Seismometers

-are instruments that measure motion of the ground, including those of seismic waves
generated by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other seismic sources. Records of seismic
waves allow seismologists to map the interior of the Earth, and locate and measure the size of these
different sources.

B. Seismographs

-is a piece of equipment that records earthquake movements. It is a print out of the seismic
data recorded by the seismometer.

C. Richter Scale

- The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the
California Institute of Technology as a mathematical device to compare the size of earthquakes. The
magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by
seismographs. Adjustments are included for the variation in the distance between the various
seismographs and the epicenter of the earthquakes. On the Richter Scale, magnitude is expressed
in whole numbers and decimal fractions. For example, a magnitude 5.3 might be computed for a
moderate earthquake, and a strong earthquake might be rated as magnitude 6.3. Because of the
logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold
increase in measured amplitude; as an estimate of energy, each whole number step in the
magnitude scale corresponds to the release of about 31 times more energy than the amount
associated with the preceding whole number value. At first, the Richter Scale could be applied only to the
records from instruments of identical manufacture. Now, instruments are carefully calibrated with respect to
each other. Thus, magnitude can be computed from the record of any calibrated seismograph.

D. Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

- The effect of an earthquake on the Earth's surface is called the intensity. The intensity
scale consists of a series of certain key responses such as people awakening, movement of
furniture, damage to chimneys, and finally - total destruction. Although numerous intensity
scales have been developed over the last several hundred years to evaluate the effects of
earthquakes, the one currently used in the United States is the Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale. It
was developed in 1931 by the American seismologists Harry Wood and Frank Neumann. This scale,
composed of increasing levels of intensity that range from imperceptible shaking to catastrophic
destruction, is designated by Roman numerals. It does not have a mathematical basis; instead it is an
arbitrary ranking based on observed effects. The Modified Mercalli Intensity value assigned to a
specific site after an earthquake has a more meaningful measure of severity to the nonscientist than
the magnitude because intensity refers to the effects actually experienced at that place.
The lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is
 felt by people. The higher numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage.
Structural engineers usually contribute information for assigning intensity values of VIII or above.

7. EARTHQUAKE DESCRIPTORS AND MAGNITUDE

MAGNITUDE EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS

2.5 or LESS Usually not felt, but can be recorded by

seismograph.

2.5 to 5.4 Often felt, but only causes minor damage.

5.5 to 6.0 Slight damage to buildings and other structures.

6.1 to 6.9 May cause a lot of damage in very populated

areas.

7.0 to 7.9 Major earthquake. Serious damage.

8.0 or GREATER Great earthquake. Can totally destroy communities

near epicenter.

8. EARTHQUAKE ZONE

-An area of the earths crust in which movements, sometimes with associated volcanism, occur.
Also known as seismic area. It is an area where the rate of seismic activity remains fairly consistent. This
may mean that seismic activity is very rare, or that it is very common. Some people often use the term
seismic zone to talk about an area with an increased risk of seismic activity, while others prefer to talk
about seismic hazard zones when discussing areas where seismic activity is more frequent. Many nations
have government agencies concerned with seismic activity. These agencies use the data they collect about
seismic activity to divide the nation into various seismic zones. A number of different zoning systems are
used, from numerical zones to colored zones, with each number or color representing a different level of
seismic activity. In the United States, for example, the seismic zones are divided between one and five, with
zone five being the most at risk of seismic activity. Most high-activity seismic zones are located along what
are known as fault zones, regions of the Earth's crust which are prone to seismic activity. Fault zones often
occur where continental plates meet, but they can also be found around volcanoes. A major fault zone in
North America far from any plate boundaries is caused by a huge bubble of magma under the Earth's crust
which periodically bubbles up into an explosive volcanic eruption.
TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES
938 Aurora Boulevard Cubao, Quezon City

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Civil Engineering Department

CE 402- FLUID MECHANICS

EXPERIMENT NO.1

SUBMITTED BY:

Arrabes, Harriette Mae P.

De Leon, Maricar C.
Garcia, Vanessa Mae V.
Sespene, Job Daniel R.

SUBMITTED TO:
Engr. Jennifer Camino

DATE:
November 25, 2016