15 The seismic design of ambient

temperature storage tanks

This Chapter describes the most commonly used method ofdesigning verticalcylindricalliquid
storage tanks for seismic loadings- This method is taken from API 650 Appendix E. Some
indications of the origins of the various methods of calculation and the formulae used are
orovided.
The equivalentdesign sections of BS 2654 and the forthcoming Euronorm are a lso described.

Contents:
15.1 lntroduction
15.2 The API 650 _approach
'15.2.'1 The basic seismic data

15.2.2 The behaviour of the pmduct liquid

'15.2.3 The overtuming moment
15.2.4 Resistance to overluming
'15.2.5 Shell comDression
15.2.5.1 Unanchored tanks
15.2.5.2 Anchored tanks
15.2.6 Ailowable longitudinal compressive stresses
15.2-7 Slosh height and freeboard considerations
15.2.8 Other conditions arjsing from seismic loadings
15.3 The BS 2694 approach

15.4 The prEN 14015 approach

15.5 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 263

15 The seismic design of ambient temperature stoftge tanks
15.1 lntroduction
The design of liquid storage tanks to resist seismic loadings is a
subject which is taken very seriously these days. Despite the
collapse of a large steel water tank during the Long Beach
earthquake of 1933, nothing was done to provide a framework
of rules for the seismic design of liquid containing tanks until af-
ter the Alaska earthquake of 1964. This seismic event caused
widespread damage and subsequent fire to a large number of
petrochemical fuel tanks. The site contained a numberoftanks
of different sizes, different proportions and filled to different lev-
els with products with different specific gravities at the time that
the earthquake struck. The study of the levels of damage sus-
tained by the various tanks allowed the various theories relating
to seismic design to be tested. The Alaska event is described in
References 15.1 and 15.2.
Two further seismic events involving damage to storage tanks
also contributed evidence to the discussions. These were the
'1971 San Fernando and the 1974 Lima Peru eafthquakes de-
scribed in References 15.3 and 15.4
The credit for the production of a workable and "user friendly"
set of rules for the safe design of liquid storage tanks to enable
them to resist seismic loads owes a lot to the document com-
monly known as TID 7024 (Reference t5.5) and to the work of
Wozniakand Mitchell (Reference 15.6). The proposalsgiven in
this paper by Wozniak and Mitchell were adopted with minor
changes as Appendix E ofAPl 650 (Refe rence 15.7). Appendix
L of API 620 (Reference 75.8) uses the same design method
BS 2654 (Reference 75.9) has "borrowed" the same rules, al-
though not the seismic zones from the UBC, (The American
Uniform Building Code).
This Chapter devotes most of iis efforts to the seismic design of
ground based ve(ical cylindrical tanks as these form the large
majority of ambient tanks. TID 7024 provides some guidance
on the design of rectangular and elevated tanks.
The seismic design of liquid containing storage tanks has been
a popular subject for study over the years and there are hun-
dreds of articles and papers covering work which has been car-
ried out. lt is proposed to include in this Chapter only the most
immediately relevant references. lf more are required, then ref-
erence to chapter 6 of Philip Myers' book ( Refercnce 15.10)will
provide a list of 61 papers and reference to these in turn shou ld
Figure 15.1 Selsmic zone map ofthe lJnited States
From the Unifam Building Code
264 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
produce sufficient material for even the most enthusiastic stu-
dent of this subject.
15.2 The API 650 approach
15.2.1 The basic seismic data
Before the task ofdesigning a particular storage tank for a seis-
mic event can start, it is necessary to have some idea of the ap-
propriate set of seismic criteria which are to be applied. The
definition ofthe appropfiate seismic design datia for a particular
site location and geology is a complex business. This can be
seen in Chapter 26 which deals with low temperature tank de-
sign where the subject of seismic design is considered in a
greater level of detail.
For ambient tanks it is usual to adopt a simpler approach and
this is reflected in the rules provided in API 650 Appendix E.
This Code allows tvvo aporoaches to the selection of the seis-
mic design criteria:
Firstly it takes as its starting point the American Uniform Build-
ing Code (UBC) (Reference 15.11).fhis document divides the
United States of America into seismic zones ranging from zone
0 (no seismic event to be considered)to zone 4 (the most oner-
ous seismic event). This is illustrated as Figure 15.1.ltalso pro-
vides guidance regarding the appropriate seismic zones for lo-
cations outside the USA. This tabulation is shown in Figure
15.2. The UBC approach is to express an earthquake event as
a horizontal acceleration which can be applied to the structure
in any direction.
The second approach has more in common with the practices
for low temperature tanks. By agreement between the pur-
chaser and the manufacturer, the horizontal accelerations may
be determined from site specific response spectra produced by
the purchaser. The accelerations should not be less than those
derived from the use ofthe UBC. Forthe impulsive component
of the liquid and the tank and roof self-weighb, the values
should be based on 2% damping, and for the convective com-
ponent ofthe liquid, should be based on 0.5% damping. Unless
the tanks are in some way special, this more exacting approach
is rarely adopted.
-\
l''r-Tt
 1 5 The seismic design of ambbnt temperature sto@ge tanks

t.oc6lion Seismic Zone Locaton Sl8nlc Zone

AFRICA Mali
Algeria Banako 0
Alge. MaudtaDia
Orar 3 Nornkchott 0
Maurillus
0 Pon lruis 0
Bdtin
0
Port Lyautcy I
G8borone 0 P.abqt 2A
B'rrundi Tangrer 3
Bujumbt'ra 3 Mozambique
Maputo 2A
Douala 0 Nigcr
0 Niamey
Cap Verde Nigria
0 Iba&n
Cantral African Rcpublic Kaduna
Batrgui 0 llgos
Chad Rpublic of Rwanda
Ndjrmcna 0 KiCali
Congo scrcd
Brazavillc 0 Dakar 0
Djibouti 3 Seychetles
EgvPl 0
2A
Cair0 2A 0
Pod Said 2A Sonalia
Equatorial Cuinea Mogadishu 0
Malabo o South Africa
Etbiopia Cap Town 3
3 Dulban
3 2A
Gabon Naral 1

Libreville 0 2A
Gatubia
Banjul 0 2A
Ghana Tanzania
Dar es Salaam 2A
CuiDea Zanzibtl 2A
Bissau t Togo
Conaky 0 I
Ivory Coasl Tunisia
Turis
Abidjan
Kenys
0
Ugada
t3
Nairobi 2A rial|Ipal! 2A
Lsotho ' Uppervolta
2A OuSado!gou 0
Uberia z,j,ir.
I Brkavu 3
Libya Ki$hasa 0
Tripoli 2A tubumbashi 2A
Wielirs AFB 2A 7ar$ia
Malagisy Rcpublh Lukasa ZA
Thna!arive 0 Zimbrbwe
Hardrc (srlisbury) 3
Blantyre ASTA
Lilongw Afghribran
Zonba 3 &bd

Figure 15.2 Tabulation of tho seismic zones woddwide - pagg t

Fromthe Uniform Buildino Code

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 265

15 The seismic design of ambientlewenfiJre slorage fanks

Locttlon Sa|amlozone Locellon SstEmlc Zdao

Bib|3ir Lao6
MBnamr 0 VllirtidD 1
Bangladcsh Irbdiron
3 Bdifill .3
BIunei Maley6is
Bandu Sci Begiunn I IOah LumFrr 1

B!rmt N.P3l
Mandalay 3 K'btnandu
RangooD 3 otlla!
2A
China
B6ijirg \ Pddsran
Chctrgdu '3 ftlth.bad I
' Guangzhou 2A Ksncni
Nenjing 2A hiorc 2A
.{
aiogdto 3
ShaoShi Qatrr
SbenB|{t|t Doha 0
'tbiwm Srudi Anbia
Atl Al Balh I
Tihrva Dhr$r I
2A Jiild.! 2A
xisrggang 2A Khnis Mwl|arf I
Riysdh 0
cypro6
Nicosr:a Sing.poi!
India
All I
Bor|bry 3 Soulh Ydncn
Calqna 2A Adr[ Cily 3
Madr3l I Sri btrk.
Ncw Dclhi Colodbo 0
Indorcsh Syri.
4 Aloppo 3
Bendung
Jakrna 4 Dimrsrs 3
Medatr Thailand
Sursbrya BrIgko* I
ChiuB irri 2A
lmn
Songlllla 0
Islbiar I
Shiraz
Tabriz Tn!ftcy
2A
Tehmn
2A
I'!q lsnir 4
aaghdad Isi'rbul
Bisra 1
Kal"nluJsel 3
lsrael Unild Arab En ntes
llaifa Abu Dhabi 0
3 Dubai 0
l
Ho Chi Minh (Saigor) 0
Fukuoka 3 YDetr Aran Republic
Ilrzi(e AFB l Sanal
Mis8v,,a AIB 3
AT'I,ANTIC OCEAN AREA
Naha, Okinewa
ft*a/Kobe
Sapporo 3 Atl
Tokyo 4 Bcrtnudt
3 AI I
CARTBBEAN SEA
hlruna Islsods
Jord!tr AI 1
3 Cubr
Korca AI
Kimhrc 7 Domiricar nepublic
KwanAi! I Sanlo DoninSo 3
I Frcndr Wbsl lndis
0 Ma iniquc
KuNeil Grensda
Kuwiii I Sli
Geolgcs 3

Figure 15.2 Tabulalion of the seismic zone6 worldwide - pags 2

From the Unltom Bulldlng Code

266 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPiIENT

 1 5 The seismic design of ambient tempenture stgnge tanks

Locatlon Ssls|nlczone Loca{on Sabtnlc Zon

Haiti Paris 0
3 stralbouB 24
Ocrnrny, Fcdelsl Republic
3 Bcdin 0
Kngsion
Bo 2A
lreward Islalds 0
Ait 3 Brcm.d
Dusseldorf I
Triridad & Tobago Fnnlfurl 2A
A[ 3
Halnbury 0
SENTRAL AIVGRICA Municll I
Blizo sNugan 2A
Blmopar 2A Vaihigcn 2A
Caral Zon!
AI 2A 3
Co$a Riaa Krvrlla
San Jo6c 3 Makd
Rhodcs 3
El Sakador 4
Sruds Bty
San Salvador
Thessaloniki
Guatemala
Gualrr||ah H!ngary
Budapa{ 2A
Honduias
3 Icebrd
Tcg|rcfgrlpa 3
Kcfla!ick
Mexico Rcytiavik
Ciudad Jtlarcz 2A
Irelard
cudalajffa 3
0
3 Dubli'l
Hentosillo
0 l|aly
Mrzatlan 2-4, Avia@ AFB 3
0 Brirdisi 0
Mcrida
3 3
Mcrica City
0 3
0 MiIan 2A
3 Naplas 3
rijuNna
3
Mcar.gra 2A
Manrgua 3
Sicily
3
Coior 3 24
Tudn
Galclr 2B
3
1
EUROPE Malta
Albania 2A
Tiran, 3
Nelherla s
Alt 0
Salzbor8 ZA Norway
ZA Oslo ZA
Bclgiun Polmd
I ZA
Blllss.ls 2A I
B06oia-Hcccgovina I
B.lgade 2A Podugal
Bulgaria LiSon
sofi3 3 Opporto 3
Croaria
Tagnb 3 3

Czecb06lovekia Russia
Blalislava 2A 0
Prague 1 St. Pelrlsbulg 0
Spoin
Copenh"gcn I Barcelora 2L
Fnlard Bilbao 2A
Heliloti I Madrid 0
Rott 2A
Seville 2A
Bordca$r 2L
Lyon I
Malseille 3 Colebo{g
Nic! 3 Stoclhols I

Figure 1 5,2 Tabulatlon of the selsmlc zones woddwide - pagg 3

Ftufi fie Unitom Building Code

STORAGE.TANKS & EQUIPMENT 267

 15 The seismic de'ign of ambient.bnpenture storage tanks

II

Ldcellan Sdanrlczona kcalloo SeEfilC bn

I Swi@crlald
I Bir! Urn
I
I Piu'" 4
I Zurich Urugday
UkAin. 0
I tricv 0
I Unilid (ingdom Carecas
B|last
I
Ediiburgn PACIFIC OCSAN AREA
Edzel
Classow^cnfrew Bisbaoe
Haftilton Cantatra
I Uvqpool
I.oddon P.nh
"AI Sydmy
I Thu$o I Carolin blrrds
I NORTI{ AMEIICA Kolsr, Psh! ls. 2A
I GrEcnland 0
AII I Frji
Crradr Suva
Agcnda NAS ZA JohrEon Island
I Cal$!y, Alb 1 All
I Cturcni4 Man 0 l,{adann Istards
Cold l,ah., Alb I Guam
I Bdmortoq Alb
E. ltffrnoo AIB
I
2A
Salpa!
Tirisd
t Forr W liams, Onl
frobirhr N.W. Tei
0 Mrlsbrll Islaids
All
0
I Nar Z.3latrd
Hrlifax 1 3
Monbeal, Qucbc. 3 llbliEton 4
O0awe,onl 2A Papau New Guincr
Sl, Joh!'sNfd 3 Porl r'roruby
Tbronb, Ont I PliIlFh Islrndo
3 BaSuo
Wimcpcg, Man t Cbu
SOUTII AMERICA l,Liila 4
S:mot
0 All
Bolivia \lblc khnd
la Paz 1
All 0
Sanra Cruz I The above compilation is a parial ltsriry of silmi@ zonnr for
Blazil cities aod countries outside of the Unitcd Stares. Il has beetr Dr}
BldD 0 vidd in this cod prinanly as a source of inlormario4 and iray

Brasilia
0 sic
not, i'l all cases, reflcct local ordtlances or cunent ifc in-
0
0 rffhen an authority having jlrisdiction requir-! seisoic dasign
0
Recife 0 forc.s tlal lre higler tha! wolld be indicsted by the above zorcs,
Fio {bJanciro 0 lhe local rcquircments shall govem. When an aulhority havingir-
Salvador 0 risdiction requires seisrfc desjgn forces lha! arc lower lhar
Sao Paulo I wduld b. indjcated by the abovE z$es, and these farces have
Chilt bcer developd with cotsider8tiotr of regjooat tectoiics ard urF
Sa iago 4 to-dale geologic and seismologic fufomation, th6local rcquir-

Colombia rl,hen no local siuic d$ign rcqldrcrlgnb cris!, prsperly dc-

I
Bogora 3 termircd iDformarion on sitc-specifc grourd tuotiotr! olay b
Ecrador used to jlstify a lower seisBric zone. Such sile-spacifc grollld
Guataquil 3 motiotrs siall hav bsetr dlvelopd with p4per comidcnlion of
Quito regiooal tectonias and local geologlc and seisnologic inforlDs-
Parrguay tion, rnd ihll have no Elor &atr a 10 pGrcr{ chrnce of bobg e,r.
t 0 ceeded iB a SGyear period.

Flgura 15.2 Tabulallon of the seismic zonss worldwide - page 4

From the Uniform Builditlg Code

268 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT

 15 The seismic desjgn of anctea: :a-aa.a:--=::: :: -. !
=::
s.i\nrc FacLo. Seismr Zone FlcLor 'lype
(lmm F,guE E- I o. oder souroes ) (horzon'3t acceierario! l A soil ponle wirh ejrher a) a !o*-tii.
l 0.075
oareii
chemderizd by a she2J walc velocin EaE
1A 0.r5 0E 760 r/s (2500 ftis) o. by ohd;!a!k
2B
neds of clAlindion d.!k eit
or b) srjtr or
020 conditions wb*e lhe $il deprh is le$ da Sl
3 0.30 n (200 fi).
040 52 A soil prcnb wir! stiff or derse soit condfuons i.:
*bE lire soil depLh exc*ds 60 h (200 hl.
Figure 15.3 Seismic zone factor
53 A soil profile l2 ft {4q n) or moE ir .teprh con- I i
Fron APl650, Appendix E, table E-2
taining norc than 6 m (m n) of sofr ro mediun
stiffclnybutmoFrhd t2n({Oft)of sonclay.
The API 650 Appendix E design acceleration for the impulsive A soil profiic coffai ng moE ihe 12 n (40 f0
component of the liquid togetherwith the self-wejght ofthe tank
shell and roof is the product of three variables. ihese are: Nor: The sne fs.ror shal be esrablsbed ftom properly substandared
gcot@hnic.l dar!. ID localions wher dE soil pDPcniei aE Dor tnopn
. The zone factor (Z) from the UBC which is given in Figure in s!frcie de6il ro dercmtue th. soil Plofiie
rypq lon pro6l. S.l
shal bc us.d. Soi] pofte .ta ned not be a$Med unless the builiinE
15.3. ofbcial deremines rhsr soilproEte Sa nay b pllgt
ar rhe e or ,;
ihe evnl ttar loit pofitc 54 $ eslablished by gmrectuij@t dau
. The importance factor (l) which is normally 1.0 and which
should not exceed 1.25. This higher value should onty be Figure 15.5 Site coefficients S
applied to tanks which are required to provide posfearth- Frcn API 650, Appendix E. table E-3
quake service or tanks which store toxic or explosive sub_
stances in areas where an accidental release of their
contents would be dangerous to the safety of the general 15.2.2 The behaviour of the product liquid
public.
. The lateral force coefiicient C1 which shall be 0.60. The way in which the liquid in a vertical cylindrical container be_
haves when subjected to an earthquake was clarified bv one of
The corresponding acceleration for the convective component
the "giants" of seismic engineering. G.W. Housner. This is de_
of the liquid is again the product of three variables which are:
scribed in Refere,ce 75.72. This theory which is used to this
. Z as above day, divides the liquid withjn the tank into two comDonents.
These are termed:
. I as above
. . The impulsive component
The lateralforce coefficient C2 which is a function ofthe nat_
ural period ofthe first mode ofsloshing (T) and the site coef_ . The convective component
ficient (S). The impulsive component is that part of the liquid in the lower
T is determined from: paft of the tank which moves with the tank as thouqh it were a
solid. lt experiences the same accelerations ani displace_
r = k(D05) equ 15.1 ments as the tank and the subgrade upon which the tank is
founded. The tank is presumed to be rigid. This is not exacflv
Note: This equation requires the tank diameter to be in feet. lf
true, but for ambient tanks it is normalto make this presumotion
the diamete_r is in metres, then the equation becomes
and it provides answers ofsufficjent accuracv. The influence of
T=1.811k(Do5) tank flexibility. especially for steel tanks, is discussed further in
Where k is taken from flgure E-4 shown in Figure 15.4 Chapter 26 on the seismic design of low temperature tanks.
The natural period of vibration associated with this component
is a function ofthe size and the stiffness ofthe tank itseliand is
't.0 usuallyto be found in the 0.i secto 0.4 sec range. Atypicalre-
sponse spectrum for a seismic event is as shown in Fioure
o8
/, 15.6. Cleady the impulsive component with its natural fre_
0.6
0.5
t,0 4,0 7.0

Figure 15.4 Factor k

Fron API 650, Appendix E, figure E-4

or can be calculated from the following equation: o

0.578
. . (s.az equ 15.2
I
6
LfI/H ?
E
For values of T less than or equal to 4.S sec: b

0.753
^.T equ 15.3

For values of T greater than 4.5 sec:

3.3755
^ t- equ 15.4 PEFTOO (SECONDS)

Figure 15.6 Design response specAa

S is taken from Table E-3 (Figure .15.5) Fron Uniform Building Code

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 269

15 The seismic design of ambient tempemture storage tanks

1,0
I

w"tw, _
{
* o.u
I --r-
s 0.4
X I

* o.2

Figurc '15.7 lt4odel ol the impuls've and conveclive componenls 1.O 4.0 7.0
DIH
Figure 15.9 Etrective masses
Frcn API 650, Appendix E,ligurc E-2

Ta Short
Tank diameier (m) 42 OA 52.00
Liquld n I height (m) 2A A7 18.83

lmpulslve mass ftorne) 27011 l6t 2%) 16443142.7o/o)

Convectlve mass af onne) 13212132 8a ) 22071157.3%)

Fiqure 1510 A comoarison belween the rmoulsve and convective masses fo'
a 40 000m3 tank of iiifferenr orooorlions

t?471
coshl 11 l- 1.0
Figure Model of the im pulsive and convective componenls, with the
l 5. S
x, nn lDHl
H -'"
self-weights ofthe tank shelland roof added equ 15.8
367 /3.6?r
quency will be subject to accelerations which are close to the
-
D,',H lDiH'
maximum values shown.
where:
The convective component is that part of the liquid in the upper
part ofthe iank which is free to form waves or to slosh. This part Wr = weight of the impulsive liquid component
of the liquid has a much longer natural response time than the W2 = weight ofthe convective liquid component
impulsive portion and is usually to be found in the 5 sec to 10
sec range, again depending upon the tank size. Reference Wr = total weight of the tank liquid contents
again to Figure 15.5 shows that this portion of the liquid will be Xr
subjected to much lower accelerations.
= height from the tank bottom to the centroid of
the impulsive liquid
The way in which the tank contents are modelled is shown in Xz = height from the tank bottom to the centroid oJ
Figure 15.7. The impulsive component is rigidly linked to the the convective liquid
tank wallswhilstthe convective component is attached by weak
springs. The complete model including the self-weighb of the H = maximum liquid filling height
tank shell and roof is shown in Figure 15.8. Note: As long as the units used are consistent, then these for-
mulae work in both Sl and US customary unib.
The proportion of the product liquid which falls into the impul-
sive and the convective portions is a function ofthe tank shape, lf the tank is tall (i.e. D/H less than 1 .333), then it is suggested
and the calculation methods are different for short tanks with that W1 and X1 are modified to:
DiH greater than 1.333, (the majority of tanks fall into this re-
gion) and for tall tanks with D/H less than 1.333. IL=r.o o.zra9 equ 15.9
WTH
API 650 Appendix E ignores tall tanks and gives the effective
masses of the two components and the respective heights to
their centres of gravity in graphicalform, shown in Figures 15.9
!HH=o.soo o.os+ I equ 15.10

and 15.10.
To see howthis works out in practice for a short tank (the major-
The equations forming the basis ofthese graphs for short tanks ity of the larger ambient tanks fall into the short category) the
are: example ofa tank of40,000 m3 has been adopted. Two different
tank proportions have been chosen and the values of W1, W2,
tanh 0.866 9 Hj and H2 calculated.
vvr
- H equ 15.5 The results are shown in Figure 15.11. Clearly the taller tank
& 0.866q shows a higher proportion of its contents to be impulsive than
the shorter tank where a higher proportion is convective.

& D 3 67
equ 15.6 15.2.3 The overturning moment
w.= o.zgo H,unnlIDH' I F

The overturning moment due to seismic forces to be applied to t

!rl = o.szs equ 15.7 the bottom ofthe tank shell shall be determined from the follow-
ing equation:
'I

270 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 15 The seismic design of ambient temperaturc storage tanks

1.0
15.2.4 Resistance to overturning
0.8

t Resistance to the overturning moment calculated in equation

i o.t 15.11 which applies at the bottom of the tank shell mav be oro-
vided for anchored tanks by the weightof the tank shelliogeiher
r{ 0.4 with any portion ofthe tank roofwhich is supported by the tank
shell and by the tank anchorage. For unanchored tanks, the re_
0.2
sistance may be provided by the weight of the tank shell to_
gether with any portion of the tank roof which is supported by
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6-0 7.0 8.0 the tank shell and the weight of a portion of the tank contents
DIH adjacent to the tank shell acting on the outer part of the tank
bottom.
Figure 15.11 Centroids of seismic forces
Fron API 650, Appendix E, figute E-s The evaluation of this liquid holding down component is as fol-
lows:
M = Zt(ClWsXs +C1WHr +C1W\ rCrWrXr) equ.15.11 In US customary units:

Where the hitherto undefined variables are: wL = 7.gtb\EGH equ 15.15

Ws = total weight of the tank shell This is subject to a maximum value of:
W, = total weight of the tank roof (fixed or floating) wL = 1 25GHD equ 15.16
together with a portion of the snow load as
specified by the purchaser This maximum value of the liquid holding down effort is based
on a maximum permitted radial dimension of the uplifted por-
Xs = height from the bottom of the tank shell tothe tion of the tank bottom equivalent to about 7% of the iank
centre of gravity of the tank shell radtus.
Ht = total height ofthe tank shell where:
C1 = lateral force coefiicient for the impulsive com_ wL = maximum weight ofthe tank contents that may
ponent and is taken as 0.60
be used to resist the shell overturning moment
Cz = lateral force coefficient for the convective com- in lb/ft of the shell circumference
ponent tb = thickness ofthe bottom plate immediately be.
This moment is the moment due to the liquid acting on the tank neath the tank shell (inches)
shell only plus the moment due to the self-weighiof ihe shell Foy = minimum specified yield strength ofthe bottom
and roof. lt is sometimes known as MEBp or moment excludjng ptate immediately beneath the tank shell
base pressure. (lb/in'?)
There is a second moment whjch is useful for the design of G = design specific gravity of the product to be
storage tanks known as MrBp or moment including base pres_ sloreo
sure. This moment, as its name suggests, also includes the in_
fluence ofthe liquid tank contents upon the tank bottom. This is H = maximum design liquid tevel (feet)
used for the tank foundation design and is calculated from the D
same formula as equation 15..11, but with X1 being replaced by
= tank diameter (feet)

X., andXrby Xr. These new moment arms are calculated from In Sl units:

the following: wL = ggtb1EycH equ 15.17

For short tanks (i.e. D/H greater that 1.333):
this is subject to a maximum of:

0.866
q wL = 196GHD equ'15.18
+=0.,,1,,., ...[ tanh 0.866n 9 ,,]] equ 15.12 Where:
H is in N/m
For tall tanks (i.e. D/H tess than 1.333): to ts In mm

x_n Fby is in MPa or N/mm2

IHH=0.500+0.060: equ 15.13
H tstnm
For all tanks: D isinm

15,2.5 Shell compression

Y=,0 equ'15.14
15.2.5.1 Unanchored tanks
The API method divides the means of calculating the maximum
For the detailed design of tank foundations, it is often useful to compressive force in the tank shell into four methods deoend_
ent upon the value of:
separate the moment applied to the tank base area only and
this figure can be obtained bythe subtraction of MEBp frornM rvy'[o'1w, + w,;]
Bp.
The actual distribution ofthis loading on the tank bottom js dl-
scribed later. wnere:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 271

15 The seismic design of ambient tempercture storage tanks

= weight of the tank shell and that portion of the stress, see Section 15.2.6), then the tank is structurally
tank roof supported by the tank shell in N/m or
lb/ft of shell circumference
unstable. Note that .:
121
is the calculated longitudinal shellcom-
pressive stress in US customary units, as is F,, i.e. lb/in2.
Wnen rr,y'[o'?(w, + w.)] is tess than 0.785, there in no uplift of
In this case the API Code makes the following suggestions:
the tank shell and consequently the compressive loading in the
shell is distributed in a linear fashion across the tank diameter . Increase the thickness of the bottom plate under the shell.
as in simpie bending. In this instance the neutralaxis ofthe tank This will increase the liquid holding down efrort.
remains in a central position.
. Increase the shell thickness. The way in which the calcula-
Thus tions are carried out is that the lower shell thickness arising
. 1.273M
equ'15.19
from the basic hydrostatic conditions is checked to see if it is
'D' stable. lf it needs to be increased in thickness to meet the
two criteria given above, then all ofthe upper shell courses
where: should be increased in thickness by the same proportion,
unless a more sophisticated analysis is carried out to deter-
b = maximum longitudinal compressive force at
mine the actual compressive stress at the bottom of each
the bottom of the tank shell in N/m or lb/ft of
shell course in turn.
shell circumference
w.)]
. Change the proportions ofthe tank to increase the diameter
wnen ([o'?(w, + ls greater than 0.785 but less than or
and reduce the liquid filling height.
equal to 1.5:
. Anchor the tank in accordance with Section 15.2.5.2.
b+ wL
b can be calculated from the term the value ofwhich is 15.2.5.2 Anchored tanks
wt+wL
found from Figure E-5 (Figure 15.12) using the calculated Anchoring the tank shell causes the tank's neutral axis to re-
. .. ,lf , ._l main at the central oosition and as for the first of the unan-
varue or rv/ ^t ( wr + wL r
LU l. chored tank cases described above, the maximum longitudinal
The bottom of the tank is lifted for a part of the circumference compressive force is given by:
and a liquid holding down effort is created. The neutral axis of
the tank is moved progressively away from the tank centreline D=wr +1.273M
D2
and the shell compression is concentrated in a decreasing por-
tion of the shell circumference. The explanation for this mecha- When tanks are anchored, it is clear that no liquid holding down
nism and the description ofthe derivation of the equations used can be utilised to reduce the uplifting loads as it requires the
is best left to the paper by Wozniak and Mitchell (Reference shell to lift to mobilise the term wL.
15.6).
The anchorage system shall be designed to provide the follow-
When the value oflvy'fo'(w, + w.)] is greater than 1 .5 but less ing minimum uplift resistance in N/m or lb/ft of shell circumfer-
than or equal to 1.57 then b can be calculated from the follow- ence:
ing: 1.273M
't.490
* w, equ15.21
D+WL _ equ 15.20
D'
r -ro 5

l. 0.637M plus any uplift, again in either N/m or lb/ft of shell circumfer-
ence, due to internal pressure. Uplifr due to wind loadings on
t DP(', . vv,)]
the tank shell and roof do not need to be considered in combi-
nation with seismic loadings.
When MlD'7(wr w.)l is greater than 1.57 or *n"n .,!, is
Anchorage is normally by means of bolts or straps. The points
greater than F" (the allowable longitudinal compressive shell of attachment of the anchors to the tank shell must be made
with due consideration to the local stress concentrations
caused. This part of the tank shell is already highly stressed in
hoop tension and local vertical bending. An acceptable design
procedure is given in Reference15.13.
The design of the anchorage should consider the following:
. The strength of the attachments to the tank shell shall be
greaterthan the specified minimum yield ofthe anchors so
t that the anchors will yield before the athchments fail.
{ . The spacing of the anchors around the tank shell shall not
exceed 3.0 m exceptthatfortanks of less than 15 m in diam-
eter the spacing shall not exceed 1.8 m.
. Anchor bolts shall have a minimum diameter of 25 mm, ex-
cluding any corrosion allowance.
. The maximum allowable stresses shall be:
0.8 1.0 1.2 1,1 1.6
For the anchors an allowable tensile stress equal to 0.8
M lID"(wt+ |9L)l
times the minimum specified yield stress (this is 0.60
Not6: This ligure may b used 10 compL.te b when M / {d( pr + kJl
is gGal6r than 0.785 bd bs rhan or 6qB1 lo 1 .5 (se E.5.1 ). times 1.33)

Figure 15.12 Compressive fofce b For other parts, 1.33 times the "normal" allowable
From API 650, Appendix E, figure E-5 stresses taken from section 3.10.3 of the Code.

272 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 15 The seismic design of ambient temperature storcge tanks

The maximum allowabledesign stress in the shellatthe
anchor atiachment shall not exceed 170 N/lpa (25.000
lbiinr) with no increase atlowed for seismic loading.
. The embedment of the anchor into the foundation shall be
of sufficient strength to develop the specified yield strength
of the anchor.
. The purchaser shall specify any corrosion allowance to be
applied to the anchors. The uncorroded anchors shall be
used to determine the design loads forthe attachments and
the embedments.
. When specified by the purchaser, the anchors shall be de-
signed to allow for thermal expansion of the shell arising
from temperatures greater than 90 'C (200 'F).
15.2.6 Allowable longitudinal compressive stress
The maximum longitudinal compressivestress in the tankshell
($ in US customary units or . in St units) shall not exceed
12t ^b ^.
1000t
the maximum allowable compressive stress Fu which is calcu-
lated from the equations given below These equations take
account of the reduction in the compressive buckling stress
caused by deviations from the perfect cylindrical shape due to
the fabrication and erection processes and the stabiljsing ef-
fects of internal pressure due to the product liquid.
It must be borne in mind that the worst case seismic
desions are
all based on a tank filled to the maximum operatingfill h;ight. A
good presentation of the influences of these vaiables is qiven
in Reference 15.14.
through the numerous papers which are listed in References
15.16 and 15.16.
The classical buckling strength ofa perfect cylinder is given by:
s =0.6r
R
equ 15.26
The value of given by equation 15.22 above (which represents
most storage tanks of normal proportions) is one third of that
given by equation 15.26.
15.2.7 Slosh height and freeboard considerations
API 650 Appendix E does not provide any specific rules for liq-
uid sloshing. lt does give a general warning that "the purchaser
shallspecify anyfreeboard desired to minimise or prevent over-
flow and damage to the roofand upper shellthat may be caused
by sloshing of the liquid contents". lt seems curious to place this
responsibility on the tank purchaser. The tank designer is, or
should be in a much better place to make decisions relating to
the freeboard to be allowed for seismic sloshing in any
particular circumstances.
Forfixed rooftanks it is usualto arrange a freeboard sufficient
to prevent the liquid sloshing wave plus any associated run up
of product liquid up the tank shell from impacting upon the tank
roof itself. Refererce 75.75does indicate means of calculating
pressures on the underside of the tank roof olates in cases
where insufficient freeboard has been allowed. This document
is, to the author's mind, a quite excellent publication and essen-
tial reading for those interested in the seismic design of storage
NKS.

In US customary units: For floating roof tanks it is usual to allow sufflcient freeboard to
ensure that the roof seals remain within the heioht of the tank
WhenGHD,,
--" is greater than or equal to '106. shell. The presence of the floating roof is not;onsidered to
modify or inhibit the sloshing behaviour of the product liqujd.
1061 For fixed roof tanks with intefnal floating roofs, it is usual to al-
,D equ 15.22 low sufficient freeboard to ensure that the internal roof and the
tank roof, or its supporting structure, do not come into direct
laHn2
conlact.
When + is less than 106:
To enable these decisions to be made, it is clear that the heioht
1n6r
F"=r_+600JGH equ 15.23
of the sloshing wave must be calculated for any particular t;k
geometry and site location. ln the absence of any means to
make this calculation in API 650, it is not uncommon practice to
In Sl units; borrow the following formula for the height of the first sloshing
mode from Appendix L of API 620:
wnenGHD,.
- rs greater than or equal to 44:
I
\Drl"ll
t2

_.D83t -
d = 1.124ztc.rzrann fa.rzl
L
equ15.27
equ 15.24
where:
cHn2
When :+ is tess than 44: d = height ofthe sloshing wave in feet. lt is recom-
mended that an allowance for liquid run uD the
R?T tank shell of 1 foot is added to this height
Fa =ffi+7.5JcH equ 15.25
15.2,8 Other considerations arising from seismic
However in all cases Fa shall not exceed 0.5 Fb/
loadings
where:
Fv = minimum specified yield strength ofthe bottom There are a number of other areas of tank desiqn for seismic
shell course in the appropriate units (Mpa, loadings which occasionally arise for ambient tanks. These are
N/mm2 or lb/in2) briefly described below Some ofthese are revisited in Chapter
26 (Seismic design of low temperature storage tanks) where
t = thickness ofthe bottom shell thickness exclud- seismic design is considered in more detail.
ing any corrosion allowance.
. The columns ofcolumn supported roof type tanks must be
The buckling of vertical cylindrical shells has been the subject designed to resist the lateralforces imposed on them by the
of a great deal of theoretical and test work over the vears. contained product liquid during the design seismic event.
Those interested in studying this subject in more detail could do The work of Wozniak and Mitchell (Reference 15 6) gives a
worse than to look atthe work of Wozniak and Rotter. orto oick suitable and well-tried procedure for this.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 273

15 The seismic design of ambient temperaturc storcge tanks
. lt is sometimes necessary to calculate the local pressures
imposed on parts of the tank shell and bottom during the
seismic design event. This could be for detailed design of
internal fittings or for an assessment of the applied hoop
stresses on the complete tank shell. Chapter 26 provides
means of performing these calculations.
. In extreme seismic events, there may be a tendencyfor the
tank to slide off its foundation. This is an interesting subject,
about which there are differing views held by those knowl-
edgeable within the industry This is again considered in de-
tail in Chapter 26.
15.3 The BS 2654 approach
Appendix G of BS 2654 admits in its introductory note to being
based on Appendix E ofAPl 650. "Based on" is something ofan
understatement. What is presented is Appendix E ofAPl 650 in
metric units!
There are a number of minor changes:
. In line with the philosophy of BS 2654 in designing all tanks
for the maximum anticipated product specific gravity, all
seismic calculations are based on an assumed product
gravity of 1.00.
o 6 and Appendix E ERDA, TID 7024 August 1963.
In place of the UBC zone coefficients which at one time
were only available for mainland USAand a few other loca-
tions, the laterallorce coefficients are based on the ratio of
the horizontal acceleration to gravity. This seems quite dan-
gerous as the Code gives little guidance as to exactly what
this acceleration should be. Should it for example be the
peak ground acceleration (PGA) which is the acceleration
at time zero, or the acceleration appropriate to the natural
frequency of the impulsive portion of the tank contents?
These are ouite different numbers and there is often confu-
sion as to what should be used. API 650 and the UBC used
together represent a coherent design system and there is
less room for confusion and error. The more recentversions
of the UBC provide guidance for zone coefiicients for many
locations worldwide and it may be considered wise to make
reference to this data.
. The Code introduces the concept of the Operating Basis
Earthquake (OBE) and the Safe Shutdown Earthquake
(SSE). For the OBE it suggests design seismic loads with a
'10% probability of being exceeded in the structure's life-
time. ln this event the allowable stresses should not be ex-
ceeded. Forthe SSE it suggests a seismic design load with
a 1% probability of being exceeded in the structure's life-
time. In this event the ultimate strength should not be ex-
ceeded. This all seems a little loose. The lifetime of the
structure is controversial and the means of determining and
applying the allowable stresses is not made very clear
15.4 The prEN 14015 approach
The new Euronorm for ambient tanks (Reference 15.17\ is cut
rently in draft form. lt is anticipated that the industry comments
will be incorporated into this document during 2004.
Annex G of this document is entitled Recomrrendations for
seismic provisions for storage tanks.
It is almost identical to the Aooendix G of BS 2654.
As for BS 2654 the requirement is for a specific gravity of the
tank contents to be taken as 1.00 for the seismic calculations.
This may well be an oversight as one of the differences be-
tween this document and BS 2654 is that the requirement for a
minimum product liquid specific gravity of 1 .00 to be used in all
cases for the tank shell design has been removed. lt would
seem inconsistent to design the tank shell course thicknesses
274 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
for the actual specific gravity of the stored liquid which could
well be 0.8 or lower, whilst performing the seismic calculations
for the same tank using the higher value of 1.00.
15.5 References
15.1 Oil Storage Tanks, Alaska EaLthquake of 1964, The
Prince William Sound Alaska Eafthquake of 1964, vol
ume ll-A, US department of Commerce, Coast and
Geodetic Survey, 1 967, J.E.Rinnie.
15.2 Behaviour of Liquid Storage Tanks, The Great Alaska
Eafthquake of 1964, R.D.Hanson, Engineering, Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, Washington, 1973.
15.3 Damage of Storage Tanks, Engineering Features ofthe
San Fernando Eafthquake, February gth, 1971,
PC.Jennings, Earthquake Engineering Research Lab-
oratory Report 71-02 Cal. Tech. June 1971.
15.4 The Lima Eafthquake of October 3rd, 1975. Damage
distributlon, R.Huisid, A.F.Espinosa and J.de las Casas,
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol-
ume 67, no. 5, pp 1441-1472, October 1977.
15.5 Nuclear Reactors and Eafthquakes, by Lockheed Air-
craft Corporation and Holmes and Narver lnc.,Chapter
1 5.6 Basisof Deslgn Provisions for Welded Steel Oil Storage
Ianks, by R.S.Wozniakand W.W..Mitchell, presented at
the Session on Advances in Storage Tank Design, API
Refining,43rd midyear meeting, Toronto, May 1978.
15.7 API STANDARD 650: Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Stor-
age, The American Petroleum Institute, Tenth Edition,
November 1998 plus Addendum 1, March 2000.
15.8 API STANDARD 620: Design and Construction of
Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage lanks, The
American Petroleum Institute. Tenth Edition, Februarv
2002.
15.9 BS 2654:1989: British Standard for the Manufacture of
verlical steel welded non-refrigerated storage tanks
with butt-welded shells for the petroleum industry, BSI
LOnOOn.
15.10 Above Ground Storage larks, Philip E.lvlyers,
N,4ccraw-Hill, ISBN 0 07 044272 X.
15.11 2000 Uniforn Building Code, the International Confer-
ence of Building Officials, Whittier, California, ISBN
1 884590 94 2.
15.12 Earthquake Pressures on Fluid Containers, by
G.W.Housner, A Report on Research Conducted under
Contract with the Office of Naval Research, California
Institute of Technology, Pasedena, Earthquake Re-
search Laboratory August 1954.
15.13 AlSl E-1, Volume ll, Patl Vll, Anchor bolt chairs.
15.14 Royal Aeronautical Society Structural Data Sheet, No
04.01.01, (latet published by the Engineering Services
Data Unit).
15.15 Seismic desbn of storage tanks, Recommendations of
a Study Group of the New Zealand National Society for
Earthquake Engineering, December 1 986.
15.'16 Guide linesforthe seismic design ofoitand gas pipeline
sysferng Committee on gas, liquid fuel lifelines, ASCE
November 1984, ISBN O 87 262424 5.
15.17 prEN 14015 - 1:2000, specification for the design and
manufacture of site built veftical, cylindrical, flat-bot-
tomed, above ground, welded metallictanksforthe stor-
age of liquids at ambienttemperatures and above - Parl
1 : Steel tanks.
16 Operation of ambient temperature
tanks
This Chapter provides some outline guidance on the usage, operation and maintenance of
above ground vertical cylindrical storage ianks operating at ambient temperature.
This guidance has been taken from number ot sources, the references oJ which are included to
enable the reader to obtain more detailed information on the various toDics discussed.

16.1 Tank type

16.1.1 Fixed roof tanks
16.1.1.1 Fixed roof tanks with internalfloating mvers
16.1.2 Floating roof tanks
16.2 Product identification
16.3 Operation of tanks
16.3.1 Filling rates
16.3.2 Prevention of overfilling
'16.3.2.1 Procedures
'16.3.2.2 Communication
16.3.2.3 Tank gauging and sampling
16.3.2.4 Internal floating covers
16.3.2.5 Mixing of products
16-3.2.6 Sloos tanks
I 6.3.2.7 Rundown temoeratures
16.4 The operation of fixed roof tanks
16.4.1 Fixed roof ianks with intemal floatino covers
'16.4.2 Tank conosion
'16.4.3 Hazardous atmosDheres

16.5 The operation of floating roof tanks

'16.5.1 Roof type
16.5.2 Pontoons
16.5.3 Tilting roof
16.5.4 Mtxers
'16.5.5 Access to floating roof
'16.5.6 Venting
16.5.7 Managing leg supports
'l 6.5.8 Static electricity control
16.5.9 Foam dams
,16.5.10 Floating roof seals
16.5.10.1 Vapour saving
'16.5.10.2 VaDour loss
'16.5.1 1 Effects of roof type on drainage
'16.5.12 Overflow drains
16.5.13 Collection sump details
16.5.14 Roof drain plug
16.6 Static electriclty
16.6.1 Precautions to minimise or avoid static charges
'16.6.2 Earthing and bonding

16.7 Heated storage

16.8 Tank and bund drainage
16.8.1 Tank drainage
16.8.2 Bund drainage
16.9 Tank maintenance
'l 6.9. 1 Permit-to-work systems

STORAOE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 275

16 Operation of ambient temperature tanks

16.9.2 Notice of issue of a permit

16.9.3 Working in tanks
16.9.4 Work on equipment in operation
16.10 Personnel and equipment requirements
16.1 1 Maintenance
16.'11.1 lsolation
16.'l '1.2 Entry to tanks
16.'1 '1.3 Gas-freeing
'l6.12 Tank cleaning
16.12.1 Tanks which contain, or have contained leaded products
16.13 Tank inspection
16.14 Operational malfunctions
16.15 Further guidance
16.16 References

276 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


16.1 Tank type
The type and nature ofthe product to be stored are the most im-
portant criteria in selecting the type oftank to use i.e. fixed roof,
floating roof or fixed roof with an internal floating cover
For hydrocarbon liquids, two lnstitute of petroleum oublica-
tions, Refererces 16.1 and 16.2 and NFPA 30, Reference
76.3, use systems of classification based on the closed flash
point of the individual products to determine appropriate re-
quirements. These classificatjon systems are different and it is
important to define which applies when considering, for exam-
ple, a Class l, ll or lll product.
16.1.1 Fixed roof tanks
Fixed roof tanks are generally used in refineries and storage
terminals where the product stored does not readilV vaporise at
the ambient or stored temperature conditions. Thus ihey are
used for Class lll and unclassified products, commonlv for
Class ll (1) and rarely for Class I and ll (2). The size of theiank
and the flash point of the product will atso influence the choice
of tank. These tanks are operated with a vapour space above
the liquid.
Depending on the products to be stored, flxed rooftanks can be
designed for storage at atmospheric pressure in which case
they are equipped with open vents. Alternatively, for Class I and
ll products, they can be designed for pressures up to a maxi-
mum of56 mbarto tank Code BS 2654. Higher pressure tanks
are permitted underdesign rules to tank Codes Apl 650 Appen-
dix API 620 and European Code prEN 14015-1.
F,
These pressurised tanks are vented bythe use ofroof-mounted
pressure and vacuum valves. (See Chapter 8.)
Weak (orfrangible), shell-to-roof joints can, under certain con-
ditions be incorporated to give structural protection to the tank
in the event of an unexpected excessive build up of internal
pressure. (See Chapter 3, Section 3.8).
Fixed roof tanks which are built stricfly to the requirements of
BS 2654 and API 650 are considered to be capable of with-
standing an internal vacuum of 6 mbar and 2y2 mbat rcspec-
tively, without the need to prove this by design. prEN .14015 will
allow a vacuum rating of up to 20 mbar for the category 'very
high pressure tanks" (up to 500 mbar pressure) but there will be
a need to ensure by design that the shell, roof and floor are ca-
pable of withstanding the imposed loads due to this hjgher
vacuum.
16.1.1.1 Fixed roof tanks with internal floating covers
Such tanks are used, for example, where:
. Snow loading on a floating roof may be a problem.
. Contamination by rainwaterof a product stored in a floating
roof tank is unacceDtable.
. There is an environmental or vapour loss problem with fixed
roof tanks.
. Contact of the stored product with air should be avoided.
Venting of these tanks is provided by means of large openings
around the periphery of the roof and a centre open vent. The
peripheral openings are fitted with weather cowls and bird
screens with a mesh not lessthan 6mm square. The large ven!
ing area so provided assists in reducing the vapour concentra_
tion in the space between the fixed roofand the internalfloatinq
cover to below the lower flammabitity limit.
16.1,2 Floating roof tanks
Floating roof tanks are generally used for Class I and Class ll
products to minimise product loss due to evaporation and for
16 Operation of ambient temperature tanks
safety and environmental reasons. There is a preference for
floating roof over fixed roof tanks as the size of the tank in-
creases, as the vapour pressure of the stored product in-
creases and when the flash point is below the storage
temperature.
The roofconsists of an arrangement of buoyancy pontoons and
floats on the stored product. lt is sealed against the shell ofthe
tank by a specially designed seal arrangement, (see Chapter 6,
Section 6.5.3). The roof is provided with support legs which can
be adjusted to hold it in either of two positions. The upper posj-
tion should be high enough to allow access for tank cleaning
and maintenance personnel and equipment. The loweroperat-
ing position should keep the roofjust above the inlet and outlet
nozzles, the drain lines, heatingcoils, side entry mixers and any
other accessories located near the tank bottom.
The tank shell must be provided with an adequate earthing sys-
tem and the roof and all fittings, such as the rolling access lad-
der must be electrically bonded to the shell as a protection
against lightning and static electricity. Also a internal fittings
such as gauge floats, cables and mixers must be earthed to
prevent the accumulation of static electricitv as djscussed in
Section '16.6 and Chapter 6, Section 6.5.2.1 .
16.2 Product identification
lvlany of the products stored in tanks are highly inflammable,
others may be corrosive or hazardous to health. These prod-
ucts could cause pollution of the ground, ground water, sea,
rivers or the atmosphere if they are allowed to escape. There
could be a threat to the health of the employees working in the
area of the tanks and to the general public and also a serious
risk of explosion or fire.
For these reasons, tanks should be clearly marked by a means
which meets the requiremenis of NFpA 704, Reference 16.4, or
an equally equivalent system. The marking should not be ap_
plied directly to the tank but should be located where it can be
readily seen, such as on the shoulderofan access-way or walk-
way to the tank or tanks or on the piping outside the bunded
area. lf more than one tank is involved, the markings should be
Iocated so that the product of each individual tank can be easilv
identified.
16.3 Operation of tanks
16.3.1 Filling rates
Tankfilling ratesshould be limited to minimise the aeneration of
static electricity in the product. Free water dropleis or another
second phasewillhavean effect by electrostatic charging ofthe
product. These materials may be introduced either with the in_
going product, or by disturbing tank bottoms during filling. Thus,
it is recommended that anyfree water be regularly drained from
the tanks. When product is pumped into a tank which may have
a flammable atmosphere, a residence time of at least 30 min_
utes should be allowed after the pumping has stopped before
manually dipping or sampling.
Splash filling of hydrocarbons may result in the production of a
flammable atmosphere (vapour or mist) inside the tank. To
minimise the risk ofelectrical discharge, the filling velocity in the
pipeline should be restricted to 1 m/sec. (even with a dry prod_
uct) until the outlet of the fill line in the tank is covered to a mini_
mum depth of 0.5 m for fixed roof tanks or until any floating roof
or internal cover is floating when the rate mav be increased.
The maximum rate, which is governed by the fiiction losses in
the pipework, is in the region of 7 m/sec.
Electrostatic charges can be generated when a svnthetic taoe
or cord (which may be used during dipping or sampling) is al-
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 277

16 Operction of ambient tempeature tanks
lowed to run rapidlythrough an operator's gloved hand. In view
ofthis, only naturalfibre tapes and cords should be used. Tanks
should only be manually dipped while receiving product if the
product is of high conductivity i.e.above 50 picosiemens/metre
(ps/m). Forfurther information regarding static electricity, refer
to Section 16.6.
16.3.2 Prevention of overlilling
16.3.2.1 Procedures
Clear formal written procedures should be established for the
receipt of product into a tank installation. These will vary in ac-
cordance with the method of receipt employed i.e. cross coun-
try pipeline, marine, rail or road. These will also depend upon
the quantities and grades of productto be delivered, the rates of
delivery the numbers and capacities of the tanks to which deliv-
eries are to be made, and the method of controlling the opera-
tion ofthe inlet valves to the tanks. The procedures for change-
over oftank and product grade, in addition to avoiding the risk of
overfilling, should ensure segregation of grades and avoid risk
of contamination.
1 6.3.2.2 Communication
There should be an efficient system of communication estab-
lished between all personnel concerned in the operations, in or-
der that the procedures referred to above are properly carried
out, and so that immediate action can be taken in the event of
an emergency.
16.3.2.3 Tank gauging and sampling
A reference depth should be clearly marked near dip hatches
which are used for gauging.
Dip hatchesfor manualgauging oftanks storing Class lor llpe-
troleum products should be opened as infrequently as possible,
consistentwith obtaining tank gaugings for control of inventory
and tank filling.
Dip hatches should be properly closed when not in use lfatank
is fitted with more than one dip hatch, only one should be
opened at a time.
lManual gauging should not be carried out when atmospheric
conditions are liable to cause static or other hazard to person-
nel engaged in operations, e.g. an electric storm, hail, flying
sand.
No manual gauging or sampling should take place while tank
filling operations are proceeding, or for 30 minutes afier
stopprng.
lf any object is accidentally dropped into a tank it should be re-
ported immediately.
Floating roof tanks should be gauged from a gauging well, the
hatch of which is at the top ofthe access stairway, thus avoiding
the necessity of descending on to the roof.
Automatic gauging equipment should be checked against man-
ual dips at periodic intervals.
16.3.2.4 Internal floating covers
Increasing emphasis is being placed on reducing evaporation
losses byinstalling internal floating covers forlight hydrocarbon
products stored in fixed roof tanks. Polyurethane (which is of
low conductivity) is often included as the principal material of
construction for some types of covers. lt is essential in these
cases that all metal attachments fitted to the cover are electri-
cally-bonded to the tank shell by a flexible bond to avoid the
possibility of a discharge from the cover to the earthed tank
shell. To prevent the build up of a charge on the polyurethane
cove( the resistance to earth at any point on the cover should
not exceed 103 ohms.
278 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
;is
16.3.2.5 Mixing of products
Sudden mixing of products ofdifferent vapour pressures at dif-
ferent temperatures can cause the rapid development of
vapour, or foaming in the tank. This can occur when:
. Stratified layers ofthese products are disturbed bythe use
of a heating coil of the breakdown of an emulsion.
e When hot product is added to a tank containing a high
vapour pressure prooucl.
. When a high vapour pressure product enters a hot tank.
16.3.2.6 sloos tanks
Heating coils in operation in slops tanks should always be com-
pletely covered by the product. (Refer to Section 16.7.) Addi-
tionally, water should be regularly drained from slops tanks.
Where product is discharged into a slops tank from a process
vessel under gas pressure, precautions should be taken to en-
surethat, in an emergency, gas cannotbe released tothe atmo-
sphere in large quantities via the tank.
16.3.2.7 Rundown temperatures
Rundown temperatures should be controlled to ensure that
products are delivered to tanks in a condition which will not
cause a hazard due to the development of vapour or a
froth-over. In the case offloating rooftanks and flxed rooftanks
with internal floating covers, a check should be made to con-
firm that the roof seal can withstand the rundown temperature.
16.4 The operation of fixed roof tanks
There are not many moving parts on a fixed rooftank butthe fof
lowing items should be periodically checked for serviceability :
. Pressure and vacuum valves
The weight pallets should be examined for corrosion and
that they move freely within the valve. For spring loaded
valves the action of the spring should be checked.
Check that the mesh screen is clean and not blocked with
debris.
. Free vents
Check that the mesh screen is clean and not blocked with
debris.
. Flame arrestors
Check that the tube bank is clear and ensure that there are
no blocked passages.
. DiP hatches
Check that the hinge and the screwdown closure (when flt-
ted) operate freely.
Check that the seal (when fitted) is not damaged.
. Emergency vents
Check that the cover opens easily and that the seal and the
seating is not damaged.
. Float type level indicators
Check via the roof inspection cover thatthe float guide wires
are intact and that there are no kinks in the gauge operating
tape.
Check that the gauge tape is operating correctly by actuat-
ing the float "lift and drop" mechanism on the gauge head
Check that the gauge reading window is not misted over
Check for corrosion or damage to the tape pipework'
sheaves and housings.
. Foam boxes
Check for corrosion and ensure that the bursting disc is in-

tact.
16.4.1 Fixed root tanks with internal floating covers
Additionally for these tanks, the internal cover (of the contact
type) when in the top position, should be visually inspected for
leaks across its surface from a suitable manhole or inspection
hatch in the fixed roof.
Also it should be ensured that the anti-static cables and/or
shunts on the seal are intact.
In day-to-day operations the lowering ofthe floating cover on to
its supports should be avoided. lfthis does become necessary
then the filling rate should be reduced until the cover has
refloated.
16.4.2 Tank corrosion
The tank itself should be checked for corrosion especially at the
joint between the shell and floor and the floor outstand beyond
the shell. Also the roof-to-shelljoint is another vulnerable area.
Bracketed connections to the shell and roof and access stair-
case connections also attract corrosion.
Thermally insulated tanks should receive special attention and
sections ofthe cladding and insulation should be removed peri-
odically to allow inspection of the underlying steel especially at
discontinuities in the cladding i.e joints between cladding
sheets, roof-to-shell joints, closures at wind girders, closures
around nozzles and manholes and atthe base ofthe tank. lnsu-
lation should ideally be stopped short of the floor plating by at
least 200 mm to prevent moisture being drawn up into the
insulation material by wick action.
1 6.4.3 Hazardous atmospheres
Access to the roofofa tank should be restdcted ifa toxic risk ex-
ists (e.9. HrS, benzene), in which strict safety prccautions ap-
propriate to the hazard, including the use of breathing appara-
tus, should be adopted and warning notices posted at the
access points to the tank.
16.5 The operation of floating roof tanks
Floating roofs should be examined frequenfly to ensure that
they are functioning effectively. lnadequate drainage of rainwa-
ter, malfunctioning of roof ladders, sludge accumulation, ice
formation, snow or perforated pontoons, can all result in can!
ing ofthe roof. This can lead to jamming orsinking ofthe roof,
with the possible generation of sparks.
Operational and maintenance procedures should cover these
potential hazards. Instructions set out in the following Sections
will assist in the operation of these orocedures.
16.5.1 Roof type
The general form of the floating roof will be either the double
deck design, or the pontoon deck type.
Instructions may vary between the two roof designs and any
points of difference will be highlighted.
16.5.2 Pontoons
Regardless ofthe roof type, the outer annulus will be divided ra-
dially to form a ring of separate compartments. Each of these
pontoon compartments is fitted with an access hatch and cover.
Ensure the covers are in place when access is not required.
Check each pontoon atfirst "float-off' after construction and af-
16 Aperatton at a-a e : ::- :+'2 .':. -: .
ter any outage for repairs. The compartments should be c_-i
Periodic examination of the pontoons for leakage is recc--
menoeo.
16.5.3 Tilting roof
lftilting ofthe floating roof is noted, it may indicate one or more
flooded pontoons. Perform a visual check and if flooding is
found,landing ofthe roofmust be donewith greatcare, and the
leakage drained ofi before landing.
Problems with the rolling ladder could be another cause of the
root tilting.
Another cause of a tilting roof, particularly at low levels near the
landing position, may be the result of accumulations of waxy
deposits on the tank bottom. These sludges may build into sev-
eral peaks and could cause damage to the roof if landed. lf ma-
terials are stored, which could give rise to such deposits, regu-
lar checks, should be made to determine the extent and
disposition of deposits. The roof support leg sleeves are often
used as access points to dip for such deposits.
16.5.4 Mixers
Side entrymixers can cause severe vibrations in a floating roof.
As a general rule, operators should avoid the use of mixers if
the roof is within 4 m of the roof lever.
16.5.5 Access to the floating roof
Open top tanks normally have a means ofaccessto the floating
roof for a variety of purposes. The rolling ladder, with level ad-
justing treads or simple rungs is the most usual means of ac-
cess. These may be affected by high winds and need to be
checked periodically. Alternatively, noaccess may be provided,
except by a short, fixed ladder for use when the roof is in its
highest position. Tanks without rolling ladders present a prob-
lem when the roof is out of service for maintenance. A special
through-deck access way can sometimes solve this problem.
Rolling ladders with self-levelling treads require the tread
mechanisms to be lubricated occasionally. The wheels should
of course be seen to properly engage in the tracks and any
signs of wear on the flanges or track edges may point to offset
loads or alignment problems, Track and ladder length are
matched to maximum and minimum roof height. Any attemptto
alter levels, say by reducing the roof support legs length, may
cause the ladder to jam if it is too near the vertical.
Where no rolling ladder isfitted, there may be a full height verti-
cal ladder extending through a well in the floating roof. ln such
cases a fabric seal is usually the best that can be done to re-
duce vapour losses at this source. Check the condition of the
fabric and renew as required.
16.5.6 Venting
Floating roofs have to be protected against accidental damage
when on their supports. Pumping out could pull a vacuum and
filling from empty may introduce pressure. In both cases, relief
is automatically provided by a bleeder vent, whose simple con-
struction shown in Figure 16.'1.
Wjth the fitting of more effective sealing systems on the roofs, it
is even more important that these vents function properly. The
vent has a gasketto prevent vapour loss when the roofis afloat.
Check the gasket and replace if necessary ensuring suitability
for the product.
The bleeder deck vent is actuated by a leg, which contacts the
tank floorjust in advance of the roof landing. Roof support legs
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 279
16 Operction of ambient tempercture tanks
Roof Iloating
Roof on supports
tank being filled
Figure 16.1 Bleedet vents
usually have a low operating position and a high maintenance
position and it is imperative that the leg and vent actuator
lengths must be checked for a match, for protection to be as-
sured.
The capacity of the vent valves is high, often around 10'000 bbl
per hour; but it maybewiseto check specific capacities against
current pumping rates, especially when any change of use is
planned.
A few roofs may not be fitted with emergency deck valves as
above, but carry P & V vents instead. Here the question of ca-
pacity is even more pertinent and maintenance must be
assureo.
The only other venting requirement likelyto be found on a float-
ing roofconcernsthe rim ventfor mechanicalseals This vent is
to guard against an unusual circumsiance; but one, which can
happen. lf a large quantity of air or gas enters the tank, say dur-
ing pigging, the valve prevents the metalshoeplates from being
pushed against the shell, jamming the roof by pressure. lt has
happened! Only mechanical seals need such a protective de-
vice.Thereshould beonevalveonsmalltanks, perhapstwoon
larger tanks.
16.5.7 Managing leg suPports
There are many different lengths of roof support on any glven
floating roof. This is becausethe floor may have been coned up
or down at the time of designing. The object however is to ob-
tain a level deck (or the desired slope in some cases) at two
possible levels operating (low) and maintenance (high). The
- response and lowwastage since it is delivered to the seat of the
iegsare simplypinned in one orotherposition (roughly760 mm
difference)
lf support legs are set in the maintenance position when the
roof is in service, the consequence may be that the roof lands
more frequently than is desirable and vapour conservation is
sacrificed. optimum operation will be achieved with the legs in
the operating position, except during tank maintenance lt is im-
portant therefore to remember to check that the bleeder deck
vent is in the corresponding pin position.
Remember also that the support legs are not designed to carry
the roof plus a water or product load Pontoons should be
checked before landing to ensure that they are dry
16.5.8 Static electricity control
Rim seals normally have a major role in safely conducting static
electricity to the shell and to earth. The increasing number of
280 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
Roof on supports
tank being emptied
shells with anti-corrosion coatings however means that an al-
ternative method has to be used. This is more difficult than it
seems for open top tanks due to wind action affecting any ca-
bling system such as is commonplace with internal decks lf
shell contiact at the seal is not possible, cabled systems can be
arranged to partly follow the rolling ladder, taking precautions
against snagging on the projections offered by roof legs etc.
Check the condition and contact of rim seal shunts. Bend into
contact if required. The pitching of rim seal shunts is typically 3
m; but sometimes less, bY request.
16.5,9 Foam dams
Since fire hazards tend to be concentrated in the rim area'
fire-fighting measures are similarly concentrated here. To re-
duce the amount offire-fighting foam and consequently speed
the extinction, it ls customary to limit the spread of foam by use
of afoam dam, as discussed in Chapter7' Section 7.10 Thisis
simply a barrier, usually of steel running circumferentially at
around one metre from the tank shell and traditionally 12" high
(300 mm). lt should be noted that there is a case for extending
ihe h"ight of the foam dam, to allow submergence of the tip of
any secondary sealfitted, by 50 to 75 mm. The foam may be de-
livered to the rim zone from overhead, via fixed foam pourers or
foam cannons from an external source
It is also oossible to use an on-deck foam soufce, which will
generate foam on a signal and deliver it to nozzles located be-
tween the primary and secondary seals. This system obviously
has a limited capacity; howeverit has the advantages ofspeedy
proDlem.
Foam dams, which are integralwith the rim seal assembly, are
available and these are generally of a height compatible with a
secondary sealing system.
Whatever the foam dam in use, there will be mouseholes for
drainage at the bottom. These tend to fillwith debris and should
be clejned out as required. lf not keptclear, rainwatercan build
up behind the foam dam, leading to paint breakdown, corrosion
and damage, particularly to the seal mounting zone.
16.5.10 Floating roof seals
16.5.10.1 Vapour saving
Floating roof seals must of course be kept in good order The
demands of looking after the seals are not severe and the in-
vestment of a few hours say twice yearly will pay dividends

Specifically look at:
Mechanical seals have a polymer fabric joining the sheet
metal shoeplate to the floating roof rim. This material has to be
slack to permit roof movement and therefore it tends to collect
water, corrosion products, wax etc in the loop. lf allowed to ac-
cumulate, the weight of debris can pull the shoeplate off the
wall, allowing vapour loss.
. With the passage of time, the rubber may deteriorate. Look
fot cnzing. The joints should be checked for tightness.
Take action as necessary
. Examine the top ofthe metal shoeplates. lfcorrosion is evi-
dent, the lower shoe may be corroded. Insert a piece of
wood behind the plate and look down, next to the shell.
. The mechanical seal will not be tight against the shell at all
points; but if a location is noted where a large gap occurs, it
may indicate a problem with a pantograph hanger. This
would be unusual however.
. Aweathershield is a series ofoverlapped metal plates cov-
ering the primary seal at an angle of about 50 degrees. As
the name implies, it sheds off some ofthe rainwaterand cor-
rosion products, protecting the primary seal. This will im-
prove seal life, regardless of the primary seal type.
. A secondary seal does all that a weathershield does and
more. There are significant savings in vapour and the pri-
mary seal well protected. lndeed, in the EU, tanks in motor
spirit service are legally obliged to be fitted with both pri-
mary and secondary seals.
Liquid-filled seals have a polymer bag containing a fluid, nor-
mally kerosene. These primary seals are usually found in ser-
vice with volatile products, such as gasoline, naphtha etc. The
filling fluid may be contained within a separate tube or be held in
the scuff band itself. These seals should have weathershields
or seconoary seats.
. Checkthe scuffband, which rubs againstthe shell, lookfor
signs of deterioration. crazing etc.
. Check that the bag is containing fluid. lt should be pushing
against the shell. lf the bag is limp, it has lost its fluid the
stored liquid will be visible. In such a case, something has
punctured the bag or it has deteriorated structurally. Loose
bolts can be trapped against the shell; but by far the most
frequent destroyer of liquid-filled seals is the neglected
weathershield, which was put there to protect the seal. The
reason is that the weathershields are allowed to deteriorate
to such an extent that they can be broken off when the roof
is at a high level in windy conditions. The broken piece fre-
quently falls into the rim space where it grinds away at the
rubber band until a puncture occurs and the fluid is lost.
Weathershields must be kept in working order.
. To recover a punctured seal bag, provided the polymer is
not breaking down, obviously first remove the cause of the
puncture then replace the existing punctured tube, or if no
tube was fitted originally fit a tube in the envelope. This al-
lows the repair to be made without removing the roof guide
pole (this can be a problem with some liquidjilled seals,
which are made as continuous rings). Refill with the filling
fluid. lt may be necessary to repair the scuff band if the hof
ang is extensive.
Foam-filled seals may suffer scuffing against the tank shell,
especially where the material may be creased. Creasing is
however inevitable since seals have to be made to allow for
varying rim gaps (usually plus or minus 100 mm).
. Lookforworn, ortorn, envelope material. Dependingon the
envelope material, patching may be possible, with a local
wrap-around to protect the patch.
1 6 Aperaton of amtreq rcraE-a:-j:: .:
. Sagging may indicate the envelope has been penetralec
and liquid has saturated the foam fllling. Complete repiac-
ment may be required.
. Look after any weathershields. They can damage the seal if
allowed to deteriorate.
Danger: With all liquid and foam filled seals think very carefully
before doing any hot work on the tank or floating roof. lt is
very easy to forget even after cleaning and gas freeing that
a large quantity of kerosene or vapour-impregnated foam
may be prcsent in the tank. To avoid the risk of accidenial
fire, these seals should removed before commencing any
hot work.
Warning: Take care when changing the product stored in a
tank, that the seal materials are compatible with the new
product. Be especially wary of high aromatic liquids.
Secondary seals will be mainly of the compression plate type.
Really there is very little to go wrong with then. There have of
course been a number of situations where compression plates
have turned down where there is a large increase in rim gap.
e.g. at an outwards bulge in the tank shell. This problem is now
recognised and can be safeguarded.
. Do not be concerned if the secondarysealtip is not making
contact with the shell over the entire circumference. Major
gaps should not occur; but secondary seals act by interfer-
ing with the wind action and small gaps do not negate the
benefits.
. Look out for any signs of loosening of the rim attachments
and correct aS necessary
. Seal tip wear is unlikely to be found.
. EU legislation requires that secondary seals be fitted to
floating roofs with motor spirit contents; but says nothing
about operating the roof at a maximum level which retains
the secondary seal within the tank shell top. Routinely tak-
ing the secondary seal above the tank top is not recom-
mended. lfthis is the case, it is not performing its function.
. Ensure that electrostatic grounding strips are in good condi-
tion and contacting the shell. If not contacting, bend until
contact is renewed.
Double seals are much the same as the secondary seals just
described. The lower, primary seal is visible ifa piece ofwood is
inserted behind the secondary seal.
16.5.10.2 Vapour loss
API 2517 gives guidance on vapour losses from the roof leg
sleeves and the slotted guidepole etc. Support leg losses are
individually small; however there are many of them and the po-
tential losses look significant afterthe major step offitting a sec-
ondary seal has been taken. Leg covering socks are available
to deal with leg losses and are fitted during routine mainte-
nance.
Slotted guide poles lose unexpectedly high amounts ofvapour
and a number of solutions are available. However, because of
ihe need to allow free movement of the roof around the guide
pole and not to interfere with any internal liquid level floats, the
shrouding of the guide pole presents a number of difficult prob-
lems.
Geodesic dome roofs presentan opportunityto resolve many
ofthe problems associated with open top floating roofs. The all
aluminium roof can be fitted to existing open tanks with a mini-
mum of site disruption. lsolated from the elements, the floaiing
roof will no longer present painting problems, the seal losses
will reduce by up to 90% and water ingress to the productwilt be
eliminated.
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 281
16 Opention of ambient tempercture tanks
16.5.11 Effects of roof type on drainage
The single deck, pontoon roof has a single layer of plating at its
centre and this plating will be below the normal liquid level ofthe
stored product when the roof is afloat. For any type of articu-
lated pipe or hose attached to a sump in a roof of this type the
natural consequence of a leak or rupture in the conduit will be
that product will enter the conduit and flood the deck plating
(particularly if the shell outlet valve is closed). Obviously, this is
undesirable and as a consequence, the upper end of the drain-
age conduit in pontoon roofsumps must be fitted with a suitable
non-return valve. Check this valve occasionally to see that it is
functioning. The sump top screen should be kept clear of de-
bns.
Double deck roofs have the drainage sump located below the
upper deck, but above the product liquid level, and therefore
they do not require having non-return valves fitted in the sump.
When primary roof drains are closed in winter, measures
should be taken to prevent the freezing of rainwater.
16.5.12 Overflow drains
Double deck floating roofs can permit waterto enter the stored
product ifthe roof primary drainage system is not effective or is
not opened to remove rainwater before the water level on the
roof exceeds the small upstand on the roofand spills down into
the product. These overflow drains are incorporated on double
decks which have not been designed to carry the full design
condition waterload.
16.5.13 Collection sump details
Before rainwater is disposed of from the roof, it has to be col
lected at one or more points on the roof. Mainly the locus is the
roofcentre. At this point there should be a sump, extending be-
lowthe deck plating leveland with a screening device and cover
to exclude large solids. Large roofs may have more than one
sump.
Pontoon type roofs bytheir nature are flexible, and are intended
to be so. This has consequential effects on drainage, on paint
condition and indeed on the life ofthe roof. Care must be taken
in the construction ofthese roofs to ensure the centre deck is as
flat and even as possible; however despite balanced welding
techniques etc, inevitably such decks will be distorted to some
degree and ponding will occur. Where distortion is severe,
ponding tends to take place regularlyatthe same lowspots and
paint condition will deteriorate at these locations. Some roofs
are fitted with under-deck stiffening rings in an attempt to con-
trol deck distortion; though this is often not successful. Drain-
age to the central sump of pontoon type roofs is not perfect and
some ponding is to be expected.
Efforts to overcome ponding have been made. Auxiliary piping
has been connected from low spots to the central sump. This
has to be done carefully however, since it could lead to hard
spots where roof flexibility is impaired, rendering the roof un-
able to cope with say tank floor settlement on landing of the
roof. The interconnecting piping could also present problems.
Double deck roofs do not sufferfrom this problem to any degree
since their structure allows one or more oositive slopes to facili-
tate drainage to central collection sumps.
Syphon drains have to be correctly designed and maintained.
Their operation must be controlled thoughtfully, with a proper
understanding oftheir design and limitations. Changes of prod-
uct, from say gasoline storage to a high density liquid, or one
which could be affected adversely by water, e.g. MTBE, could
have consequences which must be considered in advance if
syphon drains are present.
282 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
Faults noted with these drains include decks flooding after a
prolonged spell of dry weather. The pans may dry out and the
essential leg ofwaterseal lost. The same result can occurfor a
different reason; corrosion may perforate the water pan, allow-
ing the product to flood onto the decK.
lf syphon drains are fitted, be aware oftheir limitations and per-
haps consider using stainless steel units. At any rate at least
ensure they are primed with water after any extended dry
speIs.
Syphon drains should be drained of water and plugged when
the product temperature is belowfreezing, see Chapter 6, Sec-
tion 6.5.8.
Rapid product movement could sweep out the waterseal and a
cover is often fitted to prevent this.
16.5.14 Roof drain plug
Pontoon type floating roofs carry a drain plug, nearthe roof cen-
tre. This should be removed when the roofis outofservice. Any
articulated roof drain which may be present will operate at its
minimum capacity when the roof is at low level. Opening the
drain plug ensures that the roof legs will be protected against
damage by excessive water load whilethe roofis standing on its
suooorts.
Rememberto replace the plug before re-filling commences. At-
taching a prominent streamer will trigger this action.
1 6.6 Static electricity
The generation ofstatic electricity is a surface phenomenon as-
sociated with the contact and separation of dissimilar surfaces.
With hydrocarbon products, the degree of charge, generation
and decay is also a function of the type and concentration of
certain trace compounds such as asphaltenes, oxidation prod-
ucts, naphthenic and sulphonic acids.
The unit of conductivity normally used is picosiemens/metre,
(ps/m). The siemens was formally known as the mho.
Hydrocarbon distillates with a low conductivity in the range of
0.1 to 10 ps/m are strong electrostatic accumulators. Residues
and crudeoils have a much higher conductivity in the range 10"
to 105 ps/m and any electrostatic charge generated is rapidly
dissipated. Distilled water has a conductivity of about 103 pS i
m. Unless otherwise stated the hydrocarbon products referred
to in this Section will be of the first group, i.e. those of low con-
ductivity which are capable of accumulating electrostatic
charge.
The relaxation time ofa hydrocarbon product is that taken for its
charge to relax to 1ie of its original value and is inversely pro-
portionalto its conductivity. For the above mentioned hydrocar-
bon distillates the relaxation time would be in the ranqe 180 to
1.8 seconds.
The generation of static electricity in itself does not present a
hazard unless an electricfield is produced in a flammable atmo-
sphere and that field can be discharged resulting in a spark of
sufflcient energy to cause ignition. The amount of energy re-
quired depends upon the composition of the flammable
atmosphere.
For further information on this subject, see Reference 16.5,
which is to be superseded by a new Standard, see Reference
76.6. Another most useful exposition on electrostatics is given
in Reference 16.7.
16.6.1 Precautions to minimise or avoid static
charges
To minimise the build up of static charges when filling a tank

with Class I petroleum, or Class ll or lll petroleum static accu-
mulator products, under conditions which may create a flam-
mable atmosphere in the iank ullage space by vaporisation or
formation of mist, refer to Section 16.3.1.
16.6.2 Earthing and bonding
Electrical continuity must be provided on a tank to ensure that
any electrostiatic charge, or lightning strike can be dissipated to
earth. The following are examples of areas where electrical
bonding is necessary:
. Between the tank fittings and valves, to the tank.
. Between the floating roof and the shell of the bnk.
. Between the rolling ladder, the floating roof and the shell of
the tank.
. Between the floating roof seal and the shell of the bnk.
. Between an internalfloating cover and the hnk.
. Between the flanged joinb of the tank service pipework.
. The tank shell must also be adequately earthed to earthing
rods or an earthing mat in or around the bund area.
Cautionary note: Where a tank has a cathodic protection sys-
tem in place, then the method by which the tank is bonded and
earthed must take account of the type of such a system.
16.7 Heated storage
Tanks storing heavyorviscous products and crudeoil maycon-
tain heating coils or unit heaters through which steam, hotwater
or oilflows. Heating is applied to keep the viscosity ofthe prod-
uct low enough for pumping and sometimes to prevent the for-
mation of wax. Suction heaters may be used if the product
needs to be heated when actually being withdrawn from the
tank.
Electrical tank heating has a limited application for example, to
small bitumen tanks. Coking ofthe bayonet type elements can
be minimised by ensuring adequate thermostatic control but
can still pose problems. The Institute of Petroleum Bitumen
Safety Code (Reference /6.8) should be consulted for further
advice on this subject.
Heating coils should be of all-welded construction. Due allow-
ance must be made for expansion within the tank and for ade-
quate support and location ofthe coils. The coils are usually de-
signed in sections which can be isolated individually from
outside the tank.
Consideration should be given to providing facilities such as a
low levelalarm to ensurethatthe heating coilorelectric heating
elements are always covered by the stored product. This is to
prevent overheating causing possible coking, froth-over or
product deterioraljon, or at the worst, spontaneous ignition oc-
curing in the vapour space.
Storage temperatures should be thermostatically controlled to
ensure lhat the stored product is held at a temperature which
will not cause a hazard from vapour evolution or spontaneous
ignition.
lf there is a possibility of water being present in the tank, the
temperature of the tank contenb should be kept either
(a) below the boiling point of water, so that water bottoms
will not flash to steam with a consequent violent eruDtion
within the tank, or
(b) sufficiently high at alltimes to
ensurewater bottoms can-
not accumulate.
lfa tank has to be operated in a temperature range which fluctu-
ates around the boiling point of water, measures should be
-t.
16 Operction of ambient temFeai-=
=-.t
taken to exclude water from the bnk
Regular inspections should be carried out to ensure that the
vents on heated tanks do not become blocked by polymerisa-
tion, sublimation or condensed ofthe product or by icing, with
the possible consequent overpressurc or collapse of the tank
under vacuum.
16.8 Tank and bund drainage
16.8.1 Tank drainage
Water which is introduced into storage tanks containing hydro-
carbon products which have a s.g. less than that of water, will
accumulate on the tank floor, and if this is not drained off it will
cause corrosion ofthe tank floor plates and to the bottom part of
the shell plating. lt is recommended that a water bottom should
not be mainiained in a storage tank as general policy; the only
exception being in the case where a tank bottom is leaking, or is
suspected of leaking. Water may then be introduced on the ba-
sis that the seepage of water into the ground is preferable,
rather than the stored Droduct.
Watermaybe introduced into atankduring a discharge of prod-
uct from a ship, or pipeline which has been cleared by a water
plug, a practice which is not recommended. This water should
be removed as soon as Dossible after the tank contents have
settled. To ensure thatthe tank drain is closed off as soon as all
the water has been removed, a operator should be on stand-by
at the drain point, unless an automatic waterdraw-off device is
fitted to the drain line. On completion ofthe operation, the water
draw-ofi valve should be closed and locked and the water
draw-off connection blanked or otheMise secured.
Water drawn from tanks should be passed through an intercep-
tor before passing to any external drainage system.
16.8.2 Bund drainage
The probability of a major leak from a well designed and main-
tained storage terminal is low' particulady if the tanks are
equipped with an overspill protection system. However, the
consequences of a spillage of flammable liquid are potentially
catastrophic. Therefore measures to contiain spillages from
storage tanks are essential.
Bunding is the method used to contain a liquid which has spilled
or leaked from a tank, lt is recommended that bunding is pro-
vided for all flammable liquids with a flashpoint of 55'C or be-
low and for products which are stored at temperatures above
their flashpoints. Bunding for stored products with a flashpoint
of 32'C and below is required by HSE regulations, (see Refer-
ence 16.9).
The purpose of bunding is to:
. Prevent the flammable liquid or vapour from reaching igni-
tion sources.
. Prevent the liquid entering the drainage or water systems
where it may spread to uncontrolled ignition sources.
. Allow the controlled recovery or treatment of the spilled
prooucl.
. Minimise the surface area of the product and so reduce the
size of any fire that may occur,
. Preventthe spread of burning products which could present
a hazard to other plant or personnel both on and off the tank
site.
. Prevent contamination of land and water courses.
Rainwater, and water drained from the tanks which accumu-
lates in the tank bund area may be drained from the bund by
STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 283
16 Operction of ambient temperature tanks
normal gravity drainage. In this case the area within the bund
should be isolated from any outside drainage system by an ex-
ternally-sited valve, kept closed unless the bund area is being
drained of water under controlled conditions.
Alternatively, the bund may be drained by means of a manu-
ally-controlled pump, or by a syphon drain, which passes over
the top ofthe bund wall, and is primed by means ofa small man-
ually-controlled pump.
Water from tank bunds should pass through a oil interceptor
system before passing to any outside drainage system or wa-
tercourse. Provision may be made for a valved by-pass round
the interceptor, which would allow controlled flow ofuncontami-
nated water in exceptional storm conditions orforthe release of
fire-fighting water.
16.9 Tank maintenance
Health and safety law requires that plant and equipment is
maintained in a safe condition. Storage tanks and all associ-
ated equipment, including walls and fences, should be properly
maintained. Only personnel who are suitably qualified and
authorised, and who fully understand the hazards, should carry
out inspection and maintenance.
It is good practice to list the component parts of the installation
on a preventive maintenance schedule, containing details of
the scope and frequency of planned inspection and mainte-
nance work. Attention should also be paid to periodic inspection
of electrical equipment and operation of isolation valves. There
should be regular inspection and cleaning of interceptors,
bunds, vents, slop tanks, loading and unloading facilities, and
any buildings where flammable vapour may be present.
Fire-fighting equipment should be regularly maintained and,
where appropriate, tested.
A competent person should carry out examination of tanks,
pipe work and fittings. This could be a specialist inspection en-
gineer employed by an insurance company or an employee
with the appropriate qualifications and experience. A written
scheme of examination should be agreed between the user and
the competent person, to include the scope and frequency of
thorough examination. Intervals between internal examinations
should bedetermined usinga risk assessment approach based
on tank service, maintenance history and known corrosion
rates. Intermediate external examinations should also be car-
ried out on above ground tanks. Records should be kept of all
examinations, tests, modifications and major maintenance.
Schemes ofexamination should be in writing and should be re-
viewed regularly. Hoses normally need to be examined and
pressure-tested at least annually, and visually inspected on
every day they are used.
1 6.9.1 Permit-to-work systems
Many accidents have occurred while storage installations were
being maintained, modified or demolished. The main cause is
the introduction ofa source of ignition, such as a cutting torch or
an unprotected light, to pieces of equipment where flammable
vapours remarn.
It is essential that any work carried out on equipment, which
may contain a flammable liquid, or vapour is covered by a per-
mit-work or similar system of authorisation. Permit procedures
are described fully in Reference 16.10.
A typical permit will specify:
. the area to which the permit applies.
. the work to be done and the method to be used.
. the time limjt on the permit.
. the precautions to ensure that allflammable materials have
284 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
been removed and cannot be accidentally reintroduced.
Care should be taken to ensure that contractors and subcon-
tractors are also covered bythe permit or authorisation system.
16.9.2 Notice of issue of a permit
When repairs or alterations necessitate the dismanfling on site
of important items of equipment, such as valves, pumps or
pipelines, or entry into tanks or vessels, specific notice should
be conveyed to all concerned and due acknowledgement
recetved.
16.9.3 Working in tanks
Hot work or other hazardous work should not commence inside
a tank or vessel which has stored petroleum until it has been
emptied, isolated, cleaned and gas-freed. Also, it should not
commence until it is confirmed that there is no oxygen defi-
ciency and the local areas have been cleaned so that there will
be no emission of product vapour on application of heat.
lf repair work involving hot work from the inside of the tank is
necessary on welded seams or plates ofabove ground vertical
tanks, holes should be carefully drilled, under cold work condi-
tions and gas tests should be carried out. This will ensure that
product or gas is not trapped between the tank plates and tank
surround or foundation, before the hot work is allowed to
proceed.
16.9.4 Work on equipment in operation
Repairs or alterations to plant and equipment in operation
should not be permitted except for non-hazardous cold work
carried out under carefully controlled conditions, e.g. repairs or
alterations to floating suctions, pressure and vacuum vents,
float gauges, etc. Repairs or alterations should not be under-
taken when tanks or vessels are being filled or emptied.
16.10 Personnel and equipment require-
ments
Persons who are to carry outwork of maintenance or construc-
tion in installations or depots, which are in operation, or which
are storing petroleum products, should be fully acquainted with
all relevant safety regulations.
Work of inspection, maintenance or extensions should
be-planned and progressed by experienced and responsible
staff, who should ensure that all persons engaged in the work
observe all relevant precautions.
When maintenance or extensions are being undertaken, con-
tractors'or casual labour is frequently employed. These per-
sons may not befamiliarwith the normal precautions adopted in
premises storing petroleum, and the necessary precautions to
be taken should be confirmed before commencement of the
work. When such labour is employed there should be strict su-
pervision to ensure that all relevant precautions are observed.
When mobile equipment, which is to be used for carrying out
work of maintenance or extensions, is temporarily stationed in a
hazardous area, it should be ofsuch construction that it is not li-
able to be a source of ignition and to cause a fire.
Contractors' equipment should not be allowed to be brought
into use without written authority of the installation or depot
manager or his authorized representative.

16.11 Maintenance
16.11.1 lsolation
It ls essential, before any work is undertaken in a tank, that it is
isolated. All lines and connections to the tank should be discon-
nected or blinded off and a blinds list should be made out. lt
should be ensured that the tank is structurallv and mechanicallv
safe for the proposed work and that it is isolated from ail
sources of motive power and electrical supply.
16.11.2 Entry to tanks
Tanks, which have not previously been gas-freed or tested for
sufficient oxygen should not normally be entered for even
non-hazardous work or inspection even when breathing appa-
ratus is worn. When entry under such conditions has to be
made for exceptional reasons, special authorization should be
given and the authorizing permit should set down the safe-
guards to be taken, which include the wearing of breathing ap-
paratus, safety harness and lifeline and the posting of compe-
tent persons outside the tank to ensure that rescue can be
undertaken if necessary
It must be recognized that in these circumsiances the vapour
concentration within the tank may fall to within the flammable
limits giving a further hazardous situation.
16.11.3 Gas-ff,eeing
The gas-freeing of a tank, which has contained volatile hvdro-
carbons, has two main ourposes:
1) to eliminate conditions which might lead to a fire or explo-
ston.
2) to eliminate possible toxic ef{ects and asphyxiation of per-
sonnel entering the tank.
In all cases appropriate tests should be carried out and work
progressed under the direct supervision of a competent per-
son. Gas-freeing and cleaning of tanks are interrelated and no
work of either gas-freeing or cleaning should start without an
overall plan.
Precautions must be taken to protect personnelfrom asphyxia-
tion and the effects oftoxic materials. After removalofthe prod-
uct, the tank must be isolated and then ventilated.
Naturalventilation is slow and purging oflarge tanks bythe use
of steam is not practicable because of the large condensing
surface afforded by the tank shell and hence the difficulty of
raising the temperature in the tank space sufficienfly forthe ef-
fective removal of vapour. Furthermore, with steaminq there is
also a risk of static accumulation on anv insulated co;ductors
that may be in the tank.
Ventilation by an air or flameproof electric motor-driven fan or
an air or steam-operated eductor sited at a suitable manhole is
recommended for reducing the vapour concentration within a
tank to a low figure relatively quickly (see R eference 16.11). All
equipment used for the venting of a tank must be correcfly
bonded and earthed.
During the gas-freeing of a tank which has contained volatile
products, escaping flammable vapours may cause a hazatd-
ous atmosphere outside the tank. In still atmosDheric condi-
tions these vapours may travel beyond the limits of the usual
safety distances. For this reason, rapid dispersal of vapour is
desirable.
With ventilation by an air orflameproof electric motor, combus-
tible gas indicator tests show that its atmosphere contains a
minimum of hydrocarbon vapour but, in any case, below25% of
the lower flammable limit. The tank may then be entered for in-
16 Operation ot ambient temperatute tanks
spection by personnel, wearing breathing apparatus, followed
by de-sludging, cleaning or similar operations. There should be
externalsurveillance to ensure thatrescue can be undertaken if
necessary
At this stage any activity inside the tank should not be capable
of providing a source of ignition. Ventilation of the tank and gas
testing of the almosphere inside should be continued whilst
de-sludging cleaning, etc. are in prcgress, since evolution of
gas vapours can be expected from the oil-wetted surfaces of
the tank and from the disturbance of sludge and scale. lf gas
tests give a reading above 25% of the lower flammable limit,
work should be suspended. lt should not be resumed until ven-
tilation has sufficiently reduced the vapour concentration to
make the tank safe for re-entry Lighting equipment should be
without cables (battery operated or compressed air driven tur-
bine generator type) as approved for Zone I areas or for tank
cleaning purposes by the national authority responsible for
such certiflcation.
Ventilation should be continued until the tank is gas free. Atank
is considered gas free when, afterthe removalofall sludge and
loose scale, combustible gas indicator readings taken at five
minute intervals overa 30 minute period from eductor exhaust,
tank manholes, roofgauging hatches and from several internal
locations, particularly areas liable to vapour concentrations
(e.9. sumps, pipeline entries, pontoons, around{ube seals, tu-
bular legs, water draw-ofi facilities) are consisten y less than
1% of the lower flammable limit.
16.12 Tank cleaning
Cleaning oftanks which are not completely gas free should be
carried out only under the direct supervision of a comDetent
person. Such tanks should be kept as well ventjlated as possi-
ble and all personnel entering should be equipped with suitable
breathing apparatus and protective clothing appropriate to the
nature of the product and condition of the bnk.
These factors will also determine the time for which personnel
may be permitted to remain inside, but it is recommended that
in no case should this exceed 1.5 hours with a half-hour break
before re-entry The time in the tank must not exceed the safe
limit for the breathing apparatus being used. While work is in
progress there should be a competent person stationed outside
the tank to ensure that rescue can be undertaken ifnecessary
ln the cleaning of floating roof tanks, it is important to ensure
that pockets of flammable material are not trapDed in the tubu-
lar roof support legs owing to blockage ofdrain holes by scale or
sruoge.
For Class lll petroleum tanks, special precautions are not nec-
essary provided that they are suitably isolated and adequately
ventilated during cleaning operations, and that personnelwear
suitable protective clothing. However, ifhotwork is to be under-
taken, appropriate precautions should be observed.
During subsequentwork, tanks, which have been cleaned and
declared free of gas, should be checked frequenfly (not less
than twice daily) by an accurately calibrated combustible gas
indicator. Effective ventilation should be maintained throuqhout
the tank whilst work is in progress.
16.12.1 Tanks which contain, or have contained leaded
products
Tanks, which have at any time contained leaded products, re_
quire special precautions. and the recommendations of the
manufacturers ofthe lead compound regarding procedure and
safety regulations should be rigidly ooserved.
The accumulation ofrust, scaleand sludgefrom a cleaning op-
eration should be handled only in a wet state both in the tank
and after removal. Disposal should be in accordance with the
recommendations of the manufacturers of the lead comoound.
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 285
16 ODe@tion of ambient temDerature tanks

IIISPECT('{ FREQUETCY
6ROUP sEivtcE EXIERIIAL EXTERIIAI NTEN A!
@rDmofls ROUNilE o.t lhd vlrull O.ldl.d vl3u.l
VISUAL lmludlnE ulh&nlc Inclrdhg ulraaoruc
lhiclmaar thhtt|..
lmootFl .to! .nd ?ool bolb|n |rd.irI
CULATE OOIE fre bdor'
E c a
Sbpr, cdfldte or agEssslv
cn6fi-rcab, ias !vdr. bfi6 3 I
(not iolernaly p|oldd)

Sl|L ai Gllrp I axcapl

slr.r! oaidt prctdod ar 7
h Aro.rdh C.5.3
Rfigtglld Sto.aga S6e App*dr F

Crud Ol 5 7 8 8 10
Fid oil, gr dl t !o oil,
dlld ol. ..u.8 ra(b. lnrl 3 5 a to 12 1A m
oa rF|l.alE|tr*a chcnhal!,
alrimrn lhuil
Jsl Al fiilly i{.maly l0 't0 15 t5 5 I
!|eded)
Liolt prodocb. t.osim.
gsolkE, c..d(.d rtdllh.., 5 7 t0 12
lrbdod $/atar (nol i srEly
7 'loleded)
Haled and i|3{latad LrJG, 3 3 6
l'loi!: Ext mal UT maaclr+
me.|b or ysrorrd b.do ol
.h.x d et aalscad locdbta
rourd rool d6rlot!6.y.

Climat cod63:
A ' Wann ..d humid, o.g rqical rnd subtlphsl.lel8
g= Temotalo dlmale wftn fquenl taln and |Nlnd
C ' Watrn and &v. e-s. d6n kEalixls

Commenta'
Th insDdbn freauencies indicated above ar for guidan@ only. After eadl detailed
extomal or intemql ingpedioo, tho Tenk Inlegrity Aeeeesor (nA) should detennlrE lhe
date for the nxi hspedion. This datr should ensure hat the rsjeclion limit EtatEd
ekewt|elt in thb publicalion arc nol sxceedd.
lf lhe insDec{ion resultts indk:ale a more pid deteriofation due to corosion or settement,
other sinilar tanks may need to be inspeded earliet. On the other hand, if the inspeclion
rssults arg tavourabl. an extension of the lr6peclion InteNal may be conBldered'

Figure 16.2 Inspection frequencies

Fram EEMUA publication 159

and preferably either by means ofincineration under controlled Reference should be made to the two principal Codes which
conditions or by chemical treatment. deal with this subject and are given in References 16.12 and
16.13
Care should be taken to avoid:
Both Codes give clear advice and recommendations for the in-
. skin contiact with products containing lead alkyls. spection and maintenance of storage tanks and guidance on
the frequency for inspections is also given. Figure 16.2 gives
. inhalation of vapour from products containing lead alkyls.
details of inspection frequencies in EEMUA publication 159.
. ingestion through contactofhands and finger nails with lead
sruoge.
Any tank which contains or has contained leaded products, in-
cluding leaded slops, should have notices permanently fixed
adjacent to all manholes reading:
.THIS
TANK CONTAINS OR HAS CONTAINED LEADED
PRODUCT. IT MUST NOT BE ENTERED WITHOUT
COMPLYING WITH THE PRESCRIBED REGULATIONS'
This notice should only be removed when the appropriate de-
contamination procedures, as required by the lead alkyl manu-
facturers, have been implemented.
Total segregation of leaded slops is also recommended

16.13 Tank inspection

Every tank installation should have an inspection regime in
place to ensure that the integrity of the tanks is maintained
Tanks suffer from internaland externalcorrosion and it is impor-
tant to monitor this to ensure that a maintenance programme
can be put in place to rectify any serious corrosion problems Figure 16.3 Intemalexplosion due lo hot work being performed

286 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Figure 16.4 Roof plate conoson
Figu re 'l 6.5 Effects of over-pressurisation
1 6.14 Operational malfunctions
Figures 16.3 to 16,6 demonstrate whatcan happen when a tank
is mistreated.
Figure 16.3 showsthe result ofan explosion inside a tank due to
hot work being performed on the tankwithoutthe correct safetv
precautions being observed.
Severe corrosion of the roof plates, found after the cladding and
thermal insulation was removed from the roof of a tank. is
shown in Figure 16.4.
Figure 16.5 shows the result of a severe over-Dressurisation.
the roof-to-shell joint has ruptured and a roofstructure bracket
has punctured the shell.
The result ofan internalvacuum condition, is illustrated in Fig-
ure 16.6. This 29 m diameter tank was beinq steam cleaned.
The operatives had covered up the roof vendto keep the heat
in the tank and when they left the tank for a tea-break, thev
closed the shell manhole again, to keep the heat in the tank,
- rndustry, HSE Books 1997, |SBN 07.1 761281 3.
Of course, during the tea-break, the iank atmosDhere cooled
down, the residualsteam condensed and the resultino vacuum
sucked the tank in!
16.15 Further guidance
The following publications provide useful guidance on iank op-
eralton.
16 uperation of ambient temperature tanks
Figu re l 6.6 Resull of intehal vacuum condition
The Storage of Flammable Liquids in lanks, The Health &
Safety Executive, HSE 176.
Tank maintenance, The Health & Safety Executive, HSE 176,
page 18, Section 9.
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, Ch Z7 HMSO 1974
lsBN 010 543774 3.
Aguide to the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, L'l HSE
Books 1992 ISBN 071 760441 l.
The Health and Safety (Enforcing Authoity) Regulations 1989,
st '1989/1903, HMSO 1989, |SBN 011 097903 6.
The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1992,
st 1992t2932, HMSO 1992, |SBN 01.1 025849 5.
16.16 References
16.1 Refining Safety Code Paft 3,lnstitute of petroleum.
16.2 European Model Code of Safe practice in the Handlina
of Petroleum Products - Paft : Design. Layout anid
Construction, Institute of Petroleum.
16.3 Flammable and Combustible Liqui?s Code. National
Fire Protection Association. NFpA 30.
16.4 Sfandard System for the ldentification of Hazards of
Material for Emergency Response, National Fire pro-
tection Association, NFPA 704.
16.5 Code of Practice on the Control of Undesirabte Static
Electricity, The British Standards Institution, BS 5958.
16.6 Code of Practice on the Control of tJndesirable Static
Electricv The British Standards Institution No. pD
cLC/TR 50404.
'16.7 The lnternational Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Ter-
m/nals, (ISGOTT), www.seamanship.co.uk.
16.8 Bitumen Safety Code, Institute of petroleum
16.9 The Highly Flammabte Liquidsand Liquefied petroleum
casses Regu/ations 7922, HSE booklet HS(G) 51.
'16.10 Guidance on permit-to-work systems in the petroleum
16.11 Marketing Safety Code, Patt 2, lnstituteof petroleum.
16.12 Users guide to the lnspection, Maintenance and Relair
of Aboueground Veftical Cylindricat Sfee/ Slorage
Ianks, The Engineering Equipment and Nlaterials U!-
ers Association (EEMUA), No. 159: 2003.
16.13 Tank lnspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruc-
flons, API 653 3rd Edition, December 2O0l .
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 287
288 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
 17 Low temperature storage tanks

This chapter ranges widely overthe subject ofthe storage of industriargases in riquid fonn. The
gases stored in this way are risted and the significant properties described. pressurised
systems for the storage of these gases which can be liquefied bv the imposition of oressure
alone are described and their advantages, disadvantages and'economics are discusseo.
Semi-refrigerated storage is an intermediate means of itoring certain types of gases failing
between fully pressurised ambient temperature systems and fu[y refrigeriied storige at orius-t
above atmospheric pressure. Lasfly the most popular system of fuliy refrigerated'storag'e is
described.
The history ofthe development of lowtemperature storage systems is interesting. ltcombinesa
tangled web of factors and incidents involving the increasing understanding of the low
temperature behaviour of various metals, increasing demands for improved safdty of storage
facilities, the developments in the design codes and otherregulatory requirements, the reaction
to various accidents and incidents and, particurarry for LNG and to a re;ser extent for LpG and
ethylene, a dramatic increase in the overall capacity of terminals and the corresponding
increase in unit tank capacities. The various factors influencing the capacities oftanks leads to a
brjef review of what is currently common practice.
The development ofthe design codes, especia[y in Europe, has red to the cateqorisation of row
temperature storage lanks into single, double and full containment. The devel6pment of these
categories emanated from increasing awareness of safety considerations both ior the terminal
sites themselves and forthe surrounding areas. These three main categories relate to above
ground vedical cyiindrical storage tanks. The various codes provide quite specific
definitions of
what is.required for each category. The membrane type oftank which was developed in France
0y technrglz and which has its origjns in the marine transport of products such as LNG is
described. This type of tank is applicable to above ground and in_ground storage systems.
spherical designs of tanks for rand-based, fu||y-refrigerated storage of products such as LNG
have been proposed for many years but have not tet been utiriied d;spite the attraction of
tactory-based construction and transport to the job site in one piece. These arso have their
te_chnicalroots again in the marine transport of LNG. A smafl numberof rowtemperature tanks
ofabove ground, vertical cylindricalform have been constructed with both inner and outertanks
constructed from prestressed concrete. These designs were developed by the preload
Company in the USA,(now.kading as Cryocrete lnc.). Th;se use a nu mbei of interesting design
teatures, which are described.
ln-ground ljquefied gas storage systems divide themselves into two groups. The first group is
the vertical,cylindricartanks, usuafly incorporating a membrane typiof riner, a rigid iniuraiion
system and a concrete caisson wall are expensive, when compared with their a-bove ground
equivalents, but in certain circumstances provide attractive advantages in that their incieased
perceived safety arrows croser tank spacing, which in turn makes bet'ier
use of the area of rand
available This is especiarry important for areas where expensive recraimed rand in or crose to
urban areas is involved. This type of tank is usuafly confined to the storage of LNG at marine
terminals.
The second type of in-ground storage ls the cavern type. unlined caverns are constructed in
rock at depths where the static waterpressure from a carefully controlled ground watersystem
slightlyexceedsthe pressure required to maintain the stored p;oduct (usuaiiy LpG) in riquid form
at ambient pressure. A number of novel liquid gas storage systems involving floaiing
or gravity
based structures most usually directed at LNG are alsodescribed.

Contents:
17.1 The low temperature gases
17.2 General
17.3 Historical background
17.4 Tank sizing considerations
17,5 Storage systems and containment categories
17.6 Single containment systems
17.7 Double containment systems
17.8 Full containment systems
17.9 Membrane tanks
17.9. 1 Development history
'17.9.2 Detailed description of land-based
membrane system

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 289

17 Low temperaturc storcge tanks

17.9.2.1 The metallic membrane

17.9.2.2 The insulation system
17.9.2.3 The outer tank
17.9.3 Comparison of above ground membrane tanks and conventional tanks
17 .9.4 fhe lined mined rock cavern initiative for future LNG storage

17.10 Spherical tanks

17.11 Concrete/concrete tanks
17.11.1 History of cryogenic concrete tanks
17.'11.2 Details of concrete/concrete tanks
17.1 1.3 Arguments for and against concrete/concrete tanks
17.12 In-ground tanks
17.12.1 In-ground membrane tanks
17.12.2 Cavern slorage systems
17.12.3 Ftozen ground systems
17.13 Novel solutions
17.14 References

290 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 17 Low temperaturc storage tanks

17.1 The low temperature gases

The gases commonly stored in liquefied form are listed in Fig-
ure '17.1 together with their significant properties.
The commonly used term Liquefied Petroleum cas (LPG) re-
fers to a mixture of normal butane, jso butane and propane in
any proportion. In some ofthe American Codes (i.e. NFpA 58)
LPG is referred to as LP-Gas. This isjust a quirk ofthese Ameri-
can Codes and does not have any other significance.
Similarly the term Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) refers to a mix-
ture of methane with smaller proportions of ethane and smaller
again proportions of LPG gases. Small quantities of other
gases are also found in LNG, in particular nitrogen. The
makeup of an LNG is not constant, but varies within relatively
close limits from a single geographic source and varies more
widely between diferent geographic sources.
An example is given in Figure 17.2 which compares the differ-
ent compositions of LNG from sources in Trinidad, Algeria and
Oman.
17.2 General
The various low temperature products listed above can be
stored in a number of different ways.
Products such as buiane, butadiene, propane, propylene and
ammonia can be mainiained in liquid form bythe application of
pressure alone. Consequently in the early days of the petro-
chemical and chemical industry when these products were re-
quired in relatively modest quantities, the favoured means of
storage was by using pressure vessels. As the quanfities be-
came larger, the pressure vessels became larger and because
of the pressures required (i.e. for propane storage a design
Figure 17.2 Typical LNG composiiions
For a while semi-refrigerated systems were considered and
many were constructed. These eased the problems by reduc-
ing the design pressures but were an unsatisfactory half way
house for a variety of reasons.
Eventually, partly driven by cost, safety and increasing storage
unit capacity requirements, the standard solution for the stor-
age of large quantities of these products was as fully refriger-
ated liquids in vertical cylindrical hnks.
Initiallythese tanks followed the oil industry practices, being es-
sentially oiltanks with insulation. This is perhaps a litfle simplis-
tic. These new tanks had to contend with the low temperature
metallurgical requirements together with new problems of
avoidingfrost heave in the underlying ground and coping witha
higher design pressures (usually from 70 mbar upwards) than
had been the case for ambient tanks. The first tanks were ofsin-
gle containment type. As time progressed and safety require-
ments increased, there was a move to superior forms of con-
tainment and this subject will be discussed in later Chapters.
would be untrue to say that pressurised storage ofthese prod-
It

pressure of around 15 bar is required) more expensive. A typi-
cal LPG storage facility using spherical vessels is shown in Fig-
ure 17.3. Spherical pressure vessels commonly used forthese
products began to become problematic at around 5000 m3 ca-
pacity. A spherical vessel for this capacity would be some 22 m
in diameter and for propane seryice would have a shell thick-
ness of around 50 mm. This is an expensive construction and
clearly other storage systems were required.
ucts has ended. In certain quarters spherjcal vessels for the
storage of modest volumes of LPG are still being constructed.
However increased safety standards togetherwith the memory
of some spectacular and very public accidents make this form
of storage unpopular and in many instances a prohibited prac-
Itce.
To accommodate the requirement for the storage of modest
quantities ofthese products, an alternative arranoement known

I'lame ChemlBl MoI. Bolling Latent Liquid Gas Vol, of

lormula iryeight point heat ot denslty d6nsity gas
l;quid liberated
byl msot
liquld
(exP.to
15"Crt
1 bar)
g/mol kcarkg kdm' kdm'
N-Butane CrHro 58.123 - 0,50 92.100 601.40 2.7@ 239
lso Butane CrHro 58.123 - 11.70 87.600 593.40 2.420 236
Ammonia NHg 17.030 - 33.35 327.1o..c 682.00 0.905 910
Butadiene CrHo 54.091 - 4.50 99.800 650.40 2.550 279
Propane CsHa ,14.096 - 42,05 101.750 502.00 2.423 3ll
Propylene QHa 42.080 . 47.72 104.600 613.90 2.365 388
Ethane qH6 30.069 - 88.6 116-74n 546.r19 2.054 432
Efrylene czHr 28,0t{ - to3.72 115.330 567.92 2.08s 442
Methan6 16.043 - |61.52 121.860 422-62 1.819 630
Oxygen o, 31.SS9 - 1A2.97 ' 50.869 1,141.00 4,475 854
Nitrogen N2 28.013 - 19s.80 47.459 808.61 4.614 691
Argon 39.94a - 185.86 38.409 'I,392.80 5.8s3 835
NOTE 1 Uquld petroleum gass (LPG) is a general tem for commercjal butiane, pFpane and thek
mlxtJre in any proposition.
NOTE 2 Commercial butano is a mixture in N-Bulan6 and isobuiane with smallcontenl of propano and
Denlane.
NOTE 3 Commercial pFpan is propane whh small content of ethane and bltane.

Figurc 17.1 Gases commonly stored in liquefied form

Fron prEN 14620 - 1,Iabl6 A.1

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 291

17 Low tempercture storage tanks
Figure 17.3 Atypical fully-pressu sed LPG storage facility
as "mounded storage" was developed. This consists essen-
tially of horizontal pressure vessels installed on a bed of sand
and backfllled with sand. An example ofsuch a facility ls shown
in Figure 17.4. This system seems to meet with approval from
even the most safety conscious operators.
Figurc 17.4 l,lounded storage
Coutlesv of Whessoe
A further development, most usually applied to the storage of
propane, is "cavern storage". In this system a series of unlined
horizontial tunnels or caverns are constructed at a depth which
depends to some extent on the level of the local water table
The principle of the system is that the vapour pressure of the
propane is slightly over balanced bythe ground water pressure.
Hence no propane leaks out ofthe system and modest quanti-
ties of water leak into the caverns. This water is continuously
pumped out and used to prime a series of header pipes which
ensure the continuous and constant ground water pressure.
This system is again the subject of later Chapters.
Products such as ethane and ethylene cannot be maintained in
liquid form bythe application ofpressure alone, but can be suc-
cessfully subjected to a combination of pressure and low tem-
Derature. There are some examples of this form ofstorage but
in generalthese products are stored in fully refrigerated form.
An example ofethylene stored in both the fully refrigerated form
and the semi-refrigerated form is shown in Figure 17.5. The
semi refrigerated storage is in the spherical vessel which is
double walled, i.e. an aluminium alloy sphere suspended within
an outercarbon steelsphere. This solution posed some serious
design and construction problems.
The remaining products (LNG oxygen, nitrogen and argon) are
always stored as liquids in the fully refrigerated form.
292 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
Figure 17.5 An example ofa semi-refrigerated and fully-refrigeraled ethylene
slorage
Courtesy of whessoe
1 7.3 Historical background
The first thoughts regarding the liquefaction and transport of
gases go some way back in time. In 1915 Godfrey Cabot pro-
posed the shipment of LNG by means of river barges. In 1937
SirAlfred Egerton proposed thatthe British gas industry which
was at that time based on the carbonisation ofcoal, should ex-
tract a fraction ofthe methane contentfrom the coal gas, liquefy
it and store itforsubsequent evaporation for peak shaving pur-
ooses.
The firstattempt to store liquefied naturalgas in bulkon a com-
mercial scale was not promising.
The facility at Cleveland, ohio, was the first LNG peak shaving
plant ever built. It was constructed to provide an economical
and reliable energy source during the winter months for the lo-
cal industry Much of this local industry was related to World
War ll munitions manufacture. The LNG storage part ofthe fa-
cility consisted of one vertical cylindrical tank of 4,100 m3 ca-
pacity and three 2,000 m3 sphericaltanks and had been in ser-
vice for some four years with no apparentoperating problems.
The tanks had been filled to their full capacity in readiness for
the iorthcoming winter when, on the afternoon of October 20'i
1944, the cylindricaltank suddenlyfailed releasing all of its con-
tents into the nearby streets and sewers of Cleveland. The re-
sultant gas cloud ignited immediately and a fire ensued which
engulfed the nearby tanks, residences and commercial estab-
lishments. After about 20 minutes, with the initial fire having
nearly died down, the spherical tank closest to the cylind cal
tank toppled over and released its contents. The 2,000m3 of
LNG immediately evaporated and ignited. In all 130 people
were killed and 225 injured. The area directly involved was
about 2 square kilometres of which an area ofaround 120 hect-
ares was completely devasbted.
Although sabotage was first suspected, a thorough investiga-
tion showed that the accident was due to the low temperature
embrittlement of the 3.5% nickel steel inner tank shell. 3.5%
nickel steel is now known to be susceptible to brittle fracture at
LNG temperatures (around -160 "C). In addition the tianks were
situated close to a heavily used railroad and a bomb body
stamping plant. ltwas considered that excessivevibration ema-
nating from the railroad engines and the stamping plant proba-
blyaccelerated the crack propagation from some smalloriginal
defect in the innertank shell. The outercarbon steeltankwould
have cracked on contact with the emerging LNG
 17 Low temperature storage tanks

The accident was aggravated by the lack of adequate diking
around the tanks, the ability of the LNG to enter the local sew-
age system and the proximity ofthe plant to nearby residential
areas. The reason for the second release of liquid from the
spherical vessel was found to be due to the fact that the sup-
porting legs of the sphere were not fitted with fire protection.
The prolonged exposure to the fire weakened the legs of the
sphere to the pointwhen they buckled causing it to topple over.
This event cast a blight overthe storage of bulk refrigerated liq-
uids and of LNG in particular, until '1958 when the bulk storage
of LNG was re-examined as a part of the beginning of the
world's LNG trade. Over the intervening years a great deal of
research work was carried out on the low temperature behav-
iour of various metals and the lessons of this sad event gave
rase to serious considerations ofplant layout, fire protection and
other safety related sub.iecb.
The next step in the development ofthe LNG storywas the pio-
neering scheme to transport gas in liquid form from Lake
Charles, Louisiana, USA, to Canvey lsland in the United King-
dom. A liquefaction plant built for an eadier barge transport in-
vestigation wasiaken to Lake Charleswherea 2000tonne LNG
tank was constructed. An ex-liberty ship, The Normafti, was
procured, converted into an LNG carrier of 5000m3 capacity
and renamed The Methane Pioneer. Al Canvey lsland two
1000 tonne capacity perlite insulated aluminjum alloy LNG
tanks were constructed. On 20th February 1959 The Methane
Ploneerdelivered a cargo of 2020 tonnes of LNG to Canvey ls-
land after a voyage from Lake Charles of22 days and 18 hours
duration.
As Dennis Rooke, whowas a crew member on that originalvoy-
age and who rose to become Chairman of British Gas, re-
marked, "thus was the LNG industry born". The Methane pio-
neerwas to make a further seven voyages carrying a technical
team between Lake Charles and Canvey lsland, and a great
deal of data and experience was gained which was pivotal to
the further development of this industry This part of the history
is described in considerable detail in Refe rences 17.1 and 17.2.
of the technical advances and served as a model for the LNG
imporuexDort terminals to follow.
Two further significant accidents played their part in determin-
ing the nature of future low lemperature storage facilities.
The first was the explosion in the LNG tank for Texas Eastern at
Staten lsland in the IJSA. This tank was of a novel design. The
new design evolved from original work carried out in 1958 and
1959. A new research and test programme was implemented
between 1960 and 1966. A test tank of 6.1 m in diameter and
8.5 m in height was constructed and successfully tested. Most
LNG tanks up to that time were of the single containment type
with aluminium alloy or 9% nickel steel inner tanks within a
perlite insulated carbon steelouter tank. The Staten lsland tank
had a aluminised mylar layer in contact with the product liquid,
supported by polyurethane foam thermal insulation which was
in turn supported by a thick concrete wall mounded with gravel
and earth. The details are shown in Figure 17.6.
The tank, which entered service in March 1970 and which was
also for storing LNG from Algeria, was found to be suffering
from leakage of LNG through the mylar liner into the supporting
PUF, concrete wall and the supporting earth beam. Despite
this, the tank remained in service until January 1972. It was
then decommissioned and there followed a protracted
gas-purging period. The tank was under repair when the acci-
dent happened. lt is thoughtthat residual heavy ends (propane)
had accumulated behind the liner either within the PUF or be-
hind the concrete wall and that some of this liquid suddenly
made its way back into the tank and was ignited by various
non-explosion proof tools being used for the repair work. The
explosion caused the concrete roof to fall killing the 40 men
working insidethetank. This event brought to a haltalldevelop-

Following thls pioneering work, the first commercial LNG

scheme was set up. A liquefactjon plant and loading terminal
were constructed at the port of Azew in Algeria. British Gas or-
dercd, The Methane Princess from Vickers Armstrong (Ship-
building) Ltd at Barrow-in-Furness and The Methane progress
from Hadand and Wolff in Belfast. The carriers were 27,000m3
in capacity designed to deliver 12,000 tonnes of LNG per vov-
age.
So successful was The Methane Pioneer that only modest
changes in deiail were required to be made for the larger new
ships. The Methane Pflncess, built in 1964, remained in service
until 1997, delivering cargoes of LNG (and two of Lpc) from
l Arzew to Canvey lsland. Le Havre (the French equivalent of
ll Canvey lsland), Barcelona, Cartagena, Huelva, Fos sur lvler
f and Staten lsland. The old ship sadly ended its days being cut
] up for scrap on an Indian beach.
The original contract was for 700,000 tonnes of LNG Der vear
for 15 years. At the receiving end of the chain, five new 4000
tonne perlite insulated tanks were built to add to the two 1000
tonne tanks constructed earlier. The intention was that gas in
liquid form would be transported by road to regional distribution
?
centres where it would be regasified and delivered to consum-
ers.
t
3 One such distribution centre was built at Ambergate, in
v Derbyshire. Unfortunately for the new LNG industry in the UK,
the discovery of large amounts of oil and gas in the North Sea
meant that the development was not continued and direct
transmission of the newly discovered gas into the National
Transmission System at Bacton and St Fergus took its place.
Despite this, theAzeW/ Canvey lsland project pioneered many Figure 17.6 The Texas Eastern LNG tank at Staten tstand

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 293

17 Low tempercture storage tanks
ments using this form of liquid containment and this is still the
case looay.
Secondly an accident occurred at the Qatar Lpc terminal. On
the 3 April 1977 an explosion and subsequent fire totally de-
stroyed the $43 million plant for the processing and storage of
liquefied propane, butane and pentane at Umm Said in Qatar.
Seven people were killed and 13 injured. Apart from an emo-
tive report entilled "Frozen Fire" (Reference /23), litfle has
been published about this event, which is strange given the tre-
mendous effect that it had on the future development of low
temperature storage systems. The protracted legal process
which followed the accident also did little to help identifl/ the
central cause for the failure, only that a sudden and cata-
strophic failure of the shell of the propane tank occurred which
in turn led to the failure of the other tanks on the site.
Amongst the main suspects were:
BS 4741:1971(Reference 17.4) The British Standard for
the storage of liquids down to -50'C, which was in place at
that time. This Standard included a new and complex
method of material selection together wjth a partial rather
than full height hydrostatic test requirement.
Incorrect operation possibly involving over filling or over
pressurising of the iank.
- Poor fabrication and inspection Standards
- Sabotage
Despite the failure to isolate the prime cause of the failure, a
numberof major operating companies led by Shell (References
17.5 and 17.6) began to give further thought to designs which
would reduce the possibility of brittle fracture and reduce the
consequences ofa failure if it did occur. The earth berm remote
from the Qatar propane tank had singularly failed to serve its
purpose ofcontaining the spilled liquid following the failure. The
Gas Research Institute sponsored a programme of research
into materials better able to resist initiation or propagation of
brittle failure.
Much of this work was presented at the Brugges Conference
(Reference 17.7) in 1984 and at the TWI Seminar in Newcastle
(Reference ?7.8) in 1986. BS 4741 was amended shortly afrer
the Qatar accident to enhance the fracture toughness require-
ments of the steel materials and to institute a full heioht hvdro-
static test for the tanks.
The desire of the industry to move away from single contain-
ment systems towards double and full containment was ham-
pered by the lack of a suitable Standard. The existing American
and European Standards were all based of the philosophy of
single containment for both LPG and the colder products such
as LNG. Consequentlythe Engineering Equipment and Materi-
als Users Association (EEMUA) in London was approached to
form a committee to consider rules for the full range of coniain-
ment options and in 1986 oublished EEMUA Publication 147
(Reference tZ9). After a suitable period of time this document
was passed to the British Standards Institution, BSl, who in
1993 published BS 777711993 (Reference 77.70). This is more
fully discussed in Section 17.5.
17.4 T ank sizing considerations
Forthe gaseswhich can be maintained in liquid form bythe im-
position of pressure alone, the maximum size of refrigerated
tank is established by a combination of the following:
The practicalities of pressure vessel design
The relative costs of pressure versus iiquefied storage
Safety considerations
Local and international regulations
294 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT
There are a few mounded LPG storage facilities with total ca-
pacities ranging up to 20,000 m3 (involving a numberofsmaller
pressure vessels) and some spherical vessels with individual
capacities up to 4,000-5,000 m3, but these are comparatively
unusual. Fully refrigerated storage tanks for these products
come into their own (depending upon local circumstances)
around 5000 m3 and become increasinglythe onlyviable option
as the volume to be stored increases. The maximum size of re-
frigerated tank for these products is established by a combina-
tion of the following:
The maximum lower shell course thickness Dermitted bv
the design Codes
Seismic design considerations
The relative economics of larger storage units
- Operating flexibility consideration (i.e. two smaller tanks
may be preferred to a single larger tank for reasons con-
nected with malfunction or majntenance etc.)
Safety considerations
Local and international regulations
Current practice suggests that 80,000 m3 is large for an LPG
tank with 50,000 m3 being a more usual size. For ammonia
60,000 m3 is a big tank with 30,000 m3 being a more normal
chotce.
For the gases which cannot be maintained in liquid form by the
application of pressure alone, the field divides into three
groups:
- Oxygen, nitrogen and argon
- Ethane and ethylene
_ LNG
Oxygen, nitrogen and argon are not required by industry and
other users in the same quantities as the other liquefied gas
products. An air separation plant will commonly have refriger-
ated tanks with capacities of 500-2,000 m3 for liquid oxygen
(LOX) and liquid nitrogen (LlN) storage and smallerfor argon if
it is involved. Atthe consumer end ofthe supplychain, factory-
manufactured vertical cylindrical double-walled and vacuum-
insulated vessels of a few hundred cubic metres are commonlv
installed.
For ethane and ethylene a big tank would be 50,000 m3 with
20,000-30,000 m3 being a more common size.
LNG is in a class of its own when tank capacity is concerned.
Because of the volumes of LNG traded around the world and
the size of carriers involved, (several currently being con-
structed of around 145,000m3 capacity), the trend has been to
build biggerand bigger storage tanks. The unitstorage costper
m3 of LNG tends to decrease as the tank capacity increases
and this is illustrated by Figure 17.7, the resultofa studyforsin-
gle and full containment type tanks. The basis of this compari-
son is given in Reference 17.11.
Currently, the biggest above ground free-standing LNG tank is
in Senboku in Japan. This is of 180,000m3 capacity and is de-
scribed in detail in Reference 17.12. In-ground membrane type
tanks have also been constructed at 200,000m3 in Korea and
Japan and one of these at the Ohgishima LNG Terminal of To-
kyo Gas in Yokohama is the subject oI Reference 17.13. A
smaller number of large above ground tanks tend to make
better use of the available site area when compared with a
larger number of smaller tanks. Comparisons using the tank
spacing rules from NFPA 59A willfeature elsewhere in Storage
Tanks & Equipment, to makethis point. Factors influencing the
maximum size of the free standing, above ground type of LNG
tanks are:
 17 Low temperature storcge (anks

r.60 down to -50 "C and 8S5387 (Reference tZt5) for products
l zO
down to -196 "C in the UK.
These Codes only consjdered single containment systems.
E There were no Codes or regulatory guides which provided a
framework for the design of other containment systems. The
formation of the EEMUA committee, largely at the instigation of
Shelland chaired byJohn deWitof Shell, was aimed at provid-
9 0.60
ing a document which filled this void.

P o.qo
ln 1986 the EEMUA recommendations were published and at
lastthe industryhad some rulesforthe design and construction
0.20 ofotherforms ofconiainment. As has been mentioned earlier.
the EEMUA recommendations were passed to BSI after a suif
0.00
able period of time during which the opinions ofthe industry re-
50 rm 150 2@ 250
garding the suitability of the document were sought and found
Capacity x 1000 cuM to be generally favourable. BSI converted the EEMUA recom-
mendations into BS 7777, a Code which closely followed the
Fjgure 17.7 Unitstorage cosl per m3 of LNG
spirit of the EEMUA document.

- The maximum inner tank lower shell plate thickness oer- The definitions of the various categories of containment sys-
mitted by the design Codes tems for conventional vertical cylindrical tanks are given below
and are those developed by EENIUAand repeated in BS 7777.
Foundation considerations EN1473 (Reference tZ 76) also made an attemptto define the
Seismic design considerations various storage systems and followed the spirit ofthe EEMUA
definitions but added definitions for systems not considered by
- Economic considerations EEMUA. i.e. membrane and concrete/concrete tanks.

- Operating flexibility constrainb
The reference list of LNG tanks designed and constructed by
Whessoe, given in Figure 17.8 clearly shows the changes of
tank capacity with the passage of time. lt is also interesting as it
shows the changes in the materials used and in the storage
containment categories adopted. This subject is further dis-
cussed in Sections 17.6, 17 .7 and 17 .8.
17.5 Storage systems and containment
categories
This Section relates to vertical cylindrical tanks of the conven-
tionaltype (i-e. those with a metallic self-supporting innertank).
As has been described earlier, the Qatar incident gave the in-
dustry cause to reconsider its practices regarding the use of
single containment systems for the storage of lowtemperature
products. The design Codes in force at the time ofthis incident
we re AP | 620 (Refe rence 1 7 .1 4) (Append ix R for prod ucts with
storage temperatures down to -60 oF and Appendix e for prod-
ucts down to -260 oF) in the USA, and 854741 for products
The early designs of double and full containment systems for
both LPG and LNG considered a sudden or unzipping failure of
the inner liquid containing tank. The loadings on the inner sur-
faces of the outer iank were considerable and were evaluated
as a result of test work caried out by N.J. Cuperus, again of
Shell (Reference 17.1n. fhe apprcximately six-fold increase
in the static liquid pressures caused by the sudden failure ofthe
primary container was an onerous design condition and as a re-
sult, the early full containment tanks had outertanks which con-
sisted of reinforced concrete walls whjch were supported by an
external earthen embankment. This arranqement is illustrated
in Figure 17.9.
Whjlst this system provided admirable protection for the tank
arising from external incidents such as missiles and fire scenar-
ios, it was expensive. lt required a Iarge site area to accommo-
date the slope of the embankment and gave rise to complica-
tions with the base heatjng system which had to be extended to
cover the tank walls as well as the bnk base.
Research and testing programmes coordinated as descrjbed
earlier by the Gas Research Institute were undertaken to look at
the abilities ofvarious steels in their prevention offracture initia-

OUIER EflELL
col{cRtE UAU|D
lr{B)
OUTLEI
1 2390 ALUMNIJM CARAONSTEE! N N SINGIE

9000 CARBO'.ISTEEL N N SNGTE

CANvEYSLAND ALUMNUM CARBON STEEI N SNGIE
":*
AMBERGATE 1 12000 CARBON'sTEEI N N SINGLE

PARTIIGION 1 50000 N CAREONSTEEL N N StIGLE

PARTNGTON 2 50000 N CARBON SIEEL DOUALE
AVONMOUTH 1 50000 N ALUIIII{IUM CARBONSTEEL N DOUBIE
EIE OF GRAIN 1 & 2 2 50@0 N 9% NEKEL CARBONSTEEL Y N DOUBLE

AVONMOUTH 3 1 50000 N 9% N'CKEL CARBONSTEEL N DOUBI.E

DEPA 2 65000 N 9% NTCKET PRESTRESSED CONCRE'E NPII N

IRI{DAD 2 1020@ N 9% NEKET PRESTRESSEO CONCRETE N

1 105000 9% NPKI PRESTRESSD CONCRETE N

DABHOL 3 160000 9% NICKEL PRESTRESSEO CONCRETE N

Figure 17.8 List of LNG ianks designed and built by Whessoe

Couftesy of Whessoe

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 295

 1 7 Low temperaturc storage tanks
I Iustrated in Figure 17.10 would give dse to a large diameter
I shallowpoolof litiuid at localgrade levelin the event offailure of
Figure 17.9 Typical early full containment tank
courtesy of Whessoe
tion and fracture arrest aspec6. The result was that sudden
failure ofthe inner liquid containerswas considered a non-cred-
ible event and the difiicult design condition was removed. This
meant that the outer tank could become a prestressed concrete
structure without the embankment, with consequent mst and
other savings.
Acontributoryfactor to this reduction in the design requirement
wasworkcarried out on the damping influence ofthe perlite and
glassfibre blanket matedalswhich made up the shellinsulation
of most LNG storage systems and some other lowtemperature
systems. This work is described in References 17.18 and
t7.t9. The story of the gradual evolution of the low tempera-
ture storage systems has been told a number of times and is
Sne boundary
Single conlalnmenl lank
Fullconlalnmsnl lank
Figure 17.10 Postfailure fire scenarios for single, double and fullcontainment
ianks
296 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
covered in much deiail in References 17.20. 17.21, 17.22and
17.23.
An essential element of the reasoning which led up to the intro-
duction ofdouble and full containment systems was the consid-
eration oflire scenarios which could occurfollowinq the failure
of the primary liquid containment.
Presuming that the low remote bund wall served its purpose in
containing the leaked liquid, a single coniainment systems as il-
the primary container. The subsequent, almost inevitable, pool
fire would be large in area, low in elevation and heat from the
large area ofground within the remote bund wallwould ensure
rapid evaporation of the liquid product, an altogether undesir-
able event.
ln the case ofa double coniainment system again as illustrated
in Figure '17.10, the outer tank would contain the leaked liquid.
Again the probability is that the pool of liquid would catch fire,
but in this casethe poolfire is smallin diameter, is elevated well
above local grade and the liquid evaporation rate is slower, a
much less dangerous sltuation is that pertaining to single con-
tiainment.
Forfull containment systems as illustrated in Figure 17.10 the
leakage of the primary contiainment resulG in the liquid being
contained by the outertank and the vapour being contained and
disposed of to a safe location (i.e. a flare stack). This eventcan
DolbL co.hint|.rn bnk
Full conlanrnenl l.nl
Fgure 17.11 Postfailure vapour dispersion scenarios for single. double and
fullcontainmenl tanks

not result in a poolfife. Atworsta relief valve tailpipefire could
be considered. Fire scenarios of this type have a considerable
influence on other equipment on the site (for example neigh-
bouri-ng storage tanks, vaporising equipment etc.) and on the
layout ofthe site itselfto ensure that risks from fire exposure to
people and property outside the site boundaries is kept to a
minimum.
Aseparate but related subject which plays a part in safety and
plant layoutdiscussions, is vapour dilution. lt is clearly sensible
to arrange for the mixture of product vapour and air which
crosses the site boundary to be at a concentration below the
lower flammable limit of the parlicular mixture. In this way the
vapour cloud can not be ignited as it passes across the site
boundary into the uncontrolled area outside. The influences
thatthe differenttypes of containment have on this matter are il-
lustrated in Figure 17.11.
These topics are the subject of various regulatory documents
and Codes from such bodies as The Institute of Petroleum (lP),
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), The US De-
d)
Figure 1 7.1 2 A single containment lank
Frcm 857777, figure 1 From EN 1473,figure
1 7 Low temperature storage tanks
partment of Transport (DOT) and the European Committee for
Standardisation (CEN). These will be discussed in some detail
in later Sections of Sforage Tanks & Equipment.
17.6 Single containment systems
The deflnition taken from BS 7777 is
Single containment tank
Eithera singletank or a tank comprising an innertiank and
an outer container designed and constructed so that only
the inneriank is required to meet the low temperature duc-
tility requirements for storage of the product.
The outer contiainer (if any) of a single containment stor-
age tank is primarilyfor the retention and protection of in-
sulation and to constrain the vapour purge gas pressure,
but is not designed to contain refrigerated liquid in the
event of leakage from the inner tank.
Asingle containment tank is normally surrounded by a low
bund wall (see below) to conhin any leakage.
Figure 17.12 is a reproduction offigure 1, taken from BS 7777.
The parallel deflnition from EN 1473 (Refe rence 17 -21), whichit
should be remembered is only relevant to the storage ofLNG is:
Single containment tank
Asingle primary container and generally an outer shell de-
signed and constructed so that only the primary container
is required to meet the low temperature ductility require-
ments for storage of the product.
The outer shell (if any) of a single containment storage
tank is primarily for the retention and protection of insula-
tion and to contain the purge gas pressure, but is not de-
signed to contain refrigerated liquid in the eventofleakage
from the primary container.
An above ground single containment tank shall be sur-
rounded by a bund wall to conbin any leakage.
Figure 17.13 A single coniainmeni tank
Hl
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 297
1 7 Low tempercturc storage tanks

- Blast loadings
Provisions required to protect single containment tanks from
these loadings such as active flre protection, increased tank
spacing, structural modification and enhanced pressure relief
valve system capacity must be taken into accountwhen consid-
ering the overall costs of single containment systems.
The most commonly accepted rules concerning the capacity,
height and distance of bunding systems are given in NFPA 59
(Reference 17.24) for LPG and NFPA 59A (Refere nce 17.25)
for LNG storage systems.
Figure 17.15 shows the bund heighvdistance relationship from
References 17.24 and 7225. This criteria is also usually fol-
lowed for double and full coniainment svstems as described in
Figu 17.14 Typical single coniainment LNG tanks Sections 17.7 and 17.8.
Courtesy of Pift4es Moines, lnc

Figure 17.1 3 is a reproduction of figure H l taken from EN 1473. 17.7 Double containment systems
It is clearthatthe two documents are in close aqreement on this The definition taken from BS 7777 is
matter.
Double containment tank
Figure 17.14 shows typical single conbinment LNG tanks.
Adouble coniainmenttank is designed and constructed so
It isinteresting that EN 1473 makes ita mandatory requirement that both the inner self-supporting primary container and
for all categories of containment that there shall be no penetra- the secondary container are capable of independenfly
tions ofthe primary and secondary (where provided) container containing the refrigerated liquid stored. To minimise the
walls or bottoms. This makes the use of in-tank DumDs a man- poolof escaping liquid, the outertank orwall is located at a
datory requirement for these tanks. distance not exceeding 6m from the inner tank.
The American storage tank design Codes have never tried to The inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid under nor-
define the containment categories in the same way as the Brit- mal operating conditions. The outer tank or wall is in-
ish or European Codes. API 620 in both its low temperature tended to contain the refrigerated liquid product leakage
Appendices R and Q deals with what are essentially single con-
tainment systems. The rules from the API Code are commonly
used to design the metallic components ofstorage tanks which
fall into other containment categories
Similarlythe American Codeswhich coverthe land-based stor-
ageand handling of LPG and LNG do not consider containment
in the same way.
Single containment storage systems are the cheapest from of
storage for refrigerated liquids. In addition to the potentially di-
sastrous consequences of a failure of the primary liquid con-
tainment, they are also vulnerableto damage from a numberof
other loadings including:

- Radiation from adjacent tanks or equipment fires

- Inplant generated missiles

- Explant generated missiles

Nob$
.oirEnslon Xshal oqlal o. qcd h qlmof drnensloo yplrg trg
eqtvalnt tFad In LNG ol lh prcsg|r h dr6 y{or space abovg
tho fouH.
ea@l: Whdl tl' holgfn ot tto.{k or htrDltrtV wrtt b aqrftl to,
or gleeler lha4 tl?e fir&nrm frqdd btol, X nay ltsw arv r&E
. ohpnsion X b hs dshnco ft!.n f|e hnsr wall ot fio contalnr b t|g
do6t froe ol he dko or lnpoundk|g wall
. otrcrFbn l.b t|e &tmco tom tls mdlnnm teld lsvl h he
conhlnsr b th6 lop ot thg dlka oa lrpoundrg vrarl.

Figure 17.15 Bund/distance relationship Figure 17.16 Double containment tank

ftom NFPA 59 and 59A From BS 7777 :1993, figurc 2

298 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


from the inner iank, but it is not intended to contain any
vapour resulting from product leakagefrom the innertank.
Figure '17.16 is a reproduction offigure 2 taken from BS 7777.
The'parallel definition from EN 1473 (LNG only) is;
Double containment tank
Adouble containmenttiank is designed and constructed so
that both the inner self-supporting primary coniainer and
the secondary container are capable of independently
containing the refrigerated liquid stored. To minimise the
poolofescaping liquid, the secondarycontainer should be
located at a distance not exceeding 6m from the primary
conGtrner.
(r8ulatd)
liq'rd
Figure 17.17 Double containment tank
From EN 1473, tlgue H3
Figuro 17.18 A 50.000 m3 capacity double conbinment type LNG tank for Brit-
isi cas at the lsleof Grain
Courtesy of Advantica
17 Loq tengate gd4E 7E
The primary container coniains the reftilecated lilil l'}-
der normal operating conditions. The seconday cs>
tainer is intended to contain any leakage of the
refrigerated liquid, but it is not intended to contain y
vapour resulting from this leakage.
Note: Examples of double containmenttanks are given in fig-
ure H3.
Note: Figure H3 does not imply that the secondary containr
is necessarily as high as the primary conbiner.
Figure 17.17 is a reproduction offigure H3 taken from EN 1473-
Again it is clear that the two documents are in close accord on
this matter. lt is interesting that the Codes have decided that
the point where single containment becomes double contain-
mentwhen the remote bund wall moves towards the liquid con-
tainer and becomes taller in accordance with the NFPA59 and
59A rules, is reached when the spacing between the bund and
liquid containing tank is 6m. This seems a sensible choice and
the tank shown in Figure 17.18, which is one of a series of
50,000 m3 capacity LNG ianks builtfor British Gasas partofthe
UK peak shaving system, uses 6 m for this spacing. Figure
17.19 shows two LPG tanks with prestressed concrete outer
tanks. The spacing between the steeland concretetanks is less
that 6 m in this case.
The design of the bund wall, which for the single containment
types oftanks was a low structure made from earth, reinforced
earth or reinforced concrete, has now become a more demand-
ing task. As has been mentioned in Reference 77.5, it is now
not usualto require the bundwallto be designed forthe sudden
failureofthe liquid container. Despite this, the gradualiilling of
the bund resulting from a slow leakfrom the innertankwhich is
considered fullto capacity at the time ofthe incident is still a de-
manding criteria.
Some bund walls are of metallic construction. The majority of
bund walls are of prestressed concrete. The "Preload" exter-
nally wire-wound type of wallwas a popular choice for this mm-
ponent for many years. The circumferential prestressing was
applied to the concrete wall by an externalwinding of a single
strand whilstthe vertical prestressing was applied by macalloy
bars cast into the wall. Figure 17.20 shows the wire winding in
progress for such a wall.
The alternative arrangement for bund walls uses embedded
tendons for the circumferential prestressing. lt is not usual to
apply a vapour linerto the innersurfaces ofthis concretewallso
that in the event ofthe inner tank failure, the permeability of the
concrete wall would allow small volumes of product vapour to
escape. This is not viewed as posing a problem. The construc-
tion of thejoint between the base slab (usually reinforced con-
Figure 17.'19 Two 50,000 m'double containment tank for LPG
Courtesv of Antwen Gas Terminal Nv
STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 299
 1 7 Low tempemture stomge tanks

Figti.e 17.2'la Double containment type tank

FiguE 17.20 Wire winding of a concrete bund
Courtesy of Preload lnc.

crete) and the bund wall has been the subject of debate and
controve rsy for a numberofyears. The prime contenders being
the siiding, pinned and fixed joints. This is the subject of more
deiailed comment in Chapter 18.
The space between the bund walland the liquid containing tank
(Figure 17.1 7) or the insulation protection outer tiank can either
be lefr open to the atmosphere or be closed off by the applica-
tion ofsome type ofweathersealing roof. The open topped wall
alternative must be fiUed with a suitable means ofremoving the
rainwater or the flre water which could accumulate in this
interspace and which could cause problems of corrosion or
floatiation. This water removal system should not prejudice the
ability of the outerwallto perform its product liquid containment
duties in the event of an inner tank leak or failure.
Consequentlythe tank illustrated in Figure 17.18 had a system
which mllected the interspace rainwater into a substiantial
sump and pumped it out over the 19m high bund wallto a suit-
able external drain. The closed top alternative must be fitted Figure 17.21b Full containment lype tank
with a suitable wealherproof and long lasting roof whilst still
having provision for removal of any water accumulation in the better value for money, i.e- better containment at the same
interspace. This solution has been used most frequenflyfor liq- once.
uid ammonia storage and the problems associated with the
provision of a suitable roof are discussed in Chapter 21.
17.8 Full containment systems
lf double contiainment systems are to be used forthe storage of
producb whosevapour is heavierthan air at ambient tempera- The definition taken from BS 7777 is:
tures (i.e. LPG), careful consideration must be given to the Full containment tank
monitoring of the space between the tank and the outerwallfor
A double tank designed and constructed so that both the
the potentially dangerous accumulatons of product vapoul:
innertank and the outertank are capable of independenfly
Double containment systems are quite unusual these days. containingthe refrigeratedliquidstored. Theoutertankof
This may wellbe due to the relative costs ofdouble vs full con- wall should be 1m to 2m dishnce from the inner iank.
tainment systems. lf the two tanks shown in Figure 17.21 are
The inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid under nor-
comDareo:
mal operating conditions. The outer roof is supported by
- The inner 9% nickel steel tanks are the same the outer tank. The outer tank is intended to be caDable
both of coniaining the reffigerated liquid and of conholled
- The insulation systems are the same venting ofthe vapour resulting from product leakage after
a credible event.
The concrete walls are similar
Examples of fufl containment tanks are given in Figure ,17.22,
- The base slabs/base heating are similar
which is a reproduction of flgure 3frcmBS 7777.
- The outershell in 17.21a is deleted
The parallel definition taken from EN 1473 is:
- The wall and base liner in 17.21b is added
Full containment tank
- The in-tank pumping system/fittings/pipework are similar A tank designed and constructed so that both self-sup-
porting primarycontiainerand the secondarycontainerare
- The roof/suspended decks are similar
capable of independentlycontaining the refrigerated liguid
The overall result is that both solutions willcost aboutthe same stored and forone ofthem its vapour Thesecondarycon-
and iake similartimes to construct. Consequently itwould seem tainer can be lm to 2m distiance from the Drimarv con-
the obvious choice to choose the full containment oDtion as tainer.

3OO STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 LgLt
"= "t ::: ---= :-'
17

The primary container contains the retrigeraie.3 :, : ,--

der normal operating condilions. The outer.3c' s s-:_
ported by the secondary container. The seca-::-.
container shall be capable both of contarning re .e-::j-
ated liquid and ofcontrolled venting ofthe vapou..es_: -.:
from product leakage after a credible event.
Figure 17.23 is a reproduction of figure H4 from EN 1473.
Full containment represents the final step in the transfomato-
ofthe bund wall. Initially a low and distant bund of earth or reii-
forced concrete impounding a shallow pool of product liquicj ci
large d iameter open to the atmosphere (single contarn merr . :
has moved inwards to become a tall bund wall constructec
close (i.e. < 6m) to the primary liquid contajnment, and ir-
pounding a much deeper pool of product liquid of much smaller
diameter, again essentially open to the atmosphere (doubie
containment), and now it has further moved inwards to become
the outer tank itself, spaced between .1 and 2 m from the pri-
mary liquid containment, and impounding a deep pool of prod-
uct liquid of small diameter which is no longer open to the atmo-
sphere (full contiainment). As has been mentioned eadier this
change brings about significant improvements in safety. The
post leakage tank fire is no longer considered a credible event.
Most storage facilities or terminals house a number of storage
tanks and the adjacent tank fire has always been one ofthe ma-
Jor tank spacing criteria. This is explici y recognised by EN
'1473 which in Tables 1 and 5, shown in Figure
17.24, indicates
the maximum radiation exposure figures and failure scenarios
for difierent types of storage tanks. lt should be noted that to
get into the full containment category this Code will require the
tank to have a concrete roof.
It is generally agreed that the elimination of Denetrations
through the inner and outer tank walls and bottoms is a orereo-
uisite of full containment systems. These connections would
Figufe 17.22 Examples offull containment tanks represent points ofweakness in the containment from the point
Fron BS 7777 : 1993, figure 3 of view of mechanical and structural design, as well as provid-
ing the undesirable possibility of bypassing the containment
system via local damage to liquid connections outside the outer
containment envelope and before the first isolation valve in the
connected pipeline. This in turn requires the use of roof pene_
trations for all connections to the tank and the use of in.tank
pumps for liquid removal. These pumps and their associated
equipment are discussed further in Chapter 19.
For LNG storage in particular, where the outercontainer is con-
structed from concrete, two further safety enhancing elements
have become very much de rigueur.
The first is the secondary bottom. This is laid beneath the in-
ner containment bottom, eitherabove orwithin the thickness of
the base insulation. lts function is to prevent possible leakage
from the inner tank bottom from penetrating the base thermil
insulation and causing a cold spot on the reinforced concrete
base slab, be this ofthe on-ground or elevated tvpe. A localised
cold spot in an otherwise ambient temperature base slab of this
type brings the possibility of through-thickness crackinq and
consequent product leakage. This is discussed further in ahap_
ter 18.
The second is the bottom corner protection system. Leak_
age of product from the prlmary container may well result in a
warm outertank base slab and a cold outerwall. This combina-
tion of events, partjcularly for tanks of the fixed bottom corner
design (the majority of tanks currenfly in service or under con_
struction), will result in shear stresses in the lower part of the
concrete outer wall which cannot be adequatelv catered for in
the design without the creation of through thickness cracking.
The application of a Section of thermal insulation to the lower3
to 5m of the inner face of the outer wall, impermeable to the
leaking product liquid, will convert some of ihe shear to local
Figure 17.23 Examples of full containmenl ianks
bending and provide a designable situation. Thjs is also dis_
Fron EN 1743, tigurc H4
cussed in Chapter'18.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 301

1 7 Low temperature storcge tanks

Eqolpmc tDrtdcbourdory UirluoD

tharod
rrdhtlon
tlur (tw/E2)
Concrete outr surface of adiacent 32
storage tar {9: unpnrtectedl) 3) or
behind thermal protectionz)
Metat outr surface of a4iacent storage 15
tanlG: unprptectedu, or bhind thennal
protectironz), (see P3)
The outer sudaces of a4iacent prssue
siorage vessls and process facilities
(see P.3)

C,onhol room, Maintnance workshops,

laboratories, warchouss, etc. (see P.2)
Adninistative buildings (see P.2)
'r For prestressed concrete tanks, maximum radianon nuxes
may be determined by the requirements given in ]{.6.2.
2) Such
facilitjes are protFctFd by means of walcr sprays, fire
proofing, radiation screens or similar sysiems.
3l Prolaction is pmvided
by spacinA alone.

lypc of tlrt All metdllc or PreatrGs3ed

only wlth
metdllc roof (lnclurtlnS
corcrcte roo0
Single contalment l)
Double containnnt
F\ll contaiuneni 3)

Membrane
Clyogenic conqete 2)
Figure'17.25 Examples of membrane tanks
Sphedcal r)
From EN 1473, figure H5
Ingtomd 2) 3)
brane tanks as a separate category and gives the following
Scensaio to be conddercd
definition:
r) ln ctse of collrpse of rh t r* pdnEry contaimr, fue pool
size conspon& to dre lrnpounding area. "Amembranetank should be designed and constructed so
2)In crs of cotlqe of the tank rcot, the 6re pool size that the primary container, constituted by a membrane, is
concsponds to the secondsy c
taintr capable of containing both the liquefied gas and its vapour
3)
No colap6e lB considerd for thee tank b?es. under normal operating conditions and the concrete sec-
ondary container, which supports the primary contiainer,
Figure 17.24 Exposufe figures and failure scenariosfor differcntlypes of should be capable of containing all the liquefied gas stored
in the primary container and of controlled venting of the
From EN 1473. tables 1 and 5 vapour resulting from product leakage ofthe innertank. The
vapour of the primary container is coniained by a steel roof
liner, which forms with the membrane an integral gas tight
17.9 Membrane tanks containment. The action of the liquefied gas acting on the
primary container (the metal membrane) is transferred di-
The membrane solution for low temperature liquid storage is rectly to the pre-stressed concrete secondary container
widelyused in the fields of marine transport, above ground land through the load bearing insulation.'
based systems and in-ground land based systems. lt also has
Examples of membrane tanks from EN 1473, figure H5 are
excellent prospects ofapplications in floating storage and grav-
shown in Figure 17.25.
ity based storage systems, a number of which are being ac-
tively considered at this time. The Japanese RPIS Code considers membrane typetanks but
is only applicable within Japan.
A further potent'al area of application is in below ground lined
mined rock caverns. A pilot scheme is currently underway in The forthcoming Eurocode on low temperature tanks (prEN
South Korea and this is described;n Section 17.9.5. 14620) which will replace BS 7777 has also chosen to recog-
nise membrane tanks and provides detailed rules forthe design
The essential difference between the membrane system and and construction of such tanks.
the conventional systems for liquid storage lie in the separation It is interesting just how similar the developments of the marine
of the structural support function for the product liquid and the transport (i.e. liquid gas carriers) and the land based storage
liquid tightness function. This separation and how it is achieved systems are. In gas carrier design there are two main
is discussed in 17.9.3 below. The relative merits ofthe conven- philosophies:
tional and the membrane systems are discussed in '17.9.5
below The use of rigid tanks supported within the structure ofthe ship.
Spheres of the Moss Rosenburg type or prismatic tanks such
lvlembrane tanks forabove ground use are notwithin the scope as those designed and manufactured by lHl. A tanker of the
of codes such as API 620 ot BS 7777. NFPA 59A includes spherical liquid contiainertype is illustrated in Figure 17.26. The
membrane containers in its definition section but provides little protrusion ofthe spherical tanks through the deck of the ship is
more information on the subject. EN 1473 recognises mem- clear to see. The spherical tanks require support at or close to

302 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Figufe 17.26 A carrier ofthe sphedcal iank type
Figute 17.27 A carrier oflhe membrane tank type
Courtesy of Universal Shipbuilding Corporation
their equator and are relatively inefficient in making use of the
available space within the ship's hull.
The use of membrane technology supported bythe structure of
the ship. This solution is much more efficient in terms of space
utilisation. The liquid containing tanks can be tailored to the
shape of the ship's hull. The distribution of loads from the tanks
to the (usually double hulled) ship's structure is more efficient
than is the case for spherical or prismatic rigid tanks. Atanker of
the membrane type is illustrated in Figurc 17 .27 .
These two philosophies are very much reflected in the land
based storage systems where the conventional self supported
tanks and the membrane solutions compete for territory Usu-
ally both are confined to the vertical cylindrical form for struc-
tural reasons. The ability ofthe membrane system to take other
shapes will bring possible advantages in the floating and GBS
areas of future activity.
17.9.1 Development history
The early work on membrane systems was directed towards
marine gas carriers, and in particular to LNG carriers. The first
liquid gas carriers had self supporting tanks and it was consid-
ered that this did not represent an ootimal solution in terms oJ
space utilisation.
Starting from a Norwegian patent, the French company SN
Technigaz developed a stainless steel membrane system. This
membrane had two sets ofcorrugations running at right angles
to one another. These corrugations acted like bellows allowing
the membrane to accept the thermal contraction stresses,
which would cause tensile failure in a flat membrane. The struc-
17 Low temperature storage tanks
tural support for the liquid could cleady not be supplied by the
flexible membrane itself, but came from the structure ofthe ship
itself by way of the load bearing insulation system. This insula-
tion was in the form of panels consisting of two layers of ply-
wood sandwiching a layer of a suitable insulation material. The
initial patents for this liquid storage system were filed in 1964.
During the same period of time, a second French company was
busy developing a different membrane concept. The company
was Gaz Transport and its solution to the problem was to use a
membrane made from a 36% nickel-64% iron alloy which was
originally patented by lmphy in 1896 and is more commonly
known as Invar. As well as being physically strong and capable
of being welded, this material has the added merit of possess-
ing an almost zero coefficient of thermal contraction across a
wide range oftemperatures. This makes it idealfor ihis purpose
in thatalmost no thermal contraction stresseswould be present
and consequently no corrugations would be required. This liner
again needed structural support from the ship's structure via
the load bearing insulation. The original patents for this system
were filed in 1963 and 1965.
The technology for both of these liner concepts was licensed to
a number of shipbuilding companies around the world. Up to
date the LNG tanker fleet consists of 141 shiDS. 68 of the two
membrane types, 71 using the Moss spheres and two using a
different rigid self-supporting tank concept. There are 54 ships
under construction of which 38 are of the membrane type and
16 ofthe Moss sphere type. Options existfor a further 25 ships
of which 20 are ofthe membrane type and 5 ofthe moss sphere
type.
The first move to adopt the membrane system for land based
storage systems was taken by SN Technigaz in the early '1970s
with two above ground liquid ethylene tanks of relatively modest
capacity being completed in France in 1972. Technigaz contin-
ued to develop its system and completed two 120,000 m3
above ground LNG tanks for Gaz de France at Montoir de
Bretagne in 1980 and ten 100,000 m3 above ground LNG tanks
at Pyeong Taek in South Korea from 1986 to 1998.
The move from marine to land-based storage systems for the
Invartype of membrane did not come about and the reasons for
this failure to move into whatwould seem to be attractive alter-
native markets is something ofa mystery There appears to be
no technical reason whythis transition was not made. Perhaps
it comes down to no one being interested in pursuing the mat-
ter The French Code for lowtemperature above or semi-buried
tanks (Reference 77.26) clearly suggests that the Invar mem-
brane system is suitable for this purpose and indeed provides
specific rules and requirements for the design and construction
of this type of membrane. The Technigaz membrane system
was the subject of a number of improvements around 1990.
These improvements addressed amongst other things various
concerns of its customers and costs of the system. These are
described in Section 17.9.3.
The next move in the historical develooment of the membrane
system was its adoption for use in in-ground storage tanks.
Again the system chosen was the Technigaz membrane. The
technologywas licensed to various Japanese and Korean com-
panies. One of the Japanese licensees (NKK) has completed
20 in-ground membrane tanks up to the end of2002. Other Jap-
anese companies (l\y'H1, lH I and KHI) have developed their own
membrane systems for land-based in,ground use.
Currently the biggest LNG tanks in the world are of the
in-ground membrane type at Negishi and Ohgishima terminals
in Japan. In-ground membrane tanks are described in more
detail in Section 17.12.
STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 303
1 7 Low temperature storage tanks

17.9.2 Detailed description of the land-based mem- 3ru@fuc^no'|'Mu

brane system

17.9.2.1 The metallic membrane

The material used forthe stainless steelcorrugated membrane
is generally 1.2 mm thick ASTM A 240 type 304. The corruga-
tions are of two different sizes and are created at right angles to
one another. The manufacturing techniques to produce this
complex component are cold forming or stamping. The cold
forming method is considered to have certain advantages in KNOT OEIAIIs
terms of residual stress and plate thinning.
Figure'17.28 shows a typicalabove ground tank wall panel after
manufacture and indicated the sizes ofthe large and small cor-
rugations. A wall panel would be approximately 3280 mm x
1150 mm in size. The seriously clever element ofthe syslem is
the detailed design and configuration ofthe area where the cor-
rugations cross. This is termed "the knof'. The pitch between
the largersized corrugations is 560 mm. These run verticallyon
the tank shell and radially on the tank bottom. For the smaller
size of corrugations the pitch is 650 mm. These run circumfer-
entially on both the tank shell and bottom. The design method-
ology for the membranes of above ground tanks will appear
publically in a code ior the first time in the forthcoming
Euronorm for low temperature tanks.
For in-ground tanks, most of which are either located in Japan,
Korea and Taiwan and have been designed and constructed by
Japanese contractors, the details ofthe system is slighfly modi-
fied. The membrane is 2.0 mm thick at the behest ofthe Japa- Figure 1/.28 Typicl above ground tank wail panel, indicating lhe targe and
nese utility companies and the national regulaiory authorities. smaI corrugatons
The corrugationsare of similarform butare biggerand pitched Coutesy of SN Technigaz
at 1360 mm in eitherdirection and areformed using thestamp-
ing method instead of the cold forming technique.
For marlne service the membrane is again 1.2 mm thick, but
due to the more onerous fatigue environment caused by cyclic
elongation due to the ships hull deforming, the corrugations are
more closely pitched at 340 mm x 340 mm.
Quite recently the Technigaz membrane has undergone some
improvements as mentioned above. The main change relating
specifically to the metallic membrane is that the corrugations
are now pitched at 680 mm in both directions and advantage
has been taken of the stainless steel manufacturers ability to
produce largersheets. Fora large tankthis latterchange willre-
duce the number of sheets in the tank wall by some 23% and
the lengths of welded seam by 8%. The bottom of the tank
where the layout of the corrugations was previously radial and
circumferential, has now been modified such that the standard
square pitch panels can be used for the majority of the base
with transition pieces derived from marine practice used at the
bottom corner. For a large tank this will reduce the length of
welded seam by some 39%.
The method of securing the membrane sheets to the support-
ing thermal insulation js by way of stainless steel inserts which
are anchored jnto the plwood inner facing of the insulation
panels. The membrane is then welded to these inserts through
holes in the membrane itself. This is illustrated in Figure 17.29.
The wall-to-base detail of the membrane system involves the
use of special panel components and the top of the wall is
sealed to the concrete wallor its liner by a suitable detail. Fig- Figure 17.29 N,{ethod ofsecuring the membrane sheets lo supporting thermal
ures 17.30 and 1 7.31 show typical details ofthe bottom and top
corner of an LNG tank. The membrane system has a limited Courtesy of SN Technigaz
ability to cater for local loads such as may be caused by the
welding. The development ofthe automated welding system for
need to support or guide pump columns or stilling wells. This
the installation of membrane sheets is an essential part of the
necessitates special details such as that illustrated in Figure
overall system. lt is based on a TIG method with no added filler
17.32.
metal. The welding system is supported by ra'ls which attach to
Figure 17.33 shows a viewinside a large LNG tankof the mem- the membrane liner surface at the knots using a specially de-
brane type and Figure 17.34 shows details ofthe corrugations signed clamping device. Post weld inspection is carried out af-
and "the knot'. The joining of the membrane sheets is by lap ter installation of the complete membrane by conducting an

304 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 17 Low tempenturc storage tanks

F
--l

Figure 17.30 The wall-to-base detail of lhe membrane system

Coulesy of SN Technigaz

Figure 17.32 Special quirements forsupportng tocal toads

Courtesy of SN Technigaz

Figu.e 17.31 Containment sysiem bottom-to-wa junction

Courtesy of SN Technigaz

ammonia test. This is a technique commonly used in the nu-

clear industry and consists of introducing a mixture of 20% am- Figure 17.33 Aview inside a large LNG membrane type tank
monia vapour and 80% nitrogen into the insulation space. Any Courlesy of JFE Engineeing Corpontion
leakage is detected on the inner surface of the weld seams by
the application of a sensitive paint which changes colour from
yellowto blue in the presence of ammonia vapour. Helium leak
testing is also used as an overall leakage test for the Invar type
LNG carriers and for repair testing on the stainless steel
membrane type of LNG carriers.

Unlike the free sianding types of primary containers, the mem-

brane which serves as the primary tightness barrierfor the liq-
uid but not as its structural support, is not subject to a hydro-
static test. A hydrosbtic test of the prestressed concrete outer
tank is required and this can be to a water equivalent to 1.25
times the weight ofthe innertank levelcontents up to the full liq-
uid height in addition to a pneumatic test of 1.2S tifles the de-
sign pressure. This test is obviously carried out prior to the in- Figure 17.34 Details ofthe corrugations and 'the knot',
stallation of the insulation and of the membrane ibelf. Coulesy of JFE Engineeing Corporation

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 305

17 Low tempenturc storcge tanks
During service the insulation space behind the membrane is
filledwith nitrogen gas. This insulation space is constantly mon-
itored for the lifetime of the tank for traces of the stored product
vaoourwhichwould indicate a leak in the membrane liner. In the
event that such an indication were found, the nitrogen flow rate,
which in normal operation is very low, would be increased to
sweep the insulation space to attempt to ensure that the gas
concentration is maintained below30% oJthe lowerflammable
limit for the oroduct in question.
17.9.2.2 The insulation system
Forthe tank base and the tank wallthe basic insulation materi-
als are either polyvinyl chloride foam (PVC) or polyurethane
foam (PUF). The densities of the materials used vary depend-
ing upon the liquid and vapour loading in the different parts of
the tank. For PVC foam densities of between 65 and 90 kg/mJ
are typical whilst for PUF densities of between 65 and
'120 kg/m3 are used. This insulation is supplied to the site in fac-
tory made panels with the insulating material sandwiched be-
tween layers of plywood. The liquid side face plywood is gener-
ally 12 mm thick and the concrete side may be of the same
thickness or thinner (typically I mm). A typical wall insulation
panel would be 1930 mm x 540 mm. The thickness of the insu-
lation componentwould depend on the service and the required
heat leak, but a typicalvalues using PVC foam for LNG service
would be 210 mm to 350 mm depending on the heat leak re-
ouirements.
The wall insulation panels are attached to the inner surface of
the concrete by two means. Firstly 10 mm stainless steel studs
are fitted into the concrete priortothe panelerection. There are
usuallytvvo studs per panel. Secondly a bonding mastic is used.
The holes where the studs penetrate the panels are filled with
plugs of PUF The gaps between the adjacent panels are filled
with PUF or compressed glass wool. To ensure that the con-
crete wall is resistant to the ingress of moisture from the atmo-
sphere, the internalsurface is coated with a suitable primerand
moisture barrier prior to the hydrostatic test. Atypical arrange-
ment ofthe wallinsulation erection sequence is shown in Figure
17 .34.
Figure 17.35 A typical arrangement of the wall inslllallon erection sequence
Couftesy of SN Technigaz
306 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
The roofinsulation is glassfibre laid on and supported by a sus-
pended deck of either the flat plate type or the corrugated sheet
and structural section type.
For a 100,000m3 LNG tank, a typical design heat leak for a
membrane type tank intended for an import terminal would be
between 0.08% and 0.1% ofthe full tank contents per day. For
an exportterminal heat leaks ofbetvveen 0.05% and 0.08% are
possible.
As is the case for the membrane itself various other improve-
ments have been made to the system:
. The vaDour barrieron the innersurface ofthe concrete tank
was improved in its crack bridging abilities bythe addition of
a glass cloth layerand in its applicability by an improvement
in formulation.
. The insulation panelsize hasbeen increased in linewiththe
increase in the membrane sheet size. The standard wall
panel is now 2020 mm x 1340 mm instead of 1930 mm x
540 mm.
. The ability of the membrane system to resist the effects of
liquid leakage better into the insulation space have been
made. The possibility of through thickness cracking at the
base ofthe ore-stressed concrete wallwhere built in bottom
corners are used has been discussed in Section 17.8. To
avoid the harmful effects of the low product temperatures
on the inner surface of the concrete tank, the insulation of
the base and lower 5 m of the wall is modified. A liquid-tight
material is provided on the insulation paneljoints and on the
inner plywood face. This liquid{ight barrier is very much
equivalent in function to the secondary bottom and the
lowershell protection used for the free standing types offull
containment tanks described above.
17.9.2.3 The outer tank
The outer tank base slab is constructed of reinforced concrete,
most usually ground-based, but occasionally elevated on piles
or stub piles. The ground-based alternative would incorporate
base heating ofthe electrical or other types. The outertankwall
is ofthe post tensioned type and the joint between the walland
the base slab is of the fixed or encastre type. The vertical
pre-stress is applied by tendons in U-shaped ducts. The hori-
zontal pre-stress is applied by tendons in ducts within the wall
running between a number (usually four) of stressing but-
tresses. Traditionaltyconcretes ofthe 40 - 50 MPa compressive
strength grades are used.
The roof is most usuallyofthe reinforced concrete type. Asteel
sheeting supported by a structural framework is erected at the
fulltank height, or on the tank base slab and airor mechanically
lifted into place. With the assistance ofinternal air pressure, this
supports the newly placed concrete (either in one or two pours)
until it becomes self-supporting.
lmprovements have been made in this area too. These are
mainly in the use of stronger concretes giving in addition to in-
creased strength, advantages in improved permeability and
faster curing times.
One of the membrane tanks at the Pyeong Taek LNG terminal,
is shown in Figure 17.36, with an outer bund, which would now
be considered redundant.
17.9.3 Comparison of above ground membrane
tanks and conventional tanks
As mentioned previously, this discussion has been ongoing for
a considerable period of time. lt would not seem helpful to ex-
press a view on this complex and multifaceted argurnent, but
rather to indicate where the differing views can be found ex-
oressed in full in various references.
 17 Low temperature storcge tanks

Figure 17.36 Membrane tank with redundant bund at the Peyong Taek LNG

Cowlesy of SN Technigaz
Figure '17.37 A view inside the test tank

The argumentsfor parity of containment betweenthe two types Courtesy of SN Technigaz

of tanks can be found in References 17.27 and 17.28.
The French AGT Code (Reference 17.26) appears to express a
view in one of its tigures that above ground membrane tanks
constitute single containment whereas in-ground membrane
tanks are full containment. This document has rather been left
bythewayside jn recentyearsand is notas infl uential as itonce
was.
References 17.10 and 7Z 76 require the primary and second-
ary containment storage components for both double and full
containment ianks to be "capable of independently containing
the product liquid". The membrane system's separation of liq-
uid tightness function from the structural support function is
perceived by the "inequality" camp as not fulfilling this "inde-
pendent' requirement.
One difference which should be aired in this discussion of
equivalence is the fact that the outer concrete tank forthe mem-
brane type is hydrostiatically tested and that for the 9% nickel
steel/preslressed concrete type is not. This test can be ex-
pected to reveal any major construction defects in the outer
Figure 17.38 Shows the overall facilit
Counesy of LNG Joumal
tank.
Notwithstanding this long, and occasionally acrimonious dis-
cussion, it would seem that most users of these two types of
storage tank are coming to accept their equivalence.

17.9.4 The lined mined rock cavern initiative tor fu-

ture LNG storage

The possibility of storing LNG in below ground cavems has

been discussed for many years. The early attempls to use un-
lined vertical cylindrical holes in the ground were not a success,
and all but one have now been decommissioned and filled in.
The main problem lay in the extensive fissuring ofthesunound-
ing ground giving rise to excessive heat leaks and an ever-ex-
tending area of frozen ground around the bnks.
The use of a suitable impervious barrier would solve some of
these problems, but the behaviour of the water, ice and rock
surrounding a mined cavern was alwaysan area of u ncertajnty.
Recently, a group of companies has joined together to design
Figure 17.39 Asimple P & | D of the facility
and construct a pilotfacilityto investigate the possible problem
Couftesy of LNG Journal
areas. G6ostock Co., Saipem.Technigaz of France and S.K.
Engineering & Conshuction Ltd of South Korea, have come to- Provision will be made to drain the surrounding rock and the fa-
gether to pool their considerable skills in in-ground and mem- cility will be heavily supplied with inskumentation. The tank wi
brane storage systems. They are constructing a I IO m3 pilot be cooled with liquid nitrogen at -196 'C.
tank at Deajon in South Korea.
Figure 17.37 shows a view inside the test tank, Figure 17.38
This will be a mined cavern some 20 m belowground. The rock shows the overall facility and Figure 17.39 is a simple piping &
faces will be faced with reinforced concrete and the Technigaz illustration drawing, (P & | D) of the facitity. (See Reference
membrane and insulation syslem will be applied to this lining. 17.17.)

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 307

17 Low temperaturc storage tanks

17.10 Spherical tanks

In addition to the spherical tanks discussed above being used
for the storage ofthose products which can be maintained in liq-
uid form at ambient temperature by the imposition of pressure
alone, or at semi-refrigerated temperatures bya combination of
low temperature and pressure, there have been proposals to
store various lowtemperature liquids in spherical vessels under
fully-refrigerated conditions- These schemes have been almost
exclusively aimed at the storage of LNG
Some 50% of the world's LNG carriers are of the skirt-sup-
ported spherical vessel type, so it is no surprise that these
schemes to use land-based spheres come from the world of
ship building.
one such scheme is the subject of Refere nce 17.29.J|1is papel
proposed spherical vessels of80,000 m3 capacity, which gives
a diameter of around 54 m. The spherical vessel was to be con-
Figure 17.40 A cross-section oflhe proposed scheme for spherical
structed from either 9% nickel steel to ASTIV1 A 553 or of alu- skirt-suDooded tanks
minium alloy to ASTM B 209 type 5083-0. The design codes
were a mixtufe of the ship design IMO Codes and the estab-
lished pressure vessel Code ASIVE section Vlll. Briefly the de-
sign conditions were:
. Design temperature -163 "C
. lnternal design pressure 0.25 bar
. Vacuum design pressure -0.10 bar
. Product density 450 kg/m3
. Boil off 0.054% of the full contents/day
. Hydrotest - partial to 66% liquid fill capacity
The vesselwas to be supported at its equatoras is the case for
conventional ships'tanks and to have a thermal insulation sys-
tem consisting of polystyrene foam of 500 mm thickness. To re-
duce the heat in leakage at the skirt support, a stainless steel Figure 17.41 Examples of self-delivering anangements
plate some 2500 mm in height was to be placed between the
stiffened supporton the vesselitselfand the concrete supports. tanks ofthe same capacity, and thiswas its main attraction. The
Thus the heat leak at this pointwas reduced to 10% ofthe total. final costs would be expected to be similarto or greaterthan its
comparable conventional rivals. Despite the volume of effort
The only connections to the sphere were to be in the top cap put intothisscheme, itdid notgetoffthe ground and none have
where liquid inlet and vapour outlet connections would be lo- been built to date.
cated. Liquid removal was to be by the use of in{ank pumps
which would also penetrate the vesselthrough the top cap. The A variation on this proposal was to use the facilities which had
outerconcrete protection was notto be designed to provide liq- been set up around the world to manufacture the spherical
uid containment in the event of an inner tank failure as this was tanks used in the LNG carriers. These are highly sophisticated
declared impossible due to good understanding of the design semi-automated factories which were a necessary part of the
and behaviour of the spherical vessel, much better by implica- tanker building industry. The obvious advantage was that they
tion than would be the case for a vertical cylindrical bnk. could construct spherical vessels quickly, cheaply and to high
standards. The disadvantage was that the spherical vessels
This argument would attract little support today. The evidence used in the carrierswere ofa smaller unitsize than the 100,000
for the need to design this concrete structure for the effects of m3 plus which would normally be required on land-based stor-
adjacent tank fires was, by modern viewpoints, similarly sus- age facilities.
pect. As presented the scheme represented single contain-
ment by today's standards. A cross-section of the proposed A "normal" ship's tank would be some 35,000 m3 in useable ca-
scheme is shown in Figure 17.40. pacity. Stretching the production facilities to their maximum size
limit and adding an equator parallel course could perhaps in-
Three alternative construction proposalswere suggested in the
crease this to 45,000 m3. In recent years, for LNG facilities in
paper:
particular, construction time is ofren equally, and on occasions,
. Prefabrication ofsections ofthe sphericalvessel in a ship- more imDortantthan finished cost. The extra revenue, which an
yard for normal assembly on the job site into the concrete early plant commissioning can earn during the time saved, may
outer vessel. well outweigh additional costs of such novel storage solutions
. The spheres and their supporting structure to be assem- Self-delivering arrangements such as integrated barges
bled inthe shipyard and skidded onto transport to site (prob- (placed into the final position by a dry docking procedure) and
ably suitable barges) and skidding off to be united with the attention to superior containment systems would seem to pres-
part constructed outer concrete vessel. ent an attractive option for the industry
. The comolete structure is fabricated and assembled at a Summarising the advantages and disadvantages;
ship or offshore yard suitable for deliveryto site as self-floa!
ing units or by heavy lifr ships (Figure 17.41). Advanbges:
The orooosed construction schedule of 30 months or better . Factory production ensures fast delivery. cheapness and
was arguably a little better than for equivalent conventional high quality

308 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


. Site civil work and vessel production are parallel activities
. System is pre-designed
. Units could be moved to another site if reouired
. Units could be pre-ordered and stockpiled to further save
further time
Disadvantages:
. Unit size too small
. More sets of pumps and instrumentation required
Despite the apparent attractions, this scheme also failed to
bear fruit. The reasons why are not immediately apparent.
17.1 1 Concrete/concrete tanks
Prestressed concrete has become the most commonly used
materialforthe outercontainers of full containment lowtemper-
ature tanks, both ofthe conventional 9% nickel steel innertank
type and the membrane type. lt is no surprise that the question
was asked "Why not use pre-stressed concrete for the inner
tanks?" What is surprising is just how long ago this question
was asked and how early the flrst development and test work
aimed at determining the lowtemperature properties of this ma-
terial were carried oul.
17.11.1 History of cryogenic concrete tanks
For many years, especially in the USA, water storage tanks
have been constructed using reinforced concrete. The reinforc-
ing to resistthe dominanthoop loadings was frequently applied
by the wire winding method. This consists of winding a large
number of high tensile steel wires around the outside of a con-
crete cylindrical tank. The wires pass through a die which in-
creases the tensile load in the wire whilst increasing its strength
due to the cold forming which takes place. The wires are fre-
quently protected from corrosion and othersources ofpotential
damage by the application of a sprayed concrete of the
"Shotcrete" type.
Any vertical prestressing is applied using internal tendons lo-
cated in the centre of the concrete wall.
ln 1950, the Linde division of the Union Carbide Corporation
began an investigation into the possible use of pre-stressed
concrete for the storage of lowtemperature liquids such as liq-
uid oxygen. By January 1951 test reports were available which
showed thatthe thermaland mechanical properties of wire rein-
forced concrete improved down to -196 'C.
Based on this data, Preload Inc., a company who specialised in
pre-stressed concrete structures, desi gned and constructed for
Linde, a double-walled tank of 2,650 m3 capacity, for the stor-
age of liquid oxygen. This tank remained in service until 1985
when it was decommissioned and demolished. ln the late
'1960s the American Gas Association initiated a test
programme. This work was conducted jointly by the Institute of
Gas Technology and the Portland CementAssociation and was
reported in Reference 77.30.
Esso Research and Engineering produced technical specifica-
tionsiortwo40,000 m3 double wallconcrete LNG tanksfor GAz
Natural (now Enagas). These tanks were constructed at the
LNG import terminal in Barcelona and went into service in
1968. These tanks have been in continuous successful service
since that date. ln 1981 a similarLNG tank of80.000 m3caoac-
itywas constructed on the same site and has given similarly un-
troubled service.
In 1974 the Philadelphia Gas Works in the USAcommissioned
two peakshaving LNG ianks each of92,500 m3 capacity. These
too have been in uninterrupted trouble-free service. Figure
17.42 shows these tanks during construction. Despite the un-
1 7 Low temperature storage tanks
Figure 17.42 Construction of a peak shaving LNG tank
Coutesy of Preload Inc.
blemished record of service, this type of tank has not enjoyed
the success that it deserved.
Some years ago MW Kellogg, who in the eyes of many in the
LNG field, is a major league arbiter of what is technically ac-
ceptiable, gave the concrete/concrete concept its seal of ap-
proval. The technology for this concept was owned by preload
Inc. in the USAand is now in the hands ofa newcompany called
Cryocrete. Since 1998, Whessoe, (formerly Whessoe Interna-
tional Skanska), has had a license agreement with Cryocrete
and a number of changes to the basic design have been pro-
posed which will perhaps see a change in the fortunes for this
particular type of tank.
17.1 1.2 Details of concrete/concrete tanks
The Preload type ofvertical cylindricalwall has been described
in some detail in Section 17.8 where it has been used as liquid
containing high bunds for double containment systems of the
conventional type. This type of wall is used for both the inner
and outer tanks.
The base insulation in the central area ofthe tank bottom is usu-
ally PVC foam. Under the inner wall the insulation consists of
prefabricated blocks made from plywood and balsa wood,
which are subsequently sealed into a fibreglass shell. These
blocks are designed for the compressive loads arising from
self-weight and seismic conditions.
To allowthe innertank to contract radially durlng cooldown and
to accommodate shear loadings from seismic events, shear
keys are fitted to the underside of the annular plate and to the
topside ofthe secondary bottom. This arrangement is shown in
Figure 17.43.
The insulation between the two walls is site-exoanded Derlite. A
conventional steel plate and section roof is provided which
could form the outer roof in its own right, or provides the sup-
porting formwork for a reinforced concrete roof. The inner roof
is a suspended deck of one ofthe usual designs, which willsup-
port the glass fibre insulation. The outer wall has a carbon steel
vapour barrier which is installed close to the outer face and
compressed vertically by the vertical internal pre-stressing ten-
dons and circumferentially by the wire winding.
This arrangement is protected from the weather and other ex-
temalevents bya shotcrete layer. The slidingjoint between the
outerwblland the base.slab precludes the need for the bottom
corner thermal protection measures required to control the
shear stresses in the case of a built in corner detail described
above.
The annularand bottom plates are made from g% nickelsteel.
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 309
1 7 Low tempetature storage tanks
PRESTR:SSED COXCREI
Figure 17.43 Arangemenl for radial contraclion ofinnertank cooldown, using
17.11,3 Arguments for and against concrete/
concrete tanks
As was the case for the similar discussions relating to conven-
tionaland membrane tanks, a greatdeal has been written about
the subject, some of it objective and some less so emanating
from entrenched or self-interested view points. Ratherthan en-
ter into this ongoing fray, it is proposed to list the subject areas
with hopefully simple and non-partisan comments:
For:
o Cost
. Enables largertanks to be constructed. Current designs are
available uo to 250,000m3.
. lnner wall is stable under seismic axial compressive load-
ings.
. Concrete and concrete placing skills may provide advan-
tages in certain geographic areas over 9% nickel steel and
the metalworking skills required. lt mayforexample serve to
maximise the "in country" content work content
. The inner wall is better able to resist the external loadings
from the thermal insulation and may not require a resilient
blanket.
Against:
. Unfamiliar technology despite track record of satisfactory
service.
. Vulnerability of outer tank wire windlng to damage from ex-
ternal missiles, fire and corrosion.
. The space required for the wire winding machine means
that a wide interspace is required if simulianeous construc-
tion of the tvvo tanks is to be achieved, otherwise the inner
tank must be built and pre-stressed before the outertank is
constructed. This clearly has programme implications.
. Concerns relating to the ability of the shear keys to with-
stand high seismic loadings
. Concerns relating to the time required to decommission the
tank for internal insoection, should this be needed.
17.12 In-ground tanks
The three categories of in-ground tanks described in this Sec-
tion are what could be described as "true" in-ground systems.
There are a few examples of tanks, which at first glance would
seem to be candidates for this category, buton closerexamina-
tion prove not to be suitable.
The LNG storage tanks at both the Zeebrugge and the
Revithoussa import terminals are constructed with their bot-
310 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
toms well below the local grade levels, in the former case by
around one half of the shell height and in the latter case by al-
most the full shell height. In both cases the reason behind this
unusual and very expensive departure from normal practice
was because of planning restrictions on the elevations of the
tank profiles. Consequently what was constructed were con-
ventional full containment 9% nickel steel/pre-stressed con-
crete above ground tanks located in a purpose-built pit. The ad-
ditional containment and protection provided by the pit was a
bonus and not the maln objective of the exercise. This type of
tank is frequently described as the "in pit" type. Aphoto ofthe "in
pit" tanks at Revithoussa is shown in Figure 17.44.
Figure 17.44 The "in pil" LNG tanks at Revilhoussa lsland, Greece
Coutesy of Whessoe
17.12.1 In-ground membrane tanks
ln-ground membrane tanks are closely related to the above
ground membrane tanks described in Section 17 9- There are a
number oftanks ofthis design to be found in Japan, Korea and
Taiwan. The first in-ground LNG tank was built in Japan at the
Negeshi Terminal in Yokohama using the 1-2 mm thick stain-
less steel membrane technology licensed from SN Technigaz.
Later NKK had to develop a 2.0 mm thick membrane to comply
with new Japanese regulations.
A number ofother Japanese contractors (MHl, lHl and KHI) de-
veloped theirown membrane designs, which were similarto the
original SN Technigaz design. These companies have also de-
signed and constructed in-ground LNG tanks. The world's big-
g;st tank at 200,000 m3 capacity has been constructed in Ja-
pan and is the subject of Reference t7 73 These tanks are
both expensive and time consuming to construct. In-ground
storage onlybecomes aviable option wheresome combination
of the following circumstances apply
. Reclaimed or very expensive land requiring optimisation of
effective use of the area available
. Abnormally high safety standards perhaps due to conges-
tion, adjacent industrial plant or high risk locations such as
Dort areas
. Highly seismic areas
Apart from the changes to the membrane thickness and the
size and spacing ofthe corrugations, the metiallic membrane is
as described in Section 17.9-
The civil engineering works associated with this design are in-
teresting and to the mind of the author quite remarkable. These
tanks are frequently built in areas of reclaimed land where soil
conditions are poor and ground water table levels are at or
close to grade.
To constructthe tank it is necessaryto de-waterthe area. To ac-
complish this, a slurry wall is built of a thickness (some 1.2 m)
sufficientto resistthe external pressures from the ground water
and to a depth where competent rock is to be found (up to 100

Figure 17 45 Asection lhrough a lypical in,ground tank
Cauiesy af SN Technigaz
m). When this slurry wall is completed, the excavation work can
commence and a reinforced concrete wall is built from the top
down on the innerface ofthe slurry wall. This can be up to 2.0 m
in thickness for a large tank. The base slab of reinforced con-
crete must be of sufficient strength and thickness to resjst the
ground water pressure and can be up to 7.0 m in thickness.
Within this inner wall and base, the conventional insulation
panel and metallic membrane is installed.
To avoid the problems associated with soilfreezing, this type of
tank will require heating for both the base slab and the cylindri-
calwall. The roof will be of the plate and section type and rnay
be sub-sequentially covered with reinforced concrete. lt is
usual to employ a suspended ceiling supporting glass flbfe in-
sulation in these tanks, although recent developments have in-
volved the elimination ofthe suspended ceiling and the attach-
ment of the roof insulation directly to the underside of the roof
structure itself. A section through a typical tank of this type is
shown in Figure 17.45.
Reference 77.37 provides guidance for the design and con-
struction of such tanks, applicable in Japan.
17.12.2 Cavern storage systems
The storage of LPG in unlined mined rock caverns has been
available for a number ofyears. The LPG is stored in liquid form
at a pressure appropriate to the temperature of the rock at the
depth of the cavern. The pressure from the local groundwater
exceeds the pressure of the stored LPG such that water leaks
into the cavern rather than LPG leaking out. This water collects
in a sump in the bottom ofthe cavern and is pumped out and fed
into a water curtain arrangement which maintains the ground
water pressure at a constant level in the area of the caverns. lt
is clearly necessary to have suitable rock for mining of the cav-
erns at a suitable depth appropriate to the product pressure.
Thus propane would be stored in caverns located at a greater
depth than would be necessary for the storage of bubne.
Cavern storage systems depend upon the appropriate subsoil
conditions being available at the chosen location. lt is more
common to find the necessary conditions at greater depths and
aS a consequence Some facilities store propane in cavernS and
butane in above ground conventional tanks.
The caverns themselves are of a constant cross-seciion, the
size of which is dependent upon the local rock characteristics,
and are often ofconsiderable length (some 100s of metres). lt is
common to have a series of parallel caverns with total storage
capacities well in excess of 200.000 m3.
17 Low tempercture storage tanks
Fig!re 17.46 A simplifed sectlon through a cavefn
Pipework connections into the caverns are via vertical tunnels
carrying liquid inlet, liquid outlet using deep-well or submerged
pumps, water removal pumps and the necessary instrumenta-
tion. Asimplified section through such a cavern is shown in Fig-
ure 17.46.
The advantages of cavern storage over conventional above
ground tanks from a safety point of view are self-evident. Fur-
ther advantages come from the area of land used. lt is possible
to locate caverns beneath othet surface plant and in some cir-
cumstances, beneath the sea for a large part of the system.
'17.12.3 Frczen grou nd systems
The development ofthe frozen ground tank was an effort to pro-
vide cheap and safe storage for low temperature liquids. Sadly
itwas not a great success. There is only one iank ofthis type still
in service. This is locaied in Algeria at the Arzew liquefaction
and export site.
These tanks bear some similarities to ihe in-ground membrane
type in that they consist of a vertical cylindrical excavation with
the roof at local grade level. To enable the excavation to take
place, the ground is frozen to allow the walls of the excavation
to be self-supporting. This is done by drilling a series of holes in
a circle to the full depth of the excavation. lnto these holes dou-
ble concentric pipes are inserted into which liquid nitrogen or re-
frigerated brine is circulated to freeze a vertical cylinder of
ground. This circulation must be maintained untilthe tanks are
commissioned. There is no lining or thermal insulation pro-
vided. Based on small-scale tests, the assumption was that the
frozen ground would give sufficient liquid tightness and supply
the required thermal insulation. At the local grade level a rein-
forced concrete ring wall was provided around the top of the ex-
cavation.
At Arzew the 38,000 m3 LNG tank had a carbon steel roof
framework which was not plated over in the conventjonal man-
ner and supported an aluminium suspended ceiling. This ceil-
ing in turn supported the thermal insulation and a series of con-
crete weights whose function was to counterbalance the
internal pressure. This tank is described in a paper given at
LNG 4 in 1974 (Reference 17.32) and is said to have been in
seryice for some B years at that time and to have taken two
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 311
17 Low tempercturc storcge tanks
years to construct, which makes the date ofthe originalconcept
and design around 1964. The four 50,000 m3 LN G tanks of this
type built at Canvey lsland were similar except that the roof
framework was plated over
The failure of these tanks to perform in a satisfactory manner
was due to a number of problem areas:
. Thefrozen soilwas notastighta barriertothe liquid andthe
vapour as had been anticipated.
. The soil fissured and cracked allowing the area of frozen
soil to extend much further from the tanks than was antici-
pated. This was a particular problem at Canvey lsland
where the region of frozen soil threatened to pass beyond
the site boundary
. Frost heave gave rise to significant ground movements
making the connection between the frozen soil and the con-
crete ring beam and between the ring beam and the roof
structure difficult to seal against vapour escape.
. The frozen ground did not provide the thermal insulation
that had been hoped for, resulting in a higher than antici-
pated heat in leak with the consequent practical and eco-
nomic Problems.
The tanks at Canvey lsland were decommissioned. This was
no easy task. The integrity of the excavation had to be main-
tained. and heat had to be supplied to warm upthe bynowvast
volume of frozen soil. Safety had to be maintained in the face of
LNG and in particular the warmerfractions leaking from the soil
over a large area. The filling in of these pits with warm purged
sand is an interesting tale in its own right.
17.13 Novel systems
There have been a number of novel systems proposed which
have a large element of low temperature liquid storage, usually
for use with LNG.
Many of these schemes are aimed at LNG import terminals and
involve floating or gravity-based systems (GBS). The advan-
tage ofthese over conventional land-based terminals is that the
owner is freed from the need to find a suitably protected and
deep harbour close to the market for the product being im-
ported. This is often a major stumbling block for a terminal pro-
ject.
There are also advantagesto be had from moving the construc-
tion from the job site, as is the case with conventional terminals,
to a ship or offshore rig yard where productivity rates may be
higher.
It had been hoped to describe some of these interesting
schemes in some detail, but at this moment in time, the owners
and designers of the various schemes are concerned with the
confidentiality of their proposals and have not given their per-
mission to discuss the details and merits.
Atrawl through the proceedings of the LNG and Gastech con-
ferences and the LNG Journals will reveal outlines of some of
these schemes and hopefully in the near future some facilities
will be constructed and the technical dehils published
17.14 References
17.1 J.A.Ward and R.S.HildreW LNG 1 Chicago 1968.
17 .2 LNG tndustry-A retrospecfive, Sir Dennis Rooke, LNG
9. Nice 1989.
17.3 Frozen Fire - Where willit happen next?, Friends of the
earth, San Francisco, 1979, ISBN 0-913890-30-8.
17.4 BS 4741 : 1971 VerticalCylindicalWelded SteelTanks
for Low Temperature Service: Single Wa Tanks for
312 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT ^
Temperatures down to -50 'C, British Standards lnstitu-
tion, London, (Now superseded by BS 7777:1993).
17.5 Cryogenic Storage Facilities for LNG and NGL, N.J.
Cuperus (Shell), 1oth World Petroleum Congress, Bu-
charest 1979.
17.6 Developmentsin Cryogenic Storage lanks,6th Interna-
tional Conference on LNG, Kyoto, 1980.
17 .7 Transport and Storage of LNG and LPG, Royal Flemish
Society of Engineers' International Conference, Brugge
May 1984.
17.8 Fracture Safe Deslgrs for Large Storage lanks, The
Welding Institute International Symposium, Newcas-
tle-upon-Tyne, April 1986.
17.9 EEMUA Publication No. 147, Recommendations forthe
Design and Construction of Refrigerated Liquefied Gas
Storage Tanks, Engineering Equipment and Materials
Users Association. London. 1986.
17.10 BS 7777 : 1993 Flat Bottomed Veftical Storage Tanks
for Low Temperature Servlce, British Standards Institu-
tion, London.
17.11 Bigger and Cheaper LNG lanks, Bob Long, LNG 12
Perth, Australia, May 1988.
17.12 Development of above ground Storage Tank Designs in
Japan, HitoshiHiose - Toyo Kanetsu K.K, LNG Journal
November/December 1998.
17.13 Construction of an underground Storage Tank,
Yanagiya and Ogawa - Kaiima Corporation, LNG Jour-
nal November/December 1999.
17.14 API 620 Tenth edition February 2002, Design and con-
struction of large, welded, low-pressure storage tanks,
American Petroleum Institute
'17.15 BS 5387 : 1976 Veftical cylindrical welded storage tanks
for low-temperature Service: double walltanks for tem'
peratures down to -196 'C, British Standards lnstitution.
17.16 BS EN 1473: 1997 lnsta ation of equipmentfor lique'
fied naturalgas -design of On-shore instal/aflons, Euro-
pean Committee for Standardisation and British
Standards Institution.
17.17 Developments in cryogenic storage fanks, N J.
Cuperus - SIPM, LNG 6 Session ll, paper 13, Kyoto'
Aoril 1980.
17.18 Dynamic load attenuation for double wal/ tarks, R A
Vater - Pittsburgh-Des-Moines Corporation, Gastech
84. Amsterdam. November 1984.
17.19 Experimental dynamic compaction of perlite insulation,
T. Kauos - CBI Industries Inc., Gastech 84, Amsterdam,
November 1984.
17.20 tntroduction of the EEMUA recommendations for the
design & construction of liquefied gas storage tanks,
John de Wit - SIPM, Chairman EEMUA Tank Commit-
tee, Chairman BSI Tank Committee, API/BSI Confer-
ence, San Diego, May 1986.
17 .21 LNG storage tanks : Developments & key elements, C.
B. van Liere - SIPM, LNG owners' seminar, Session lV :
1988.
17.22 Developments in the standardisation of single, double
and fult containment tanks for the storage of refrigerated
liquef,ed gases, D. Dickie - Motherwell Bridge Projects
Ltd, R. Long - Whessoe Pfojects Ltd, Gas Engineering &
l\.4anagement, Vol 24, September 1989.
17 .23 Cryogenic storage of liquefied gases (Pafts 1' 2 & 3)'
Fritz Papmahl - Noell LGA, Hydrocarbon Asia, April,
Mav. June 1996.

17 .24 NFPA 59, Utility LP-Gas Plant Code, 2001 Edition, Na-
tional Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachu-
setts.
17.25 NFPA 59A, Standard for the production, sforage &
handling of liquefied natural gas (LNG), 2001 Edition,
Nationalfire ProtectionAssociation, Quincy, l\4assachu-
sefis.
17.26 French LT tank Code above-ground or semi-buried
tanks for low pressure liquefied gases, guidelines for
design and construction, Association technique de
I'industrie du gaz en France (AGT), Publication date un-
known.
17 .27 Comparative SafetyAssessment of Large LNG Storage
Ianks, R.Giribone (Bureau Veritas) and J.Claude (SN
Technigaz), LNG 11, Birmingham, July 1995.
17.28 Quantifaction and Comparison ofthe Risks ofLNG Stor-
age Concepts- Membrane and Full Containment,
te mqe ntu rc storage tan ks
PGenoud (SN Technigaz) and N.Ketchell, R.G.A.Rob-
inson (AEA Technology), LNG 12, Perth, May 1998.
17.29 Spherical skitt suppofted tanks for onshore LNG stor-
age, lEinstabland (Selmer), E.H.Hektoen (Kvaerner
Brug), R.Schrader, (l\.4oss Rosenburg Verft), LNG 7 Ja-
karta May 1983.
17.30 Preslressed concrete at cryogenic temperatures,
Eighth Congress of the Federation lnternational de la
Precontrainte, London 1 978.
17.31 Recommended practice for LNG in-ground storage,
Japanese Gas Association, First published March
1979.
17.32 Huit ans d'activite d'un stockage souterrain de GNL,
A.Benadi Chef du Service Camel Algeria, LNG 4, Al-
giers Juin 1974.
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 313
314 STORAGE TANKS & EAUIPMEN+
18 The design of low temperature
tanks
A considerable part ofthe design procedure for low temperature tanks is based on the practices
used for storage tanks for the containment offluids at ambient temperatures. These practices
have been described in earlier Chapters. Where the different containment arrangements, lower
temperatures and higher pressures cause these procedures to require modification, these
changes are discussed in this Chapter.
The Chapter is restricted to consideration of the following design Codes:
API 620 Aopendix R
API 620 Aooendix Q
BS 7777
prEN'14620

Contents:
18.1 General
18.2 Tank capacity
18.3 Shell design
18.3.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
18.3.1.1 Hoop tension
- liquid containing tanks
18.3.1.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
18.3.1.3 Axial comoression
18.3.1.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.1.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18.3.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach
18.3.2.1 Hoop tension liquid containing tanks
-
18.3.2.2 NonJiquid containing tanks
18.3.2.3 Axial compression
18.3.2.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.2.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
'18.3.3 The BS 7777 aooroach
18.3.3.'l Hoop tension liquid containing tanks
1
-
8.3.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks
18.3.3.3 Axial compression
18.3.3.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.3.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18.3.3,6 Addendum to BS 7777 on partial height hydrostatic testing
18.3.4 The prEN 14620 approach
18.3.4.1 Hoop tension liquid containing metallic tanks
1
-
8.3.4.2 NonJiquid containing tanks
18.3.4.3 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.4.4 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18,4 Bottom and annular design
18.4.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
18.4.'1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
18.4.'1.2 Nonliquid containing metallictanks
'18.4.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach
18.4.2.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
'l 8.4.2.2 Nonliquid containing metallic
tanks
'18.4.3 The BS 7777 aDDroach
18.4.3.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
1 8.4.3.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
18.4.4 The prEN '14620 approach

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 315

 18 The design of low tempeftture tanks

18.5 Compression areas , .

18.5.1Thd API 620 appRiddi
18.5.2 The BS 7777 approach
18.5.3 The prEN 14620 approach
18.6 Roof sheeting
18.6.1 The API approach (Appendices R and Q)
18.6.2 The BS 7777 approach
18.6.3 The prEN 14620 approach
18.7 Roof franreworks
18.7.1 The API approach (Appendiees R and Q)
18.7.afhe BS 7777 approach
'18.7.3 The prEN '14620 approach

18.8 Tank anchorage

18.8.1 The requirements ofAPl 620 Appendix R
18.8.1. 1 Liquid containing tanki
q8.8.1.2 Non liquid containing lanks
18.8.2 The requirements ofAPl 620 Appendix Q
18.8.2.1 Liquid containing tanks
18.8.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
18.8.3 The BS 7777 reouirements
18.8.4 The prEN 14620 approach
18.9 Tank fittings
18.9.1 The requirements ofAPl 620
18.9.1.1 General reouirements of API 620 section 5
18.9.1.2 The particular requirements of API 620 Appendix R
18.9.1.3 The particular requirerhents of API 620 Appendix Q
18.9.1.4 The design of heat breaks
18.9.2 The reouireiTents of BS 7777
18.9.2.1 Outer container mountings
18.9.2.2 Inner tank and outer liqriid containing tank mounlings
18.9.2.3 Connecting pipework between inner and outer tank connections
18.9.3 The prEN 14620 approach
i
18.10 Suspended decks
18.'10.1 The requirements ofAPl 620
18.10.2 The requirements of BS 7777
18.10.3 The prEN 14620 approach
18.11 Secondary bottoms
18.12 Bottom corner protection systems
18.13 Outer tank concrete wall and bottom liners

I 8.14 Connected pipework

18.15 Access arrangeinents

18d6 Spillage collection systems

'18.17 Reinforced and prestrbsseu concrete Component design
'18.17.1 General
18.'17.2 Tank bases
18.'17.3 Tank walls
18.17.3.1 Above ground tanks
18.17.3.2 In{round tanks
18.17.4 Bottoni comor details
'18.17.5 The toD comer details
18.17.6 Tank roofs
18.18 References

316 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT

 1B The design of low temperature tanks

18.1 General . Allowable subgrade loadings.

The design of low temperature tanks has evolved from the de-
sign of tanks for ambient temperature service. In many areas
the design methods are the same or very similar to the ambient
practices. In these cases reference will be made to the earlier
Chapters concerning the origins ofthe design methods and the
derivations of the formulae used for ambient tanks. Where the
low temperature practice differs from the ambient design
methods, this will be described in ful
There are a number of different codes covering the design of
low temperature tanks in force around the world. The following
documents will be considered:
. API 620 Appendix R (for products down to -60 'F)
. API 620 Appendix Q (for products down to -260'F)
. B57777 (fot products down to -196'C)
r prEN 14620 (for products down to -165 "C)
There are Codes from other European countries (DlN and
AFNOR for example) but for reasons of simplicity and because
these documents will shortly be replaced by the new European
Code, they have not been discussed in dehil here.
There are also Codes which are no longer curreni, but have
been important in the development process which has given
rise to the existing regulatory documents. BS 4741, BS 5387
and EEN/UA 147 allfall into this category and will be mentioned
where appropriate.
. Seigmic design criteria dictating tank proportions and slosh
height.
. Site space constraints.
. The tank contractor's views on the most economical tank
aspect ratio.
. The performance limitations of the chosen in-tank pump (if
useo).
. The elevation ofthe suction outlet connection (if used).
. Operational considerations concerning pumping rates and
required response time intervals related to the various level
alarms.
In order to help in sorting out this multifaceted problem, it is of-
ten helpful to produce a sketch illustrating the various signifi-
cant liquid levels. Such a sketch for the inner tank of a full con-
tainment LNG tank is illustrated in Figure 18.1.
When the tank diameter is chosen, it is necessary to make al-
lowances for the thermal contraction of the liquid containing
tank. For metallic tanks the data provided in Figure 18.2 should
prove helpful.
For double-walled tanks, the diameter and height of the outer
tank will be based on the chosen dimensions of the inner tank
and consideration of the following:
. The interspace width required. This willin turn be related to:

- The wall insulation thickness required.

18.2 Tank capacity
Before the real calculations start, it is necessary to determine
the main dimensions ofthe tank. The initial estimate ofthe tank
geometry for a particular storage facility, is arrived at by consid-
ering a large numberofdifferentvariables. Amongst these are:
. The operating volume required.
. Any planning constrainb on the tank height.
. Any limitations related to the maximum discharge pressure
of the pumps of ships discharging into the tank.
- Access for personnel to work in this area.
Access for resilient blanket and wall liner installation
from suspended cradles.
. The insulation hopper volume where loose fill insulants like
perlite are used.
. Any requirements for the total impoundment volu me arising
from regulatory Standards.
. Physicalspace requirements in the top corner ofthe tankfor
roof insulation, internal runway beam access, etc.

A - 600 Tm min n"Jn provded by rhe choser rr-ranh purp sLpprel

B=400mm I
)
C =Coresponds lo the lullopeEting volume
(Volume between lowsl levelatfulllow pump down and maximum nomalopeEting level)
D = Conespondsto X minutes flN at maimlm liquid import rate
E = corespondsto Y mnltesflowat maxinum liqlid import te
F = CoffespondsioZ mnutesflowat maxirnum iquid inpoir rale
G = min mum ireeboad (commony500 mm)
D+E+F+G = height requ red to contain product wave due to arlhquake

Flgure 18.1 Miscellaneous innertank levels

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 317

1B The design of low temperaturc tanks
l
,"1
Flgure 18.2 The thermal contraclion of lhe liquid conlaining lank
18.3 Shell design
This Section confines its attention to the design of the metallic
shells of vertical cylindrical tanks. The material selection crite-
ria are mentioned in passing in this Chapter, but are discussed
more fully in Chapter 21. The design of concrete tanks of this
form are dealt with in a later part ofthis Chapter As discussed in
Chapter 16, these steel tanks may be single-skinned tanks or
the inner and outer shells of double-walled tanks. These shells
are the subject of combinations of the following loadings:
. Hoop tension caused by the maximum head of product liq-
uid together with any associated internal operating pres-
su re.
. Hoop tension caused by the maximum test water head to-
gether with any associated internal test pressure.
. Axial compressive loadings caused by combinations of
self-weight, internal vacuum, external (i.e. interspace) pres-
sure, wind loadings, snow loadings and insulation loadings.
. Axial tension loads caused by combinations of internal tank
pressure and wind loadings (this is usually of little conse-
ouence).
. Shell buckling loadings caused by wind loadings.
. Inner tank buckling loadings caused by external loadings
arising from loose fill insulation systems, occasionally in
combination with internal vacuum and external (i.e.
interspace) pressures.
. members and shell stiffeners when the combined tensile
Various loadings arising from seismic events and their im-
pact on the tank structure. These are dealt with separately
in Chapter 26.
18.3.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
When this Appendix was originally written, refrigerated tanks
for the storage of products down to -60'F were only ofthe single
containment category These would be either single wall tanks
in contact with the product fluid or double-walled tanks where
the inner tank would contain the low temperature product (and
in the case of flxed roof inner tanks, the vapour pressure as
well). The outer tank would contain or supp@rt the insulation
and contain the vapour pressure (or in the case of a fixed roof
318 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
inner tank, the interspace purge gas pressure).
With the passage of time, tanks of double or full containment
categories came to be required bythe industry Despitethe fact
thatthe API Codes do not considerthese forms of containment
within theirscope, the rules ofthe lowtemperature appendices
are commonly used to design the metallic tanks ofdouble orfull
containment systems.
API 620 Appendix R divides the various tank components into
three different categories. The Code goes into some detail to
ensure that the various components are categorised correctly.
The categories are:
. Primary components. In general primary components in-
clude those components whose failure would result in leak-
age of the liquid being stored, those exposed to the
refrigerated temperature, and those subject to thermal
shock. The primary components shall include, but not be
limited to, the following parts of a single walltank orthe inner
tank of a double wall tank: shell plates, bottom plates,
knuckle plates, compression rings, shell manholes and
nozzles including reinforcement, shell anchors, piping, tub-
ing, forgings and bolting. Roof nozzles in contact with the
refrigerated liquid shall be considered primary components.
Primary components shall also include those parts of a sin-
gle wallor an innertank that are not in contact with the refrig-
erated liquid but are subjectto the refrigerated temperature.
Such components include roof plates, roof manways and
nozzles with their reinforcement, roof supporting structural
and primary bending stresses in those components under
design conditions are greater than 6000 lb/in2.
. Secondary componenls. Secondary components are
those whose failure would not result in leakage of the liquid
being stored. Secondary components also include those
components which are not in touch with the refrigerated liq-
uid but are subiect to the refrigerated temperature vapours
and have a combined tensile and primary bending stress
under the design conditions which does not exceed 6000
lb/in2. Secondary components which could be designed
within this reduced stress are roof plates, including roof
manways and nozzles with their reinforcement, roof sup-
porting structural members and shell stiffeners.
 18 The design of low tempercturc tanks

. Basic components. Basic comoonents are those that con- suggested that the Table 3-2 footnote 2 rules are fol-
tain the vaporised liquefied gas from the stored refrigerated lowed, i.e. the lesser of 30% of the specified minimum
gas but primarily operate at atmospheric temperature be- ultimate tensile strength or 60% of the specified mini-
cause of insulation system design and natural ambient mum yield point using the 0.92 quality factor where ap-
propflate.
heating. These components shall comply with the basic
rules ofthis Standard (API 620). Examples ofsuch compo- 6. The allowabletest stress limits can be taken from Ta-
nents are the outer wall and roof of double wall tanks and ble Q-3 or be based on the lesser of 85% ofthe speci-
roof components above an internally insulated suspended fied minimum yield skength or 55% of the minimum
decl(. specified tensile strength of the material.
l\.4uchof the distinction between the various types of compo- The design point is at the bottom edge ofthe course under con-
nents is concerned with the material selection and the impact sideration and not 0.3m (or one foot) abovethis levelas permit-
iest requirements. This subject is covered in detail in Chapter ted by BS 2654, API 650, BS 7777 and the new EN.
22. The minimum thickness requirements are as usuala function of
18.3.1.1 Hoop tension liquid containing metallic tanks the tank diameter and are reproduced in Figure 18.5.
-
The following applies to liquid containing tanks, i.e. sin- The radiographic inspection requirements given in paragraph
gle-walled tanks, the inner tank of double-walled tanks where R.7.6.1 for '! 00% radiography of all shell plate joints where the
the outer tank is non-liquid containing and the inner and outer actual operating stress across the welded joint is greater than
tanks of double-walled tanks where both the inner and outer 0.1 times the specifled minimum tensile strength of the plate
tanks are designed to contain the product liquid. material (i.e. all vertical seams of liquid containing tanks),
means that a joint factor of unity allowed by Table 5-2 ofAPl 620
The basic formulae used are derived in the same way as has (Figure 18.6) will always be applied.
been described in Chapter 4, Section 4.7 for ambient tanks. lt is
convenient to express them in the same form. Hence in metric Forthe inner shells ofdouble-walled tanks, the addition ofa cor-
units they become: rosion allowance is quite unusual. The combination of the low
temperature and products which are benign from a corrosion
alnararin^
^.ea. Doint of view make the inclusion of additional metal unneces-
D sary. Ammonia tanks where stress corrosion cracking is a
to =
ZUDO
lgSwoHo + Po l+ ca equ 18.1
proven hazard are a possible exception. The addition of mate-
nt - rial to the minimum calculated thickness to allow for future
ct Test case: dressing out of surface cracking may be seen as money well
spent. This is discussed further in Chapter 20.
L
Il
' =20sr 196*,
1,
'
11, * o, 1 equ 18.2
For single-walled tanks or the outer shells of double-walled
tanks the addition of a corrosion allowance to cater for the pos-
where: sibility of external corrosion is not unusual. Un-insulated outer
to to = shell thickness due to operating case (mm) shells are particularly vulnerable atthe shell-to-bottom junction
where rain water rnay pond and in the vicinity of external shell
to tj = shellthickness due to test case (mm)
stiffeners. Good housekeeping in terms of regular external in-
D = tank diameter (m) spection and the maintenance of protective paint systems is
Ho self evidently a sensible precaution.
''l-
= height from the bottom of the course under
consideration to the highesi product liquid level 18.3.1.2 Non-liquid containing tanks
k- (m)
)e
Paragraph R.5.3.2 allows single lap-welded or single-sided
Hr = height from the bottom of the course under butt-welded shells wherethe thicknessdoes notexceed %" and
)e consideration to the highest test water level double-sided buttwelds not having complete penetration orfu-
3r (m) lnote 1] sion, at any thickness for tanks not in contact with the vaporised
S,
wo = maximum anticipated SG of product liquid but liquefied gas. Clearlythe single-sided lap and butt welds should
not less than 0.577 (equivalent to 36 lb/ff) be made from the outside surface for reasons ofcorrosion pre-
)- vention. Such tanks having fixed inner roofs are quite unusual
te wt = SG of test water [note 2] these days. Paragraph R.5.3.1 requires a minimum shellthick-
s.
't-
po = maximum vapour pressure above the product ness of %6" in this case. This is appropriate for very small tanks,
liquid (mbar) lnote 3] but may lead to axial stability problems as the tank size in-
)-
3.
pi = test pressure (mbar) lnote 4]
creases. lt would seem wise to apply the methods described in
Section 18.3.1.3 to ensure that a safe structure is specified.
rd ca = corrosion allowance (mbar)
Where the tank shell is in contact with the vaoorised liouefied
al
e
So = allowable stress for the operating case gas, Paragraph R.5.3.3 requiresthe rules ofthe body (i.e. sec-
(N/mm'z) [note 5] tion 5) ofthe Code to be used. This means that the shell must be
q = allowable stress in the test case (Nmm'?) checked for hoop tension caused by vapour pressure and pos-
sibly any internal pressure due the loose fill insulation. The for-
lnote 6l
e mulae given in Section 18.3.1.1 can be used and the allowable
d Notes: 1. The maximum test water level is required by Para- stresses shown in Figure 18.3. The minimum thickness re-
e
graph R.8.3.3 of the Appendix to be equal to the maxi- quirements are again as Figure 18.5.
mum product liquid level.
t
.S
Bear in mind that for outer tanks the level of radiography is no
2. Usually 1 .000 but in unusual cases could be sea wa- longerdictated by Appendix R and can be such as to require the
is ter with an SG of up to 1.025. use of a joint factor of less than unity. The relationship between
0 3. In the case of open-topped inner tanks this is zero. joint factor and level of inspection is shown Figure 18.6.
d
)f 4. Required by Paragraph R.8.4.1 to be 1.25 x po. 'l 8.3.1.3 Axial compression
)- 5. Allowable operating stress limits illustrated in Figure The behaviour of thin cylinders whilst subject to compressive
18.3 or in Figure 18.4. For non-APl listed materials it is loadings is an interesting subject in its own right. Agreat deal of

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 319

18 The design of low temperatute tanks

Spcciliod Minimum Maximum Allowablc

Tcnsilc Sucss for
Spcci6cation Tcnsilc Strcnqth Yicld Polnl Tcnsion. S,.
(Scc Notc l) Gradc Notcs (lbf/in'21- (lbf/in.z1 (lbf/in.2, scc Notci2 and 3t

Platcs

ASTM A 36 4 s8,m0 36,m0 r6,m0

ASTM A I3I 4,5and6 58.000 34,0m r5.200
ASTM A I3I B 4 58,m0 34.000 r 6,000
ASTM A13I cs 58,m0 34,000 r6,000
ASTM A 283 c 4and5 55,0@ 30,000 | 5,200

ASTM A 283 D 4,5and6 @,(m 33,0m | 5,2@

ASTM A 285 c 55000 30,m0 | 6,500

ASTM A 516 55 55,000 30,000 16,500

ASTM A 516 @ 60,0m 31000 1E,000
ASTM A 516 65 : 65,000 350m t9J00
ASTM A 516 70 ?0.0@ 38,000 2r,000

ASTM A 537 Cla$ I 7 ?0.000 50,0@ '2t,m

ASTM A 537 Class 2 80,000 @,0@ 24,000
ASTM A 573 58 4 58r00 32,000 r6,0@
ASTM A 573 65 4 65m 35,000 1E,000
ASIM A s73 m 4 ?0,0@ 4a000 r9,300
ASTM A 633 CrdD 4snd7 ?0,000 50,0@ 19J00

ASTIYI A 662 B 65.0@ 40,00 r9.500

ASIlr,l A 662 c 70J@ 43.0@ 21,0@
ASTMA 678 A 4ud8 70,0@ 50,0@ l9J@
ASTM A 678 E 4ard? E0,0@ 60,m 22,1@
ASTM A 73? B ?0J@ 50,0m 21.0m
ASTMA E4I Clas! I 70J00 50.m 21o00

CSA G4021-M 2Ow .nd 2@Wr 4 59Jm 37.?00 16,400

CSA C40.21-M 300w lnd 300wT 4 65Jm 43,500 18,m0
csAG4o.2r-M 350W 4 65300 50,800 18,0m
csA G40.2t-M 350WT 4 69J@ 50,t00 19200
rso 630 Ee75 Qurlfuy q D 4 61,9@ 37,000 l7,l@
tso 630 8355 Quality C, D 4 72.0@ 48,J@ 19,600

PtF
ctrnlcS!
API Spoc5LB @,m0 35m l&0@
ASTr,l A138 60000 35,000 .18,000
ASTM A 106 B @,00 35,000 r&0m
ASTM A 106 c 70,m0 40,0m 21,0@
ASTM A 333 l 55J00 30,m 16,5m
ASTI{ A 333 3 65.0m 35,000 19J00
ASTM A 333 6
ASTM A 524 I @,&0 t5,000 t8,m0
ASTM A 521 tl 55,000 30.m r6.500

Elccric-Fusion
Wcklcd
ASTM A I34 A 281 Cr"dc C 4,5and9 55.0@ 30,0m r2.lm
ASTM A I]4 A 285 Gradc C 5and9 55.000 30.000 r1.200
ASTM A I39 9 60.@0 35.000 14.,fi)
ASTM A 67I cA55 9 55.m0 rc.(m t:r.200
ASTM A 67I cc60 9 60.m,J :12.0m | 4.400

ASTM A 6? I cc65 9 65.ffX) t5.000 l5.({x)

ASTM A 67I cc?0 'lo.(m t8.fix) r6.8(X)
ASTM A 67I cD?o 7and9 70.fix1 50.fin l6.ltul
ASTM A 67I cD8() 7and9 80.(xxl $.u.x) t9.!(xl
ASTM A 6? I cE:5 55.(XXl l{).00(l |.i.:(xl
ASTM A (t7 | CE({, ({1.{xxl l:.txxl l-l..llxl

Figure 18.3 Maximum allowable stress values for simple tension - page 1

Frcn API 620, table 5-1

320 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 18 The design of low temperature tanks

3) Spccifrcd Minimum Maximum Allowable

'd
Tcnsilc Strcss for
Spc6ifrcatiort T.nsilc Srens|h Vcld Pojnl Tcnsion. S,.
(Scc Noe l) Orade Notcs (lbflin.2)- (lbf/in.z1 (lbf/in.2, sc Nok;2 and t)
Forgiogs

ASTM A IO5 60,0m 10,m0 I E.000

ASTM A I8I I 60,0m r0,000 t8.000
ASTM A I8I ?0,0@ 36,000 2 r.000
ASTM A 350 LFI 60,m 30,000 r&0m
ASTM A 350 LF2 70,m 36,m0 2 r,0m
ASTM A 350 LF3 70,0@ 40,0m 2!,0m

Crstings lrd bolthg

ASru A 27 60.30 lo 60,000 30,000 14,4{n
ASTM A 36
ASruA
For alcho. bolting ll 58,000 36,000 t5,3m
193 B7 ll 125,0@ r05j00 ,w
ASTM A 30? B for frngcs ll lrd 12 55,m0 8,400
8rd pflsturr parls
ASTM A 307 B for lruc{l.rl ll s5,000 r5.000
porB s|d rnctor
ASTM A 320 bolting
vt ll l25pm r05,0m 24,(m

Suqc-ln"l sh.p6 Rcsisting lnt (rlal Prersur

ASTM A 36 4rrrd 6 58,0m 36,000 t5Jm

ASTM A I3I 4 ,',A6 58,0@ 34,(m l5:m
ASTM A 633 63,m 42.(m l?,400
ASr r A 992 4.nd6 65,m 50,0m 15200
csA c40.21-M 260W rnd 26OWT 4lnd6 59J00 37Jm 15200
cs^ c40.21-M 3mw |rd 300WT 4{rd6 65300 43,5@ r52m
csA G40.2I-M 350W lnd 300wT 4and6 69,600 50,800 r5200

Notcs:
l. All pcnircnt rnodifcrtioos rtd limiradoru of rpocifioti,os tlquild by 42. tlFugh 4,6 shdl bc complicd with.
2. Erc.p( for drcac 'rscs wlrt! ldditiond fdors or litlittrias rc |pplid 16 indicdld by trfcrcnclr io Notcs 4, 6, l0 |nd 12, rhc .llowsblc
t!tl3ilc![!3s \|.lu(r gitttr in lhi! trblc for matlrid3 o{trr tllln boltiog rtcl l[c tlE lcasrr of (.) 30% of rhc rpccificd ninhum ulrimlc acnrilc
stslngth f6 thc msr.{ial or O) 60& of $c spccifi.d minimultr yicld
loiol
3._Ercspt whctr . joiot cfficic{tcy &crot is alrcady lrdc$d in 0|c.pccifcd allowlbh sallr vsluc. r' idicatcd by thE lrfctlnccs ro Nolc lO, or
{llcrr d|c vrlur ofrvdcEdfncd in racord'r|c with 5.5.33. i! lcss rhln rlrc .pplicsblc joinr cffciqrcy giv.n in'ibblc 5.2 (ud 0rcnforc cficcb
r grtx.r.duclion in rllowrblc rfrts th.n seuld lhc F&& rfficicrrctfldq, ifrpplicd), rhc ipccifica *ts rnluas for wtds in rslslon
shrll bc multipllt by dlc rpplicrbk joinr cfficicrry lrctor, E, gircn in Trblc 5.21
'in
4. Swss valucs for strucrurtl qudity stc.ls inch& ! quality frdor ofo.92.
5. Platcs.M pip. shrll not bc rsrd in $iqkncss grcarcr thln l/. in.
6. St.q(r valucs arc limir.d ro rhosc for srccl thal hrs.n lltin|at. rcnrilc snrngth of only 55.000 lbf/in.l.
7. lrss than or cqual ro 2ll2 in. thickncss.
8, Lrss than o. cqllll to I l/2 in. $ickncss,
9. Stcsr valucs for fusbn-s'cldld pipc includc a wcldcd-joifl cf,icicncy fsdor of O.m (rcc 5,23.3). Only strrighr"srrm pipc shall hc oscdi thc
usc of spiral.scam pifrc is prohibicd.
10. Strc$ vllucr for cr"slings irrlude a qualiry f|cror of0.80.
ll. Sc( 5.6.6
f2.Affowahlcsttd$shascdonSectionvllloftltcASMEBoifu..1PtI.tturryrrrclCrrdcInullinhcdhythc.atioof0rdc\rfnstrc\\tiKr(rrsn!
rlandld rnd Secraon Vl | | ot rhc ASME (i'dc. niJrnlctv 0 lt!{).ti
this

: !ure 18.3 lvaximum allowable stress values for simpte tension - page 2
-..m APl620, table 5-1

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 321

1 I The design of low temperaturc tanks

Spccid Minimun Allov$L Stcsr

ASTM sFcifa.|bns TcoiiksrEngltt Yi.:ldstittlth DrsiSo

PlatcandSEua all Mat art

A 353 lm.mo t5,m
A 553.Typc I t00,0m 85,m
95S0 65.m 3t,?@ 423d
A 645

A 240, TyF 304 ?5,m o$o 22,s NM

A24o,qpc 304L 700m 25,000 18,750 n-w
5000 3,750 4J(D
I Alby m34
209, r4,0q,
E aD,Alloy 5052{ t5S 95m 7,t00 8550

B 209,Altoy 5m'0 4),m3 r8.$0r t3J00r r6rtr

35,m0 t4,06 10J00 12,6m
B.Ulg,Allot 506&0

30,m ,0m 8r50 9,9@

E 209, Alby 5154.0
19,0s r4pmr l?.rG
B 209,ltby 5456-0 '12@3
l4,m rJm 3,?f,1 4Jm
I 22l,Alby 3(xl3{
9,m
I22l,Alby 5052 o 25,000 r0@ ?r00

39,000 16.m0 12@ l4/@

B 22l,Alby 563-0
B 221, Alhy 5086'l) 35.0m 140s t0,s) r1600

E 22l.llby 515{4 30,0@ rtrs 83Cl 9,9d)

E 221, Nhy 5456{ 4Lm l9@ 13.fl0 r?.1@

24.m 8Jm l0,m
B 221, Nloyr 6(}61-T,l.dT6

UN 8@ ro@
d)6l-T4 rodlt
PlFinS |nd lbbht
A33f,Gndc t l00nm 75,m
A 33l,Grdc 8 t00,m ?5,0$

75,(m 30.0m 22Jm 27S0

A 213. ond. TP, Bpc 304 22Jm
TP,lYF 70000 25.000 t&7$
A 2 t3, Cndc 3O4L

DT. l04c
A 312" C,t!d. TP, 75s 1!@ nfi 2?.m
?0,m 25p00 r&7x) zlj00
A 3la GndcaP,BF 304Lc

A 35& G(!d. 3O4. c1|cr I 75.0(I) 1r@ tffi 2?IID

5.m 3.750 4.500
B 210. Alloy 3303.0 r4.0(D

5rq) 3.?50 4.500

B 2 10, Alby ml-H I 12 14.(m
25.(tro togn ?_aD etm
B 210. Alloy 5052{
14p0or o-lh r]Irn
MO. Alloy :i086{) 35,000
8,250 9p00
I 2 | 0. Alloy 5154{} !or(I) 11,000

25,m 10,000 7500 9,000

0 Xl.Alloy 5052-0 140oo
39.0m 1q00o u,000
tl :.1l. Alk'y 5{|[|1'0

Figure '18.4 Msximum allowable stss values - page ?

From API 620, table @3

322 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1B The design of low temperature tanks

Strcss vatuc (tbflin.r)

SF.ial Minimum Allowablc Stress
ASTM Spccificatioos Tccrilc Strenglh Yicld Srcngh Dcsig|l

B 24l,AUoy $86{ 35,000 r4.000 r0,500 12,600

B 24l,Alloy 5454{) 31,000 1e000 9.000 t0,800

B 241, AUoy 5456-0 41.0@ t9.m0 r3,650 17.r00

B ,1,14 (UNS-1.I06625), GrJdc I 120,000 60,000 40,mof 54,0@r

B ,144 CJNSnm6625), Grdc 2 100,000 40000 30,mof 36,m01
I 619 (UNS-N10276), Ct si lc rm,mo 4to@ 30J5d 36,90d
B 622 (t NS-NlOtr6) 100,000 41,000 30J5d 36,900f

Forging:
A5n lmpm 75,000
A 182, C,rad! F,'IYpc 3& ?5,000 30,000 22,fi 2?O00
A 182, &r& F, lYF 304L 65,000 25,0@ 18,750 22fi
B ZT,Aloy 3003-Hl12 1,1,000 5,000 3,750 4J00
B 247, Aloy 5083-Hl 12 Modd 3qm 16,000 12,0m t4,400

Bolting.
B 2l l, Alloy 606l-T6 42,m 35!O lojm
A 320 (sfi..io+arddtcd cn& 88, BgC, B8M
.od B81)
s3h'.f,r r25,m lm,od) 30,m0
>%-1in. lt5.m 80,(m 26tro
>l-l[4i& 105,@0 65,000 2r,m0
> lt/4 - lrzir. r00,@0 50,(m 16.000

A 320 (rolutiotr{r.lFd rrd !frin+{d.d gradcs

r,}ao c&ldcd)
Grrdcs 88, BtM, rd BAFdI riz6 75,(m 30,000 r5,m0

Nob8:
rThc alloq[blc rEErsls for thcsc tDfirdrb rtr bssad oo thc lowcr yiald
rnd Ensilc lErhgth of thc wEld firral or baJc mct l, s3 drl.F
ldncd by Q.6.1, .rd *l. d!6ign rulcs in Q.3J2. Thr Einimum mc.surcd tcoiilc s@o8lh rhalt be 95,m0 lbf n.2 and mhimum mcr-
lu|ld yickt ilrryth shdt bc 52,500 lbflir2. The maximrm p.rnidcd vrluca !o bc uscd fo. dcr.rminin8 rhc illow.btc ar.ss arc
100,0m bffurz. for r.nsilc slr.ngor rnd 5&OOO lbflin.z for yicld itrrnglh,
DBascd oo tha yicb and Gtt$iL atEnglh of lhc wrld nEtrl, rs dctlnnind by Q.6.1. Thc oinimum rncssu.cd r.arsile rtcng$ shall be
95.0@ Fi nrd dr odnirun mc-aru.ld yi.ld rltngrh shall bc 52J00 lbf/rn.l.
qior u/clding pipint or tubing. a joi .ffici.rra of 0.80 shall bc spplicd lo tlrc .llorJablc suts.s for longiMind Fir{s in accordancc
with 5.23.3.
(rnE
dcaignalion Mod rcquitts thar lhc maiimum tmsilc and yicld srcngrh ard lhc rnioirnum clong.rion of lhc marcrial conform |o rhc
li.ntu of B 209, Alloy 50814.

gThcs. allowablc $rc$ vrluer arc for ma(crials ihickness up ro end irKkrding | -5 ir. hr rhicknBr ovcr L5 in.. atlow$lc srrcrs vrh|!\ arc
lo k eit blistEd pcr Q..1..r.1 usiog ASTM dara of lcnsilc (ul(matc) and yic'd srftngrh Jor rhcsc Crad!:t.
tNor ro bc rrscd fo. op.ning rqinforccmcnr whcn uI!{ with A:151. A jsl. nnd A 64i.

Figure 18.4 Maximum allowable stress values - page 2

Frcn APl620, table Q-3

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 323

18 The design of low tempercture tanks
Noninal Plate Thickness
(fr) (in.)
<25 3116
>25-60 ta
o0- 100 5ro
,00 r,r
Figure 18.5 Tank radius versus nominal plaie thickness
Frcm API62A,bble 5-6
theoreticaland experimental work has been done in this area
The ability of a thin cylinder to resist axial loadings has been
shown to be related to numerous variables, amongstwhich are:
. The cylinder diameter
. wind loads or the bending of an empty tank is due to seismic
The cylinder length
. The cylinder wall thickness
. third.
The material of construction
. The degree of imperfection in the cylindrical shape
. Any co-existent internal or external pressures to which the
cylinder is subjected
The relationship between these variables is complex. One at-
tempt to summarise this situation is shown in Figure 18.7.
A design Code has to reduce this substantial body of work to a
relatively simple set of easy to use rules and this is what API
620 has done.
Axial compression loadings on cylinders take a number of
forms. One is a uniformly distributed loading around the periph-
ery of the cylinder due to such loadings as self-weight, roof
loadings and insulation loadings. Asecond is non uniform load-
ing, usually distributed as a bending load due to wind or seismF
cally induced loadings (note again that the seismic loading is
not discussed here in detail but is dealt with in Chapter 24) A
third loading is a point load applied at a specific point located on
the periphery ofthe cylinder. The tank design Codes are not ex-
actly forthcoming regarding this last loading and the way in
whi;h a point load is fed intothe structure is leftvery much to the
designer. Fortunately such loadings, caused perhaps by local
attaChments for stair\/vays or pipe supports, are usually small
when compared with the other loadings applied to these tanks
and this fact should be reassuring for the designer'
In general the various loadings are considered to be applied to
emptytanks asthis is the worstcase For those tanks which can
be subject to liquid loadings, the internal pressure is found to
stabilise the tank shell and increase its resistance to compres-
sive buckling. The exception to this is the seismic design case
for full tanks where the axial loading is a function of the liquid
level within the tank and this is dealt with in Chapter 26
Although not entirely in accordance with the letter of Paragraph
3.5.4 ofAPl 620, it has been common practice to use the allow-
able compressive stress from Paragraph 3.5.4.2 which as-
sumes that there is no co-existent hoop tensile or compressive
stress. This is sensible because for outertanks the tensile hoop
stress due to internal pressure is modestand known to stabilise
the tank. For inner open-topped tanks' there is no co-existent
hoop tension and compressive stresses due to the loose fill in-
sul;tion system are also low. As it is very unusual for a tank
shell to have a ft ca) / R of more than 0.00667, then the allow-
able axial comdressive stress is given by:
equ 18.3
s"" = 1,800,oooKt ca) /R]
where:
s"" allowable compressive stress (lb/in'?)
shell thickness (in)
t
324 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
ca corrosion allowance (in)
R= radius if tank wall (in)
This converts almost exactly to the following in metric unib:
S"" = 12.5(t ca)/R equ184
where:
S* = allowable compressive stress (N/mm2)
t = sheltthickness (mm)
ca = corrosion allowance (mm)
R = radius of tank wall (m)
When the local axial stress is primarily due to a moment in the
shell, then the allowable compressive stress may be increased
by 20%. Where the bending ofan empty orfulltank is caused by
loadings, then in addition to this 20% increase, the allowable
compressive stress may be increased by an additional one
For butt-welded shells, the joint factor used in compressive
stress calculations shall be taken as unity irrespective of the ex-
tent of inspection of that joint. In the now unusual case of
lap-welded shells, the joint factors to be used in compressive
stress calculations shall be tiaken from Table 5-2 of API 620
An anecdote from the author's experience may be of interest at
this point. A 50,000 m3 capacity LNG tank was being con-
structed in the south ofthe United Kingdom some 25 years ago'
A somewhat unusual erection technique was being used The
outer tank was being erected by the conventional jack building
method. However, the open-topped inner tank was suspended
from the outer tank roof and constructed from the top down-
wards. Bythis means a single set ofjacks could be used forthe
building of both tanks.
During the finaljacking operation the entire weight of the inner
tank was being supported by the outer tank shell. lt was noticed
at this ooint that the two minimum thickness upper outer shell
courses had developed the pre-buckling lozenge pattern'
Needless to say this was recognised as being towards the
"hairy end" of the scale and the load was rapidly jacked down
onto supports. Later unpicking of the loads and stresses in-
volved for these tvvo courses revealed that the applied com-
pressive stress was close to the limiting value ofequation 18 3'
Agreat deal ofthe research work in the area of buckling of cylin-
ders has been preformed on small scale specimens, but here
was a full-size specimen complete with real construction de-
fects such as locked-in stresses and deviations from the true
theoretical shape. An increasingly dim memory suggests that
the outer tank shape was not good. Nevertheless, this experi-
ence serves to reinforce the beliefthat the limiting stress given
by equation 18.3 should be taken seriously
18.3.1.4 wind and vacuum stiffening
Forthe wind and vacuum stiffening of single-walled tanks or the
outer wall of a double-walled tank, reference ls made to Para-
graph 5.10.6 ofAPl 620. This provides rules for the number and
aize ofthe wind stiffening required for a vertical cylindrical shell'
These rules are essentially the same as those for ambient
tanks described in ChaPter 4.
The maximum unstiffened height of the tank sidewall is given
by;
loor)3 equ 18.5
Hr = 6(100t)
-l
where
n1 maximum unstiffened height of the
tank shell (ft)
8.4

Maxim0m
Joiflt
Basic Efficiency
Joid Radiographcd (%: sce
Typc of Joinl Limirations Emcicncy (%) (Sce Notc I ) Notc 2)

me nunPin$. auainca
other mcans appov.d by lhe porchascr,lhar roofs abovc liquid lcvcl. Full (sce 100
;ed willobtain th. quality ofd.positcd trcld melal Nore 3)
by on thc insid and oubid. wcld surfaccs lftar
nic agrces with $c rcquircmcnls of PaDgraph
Roofs abovc liquid lev.l,
0te
UW-15 in Scction VIII of thc ASME C.rd.: 7o spo,
't0
x/clds using mctal backing sldps Uat rcmain 85
Full (!cc
)ne in plec! arc crcltrdcd. 100
Nor! 3)
Singl.-wddcd boujoint with backing srrip or Longitudinal or nEridional cilclrmlcrcmr or lati ?5 Spot 75
ive couiwlcnt o{hcr than thosc includd !bo\,L tudinali)i s bctwcar plater not rnorr than I r/4 FUU (r.c 85
in.lhick nozzlc attachmcnr *EtdiDg without Notc 3)
3X- thiclnass limitatioo.
of
ive Roofs abow liquid lcvcl. ?0 "_-.
JPwr 70
L Full(sc! ;i
Nor4 3)
Singlc-c,cldcd bun joint witfi out Nozzla 4tachfircnt wcLfing. 10 70
)n- backing rt ip,
lo. Dolble full-fillct lapjoint (scc LnShudinal or tn ridionrljoinls &d.quivak 70 70
No& 4). (sc. Notc 5) cirflrnfcdlial or ladEdind iobts
he
*twcco ptatcs nor rnorc ard 3,/8 h hickj;inrs of
ng this tyFshall not 6c uscd for longibdintl or
ed mcridionaljoints Ihat {rc p(ovisioru of5.12.2
icqui.c to bc butt-r,6ldcd
he
OtlEr citcurnfcfiotial oa latildinal ioints
bct*Ecn platcs not morr thro 5/8 in-thiclc 6s 65
ler Singlc full-fllct lapjoint (scc Nolc 4). lr$giMinal or m.ridionelilints ltld ci.cumfcr- 35 35
cflial or lariurdi&ljoiots bctwan phtas rbl
ed
norc drao ,8 in lhickFinB of this tyF sh.ll nor
ell bc nscd for lodgiudinal or Dcridiood joinrs tlui
'n. thc Fovisions of 5.12, rcquir wh.r! rhc rhirutc{
ne plalcjoincd cxc.Eds r/4 irl"
Sioglc flu-filkt lrp joints for hcrd-ro-noz.lc For 8n*hlnanl ofhadJ convx to pcssurc nol 35
JOmts morc lhsD 5/8 in rcquid lhickncss, o{ y wirh use
n- of lh. fillc{ wcld on rh! i$idc of tlF 0o2dc.
Nozztc-anachndt fi llct w.lds AlrchrEnt wclding for nozzlcs and thch rcin- (lscludcd in
L forccmcnts, thc sftngh
factors io
n- 3.16.8.3)
re Plt g rrcldr (scc 5.245) Attachmcnt wclding for nozzlc rdnfo.t mcnB 80 - 80
(scc Notc 6).
e-
te
| . Scc 5.26 ard ?. | 5 for d.mimdofl rcodrcnrcnts.
2. Rc8rtdla$ of any vducs givcn in ftis colunul. thc cfiicicncy for htrwcldcdjoinls bcrwcco plar.s wilh surhc.s of dorbtc cunarur. thar have a com-
1- pfli$vc iE-css acro6.r llrc jolnl lrom a ncgativc taluc of P. or otlEr cxtcmal l@dinr nrav bc rakc$ as unitvl such comorcssirc vrass shalt nol rcccd
tn 700 lbfto r, Fot 3ll othrt ltpwcldcd joint!. tllc joid cmcicrrcy facror musr bc appliid o rrr atlr,rattc coriprcssira sriss. \,.
Thc cflicrcncy for furl.
pcn tmllon D|rn'wclddt romtr. khich arc in comprccsion adDrs !h. cntirc thickEss of rhc conE rcd plar.s. may bc t in as unit v
I All ruin butl.wcldcd joints t scc 5.26.1.2) dbll bc complcrcly radiogr.phcd as sFcifi.d in ?. 1 5.1 fid .ozzlc and ninforccmcnr hchmcnt wckl.
$arr bc c,(amrncd by rh magftdc.paniclc mcrhod rr srfciftd in ?.15.2.
'nE
4. Thictocss hmrrarions dr not appty ro llat borlomr supfDncd unifomty ona fo
dation.
te J Fo. thc poro$s affh lable.3 circumfcrcn[al or laritudii.l ioins shallb. considercd suhiccr ro rhe samc rcouir.nEnrs and limiullionl !s arc k,n.
a-
gitudtnolor m$idionalroint\ shcn $rch a circumt rcorial or lainudinaljoinr is locarcd(ar sttuncal. lori slhcricalor Lllips{ndrl .hrltL n I'r o
ofc. slrlic. of doublc curvlrur. lbr ar fc iuncrion hctwcrn l Looicat o; dishcd rmf &v thrron';a irnd c.rlindricai sidcw l s. t|s ;tnsidcnd in j. .1 [ ( r
ld Itt it r rimilariuncruru at citbLr cnd of I i;nsiion sccrioo or rducc. ls sh(sn in Figuft 5.9
6''.|'.d0icDnc!l]tctGis|towt|ir|i||c|wd|ds!ndph'!lwt|dsi'.n(i|lC)t|p
it.
nt

In

: jJre 18.6 lL4aximum allowable efiiciencies fof arc-wetded joints

:'.n APl620, table 5-2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 325

18 The desian of low lemperaturc tanks

flgt re :l
i

0.6 .f...:.::::
',ii- i-l
l
ili'i 'ny'R\
.E\TI
_; *::
0.5
- -'r' 'ir:i. ,?0-: : .

j::-:
l-* ;
't0
04 :,-i .rl '::
.'|': f.:
l:i :
ii
K
':
.:,;ll; i, tt l,i
l:+Ili-: ': ttt
0'3
: , l.T:i-- t-i i ;. ':i I i+ ii- ,.
l.<-
r;t. rli I.jil:r:
:i l i.-r !r i. I
i !i_

i:li$|++ ilt; i :t L:l ti :l

'l_l : i:i.1- j-r,I.i l.i:
';:li
l-:: I ;iiij ri:i
i:1 |
-l illl ill til
I

i t-l- i,- '.

0.1
i.l.;i i* i:li.i.;-1 i,-
rlr:.-.* ir ]+:;-:-l:l il tOl,-:il
i:l1i;lil rir..l.l
:i'1 :iriiill;l
'i:.t. i i: I .l.i il
0
r: iU,
'i:1.
ili:irlf, r;i;t;
::l Ti
l.ll r i-',
riil'-'.-
.:l
6i,: i:l
:-:l:, i:i,ili;i
tt:i ,i.i iii

Figurc 2

A=M.an lln.
I, B= Ltdltt for E0 Pol cnl
Efecttoe\ t.rdtt of
C, C=ll|nltr lor .ll t.tultr

0.10
04.01.01-NorE.
EXTERNAL PRESSURE
ie. E\: ) <o.
B'rcklinS mey occur uDder- ex_
t ma,l Dresaure aloDe at rower
oressurei tban indicated bY tlis
bata Sheet io tle long wavelength
mode covred bY Data sbeet
04.09.01. Tberefole in external
oressufe ca!c6 the strD8tb -ol tle
ivlinder rhould elao b cneckeo
o0l \riitrr Date Sheet 0l 09 ol'
Daceitbet 1963
t00 R
t
axial pressure - page 1
Llnstiffened circular cylinders under combined
Figure 18.7 Buckling stress coefflclents for tirn-walled
Sheet no 04 01 41
From Royal Aeronautical Society Structunl Data

326 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


04.0t.01
BUCKLING STRESS COEFFICIENTS FOR THIN.WALLED
UNSTIFFENED CIRCULAR CYLINDERS UNDER COMBINED
AXIAL COMPRESSION AND INTERNAL PRESSURB
-, (s.cona ke6 ld! t*)
l-le.gth of cylild.l (i!.)
R = radius of c/iider (in.)
,= tlid.ncss of cylind.r warl (iaJ
o=llaximun inw&d initial iffsula.ity (in.)
-E= Youos.'s nbdurus 0b./in.)
,- iitcmd ple3urc 0b,/i!.')
t'=critiel codpr$sivb sttB (lb./inj)
{-buck$ng strss co.frcinr dd!.d
by i=rr (r/R)
The cuns on Fislr. r 6ay be Bed to dcrcdine rle brcklinE sr.6
co.f6ciet5 for thin-eau.d un.tj-ffnd ci@lar cytinder3 uader @obin;d djal
comprBioa and irt.rnal pcsurc. The buaklins 3rlB @effidst K i3
plotted.sainst 6/r ror var;ous value or thc palme@r (lrlE) (Rl)r.
The dclrh 3 of initial nr.glladriB i! one of rhe D.inciDal faclorc a{erinE rbe
buckling str6s of circular cyliddeE. Dispcitiod ofiuch i.rcsalerideJ ba!
ben panly tAkcn into a@unr by thep.rticular d.6nidod 6dopted tor 6, i,., tne
maxidun inward irregula.iry of the surfa@ of rhe cylinde. from arv slraicbt
edg. placed in an axial phnc. Appreciabte vanatioi in buckri'q si;ess dirsr
stiu bc expered for cyij^deB haling tnc aame 3/r rclio but wi{h di8snlly
shaped ed difcrcndy l@ted inidal i.r.Autari!$.
h h.lways dificuh to irreprer actulnsur@ots of i(egularities, Some
gu;ddce or the vatues of 6 fdr uee who etjnaLine tte bickti@ strese of
qylioders f rch Fignrc r ;s given in Flgurc :. Tle dr;es or Figw ; bave len
deriv.d Iron experimental r6ulrs, etr@rive vatues of 5/r b.ios obrained b!
wo.ki.g back lrcm Ficur. r. The rers on which tle cu.i6 ar.-bar.d @vcrcf
a wide raoge of date.iah abd cylinder 3izcs and. saner b.nd is show!;
cuNc A i3 the de linc dnwn rbrough rle elperimenral poinls, [ns B, B,
liow thc lidirs for eigbry per cenrol rhe rults and lines C, C, show the limirs
for all the tuult!. lt i5 beliq.d rl.( by u6ios t!$e cun6 a rc*onabtr
6rimaie of rhc ndufactu.ing inaeuraci* wjlr 6e obrained for use iD d.ttr-
hidng rle buckling srr6s of cyund.E under .xial @hprgsion aud irrer!.1
pre$ure rrom ! !gur. r,
on Fislre , thc cude ror (t/E)(Ri
is {or $e es of toadids u.der
a:ial @mpe3ion alone. Tb efect of incrnal'f =o pre$urc iE !o redua rhl inir'61
iiregularitie in rhe crlinde. and hence to lncrease (h huckline srre$
coefhciert. walurs of.(?/E) la/4r giv rheefr*t or cxte..d tr6sure.
"Nts*iv!
lhe orde. o! th.se elfecrs is:ndi@red by ihe dotred cuwes.
Tn curu6 are appli@ble obly to cyl,ndec whcre tllR): )' :{ lrr F), bur rhd
may be used to deremin. rh buckling srras of dng{risened cyiinaqs if i js
rakeD 4 $e distance btrw.en two rinss and dre above ondjrron k fu$ued.
For slDrter c/Undss .ne bucklirg srr-s will be hgher Lhan tlat given by
Cox and P{r!RAx. Th Eimenrs of th. Bucklins of Cufred plat6.
loudal olrhe Rotdt A.o@stn:at Sociar, Sptdber rta.
Cox. Unplblisbed rork,
Lo, CurE and ScEwdrz. Bucjkline of Thin-Watled Cvtinder undir Aaial
Compd3io6 ud lrrerDal Pcsulc. N.A.C,A. Rclorr !ozi, tqst.
FunG and S3a!R. Buc&tina or Tii!-walr.d Ci@td CvnndcF uoder
Compcsion .nd Iarernat Prusurc. Jddd of r,,. A.@tu;tknr Sci.@es,
A,xiar
H^nRB m
^1.
Thc stabiliry of Thin-waLd UNdfiocd Cir.utar Cvtind*
ubde. Axiel Compesio! I.cludirg rhe Efct3 of tDt mal prssurc. jor@t
ol t^6 Aero@uficat Augu3t 1957,
'.toq.r,
To find tbe buc&ling 6rs of a cylinder under @mbided axial oopcsion
R=18 itr., t-0.036 in,, l-t8 jr., E-rox!o. tb./in.,
snd ,=ro.o lb./in,'
(l/x),=r.o a.!d ,5 {t/R)=o.os; lhcrcfore (t/.R}'> .s (r/R).
R/t=5@ ed, f6h cwe A of Flgure ,, 3/r-o.15.
(r/E) (R/r)r=o.,s dd, kom Fisurc t, x-o.ao.
Thcforc lb=8,@ lb./in.r
A cylinder of muc! l* rld averaao *snda'd of manufacrure in l.fts of
lhe magritud. of its cylirdriel inpcrt@liols, misht bav. ar cfi@tive t/t of
o.95 (upp.. C li* on Fig!rc ,). Suc! a cyrindt would have . huch t;wer
buckliqg srcs rh6 rhat titut d abovc j ia woutd bc <,4oo lb. /io.' Ukewis
a crlinder of much geare. cyli.dril p.rfetiod misht;;hie. an .f,etive 6/r
or orly o.oo9 0d.i C ltn on FiEw ,) .!d beyc a buckliE !rG! &
_rr.,@.1b./io.r The po$ibiury ol3!ch variariols i. bucklilg dtr;s must b.
:;-.e 18.7 Buckling stress coefficienis for thin-walled unstiffend circular cyl-
-::rs !ndercombined axialpressure - page 2
-'.- Royal Aeronautical SocieE Sttuctural Data Sheet no. 04.01.01
18 The design of low temperature tanks
t = thickness ofthe top course ofthe tank wall (in)
[note 1]
D = tank diameter (ft)
Notes: 1. The Code states that the thickness used shall be the
"as ordered" thickness unless otherwise stated. This
means that for tanks where a corrosion allowance has
been soecified. it is the uncorroded thickness that shall
be used. Clearly if the designer, owner or other inter-
ested parties feel that the added security of having a
stiffening system based on the corroded shellwould be
beneficial, then there is provision to allow this, but the
onus is on these parties to demand this change.
2. This formula is based on the following:
The design wind velocity (V) is 10q mph which imposes
a dynamic pressure of 25.6 lblf(. The velocity is in-
creased by 10% for either height above the ground or
gust factor. The pressure^is thus increased to 31.0
lb/fr". An additional 5.0 lb/f is added to this for internal
vacuum (5.0 lb/f is equivalent to a vacuum of approxi-
mately 1.0" water gauge). lf the design is to cater for
anotherwind speed specified by the customer, then tl'!e
value of H1 can be adjusted by multiplying by (100iv)' .
Theformula can be similarly adjusted to cope with wind
velocities which are expressed in terms of wind pres-
sure rather than velocity and for other levels ofvacuum.
The background to this is based on the work of
Mccralh ( Refere nce 1 8. 1 \
To take account of the differing thicknesses of the tank shell
courses, the shellmust be transposed to an equivalent shell, all
of the minimum or upper shell course thickness using the fol-
lowing relationship:
Ir
r--''- l-
wt. = w.i rlrlrq I equ 18.6
I
I L 'acruar
where:
tunrom = thickness ofthe top sidewall course (in), as or-
dered, unless otherwise specifled lsee Note 1
abovel
t"d,"r = thickness of the sidewall course (in)forwhich
the transposed width is being calculated, as or-
dered, unless otherwise specified
W = actual course width (ft)
Wr = transposed course widh (fr)
The sum of the transposed widths gives the total height of the
transposed shell. lf this height is greater than the value of Hj
calculated from equation 18.5, then one or more intermediate
wind girders must be added to stabilise the shell.
>
If H1 I W, then no intermediate wind stiffeners are re-
qurred
lfH1 < >W, <2Hr then one intermediate wind stiffener is
reourred
lf 2H1 < I Wr <3H1 then two intermediate wind stiffeners
are reoutreo
Etc....
generallyagreed that the spacing between the wind stiffen-
It is
ers should be equally pitched on the transformed shell as faras
is oossible.
This is efficientdesign. lt provides the maximum shellstability in
that all of the unstiffened parts of the shell are equally stable.
The stiffeners may be attached to either the inner or outer sur-
faces of the shell and must not be located within 6 inches of a
horizontal welded seam.
The required minimum section modulus of the intermediate
STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 327
18 The desian of low tempercture tanks

quired for the stairway, then the opening shall have the same
Tank shell minimum section modulus as the stiffener itself This is de-
scribed further in ChaPter 4.
The stiffening ring itself can be a structural section or be fabri-
cated from plate. ln this case the joint between web and flange
may be an intermittent weld on alternate sides'
One rathole of minimum radius0.75" shallbe provided ateach
ioint between stiffener sections and at each point where the
itiffener crosses vertical shelljoints This detailis shown in Fig-
ure 18.9.
All fillet welds shall consist of a minimum of two passes The
ends of the fillet welds shall be 2" fromtheedgeof therathole
as illustrated, and these welds shall be deposited by starting 2"
from the rat hole and welding away from the rat hole An accept-
able alternative to stopping the fillet welds 2" short of the rat
hole is to weld continuously through the rat hole from one side
of the stiffener to the opposite side All craters in the flllet weld-
ing shall be filled bY back welding.
Anv ioints between sections of stiffener shall be made such that
area or the shellto be included in the wind siirr- tne minimum required moment of inertia of the combined
5i9ru"13"tJ[:,33""F"tins shell/stiffener shall be maintained
wind stiffener is given by the following equatron: Welded joints between adjacent sections of stifiener shall be
equ 18.7 made with full thickness complete penetration butt welds The I
Z = O.O0O1D'H,
use of backing strips is permitted.
18.3.1.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
i
where: I
For double-walled tanks where the thermal insulation system I
Z = minimum section modutus of the stitfener (in3) consists of a loose fill material (usually perlite) in association
and the Participating shell I
with a resilient blanket (usually glass fibre)' the insulation sys- I
The participating shellwhich may be included in the calculation tem imposes an external pressure on the outerface ofthe inner
of the sectlon modulus on the stiffener' both above and below tank. fhis mechanism is described further in Chapter'19 The
the point of attiachment is given by: external pressure is at its maximum value when the tank is
pe-
equ 18.8 emDtv and warmed up to ambient temperature following a
to = 1 .a7[Dt1', r.iod in lo* t".p"tutuie service The evaluation of the
magni-
tude of the insulation component of the loading is also dis-
where: iuiied in Chapter 19. ln the case of inner tanks with fixed roofs'
lp = length of the participating shell (in) (see Figure the insulation loading can be increased by the mostpessimistic
18.8) combinations of interspace pressure and inner ianl( vacuum'
The Code does not give any guidance for the design of a suit-
Where tanks arefitted with spiralstairways and thewind stiffen-
able shell stiffening system.
ing is to be fitted to the outside of the tank shell, stiffeners ex-
tending up to 6" from the outer surface of the shell plate with Adesiqn methodology which has wide acceptance in the indus-
(Refer-
stairwiys of at least 24" nominal width are permitted wlthout try is b:ased on the work of L.P Zick of Chicago Bridge
eice 78.2). This work has been republished with minor modifi-
modification. For stiffeners which are widerthan 6", a minimum
lf the cations in a publication by the American lron and Steel lnstitute
unobstructedwidth of stain/ayof 18" mustbe maintained
the stiffener is re- most recentiy revisedin 1gg2 (Reference 18 3) and it upon this
stiffener is of such a width that an opening in

Con nu@sfr|e|EE (s*a 3 s)

1 i" I r l r" rr-i,.. r,rt.

"

Fgure 18.9 APl620 - Shell slrffenet Jornt deta'ls

328 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 18 The design of low temperature tanks

.ne :.: :re following is based. This document gives design meth- half of the distance from the centre of the stiff-
te- - : -:'or three d;fferent types ofvessels and loadings. lt is Type C ener to the centre of the next stiffener on the
- :'r is most appropriate for storage tanks ("Storage Tanks of other side (or to the top or bottom of the shell)
(in). This is the part of the shell supported by
9n- -:'ie Diameter Subject to Radial Loads Only, ot Small Vacu-
, -: Wherc the Axial Load is Negligible"). the stiffener and this is illustrated in Figure
rge
18. 10
--. external load applied bythe insulation system on a vertical
rch
:. -dricaltankhas been shown by experimental and theoreti- D = tank diameter (in)
:: :iudies to be nearly uniform overthe tank height. This has t
lne
.::. assumed in this design procedure. = thickness ofthe thinnest (i.e. top) shell course
(in)
-: :3count for the fact that real tank shells are constructed from
-he : ::ries of courses, usually of different thicknesses, and the E = Young's modulus ofthe tank shell material
(lb/in2) usually taken as 29.0E06 for steel
oe -ry in Reference 78.3 is based on a shell of constant thick-
-::s. materials and 10.6E06 for aluminium alloys
it is first necessary to construct a shell of constant thick-
|2" -:-is equivalent to the real shell. This is for convenience based = factor of safety with respect to predicted failure
)pt- : - :re minimum shell thickness used in the real shell and is suggested minimum value = 2.0
-
: - -structed as in Section 18.3.1.4 by repeating the calculation
rae :':quivalent course width on a course-by-course basis using
p = external pressure (lb/in2)
)ro- :: -ation 18.6. p = Poisson's ratio - for steels 0.30
This formula is valid for values of L" greater than O.916i.
iat
equ 18.9 For tanks of conventional proportions, it is most unusual for
)ed
_:fe: shell stiffeners to be this close together.

be -1. = total height of equivalent tank shell (in) The number of stiffeners required to stabilise the shell is given
-he by:
.termediate shell stiffeners
-^: David Taylor lvlodel Basin Formula is used to decide upon N.,n =t 1 equ 18.11
.-
= citching of the stiffeners on the tank shell.
This is taken from
em : ,vork of Windenburg and Trilling (Refe rence 18.4), some of (rounded up to the nearest whole number)
ron , - ch is based on test work carried out on behalf of the US Navy
ys- :: 'ar back as 1929. Note: usualto arrange for shellstiffeners to be a minimum
lt is
ner
--? fofmula is: distance above or below the circumferential shell
-he
seams (measured on the real shell). This can be the
minimum spacing permitted by the tank design Codes
2.42 E (t Df f
ce- !, <D 0.45 + _4 | equ 18.10
or a greater distance to suitthe method oftank erection.
lni- Fp(l-u')''' l It is next necessary to calculate the number ofwaves into which
the stiffening ring will buckle, which is taken as the same num-
)fs, ber of waves into which the complete unstiffened shell will
,
_ere:
stic buckle:
Tt, L, half of the distance from the centre of the stiff-
uit- ener to the centre of the next stiffener on one Nz - -:: > 100 equ 18.12
side (or to the top or bottom of the shell) plus H lt^..
Di] D
US-
where:
iift-
ute N = number of waves rounded up to the nearest
nts whole number - Note that the maximum per-
mitted value is 10
H = total height ofthe real shell (in)
t", = average shell thickness (in)
Next is the calculation for the required moment of inertia of the
stiffener and the participating area of the shell:

' FPL'DI
equ 18.13
' sE(N'z-1)

where:
l" = moment of inertia of the shell stiffener and the
participating area of the tank shell (in4)
L" = actual or real height ofthe tank shell associ-
ated with the particular stiffener (in)
The participating area ofthe shell is the lesser ofl .1t"vbi (equal
to the participating shell width on either side of the stiffener of
t-i
078-/r aiven in eouation 18.15).
\2 -
: :Lr 18.10 The podion of the lank shell supported by a stiffener (1") This is computed by reversing the move from the real shell to

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 329

1 8 The design of low tempenture tanks

Diametor 72m
Height 35m
Fillheight 34m
Product LNG
sG 0,48

Course Width (m) Thickness (mm) Equivatent ht (m) Realheight (m) .quivalnt height (m)
course) (cumulativ)
(per (clmulative)
1-bottom 3.5 35.4 0.134 35.000 13-913
2 3.5 31.7 0.177 31.500 ',t3779
3 3.5 2a-1 0.235 28.000 13.602
4 3.5 24.5 0.336 24.500 13.364
5 3"5 20.8 0.507 2',1.o00 't3.o27
6 3.5 17.2 0.815 17.500 12,521
7 3.5 ',13.6 1.465 14.000 11JO6
8 3.5 9.9 3.241 10.500 10.241
I 3.5 9.6 3.500 7.000 7.000
'lGtop 3.5 9.6 3.500 3.500 3 500

Figure I 8.1 1 Example of transition from the equlvalent to the real shell

the equivalent shell in equation 18.9 above. An example ofthis

calculation is given in Figure 18.11.
To preventyielding ofthe stifener, the following minimum area
requirement shall also be met:
. PL.D equ 18.14

wnere: Stitrener s2e6

A" = composite area ofthe stiffener and the partici- Top 9lo x 305 x 76 x8 mm
pating shell (in'?). The participating shell width '| 152x9
' to be included on either side of the stiffener it-
159xe
mm

self shall be:

10 165x8

0.78 equ 18.15 !1 171x8

12 184x8
Note: This is more generousthan permitted byAPl620 Para- 13 197x8
graph 5.10.6.8 for wind stlfiening (see equation 18.8) 't4 203x8

which in the same units works out to be060{; .

15 &x 9.6

To ensure that the stifiener is a sensible minimum size, the area

ofthe stifieneralone shall be not less than one halfofthe value
of A" calculated.
F" = Allowable compressive shess (lb/irP)and shall
be taken as '15,0001b/in'? for steel.
This procedure results in a stiffener anangement with the shell
stiffeners congregating towards the top of the tank shell and in-
creasing in size from the top of the tank to the boftom. A typical
arrangement is illustrated in Figure 18.12.
The conservative assumption, built onto equations 18.13 and
18.14 is that allofthe load on the tank shell is taken by the inter-
mediate stiffeners.
The proportions ofthe plate stiffeners shallconform to the AISC
rules for compression members (Reference 78.q, or the de-
signer can use the simpler 16t rule.
End (i.e, top and bottom) stiffeners
Forthe design ofthese stifieners, it is assumed that one halfof
the total radial load on the tank shell is transferred to the end
stiffeners. In this case where the external load is uniform, the
end stiffeners are equallyloaded, each receiving one quarter of
the total load on the tank shell.
The required moment ofinertiaforan end stiffener is given by:

c{T
FpHD3
equ 18.16

wnere:
H = total actualtank height (in) Figlre 18.12 A tpical shell stiffenlng arrangement

330 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Eileclive area wilhoul annular stilfener
lzr"lL"l
Effective area with annut& sliffening
: l-:e
18.13 Boitom comer arrangement where additional area is required
::r open topped tanks N should be taken as 2 for the top stiff-
:lr a tank with a fixed roof with a radial rafter framework, N
=:uals the number of radial rafters subject to the maximum
,: ue of '10.
::. a flat bottom or a self-supporting roof (i.e. no framework) N
:^all be calculated using equatlon 18.12.
-"e required cross-sectional area ofthe end stiffeners is calcu-
=:ed from: - .
nHn
"4F
't is available, (i.e. a top stiffener located below the top of the
shell), a participating width ofshell on each side ofthe stiff-
=rk
:1ef, as given in equation 18.15, shall be included in the area.
:lr the bottom end stiffener, the participating section without
--^e
addition of extra material is the annular plate outstand. the
:rrtion of the annular plate beneath the shell and the effective
,1 dth of annular plate (given above) together with the participat-
-9 shell area from equation '18.15. This is usually sufficient to
'- fll the moment of inertia requirements ofequation 18.16, but
-.3metimes falls short of the minimum area required by equa-
: cn 18.1 7. An economical means of providing the extfa area is
:: use a small annular plate stiffener to mobilise additional an-
-Jlar plate. This is illustrated in Figure 19.13.
-te maximum value for L" is usually taken lrcm Reference
18.3.2 The API 620 Appendix e approach
is has been described in Section 19.3.1, when this Standard
r.as written it only considered single containment tanks for the
::orage of products at temperatures down to -270.F. This is
-ade clear in the scope in Paragraph e.1.1 of the Code. The
considered are a single-walled insulated tank (most un-
=nks
-sual these days) ora double-walled tank consistinq of an inner
:nk for storing the refrigerated liquid and an outer tank enclos-
-g an insulation space around the innertank. This outer tank is
-ot designed to contain the product liquid.
,','ith the passage of time and the increasingly frequent appear-
:''rce of double and full containment tanks, the rules of this AD-
::ndrx have also been used to design liquid containing metaliic
18 The design of low tempercturc tanks
outer tanks.
API Appendix Q divides the component parts of the tank into
two categories:
Primary components. lt is worth quoting paragraph e. i.4.1 in
full as there is frequently some confusion in this area:
"ln general, primary components include those components
that may be stressed to a significant level, those whose failure
would permit leakage ofthe liquid being stored, those exposed
to a refrigerated temperature between -60'F and -27O.F, and
those that are subject to thermal shock. The primary compo-
nents shall include, but will not be limited to, the following parts
of a single wall tank or of the inner tank in a double wall tank:
shell plates, bottom plates, roof plates, knuckle plates, com-
pression rings, shell stiffeners, manwaysand nozzles including
reinforcement, shell anchors, pipe, tubing, forgings and bolt-
ing".
Note: When roof plates, knuckle plates, compression rings,
manways and nozzles including reinforcement are pri-
marily subjected to atmospheric temperature they are
reclassifi ed as secondary componenb.
Secondary components. ln general, secondary components
include those components that will not be stressed to a siqnifi-
cant level by the refrigerated liquid, those whose failure wiit not
result in leakage of the refrigerated liquid being stored, those
exposed to product vapours, and those that have a design
metal temperature higher than -60"F
Much ofthis categorisation is concerned with material selection
and impacttesting. This is discussed more fully in Chapter 21 .
18.3.2.1 Hoop tension liquid containing tanks
-
The two formulae from Section 18.3.1.1, (equations 18.1 and
18.2) are used again here with the following exceptions:
Ht is no longer required to be the same as Ho. The exact
wording of the Code on this subject is:
equ 18.17
Q.8.1.1 states; "Except as limited by foundation or stress
conditions, the test shall consist offilling the tank with water
to the design liquid level and applying an overload air pres-
sure of 1 .25 times the pressure for which the vapour sDace
is designed. Where foundations or stress conditions do not
permit a testwith waterto the design liquid level, the height
of the water shall be limited as stated in e.8.1.2 and
Q.8.1.3.',
Q.8.1 .2 states: "The load on the supporting foundation shatl
preferably not exceed the established allowable bearina
value for the tank site. Where a thorouqh evaluation of lh;
foundation justifies a temporary increaie, the established
allowable bearing may be increased for the test condition.
but the increase shall not be more than 25%.',
Q.8.1.3 states: "The maximum fill shall not produce a stress
in any part of the tank greater than 85% (may be gO% for
stainless steel oraluminium materials) of the specified min j-
mum yield strength of the material or 55% of the speciflec
minimum tensile strength of the material.
What this boils down to is:
- The minimum test water fill level is given by:
Hr = 1.25Howo equ 18. i 6
- The shell th ickness will normally be governed by the
ope-
ating condition but a check must be made to ensure tia:
the stress limits given in Q.8.1.3 are not exceeded.
There are occasions when the test water level is reouirec
to be higher than that given by equation 18.18. These c:-
cumstances could be associated with local requlations o.
customer preference. So a test water height up to H co.t o
be required, and in this case the shell thickness wiil proba-
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 331
1 8 The design of low temperature tanl$

srdric shell b2sidr to AFt 620 Ap ,rloteridl selcted :

9% Nlckd: AST A553 ?

Tank diohela
Height of fork shell
Fill height -op'.olir'g
Fill heighi -last 2O.& |n
- P.oduct S
Test wster 56
Operuting pre3sure - fixed rrof tonk only ntdrg
Tesi pr6s|tFe - fixed roof tonks only mborg
lrlinimun thickie9s li i: 9,600 hn
corrosion ollowonce 6,a=[ffilrnn
Weld nefol properties - Ullimole Tensile Sif engih uts.--ZEiE-ru/rnrn'
Yild Sirng{h yS
= 399.91 t{,hm,
Density of steel p= 8O0O.0O k9lm3

Fron APr 620 : Q.3.3.2 (desqn) d Q.8.1.3 (tesi)

Allowoble strqte"s - opc.stirE; 1/3 x UTs 229,8 N/hn'?

or 2/3 xYS 266.6 1.1166?
trst : 0.55 x UTs 379.2 N/mnf
or 0.85 x YS 339.9 Mmm'z

Dasign slress 229.8 N/mtn'g

Test stress 339,9 N/nrn'?
-

The colculofion of the shell fhiclap$ cohat fron API 620 | 3.10.3.2.

t= Tt +"o where T, = lditrjdindl unil fofce (cirdrhferehtiol unii forcas)

sB. marii
SoE rm ollowobl stf55 for simple iension
E= efficiency of joint

- Coufse wdih Ha ,+ td seleclea lr Wei9hi

(tn) (m) (rn) (nn) (run) (|n|n) (wn) (lt'n) (Te)
I 34 20.,{() 25,O8 25.O8 25.@ 154.91
30.50 16.90 22.tu 22.m 17.56 22.4 142.50
3 2730 13.,tO 19.91 19.91 19.91 ?0,o 126.67
23.fi 17.33 t7.33 17.33 10.29 17,4 110.20
3 '3 20.00 6.40 14.75 14.75 9.60 14.4
16.W 290 12.17 11 17 12l7 9.60 l?..2 77.27
7 13.00 4.60 9.59 9.59 9.60 9.60 9.6 60.EO
8 9.50 -4.10 7.O1 701 9.60 9.60 9.6 60-90
6.00 -7.60 4.43 4.43 9.60 9.60 9.6 60.80
lo -11.10 1.84 1.84 9.60 9.60 9.6 60.80
".50
Totofl,eioht: 952.55 Ie

where;
Hd = Height of liquid hld under oPer{tlng codifions oi level being conslde.ed (n)
Hr = Heighl of liquid head under ta# conditio[' dt level being contidered (|n)
td = DesiEn thickrs of 3hell (nm)
fd + cq : Dedgn thicknesg + corrosion ollowonce (mm)
ir: Tert thlckness of shell (nu'n)
l" = selccted shell thickness (nm)

Figure 18.14 Example calculatlon showing how the test water heighl influenced the shsll thickness - page t

332 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1 8 The design of low temperaturc tanks

Smt Stntl Oesron to fpt fZO fo ,rldteriol selected :

sxnl"k"'-llllr1ssl E
Tonl dion
Height of
Fillheight -
ter
tdr* lheil
opcmthg
r'ffi*
Fill height
Produci SG
Tesr wdter Sg
- tcst
w
w
34.00 rh

Op.i.afi4t pr$$? - fixed foof lqaks mly

Tesl prErure - ftx.d noof iohk only
ffi"uo"g
lW|rnbqrg
l'linihqn lhiclaEas i,r = 9.600 rnn
Coirrosion qllowonce 61=W$nrnr
Weld metol properiiat - Uhitndte TeBile St|.engf h UTS = 689.50 Wm|nz
Yield Strength YS = 39.91 N/mr:
D.nsityof st el p= e000.00 kglnri

F.on APr 620 r q3.3.2 (desqn) & Q.8.1.3 (tusr)

Allowqble stre3ses - opa.atlrB = V3 x UTs 229.8 wtrtnz

or 2/3 xYS 266.6 N/hn,
tst: 0.55 x UTS 379.2 f.t/61614
or 0.85 { YS 339.9 Nh|n,
Desi$r stress e29.8 N/mn,
Te6tStr93 339,9 Nlnrmr

n llle co,qulqii$ of the rhell thick'|ess cones fron Apf 620 I 3,f0,3.2.
T"
t= +aa where Tr: ldtitlrdinql unit force (clrrunferdiol unit fofcs)
S*E g, = mxinw$ ollowoble strEis for simple terlsiolt
E 3 efficiency of joinf

Cou|le Wtdllt H6 ll' id ld+co id selected Weighi

(|n) (rn) (n) (run) (|n|l|) (hii) (nn) (mm) (re)
1 34 34.00 25.08 25.08 25.08 3534 36.4 224.20
3050 22.50 31.69 31.7 m.77
27.@ 27ffi 19.91 r9.91 19.91 28.05 28.1 177.97
4 e350 ,7.33 17.33 17.33 24.42 21.5 155.17
eo.00 20.00 t4:75 14J5 14.75 4.78 20.8 131J4
16.50 16.50 1Zt7 rzv 1?.r7 17.L4 t7.z 108.94
13.00 13.00 9.59 9.59 9.@ 13.6 E6l3
9.ffi 7.at 9.60 9.87 9.9
o 6.@
' 6.!0 4.43 4.43 9.60 9.60 9.6
62JO
60.80
e50 2.& !34 '| a4 9.60 930 9-6 60.80

rornl weiol* -TiSd7l-.re

=

Hd = Heigl* of llqrdd hsad under olerlting corditig.s af level bing congidersd (ttl)
Hr = Height of liquld hend qldef lert conditjons at levcl bsing considerd (n)
td = Design thickness of shell (nrn)
td + ca. Detign thicknS + corrociqn dbwree (nUn)
tr : Terf thicknssr of shell ftnn)
tr : s.lecrd shell thickne6s (mn)

l|r1 Ernple calculation showing how the test water height Influencd the shell lhlckness- page 2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 333

1B The design of low tempenture tanks

Nominal Cylindcr Diamctcr(f() Nominal Plate Thickncsr (in.l non-liquid containing tanks, the rules from section 5.4 of the
Slainlcss s{.cl ed nickel stael
Code are used as described in Section 18.3.'1 .3. For aluminium
<60 r/rr, alloysthe allowable compressive stress shallbe reduced bythe
l4O ttl ratio of the modulus of compressive elasticity to 29,000 (note
dO-
> 140-220 5tt6
US customary units of lb/inz) for values of [- c) less than
>22O r/s

Aluminum 0.0175 and by the ratio of the minimum yield strJgth of the alu-
<20 ft -c)
3h6
miniumalloyto30,000forvaluesof ' _' equaltoorgreater
2O-Im ttt
> 120-2m 5h6 than 0.0175.
>M l/s
18.3.2.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening

Figure 18.15 Nominal thickness of inner iank cylindrical sidewall plaies

Fran API 624, hble Q-5
bly be dictated by the test condition.
- An example of this is shown in Figure '18.'14. In this case
thedesign ofthefoundation and the supporting base insu-
lation material must be checked to ensure that they are
suitable for the higher test case loadings.
. Minimum values for the design specific gravity of the vari-
ous products (Wo) are given. These are:
- Methane 29.30 lb/ft3 (i.e. an SG = 0.470)
For single-walled tanks (most unusual to Appendix Q), and
outer liquid and non-liquid containing tanks, the rules outlined in
Section 18.3.1 .4 are used. The only difference is that Appendix
Q allows the use of stainless steels and aluminium alloys. For
these materials the requirement for a minimum of two pass fillet
welds is not mandatory
18.3.2.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
The Code gives no guidance here and the methods described
in Section 18.3.1.5 above are commonly used. The only differ-
ences are in the values of Poission's ratio and the allowable
compressive stress to be adopted when aluminium alloys are to
De useo.

- Ethane 34.21 lblft3 (i.e. an SG = 0.546) In eouation 18.10 a value of u of 0.33 should be substituted and
in equations 18.14 and 18.17 the allowable compressive stress
- Ethylene 35.50 lb/ft3 (i.e. an SG = 0.569)
of 5483 lb/in'? (based on 15,000 lb/in'z times the ratio of the
. Values for the allowable stress for the design condition (So) Young's modulii of aluminium alloy to steel) should be used.
and the allowable stress for the test condition (Sr) for com-
monly used ASTM materials are given in Table Q-3 (Figure 18.3.3 The BS 7777 approach
18.4). The values ofSo given in this Table for plate materi-
als are based on the lesser of: As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, BS 7777 is based
(a) one third of the specified minimum ultimate tensile on the work of the EEMUAcommittee and its recommendations
strength of the material or contained in the EEMUA 147 publication. EEMUAand its pre-
decessor, OCMA, worked for several years to pfoduce a set of
(b) hi,/o thirds oJ the specified minimum yield strength [75%
recommendations which included double and full containment
in the cases of stainless steel, aluminium alloys and nickel
tanks which were increasingly being required by clients inter-
alloys - which does not include 9% and 5% nickel steelsl. ested in increased safety for storage facilities for the various
The values of S, are derived as stated above. low temperature gasses.
For materials where the strength of the weld metal under- BS 7777 does not use the primary secondary and basic cate-
matches the strength of the plate material such as 9% gories forthe component parts ofthe storage tanks, rather pre-
nickel steel, footnote a of the Table allows a range of weld ferring to place the various parts of the structures in the cold
metal propertieson whichthe allowable stresses foroperat- (i.e. design temperature based on the temperature ofthe stored
ing and test conditions can be based. Paragraph Q.6.1 pro- liquid)and warm (i.e. design temperatures based on minimum
vides means of determining the weld metal strengths. ambient temperatures) categories.
. The minimum shell plate thicknesses are given in Figure In Part 3 of this Standard, rules are provided for the design of
interesting to note that the values given for stain-
18.1 5. lt is concrete parts of low temperature tianks.
less steels and nickel steels are different from those given
18.3.3.1 Hoop tension liquid containing metallictanks
for aluminium alloys. They are also different from the val- -
ues given forAPl 620 Appendix R tanks (see Figure 18.5). The basic design formulae are:
It is interesting to note that the properties ofthe parent plate or Operating case:
weld metal, upon which the allowable stresses are to be based,
t^- D l98w^rH^-0.3t-o^I equ 18.19
are determined at room temperature. The actual properties at " ,)nQ ( ' ") 'ca
the design temperature will be higher, and in some cases con-
siderably higher, than the room temperature properties. Thus in Test case;
operation an additional factor of safety exisb.
D -i,
18.3.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks ' =20s, {gew,
t.
'
o.gt*0, } equ 18.20

Appendix Q of API is interestingly non-committal regarding the

design of the non-liquid containing tanks. A minimum shell
thickness of %6" is specified which is appropriate for smalltanks
but should be checked for largertanks as suggested in Section
18.3.1 .2 . In general it is usual practice to turn to the body ofthe
Code (i.e. section 5) for suitable rules for the design of outer
non-liquid containing tanks.
18.3.2.3 Axial compression
For both inner and outer liquid containing tanks and for outer
The variables are as defined in Section 18.3.1.1withthefollow-
ing exceptions:
. No minimum product density is given.
. As originally published, the test water fill height was to be
the same as the maximum productfill height. Alateramend-
mentwas published changing this requirement which is dis-
cussed in Section 18.3.3.6.
. For outer liquid containing tanks, the design product fill

334 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1B The design of low temperature tanks

)f the lhn} dismeter , Mlnlmum shell thlctness Carbon manganese lU'IS,2.35 or YS/L5
n ium steels
,ythe D <30 8 Improved toughness ltns/2.35 or YS/1.5
caxbon marganese
(note 30<D<50 l0
l,ow nickel steels UTS/2.35 or
than 50 s, I
% Ps/1.5
10.2
NOm. This thickness may inciude any corrosion allowanc I % nickel steel I tlTS/2.35 oi
) alu- provided that the shell is shown by calculation to b safe in % Ps/1.5
th corroded condition and in accordanc wjth the 10.2
requirement of 7.2.i1.3. Austenitic stainless IUTS/2.5 or I % PS/1.5
-'ater
: gure 18.16 IVinimum shell plate thickness
Figurc 18.18 Determination ofthe maximum allowable stress desgn
"on BS 7777 : Paft 2, table 12 Fron BS 7777 : Part2,table 11

ano Material type l,hximum shell thickness'/ Nornnrl cont lrs dLmeter Noblnal shU thrchr)
ed in D
lype I 30 mm
)ndtx
. For t?es II and III 25 rnm ,<10 5
fillet t?es lV and V 30 mm2) l0=D<30 6

1}?e vl 25 nm 30<r<60 8
gs 'r When material thicknesses are required in excess of thes
60<r<75 l0
values, additional requirements to maintain the same level of 12.5
-ibed
safety are lo b ageed between purchaser and manufacturer
', The rquirenenl to. minimm nomiMl thicknss is neded
ilfer- see footnore to tabte 2. for onshuction pu.pces, and nay include any colruDn
'z)
/aote auowe.e, prdidd that the shell b shom by cdculariotr ro
: lJre be sfe in the cormded condition and to b in accordance
re to 18.17 l\,4aximum shell plate lhickness with ?.1.4.2 and ?.1.43.
: .n BS 7777 : Paft2, table 4
Figure 18.19 Conlainer nominal shell plate thickness
tano height shall be the level achieved when the full inner tank
Fron BS 7777 : Pad 2. tabl-e I
:IESS contents are released into the outer tank.
i the parent plate, the weld metal properties used in the determina-
-1ese formulae applyto tanks ofthe single, double and full con-
-.d. .rment categories. tion of the allowable stresses shall be demonstrated to have
= been achieved by the use of a strain-gauged, cross joint tensile
--e design point taken as being 0.3m above the bottom edge
is test which is defined in the Standard.
:':re course under consideration.
18.3.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks
tseo r.y additional height to accommodate seismic sloshing need Only steel tanks are considered.
:ions -:: be included in the product design level (Ho).
The shell plates shall be checked for internal pressures using
--e minimum thickness requirements are given in Figure the following formula:
et of ' a 16. These minimum thicknesses are not the same as those
nent -i:Jired for non-liquid containing tanks. The footnote makes it ,PD
rter-
ious
: =ar that the minimum thickness can include the corrosion al- " =--+ca
t^
20s
equ 18.21
:,,, ance providing the shell is thick enough for the internal pres-
Where the variables are as defined in Section 18.3.'1 .1 withthe
i --e according to equations 18. 19 and 18.20. Corrosion allow-
exception of:
: -:es are not commonly applied to low temperature tanks as
-=-i already been mentioned. p = internal pressure as a combination of internal
cotd --. gas pressure and insulation pressure (mbar)
r'naximum shell plate thicknesses for the various materials
)red
num
:'= jiven in Figure 18.17. lt is interesting to see that this Table S = design stress being the lesser of 260 or two
=
,:s a let out in Footnote 1) for circumstances where the sheil thirds of the material minimum vield strenoth
:::e thicknesses exceed the values given in the Table. This (N/mm2)
nof I
" : - normally be in the form of additional or more onerous BS 7777 does not permit the use of lap-welded outertanks.
- -:-cy V-notch impact testing which would be agreed between
(s :-= : Jrchaser and the manufacturer. Footnote 2) states that for It is most unlikely that equation 18.21 will dictate the shell
service and double or full containment categodes, "ordi- thickness.
-'.3
-= r' 9% nickel steel (type lV) should be replaced by "im-
The minjmum shell plate thickness shall be taken from Fig-
: -: ..d- 9% nickel steel (type V) or by austenitic stainless steel ure 18.19. Again the footnote allows the inclusion oJthe cor-
-.:e Vl)when the shellthickness is between 30mm and 40mm. rosion allowance.
1.19
-- = 3 jlowable stresses for the operating case are given in Fig- The maximum shell plate thickness shall not exceed 35 mm.
--- - 3.18 subject to a maximum value of 260 N/mm2. 18.3.3.3 Axial compression
-- -. s the
same maximum as is imposed by BS 2654 for ambi- The thickness of the shells of non-liquid containing tanks are
J.20 :- - :: rks. lt is there for similar reasons of avoiding problems of
usually less than is the case for liquid containing tanks. For this
:;--::Jfal instability and excessive anchor rotations of con- reason it is necessary to check the stability of the shell under
-?::=: pipework (despite the fact that the Code seeks to dis-
the influence of axial compressive loadings. The basic equation
: : - -=3e the use of shell pipework connections).
to determine the allowable compressive stress is given by:
--: : owable stresses for the test case are 85% of the mini- / t,^\
---_, eld or proofstrength ofthe parent plate orthe weld metal S^ = 12.s ]j--ilc equ18.22
rbe "- :-ever is the lower) subject to a maximum value of 340
rnd-
where:
drs- --: - :.nate tensile stress (UTS), proof stress (PS) and the
: : ::-,ess (YS) are all to be determined at ambient tempera- S" = allowable compressive stress (N/mm2)
R --= ,i nere the weld metal under matches the strenoth of the t = shell plate thickness at the point under consid-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 335

 18 The design of low temperature tanks

eration (mm) 72.00

35.00
corrosion allowance (mm) 34.00
34,00
radius of the tank shell (m) 20,40
0,48
A factor for different loading combinations: 1,00

= 1.00 for deadweight above the point under

consideration plus insulation load plus 50% of Cturce l/lldfi Thidoess Tr'ickis! thii<n
{m) (.'yn) {ffin} ttrm)
pipe load plus superimposed load 1 3.500 25.1 35.0 Z2.O
2 3W 22.5 3t.!t 19.7
= 1.25 for deadweight above the point under 3 15@ 2(}.O 27.A 17 4
consideraLion plus insulation load plus pipe 4 3.:,00 17.4 24-1 15-2
5 3.5@ UA A.5 129
load plus wind load plus 50% of superimposed 6 3_500 122 16.9 120
toao 7 3.5{rO 9-6 132 120
a 3.500 9.6 120 120
= 1.33 for deadweight above the point under 9 3.5@ 9.6 12.O 12.0

consideration plus insulatjon load plus seismic

load plus 50% of the superimposed load
9526 1297.7 9323
BS 7777 makes this design requirement specific to the outer
container (i.e. by definition non-liquid containing) shells. For CaseA Design to APt620 - partiat hydrcte.t

single-walled tanks it would seem sensible to carry out the

Case B Design ro Bs 772 - Fu[ hydrotest
Case C Design to BS 2777 - Partiat hydroresl
same checkforthe uppercourses of tanks, particularly in cases
where unusually high roof loadings must be accommodated rigu e 18.20 Companson o' unk shetts desiqred lo APt 620 Aooerd r
(for example a Canadian West Coast snow loading which can e. BS
7777 {fLll t'e ghr lesr) and BS /277 tparlial neigt^t lesl)
be uo to 5.0 KN/m'?).
18.3.3.6 Addendum to BS 7777 on partial height hydro-
Equation 18.22 is exactly the same as equation 18.4. Clearly static testing
this has been "borrowed" from API 620. The onty difference is
The decision to require all low temperature tanks to be hydro-
that the load combinations and associated factors are different.
statically tested to the full design liquid level was made by
18.3.3.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening EEIVIUA 147 as a reaction to the events surrounding the Qatar
LPG tank facility failure which have been described in Chapter
The section on the design of the wind and vacuum stiffening for '17, Section 17.3. This was carried over to BS 7777.
exposed shells giveninBS7777 Patl2is exactlythe same as
that for secondary stiffening given in BS 2654 and described in For large LNG tanks where the difierence between the product
earlier Chapters. design specific Aravity (usually around 0.48) and the test water
specific gravity (1.00) is large, designing for a full hydrostatic
18.3.3.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings test fill height gives a test overstress to all the shell courses of
BS 7777 gives some limited guidance on the design of shell around 2.08. This is considered excessive. For LPG tanks with
stiffening for external loadings. This is confined to a brief com- a design specific gravity of around 0.6, the overstress is of the
mentary on the factors contributing to the loose fill insulation order of 1.67 and for ammonia with a design specific gravity of
component of the design load, the application of a factor of 0.68, the overstress is 1.47. These are considered more rea-
safety of 2 on both stiffener pitching and sizing, the use of the sonable.
wind and vacuum loading methodology for determining the Figure 18.20 shows a large LNG tank where the shell is de-
number and positioning of the stiffeners and the statement that signed to API 620 Appendjx Q (partial hydrostatic test height),
each stiffener shall be designed for the loading on the panel of BS 7777 (full height hydrostatic test) and BS 7777 modified to
shell associated with it, including an unspecified portion of the the API permitted test water fill height. lt as clear that the full
tank shell plate adjacent to the stiffener. height test requirement results in an uneconomic design oftank
Whilst this is helpful, it falls some way short of the detailed de- and this meantthatthe industryavoided specifying BS 7777 as
sign procedure outlined in Section 18.3.1.5. The designer is left the design Code for this type oftank
with the option ofusing this method and borrowing rulesfor stiff- With this in mind, Technical Committee PVE/15, the committee
ener area, moment of inertia and contributing shell area from responsible for BS 7777, decided that something needed to be
anothersource (BS 5500, Reference 18.15, wouldseemtobe done and in 2000 published PD 7777 .20OO (Reference 18.6\.
a suitable candidate) or adopting the method described in Sec- PD stands for published document. The reasons for publishing
tion 18.3.1.5. these new requirements as a PD ratherthan as an amendment
Tegr.nerdt ol !l^r.rq ldt t.mD.rttu. tor l2O J' Te.t .r..8y ot reld n.trl
"c
C.Mn fTMCP) 27Jat 50 'c -A1d -20 50 J at 50'C
Low Ni (TMCP or Q & T) 2?J at -80 rc -^ts -50 50 J ar -80'C
9% Ni slels 100 J at - 196 'Ce Not rcquired 75J at - 196'C
' Ener$/ izile is th minihon avmg of three spcime.i with elue
only oh sin8le ls rhd rne ulue spin.d &d viur no sinde
Elur lN lhs ?5 96 of $e value speified-
b
For steltnj.lor* ls ria 1l m, lOmh x 6hh sul$ize spennes shoutd be u*d, ed shdld demoGF.! ?O9i ot rhe tdu6
spe.l6d in lhis Lble. For I Ni stel5, ihe vzlue lor l0 M x 6 m $b-sia speineB should be m 96 ol the \arue sDcjnd in rhis

c Irnpact ia$ing shqld be cdi.d on o erh llaie 10 demoBtnre rhe lequirEd inlac{ }lue. th addition, rsir8 ar a nequenc}, of
one r6t ol uE spimN per40 toM6 ba!.I shoutd be cMied @t 10 dnoNFate t20J.i rhe rmDer*urc spei6ed. tte de6niiion
of plab aid tEtch re giren in DN 10026.
d Relerere should be nEde to md A ol BS ??7-2.
'For horimt veld5 in 9 96 Ni srels, lne wel<l mLl rEquifthent ned or y be 60 J at 196rc.

Figure 18.21 Longiludinal Charpy V-notch impaci test requiremenls

Frcm PD 7777 : 2000, table 2

336 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 18 The design cf 1a,, ie-aa-aa,-. aa-. :

NU-ductility tldsition
aemler.tu.lor tFo
'c 'c 'c
Butare -10 -45
hopane,{Propylene -50 90
Ethane,/Ethylene -105 - 145 -140
Met]'ane (ING) -165 N/Ab 196 c
'This temp@t@ od the eiated NDTT 6 b @d for mtenal *lection Drovided tlar rhe spe.i6ed dsiSF rempmt@ js not
more rhd 5'C colder thd tlis assMed
b 'Elft.
T6tirg below -196 rc is coNidered unpEcricd
. Two nonrak 6drs at eertain a NDTT ol ar lea* z0l
qc
d4 Filh CAT = ND1T + 400 rc 16l, 16l, giv6 a minimM
-196.C
CAT of -16l'C. W'rih the boilin8 point of ING belng o!1y0.6'C lower (-161.6'C), ed the coBMtim olOe CAT NDTT + 40"c
=
relntio4 lllie !5 cNiderEd a $6c!ent requiremoi io sp4iry @ck resl

: . --: 18.22 Required n |ductility lfansition lemperatures and r.inimum tesi temperaiures for no brcak resutts

' - ?D 7777 :2000, table 3

': 3S 7777 was associated with the CEN rules which state that be issued as a full Euronorm Standard. What follows in th s
: ,' 'rg the period when a new European Standard is being pre- Section and similar Sections of this Chapter is taken from the
:: -:C, all national standards must be subject io standstill. This draft or provisional version of the document. lt is not thought
-:: rs that the national standards cannot be amended (unless that there will be major changes resulting from the comment
. -: lnlficant error is discovered), and the use of a PD was in ef- consolidation process, but itwould be wiseforthose using Stor-
::: a device to modify the Standard within the EU rules. age Tanks & Equipmentlo refer to the final version when this
--= criginal British Standard based the material selection on becomes available.
- : :: on resistance to brittle fracture and included the
full test The normal evolutionary process which occurs when new Stan-
-; ---i to provide added safety in this respect. The new pD dards are written is that they are based on what is perceived as
::-::s rts material selection on initiation resistance and on the the best of earlier Standards added to by any new practices
",::: capability of fracture arrest for fractures which may ex- within the particular subject area.
'oro-
:-: acfoss a horizontal weld seam or be associated with a lo- This is very much the case with this document, but one signifi-
latar
r: :- itle region of a vertical weld seam. This is explained in cant difference from earlier Standards is the introduction ofthe
, : -: detail in the introduction to this PD.
lpter design of steel components by limit state methods. lt was ini-
-: :-sure that the fracture arrest criteria are met, the PD re- tially proposed that in compliance with the demands of oiher
r - '::
enhanced plate and weld metal Charpy V-notch impact Eurocodes, the limit state methods would replace the allowable
duct ::- - 3 as
,aler Figure 18.21 and nil-ductility transition temperature stress methods. However, in recognition of the long hjstory of
tatic
': - -8.4.
) determinafion in accordancewith ASTN/I E 208 (Refer- steel component design for storage tanks by allowable stress
)s of ' ::
:
The NDTT requirements are as Figure 18.22. The methods, the familiarity ofthe industry and those active within it
-: .essomeadditionaldetail relatingtospecimenselection, with these methods and the possibility of old dogs proving un-
wttn
: -::.d welding methods etc. able to learn new tricks, the allowable stress methods were re-
f the
ty of
: ': : 'rg that the material has been selected and tested in ac- tained and sit in the prEN alongside the limit state methods.
aea- : ::-:ewiththe requirementsof the PD, then thefollowing is This is in many ways a parallel with what happened in the UK in
, : - --ary ofthe hydrostatic testing requirements: the area of the design of structural steelwork. The new Stan-
. : - single containment tanks manufactured from steels dard, BS 5950 (Reference 78.9) introduced limit state design
.'-.. methods and it was intended that the old Standard, BS 449
lhan 9a nickel steel or austenitic stainless steel, for
(Reference 78. /0) with its allowable stress methods would co-
)d to , r: at temperatures warmer than -105'C, full height hydro-
:=:: exist for a brief period and then be replaced. What actually hap-
) full testing is required.
pened was thatthe old Standard refused to fade away and both
iank . :: - s ngle containment tanks manufactured from 9% nickel now exist in parallel. The intention ofthis new Standard was that
!::: or austenltic stainless steel, it is not necessaryto carry the various factors would be adjusted so that both design meth-
: ,: : full hejght hydrostatic test. ods would provide the same end result and consequenflv the
rilee . :r-:re n ner tanks of double or fu ll containment tanks, a full same levels of safety.
ooe -: :-i hydrostatic test is not necessary The scope of this Standard is to provide rules for the design,
h lng . :,-::eouter(metallic)tanksof doubleandfull containment fabrication, erection, testing and commissioning for of single,
double and full containment, plus for the first time, membrane
nent =
-. : hydrostatic testing is unnecessary
. -= -e steels as specified and tested to the pD are
used for
-: :.yef courses only of outer tanks, there Should be no
-:=::o carryouta hydrosiatic test. Additional surface crack
-::::: on ls requtred. ,< 10 5
- : - : ^ .,d rostatic test referred to above is one where the test
.: ":- .,: is sufficient to impose a stress in the bottom cou rse l0<D< 30 6

-: : -:s the design stress arising from the product loading. 30<D< 60 8

60<o
I:j The prEN 14620 approach
10

NOTE The cqui.menl for nininum rhickness s

. ':: ::=r
mentioned earlier, this Code (Reference 1g.g\has
needed fo. @nsltuction purposes, and may irctude
any cotrosDn arrowance provided lhar he sheu s
-: :oJ'se of being wriflen for some years now lts cur- shoM by ldlallon to be safe in the @rcded
: :-, _: s that the docu ment has been completed, issued for
: :-"'rent and the comments are at Dresent (December Figure 18.23 fulinlmum shell plate thickness
:: -: consolidated into the final version which will then Fran p.EN 14620-2:2003, table 6

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 337

1 8 The design of low temperature tanks

Type of steel Allowable stress in sewice Allowable stress during

hydrostatic test
Tlpes l, ll, lll the lesser of: the lesser of:
O 43 f, or 0.67 fy or 260 N/mm'? 0.60 f" or 0.85 fy or 260 N/mm'z
Tlp lV the lesser of: the lesser oi:
0.43 f"at 0.67 fv 0.60 f, or 0.85 lv

Tlpe V lhe lesser of:

A .40 f, ot A .67 f"

NOTES
1) f" ls minimum ull mate tensile slrenglh in N/mm'?and t s minimurn yield strength Ln N/mm:
2) For iow nckeland 9 o/o Nistees fyisequalto0.2%otprcolslress

Figure 18.24 Determination ofthe maximum allowable desrgn slrcss

From prEN 14624-2:2443, bble 4

Operating conditions Test conditions

1.36 d > 1.57 c! < 1.57 1.06 o.> 1.42 s < 1.42
1.10 1.7210 1.11 1.57|d.

NOTE o is the tensile to yield strength ratio fJfy

'fr is the partialfactor for actrons; lM is the factor for material shongth;
f" is ultimate tensile strength of steel; fyis lhe yleld strength of the steol

Figure 18.25 Partial load and mater al factors for types l, ll, lll and lv steel
Fron ptEN 460-2 : 2403, table 5
1

storage tanks for products stored at between -5 'C and -165'C
It was envisaged that the Standard would have its scope ex-
tended to cover products down to -196'C by the addition ofan
Appendix or extra part similar to BS 7777 : Part 4. Sadly, this
looks unlikely to happen, due largely to a lack of interest from
that part of the industry dealing with the storage of liquid
oxygen, nitrogen and argon.
18.3.4.'l Hoop tension - liquid containing metallic tanks
The formulae used for calculating the thickness ofthe tank shell
underoperating and test conditions are exactlythe same as are
given in BS 7777 (equations 18.19 and 18.20). The minimum
thickness requirements which apply to primary and secondary
liquid containers are slightly different to those in BS 7777 and
are given in Figure 18.23. The maximum shell plate thick-
nesses are as follows:
Types l, ll and lll steels 40 mm
Type lV steel 50 mm
Type V steel no limit given
A let out clause, similar to that included in BS 7777 is added al-
lowing these thickness limits to be exceeded when additional
materialtesting is carried outto demonstratethat the same lev-
els of resistance to brittle fracture have been achieved
For the allowable stress design, the allowable stresses are sim-
ilar to those given in BS 7777 and are shown in Figure 18 24.
Note: There has been considerable debate about this and it
, would be wise to consult the "real" EN Code when it is
published.
The partial load and material factors for the limit state design
method are given in Figure 18.25.
All vertical and horizontal welds must be butt welds with full
penetration and fusion. The distance between verticaljoints in
adjacent courses must not be less than 300 mm. lt would seem
preferable to use a larger spacing of say one third of a plate
length here to avoid possible distortion problems
18.3.4.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
The axial stability criteria are exactly the same as are used in
BS 7777 (equation 18.22). The minimum shell thicknesses are
the same as are given for liquid containing tanks in Figure
'18.16. The maximum thicknesses are as stated above.
18.3.4.3 wind and vacuum stiffening
The method of calculating the number and size of shell stiffen-
ing is exactly the same as is given in BS 7777 (see Section
18.3.3.4) which is in turn taken originally from BS 2654.
18.3.4.4 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
The only guidance is a reference to a calculation method given
in a Japanese Gas Association document (Reference 18.11)
This leaves the choice of method to the designer and the above
reference or the method described in Section 18.3.1.5 would
seem sensible candidates.
18.4 Bottom and annular design
The Code rules for bottom plates of metallictanks are quite sim-
ple and straightfoMard. The plate thickness and the means of
joining are specified. The Codes do not give guidance regard-
ing the plate layoutsto be adopted. This is lefttothe contractors
who have their own particular favourite plating arrangements
based on experience and suitability to fit in with the erection
methods and, at the end ofthe day, to provide a flat bottom. The
finished profile oftank bottoms can be flat, coned up to the tank
centre or coned down to the tank centre. This latter arrange-
ment is often associated with a tank centre bottom outlet con-
nection.
Annular plates and theirjunction with the lowestshell plate is an
area in a liquid containing metallictank where a complex stress
situation is found. Yielding and shakedown are known to hap-
pen during the hydrostatic test. A great deal of research has
been carried out in determining and predicting stresses in this
component. This work has been reduced to a slmple set of rules
which experience has shown provide a satisfactory service his-
tory if followed by bnk designers.
18.4.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
'18.4.1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
Bottom plates for liquid containing tanks shall be a minimum

338 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 18 The design of low tempetature tanks

Dcsign Sresb in Fnsr ShcllCou6c

(Psi)
ofFirsr Shcll
cou6c (an.) s 20.0m 24,0m
<0.75
> 0.75 - t.00
> 1.00 - L25
> 1.25 - 1.50

'Thc thicrncsscs sd widdr_ (sc. R.3.4. I ) u

bas.d on rE folndarion providinS a uniforn suppon undr rhc fufl
wro(n or rhc enular ptac. Untess ftc found.lion is propcrty cr,npacrcd,
Fnicutarty at thc iciac of a concrca
nnSwar. scnkmenr wrl ptroducr addidonat sElsscs i, rhc annul& otalc.
b'Ilcsucss shall bc calcllard ushg ftc fomuta (2.6Dxffdyr. phcrc D nominal dianc&.
=
nr rrng hergN ot fte tlnk for dcsign, in Iq C: dcsign lp.cifc graviryi snd
I/
of thc r.nl, in ft;
=jnai$tum , = dsign rhickrcss of rhe
n6r snc coursqcxctudrng conosion aloeoc!. in.

: ture 18.26 Table R-6 from Apt 620

:rickness of %,, (6.35mm).

-f less otherwise specified, the bottom plates shall be
:c-welded together with a minimum lap of i,, (25mm).Three
: ate lap joints shallnot be closerthan 12,,(305mm)from each
::"er and from the butt welds ln the annular plate. There are
::"npanies who specify butFwelded bottoms for reasons asso-
: eted with a perception thatthis reduces the oossibilitvof leak_
::e. lt is usual to allow the use of backing strips for buti-welded
: f,itoms and provision must be made to accommodate these
::.king strips in the top surface of the base insulation.
- rgure
:
iquid containing metallic tanks must have butt-welded annu_
=- plates. The wjdth of the annular plate shall provide a mini_
- - m distance of 24,' (61omm) between the jnside of the tank
: -: I and any lap-weldedjoint in the remainder ofthe bottom to_
tiffen- with a minjmum projection beyond the shell of 2',
gction =1er
: - rm). Agreaterwidth of annular plate may be required when
-=:Jired by the following
formula:
1gs
given
-_"=es
JHG
equ 18.23
8.11). F g ure 1 8.28 Welded joint req utremenls
rbove -::e: Fron APl620, figure 5-3
r'r'ou to
= radial width of the annular plate (in) true circle at the outer periphery and a scalloped effect atthe in_
:. ner profile. This arrangement is economical in terms of use of
= nominal thickness of the annular plate (in)
material and fabrication work.
"j = maximum tiquid design height (ft)
The radialjoints between annular plates shall be butfwelded
-. stm- 3 = design specific gravity ofthe liquid to be stored with complete penetration and fusion. The Code does not 0re-
tns of --: :hickness of the annular plate shall not be less than the clude the use oI backing strips for these welds and for annulaf
- :.1esses given in Table R-6 (Figure 18.26). plates this is often considered convenient in avoidinq the com_
rctors plications ol lifting the annular to gain access to weld from ir-e
-- - - ng of annular plates shall have a circular
nen$ outside circum_ underside.
)ctton
:-=-:e but may have a polygonal inner profile, with the number
: : res being equalto the number of an nular plates adopted. Butt welds in annular plates shall not be closer than 12,,
(305 mm) from any vertical weld in the tank shell.
) tank : : lnvenient to make the number of annu lar plates the same
lnge- : . :-: number of shell plates, or if this proves to be wasteful of The Code requires 25% ofthe the outerend of radialjoints to be
con- - then twicethe n umber of shell plates. radiographed.
*:=::la1, - 'cr the innerand outeredges ofannularplates
lt is not uncom-
to be cut to Note; For welded joints where a backing strip is to remain in
-: ,.:me radius. This radius is that of the outer edge giving a place, the welded seam must be examined bv mao-
netic particte (Mpt)or by tiquid penetrant
lLpt; inspei_
tion methods after the first two weld beads have been
Maximum Thickncss
I nas Minimum Sizc of deDosited.
of Shcll Plalr (in.) Fillct Weld (in.)
r this For the welded joint between the lower course of the tank shell
0.1875 3h6 and the annular plate, the Code allows two options. The firsi is
-' his- > 0.1875 - 0.75 the use of a fillet wetd laid on each side ofthe shell pla1e. These
welds shall conform to the following:
> 0.75 t.25
> 1.25 - 1.50
. The size of the fillet weld shall not be greater than %,,
(12.7 mm), not be less than the thinner of the two Dlaies
joined. and not less than the values given in Figure 1g.22.
27 Sidewall,lo-bottom fitlel wetd forflat botlom cylind cattanks . When the specified minimum yield strength of the shetl
a2A. hble 5-4 plate rs greater than 30.000 lbiin, (207 N/mm2), each filtet

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 339

1 8 The design of low temperature tanks

parts of theweld peripherybyensuring a blockage in the an-

nular passage and ananging the air supply feed to be
located at one side of this obstruction, and the pressure
gauge at the other side.
The second option is to utilise a full penetration joint, which
does not require the pressure testing described above.
For a large tank subject to significant seismic loadings, the an-
nular width and thickness requirements given above are often
exceeded, sometimes by signilicant margins as the tank de-
signer attempts to arrive at a stable design. This is done by in-
creasing the holding down ofthe annularplate bythe contained
liquid to the limib permitted by the Code. Annular plates of
30mm thickness and 2.5m width are not unusual in these cir-
Egur6 18.29 Fitting and welding of lapjolnts
cumstances. Wide and thick annular plates bring theirown con-
From API 620, tlgute ,2 struction problems.
weld shall be made with a minimum of two passes 18.4.1.2 Nonliquld containing metallic tanka
. For annular plates thicker than %" (12.7 mm), the joint shall The minimum nominalthickness ofthe bottom plating shall be
comply with the requiremenb of Figure 18.28. not less than %6" (4.8 mm).
. The welded joint shall be examined as follows. The initial The Code does not insist on the use ofa ring of butt-welded an-
weld passes on either side of the shell shall have all slag nular plates. So, lap-welded bottom plates to the outer periph-
and non-mebllic debris removed and be examinedl/isually. ery are permitted. Lap joinb immediately beneath the shell
Aftercompletion of thelillet or partial penetration welds, the shall be fitted and weldedto provide a smooth surface as shown
space between the welds shall be pressurjsed to 15 lb/in2 in Figure 18.29. Where the bottom plates are thicker than /s"
(1 mbar) and examined for leakage using soap solution.
(9.6 mm), the joinb beneath the shell shall be butt-welded.
Steps shallbe taken to ensurethatthis pressure reaches all

D.sigr S!!$r in Firsr StEll Cou'*. (lbt/in.))

I t9,000

s 0t5 tA rA eaz thl t+,2

tA ea| tVtt 1/rc t142

> o.?5 - t.00

> 1.00 - 1.25 tA llal 1/r5 t74lz 2l^.2

> 125- 150 9/t2 tkz

Not r:
rr! |hicb.!..3 trd vldda (r. Q3.4.1) ln dd! ribL |1! h.sdoo tE foudrlin FlvidiiS rttnlfodn r4porltrd.r dE fu wt&hof dE tlmu-
Ir pL!c. Udc!. rb. fotndd.o b F!0.d, comF.r.4 pdq{rdy ! lIt ind& of r.onc$rc dIttw.ll, r.dlaEn stll p.ldlce.ttdiddd
,ftr!.r h dlc.na!||' ptrte. fhc &lcbr.s ofdE.!outr. bo.roo phr.r |l.cat t.t
..d tlE tiichEt d6c tur thcll oo|!|c Thc ftinimum
thbhs!.: fo. uuhl hotbll9t|l!. es! (bivldb$.d dt |ftdguc otclo lifc of lomcJd.s fordunimo Lrt .
rThc r!!$ rhdt tccrtsrLr.d llliig tE fo(n'rh t(r6D) x (rfC)yr, vrtrc! D c mminrl di.rn r.r ofd'c trlh In f},t= m|Iitnutn filittg lEi8ltt
ot &. r.d fo(d!rlg[, h & C = dc!i8! rpc.ift Snviry; rd r
= dclEr 6icbr.ss of0r f.|r rlEll c6oric,.rdodint co'ltltion dhvmcc, h ir

FigLrre 18.30 Minimum thickness for the annularbottom plate: steeltanks

Fron API 620, table Q4A

D6itD St$r ln F6( SlEll Co{tlc (lb0i! 2)

ofFinlSh.ll
r5.06

<0.50 lA ea, thr ti6

^6
>050-0,75 t\t ,t r3A2 l5a1 h
tln ter1' rv|6 ,rb
>0.75 - lr0 ts,l.z

> l!0 - 125 ti rh6 lA rha N/a

> t25 - t50 1A aaz 3ho tw rh

> lsn - r.75 lt46 lsA2 lta rt6
> t.75-20 I rk llat 1116 trrar t.a

Not 3:

Th. rhicte$i ..d {i.trh3 (i.! Q-1.4. | ) in ihis rltlc s b$.do. In. fond.rio. Fovidin! ! milom ,ut,Pon !.d.r !h. flll {idtn of d!
unltd pl!|!. Untc$ rr|. fd,idrk t i3 p.qc.ty @p.cr.d. ptnidldry n |h. i i& of | cNErc dnlwdl. t { 6n will Fdle .ddi_
riond .uc.s i. tn. |![st . ot r.. ft. 6i.tFi, of rtrc |Nl! borron pl.r6 ftcd .or .rc..!t rlE tlricttB of dE 6r$ ih.ll cdre TrE
ni.iMo lhicrEi* td hnuhr borrom da6 *c &.iwd b$cd on . Otiguc .yct. lif. of 1000 .y.l* for tllminuo ldts.
Ith. $6r rhrll t oldl!&d urang fi. adltt l(2 64t) , (rO)l ,' whsc D; mhintl diamrd of ltE tet in ft tr = mriBuh lill'tr8
, h.igh ol $. |.nt rq dc.i8n. in fr a; = d.iign ipc.itic Irrvry: .nd r= d*itn rhktn.$ ol IIE liBr .hrll .@Ge. .rclldin! co(osid tlk'w
!rec. h in

Figure 18.3'l Minimum thicknoss for the annular bottom plate : aluminium tanks
Ftun API 620, table +48

340 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1g,The design of low temperature tanks

te an- Backing strips %" (3.2 mm) thick shall be used, or the welds
io De
shall be made from both sides. These butt welds shall have
SSUTE
complete fusion through the thickness of the plate and extend
inwards at least 24" (6'10 mm) from the tank sidewall.
which
For larger tanks of this type, it is often considered convenientto
it a butt-welded annular plaie.

often
18.4.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach
K Ce-
Dy In- '18.4.2.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
3ined
es of 3ottom plates for liquid containing tanks constructed from 5%
rickel, 9% nickelor stainless steels shall have a minimum thick- ,''.z:z
rcon- .ess of %6" (4.8 mm). Curiously this part of the Code does not
Section Z-Z
specify a minimum thickness for aluminium alloys.
Figure 18.33 Typ cal sketch of plale joint under shett ptates for tanks of con
Jnless otherwise specified, the bottom plates shall be tainer withoui ann!lar plates
rll be ap-welded together. The lap welds shall consist of a minimum Frcm BS 7777 : Part2, figurc 3
rf two passes (for materials excepting aluminium alloy).
-hree plate laps shall not be closer than 12,,(305 mm) from Bottom plates shall be lap or butt-welded together

rnph- :ach other or from butt welds of the annular plates. Lap welds shall consist of at least two passes. Lap joints shall
shell 3utt-welded annular plates are mandatory and shall fulfil the have a minimum lap of 5 times the bottom plate thickness.
24" (610 mm) inside of shell to any lap-welded joint and the 2,' The use of butlwelded annular plates is mandatory
'' /a 50mm) outstand requirements gjven in Section 18.4.1.1, un- The minimum width (i.e. the total width from the outer edge to
oe0. :ss a greater width is required by the following: the inner edge beneath the bottom plating) shall be 650mm.
:cr steels:
The minimum thjckness ofthe annular plates is given in Figure
390tr 18.32.
t_. - as given in equation 18.23.
GG Butt welds in bottom of annular plates may be welded from both
:tr1.
aluminium alloys: sides or from one side using backing strips.
The joint betur'een the lowest shell plate and the annular plate
equ 18.24 rnay be double fillet- or full penetration welded. For double fillet
welding, each weld shall be of at least two passes and be of a
--e minimum thicknesses of annular plates shaJl be as Figure leg length equal to the annular plate thickness. The inter weld
-
a.30 for steels and Figure 18.31 for atuminium alloys. pressure test is recommended but not made mandatory For
l-:t welds in annular plates shall not be closer than 12" the full peneiration option, a warning about possible annular
plate distortion is included.
mm) to any vertical shell weld.
: -:5
--e joint between the annular plate and the lowest shell course 18.4.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks
. :ermitted to be double fillelwelded or of the full penetration The minimum thickness of bottom plates shall be 6 mm.
-.:e as described in Section 18.3.1.1. For the double fil
The bottom plates shall be lap-welded with a minimum lap of b
::-,velded option the same interweld pressu re test is required.
times the thickness of the plate. The minimum length of a
' 3.4.2.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks straight sketch (i.e. a cut to fit part plate) shall be 500 mm. This
-- e outertank bottom shall have a minimum nominal thickness avoids the use of very small plates.
-':._. (4 8 mm). The minimum distance bet\,veen three Dlate laDS shall be
-. :bove, the Code does not insist on a ring of butGwelded an- 300 mm.
- plates and fillefwelded plating to the periphery is permi! Tanks, where the bottom shell course is greater than .lO mm,
.::- ?. Again for large tanks, the use of butt-welded annular plates shall have a rjng of butt-welded annular plates with a minimum
': ,en iound to be convenient. (total) width of 500 mm and a thickness of 8 mm. For the
' :-e outer tank bottom is exposed to the vaporised gas as is butt-welded radialjoint a backing strip of minimum thickness 5
- : -it usually the case, the fillet welds must have a minimum of mm shall be used. The minimum bottom olate laD onto the an-
nular plates shall be 60 mm.
Tanks, wherethe bottom shellcourse is notgreaterthan 10 mm
'3.4.3 The BS 7777 approach may have a ring of annular plates or be constructed with
lap-welded bottom plates to the perimeter. Where this option is
': .1.3.1 Liquid containing metaltic tanks chosen, the deiails shall be as Figure 18.33.
--: .J'rinimum nominal thickness of bottom plates shall be The attachment between the bottom edge of the lower shell
plate and the bottom plate or annular plate shall be fillet-welded
continuouslyfrom both sides ofthe shell plate. The leg ,ength of
the fillet weld shall be equal to the thickness of the shell plate,
the bottom plate or the annular plate, whichever is the least.
The lesser of 8 mm or tl
IO 18.4.4 The prEN 14620 approach
12.5
This draft Code only allows steel bottoms with annular plates.
. imlm tt^tchnF"s o. anlLtar
32 1,/ir ptare The rules are the same for the primary liquid containe( the sec-
' :- :: i7 /7 : Pan 2, hble 10 ondary liquid container and tanks for vapour containment onlv

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 341

18 The design of low tempenture tanks

t
t6r (rnar)-/

PENM|SSIBLE

{OT PERI'ISSELE

I Wl|.! $in3 0. .lr.m.t dxrt Fnb. (rh. @f Dtrc udd dE..qFsrio. b& $ rho*n n Cr.||it !t l. rlE
Frrcn ..r .hdld .dridlr or o* of cruki.f ro .{rq4 rlE dn,dF .f ,rrnfr ,. llE &.r .t rtE fi|Lt ktd
I D'mnnoi A i. hr.ik h .id rlrrtd .ot .rc..d diftBd ,{
I '
Sc T.bk 5.2 td linir.ttoc cm.min8 kE.rb wlEc vres rypc, .t ql<td pr.k nr! b. u,..t.

Figure 18.34 Figure 56 from APl620

The minimum thickness of boftom plates, excluding conosion

allowance shall be 5 mm. The remaining requirements for bot-
tom plates are the same as stated above for BS 7777.
18.5 Compression areas
The annular plate shall have a minimum thickngss, excluding The basic logic and derivation of the formulae used to dssign
conosion allowance of e given by: compression areas is described in Chapter 3 on ambient iank
design. The various Codes use whal are essentially the same
e" =(3.0 rej/3), but nottessthan I mm equ 18.25 rules, the only differences being in the debil_
where:
18.5.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q)
el = thickness ofthe bottom shellcourse (mm)
The minimum width of the annular plate, W" is given by: API 620 allows two different designs for ihe cylindricalshett-to-
20,1, roof ju nction.
-
14, =
.ipH
, urt not lessthan 600 mm equ 18.26
These are the knuckle and the plate types.

wnere: The knuckle type is quite unusual these days. The fabrication
costs ofthe hot-pressed knuckle plates, the needforveryaccu-
H = maximum design liquid level (m) rate fit up in thefield, the difiiculties otjoining the radial ioof sup-
port members to the shell and the lack ofany significanfmate-
p = design product specific gravity
rialsaving tended to push the industrytowards the plate type of
The remaining requiremenb are as stated above forBS 7777. desion.

342 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 18 The design of low temperaturc tanks

The basic rules forthe design of a knuckle type of compression

area given are limited to geometry limitations and direction to-
wards the design requirements as discussed in API 650, see
Rool ol lank
ChaDter 5. Section 5.10.
It is stated that the radius of curvature of the knuckle in the me-
ridional plane shall be not less than 6% and preferably not less
than 12% of the diameter of the tank sidewalls. A radius of 6%
will frequently require an excessively thick knuckle plate.
In the eventthata knuckle is not provided, the participating por-
tions of the roof and upper shell course plating shall resist the w. = 0.6 /FJ[--tit
compressive forces generated by the internal pressure. lt is
usually the case that the plating in this area is not sufficient for
the task and local plate thickening or additional area is required.
L_
Permissible and non-permissible arrangements in this area are
illustrated in Figure 18.34.
The relevant formulae are: Cyindturl sldewall ol tank

wh =o.61Fdq- equ 18.27 Table 18.35 Compression ring region

Fron API 620, table 5-5
w" -0.6ff" cJ equ 18.28
Thickness of lhe Thickcr ot lhc Minimum Siz. of
Q = Trwn + Tr"w" - tR"sin cr equ 18.29 Two Patu Joincd(in.) Fillcr Wcld (in.)

A" = Q/15,000 or Q/S"E equ 18.30 < tt4 ltrc

> tll -314
,vhere:
>\4 - ltt4 5h6
= The width of the roof plate considered to par- > ltt| lE
ticipate in resisting the circumferential force
acting on the compression ring region (in), Figufe 18.36 l\,4inimum size ofilllet weld
see Figure 18.35 Fron API 620. table 5-8

= corresponding width of the participating side-
wall (in)
= thickness of the roof plate at and near to the
roof to sidewall junction including any corrc
sion allowance (in)
L = corresponding thjckness of the sidewall at and
near to the same junction (in)
R2 = roof spherical radius or Rc /cos cr (in)
a = sidewall radius (in)
Tr = meridional (radial) unit force in the roof plating
= 0.5PsR, (lb/in)
T2 = correspondinglatitudinal(circumferential)unit
force in the roof plating = PqRs (lb/in)
Tz. = circumferential force in the sidewall (lb/in)
ct = angle between the slope of the roof and a ver-
tical line (see Figure 18.35)
gn = total circumferential force acting on the com-
nk pression area (lb)
ne
= net area exclusive of corrosion allowances re
quired for the compression area (in2)
r) = maximum allowable stress for simple tensjon
as given by Figure 18.3 (lbiinr)
= efficiency of meridional joints in the compres-
sion area in the event that Q should have a
positive value (see Figure '18.6)
on = design vapour pressure (lb/in2)
)u- - s almost always negative and in this case the design com-
rp- :'=ssive stress of 15,000 lb/in2 is used for steeltanks. ln the un-
te- . : . case that an aluminium alloy tank requires a compression
of : -:: a compressive stress of 15,000lb/in, factored bythe rela-
: ,: values of the materials would be appropriate.
=
lf Q is in iact positive, then the allowable tensile stress is based
on the allowable tensile stress from Table 5-'1 and thejointfac-
tor from Table 5-2.
The requirement that the composite centroid of the compres-
sion area provided shall not lie above or below the horizontal
line through thejoint between the participating shell and roof ar-
eas by more that 1.5 times the average thickness of the two
members joining at the corner is made. This is for reasons of
limiting the secondary stresses as described in Chapter 4.
There are a number ofother requirements forthe compression
area details which are outlined briefly:
. The horizontal projection of the compression area shall
have a width in the radial direction of not less than 0.015
times the horizontal radius of the tank shell. This onlv aD-
plies if Q is negative indicating compression. which is the
majority of cases.
. Where the minimum sidewall and roof plate thicknesses do
not provide the area required by equation 18.28, then the
additional area shall be provided by (a) locally thickening
the sidewall plate, the roof plate or both to comply with the
requirements or (b) adding an angle, a rectangular bar or a
horizontally disposed ring girder at the juncture of the side-
wall to roof plates or (c) using a combination of these.
. The horizontal projection of the added angle, bar or ring
girder shall not be less than 0.015 times the horizontal ra-
dius ofthe tank shell. However, when the added area is less
than one half of the required total, this width requirement
may be disregarded ifthe horizontal projection ofthe partici-
pating roof area is equal to or greater than 0.015 times the
shell radius; or when the angle, bar or ring girder js located
on the outside ofthe tank, the sum of the horizontal projec-
tion of and the horizontal width of the added material is
equal to or greater than 0.015 times the horizontal radius of
the tank.
. The projecting part of the roof compression area, an added

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 343

1 8 The design of low tempemturc tanks

in Figure '18.36.

t-f
Where a thickened shell compression area plate is to be
welded to the thinner minimum thickness shell plate, then
the joint shall be as indicated in Figure 18.37.

f*f-
\ |
The Code is notexplicitin its requiremenb for the maximum
thickness of compression area.parts. A thickness of 2Z "
would not seem unreasonabb as long as the material se-
lection requiremenb are met.

18.5.2 The BS 7777 approach

t-t
l-\ /
The requirements of BS 7777 for compression areas are based
on those of BS 2654which are described in Chapter3, Section
3.7. Theformula for the minimum area required and the deriva-

*n tion of this is also mvered in thisChapter. The formula only con-

Figure 18.37 Alternative details forjoint between thickened shell compression
ara and uDoer course of lank shell
angle or ring girderwithout an outer vertical stiffening flange
shall not exceed 16 times its thickness. OtheMise the hori-
zontial or nearhorizontal parts of the compression area shall
be braced at intervals around the periphery ofthe iank. lt is
usual to choose the compression area proportions such as
to avoid the necessity for lhese bracings, but if they are re-
quired, then rules are provided to allowthe number and size
of such bracings to be calculated.
sidersthe radialforce in the roofsheeting and ignoresthe other
two terms which are of opposite sign and cover the circumfer-
ential loadings in the participating roof and shell areas which
are included in equation 18.29.
The allowable compressive stress of 120 N/mm2 (17,400lb/in'z)
is higher than the 15,000 lb/in'? permifted by APl.
The general layout and minimum angle sizes are given in Fig-
ure 18-38.
Two other differences between the 857777 and the BS 2654
practices are that BS 7777 adds the API requirements for the
horizontal projection ofthe effective compresslon area to be not
less than 0.0'l5timesthe horizontal radius ofthe tank shell, and
the rule limiting the vertical position of the composite centroid.
18.5.3 The prEN 14620 approach

. The minimum size of fillet welds between the various com- Forthe plate type ofcompression area, the rules are exactly as
pression area componenb shall not be less than indicated given for BS 7777 and described above.

Correldor d top ccb tngle recdon ard lhdr

dr[etr ahcll lnd tjoof
trr- - radlu! of curljgqrr of rDof (in n)
D (for contcrl mo& - X/sin d);

,<lo 60x 60x 6 - ladtos of sttel (tn m);

t- thida|ss of itrell (in rutr);
LO<D<m eox 60x 8
8<Ds36 80x 80x l0 t - tNcfgresr of sngle rtifleder (ln nun);

86<D348 l00xlmxu 6- thtclate$ of mol date al aoltrl,rldsiorr

drg (in nur)i
8<D 160x160xl0 f. - nu$mum wldth of drcn pbttotg
NqIE. Whq r!d!.ltt , tn inov 6lt{t|M drt ol ioD cub cotddered to mr.L up the cornl
.rd. dbuld b. !d!H. ale8;
l/" - luJdtnum wldth of rDof Pbting
corddercd to mrke uP the corn
trea.

Figure 18.38 Shell-roof compression aas

From BS 7777 : Pan 2, frgurc 6

344 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1B The design of low temperature tanks

Knuckle type compression areas are permitted but no rules for

their design are given. Reference is made to the Japan Gas As- Single filleiweld JF = 0 35
be
sociation Standards.
nen

rum 18.6 Roofsheeting

Double fillet weld JF - 0 65
:it " The roof sheeting design is very similar to the ambient tank /-
se- practices from which it has evolved. One significant difference ._______\___.
\,--'.-----------------_
is that the design internal pressures are higherfor low tempera-
ture tanks than is usually the case for tanks operating at ambi-
Backing stnp bultweld JF = 0 75
ent temperatures. BS 2654 has categories for design pres-
sures of 7.5, 20 and 56 mbar, whereas BS 7777 allows up to
sed 140 mbar, and with the agreement of all parties, higher figures
:ion are permitted.
Eutt weld JF = 0 5.0 65 or 1.0
va-
on-
her
For tanks where the metallic roof sheeting (usually steel) is ex-
posed to the atmosphere, there are a number of different possi- \rc= {depending on teler ar inspBcrion)

c lities.
fer-
rch The roof sheeting may be supported by, but not joined to the Backing stnp butt weld uslng rafter JF = 0 75
( _-lr---;
-->r
in,)
supporting framework. ln this case the possibilities for joining
:he sheets are topside lap welding, double-sided lap welding
and butt welding with or without backing straps. For this unat-
*1f--
r --1

:ached sheeting case, the roof sheeting alone must resist the
-rg- rternal tank pressures.
-he roofsheeting may bejoined to and act compositelywith the Slrapped flletweld JF = 0 65
i54 :upporting framework. ln this case it is usual to use the roof
Ine :upport structure as backing straps for the welding of the roof
not sheets. Whilst in practice the roof framework may contribute to
rnd :1e tanks ability to resist internal pressures, its influence in this
i. -espect is usually ignored in the calculations.
:cr tanks with reinforced concrete roofs, the roofsheeting and
:s supporting framework act as erection shuttering. During ser- Figufe 18.39 Various poss bililies for joining roof plates
. ce the roof sheeting is exposed to the full tank design pres-
sJre (which with current designs may be as high as 300 mbar) Tr = tSr.E equ 18.32
:Jt the structural resistance to this loading is the task of the re-
^'orced concrete. The design basis for the roofsheeting is now Then:
:ased on the internal and external loadinos which will occur PR
:Jring the construction process. equ 18.33
2S'F
:1er the roof has been erected in its final position, and this may
- olve air raising, jacking or piece small erection at the fulltank
,i where:
-:ight, it will be subjected to loads during the placing ofthe rein-
':.cing and the subsequent placing of the concrete. lt is the
t = calculated roof plate thickness excluding any
corrosion allowance (in)
: acing ofthe wet concrete which usually gives rise to the worst
:ading case. For a large LNG tank the concrete roof will be R" = R] = 6615p1r"rical radius (in)
-.:me 450 mm thick. lf this thickness of wet concrete were The remaining variables are as defined above.
: 3ced on the roof. lt would represent a loading of around 11.0
'\1m2. The minimum thickness ofthe roof plating (exclusive ofany cor-
rosion allowance) is 216" (4.8 mm).
-- s is significantly more than the usual roof loading of around
' 2 KN/m2,and it would require a substantial roof framework As for the tank shell, the allowable stresses are shown in Figure
'18.3 and the joint factors shown in Figure 18.6.
=-C thickened roof sheeting to support this loading unaided.
::f this reason, it is usual to seal the tank envelope and apply The various possibilities for joining the tank roof plates are
:- nternalair pressure to balance the wet concrete loadingsfor shown in Figure 18.39.
:-: period of concrete placement and curing.
::. the full450 mm ofconcrete were placed in a single pour, a
if
18.6.2 The BS 7777 approach
:: ancing pressure ofaround 110 mbarwould be required and
. :ie roof were poured BS 7777 allows both cone and dome shaped roofs.
in two equal thickness pours, then this
: : a ncing pressure would be arou nd 55 mbar. These pressures It imposes the following shape requiremenb:
:-:1 become the design pressures for the tank roof plating.
Cone roofs shall have a slope of 1:5.
18.6.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q) Dome roofs shall have a spherical radius of between 0.8 and
1.5 times the tank diameter.
:-:'n the body of the Standard, equation (7) from Paragraph The design requirements are very similar to those given in BS
: ' 1.2.5 gives the following for dome roofs: 2654 for ambient tanks.
I For internal pressures for conical roofs:
equ 18.31
. oR.
equ 18.34
tu-n

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 345

 18 The design of low temperature tanks
For internal pressures for domed roofs:
. PR,
' 2os4
equ'18.35
For external pressures for both cone and dome roofs where no
supporting structure is present:
| 1nP t"-
:rs
= 40R.1
L'tFl I equ 18.36
where:
t, = calculated thickness of the roof sheeting exclu-
sive of any corrosion allowance (mm)
Rr = for dome roofs the spherical radius (m)
for cone roofs = Rr/sino
0 = slope of the roof at the roof-to-shell junction
(degrees)
S .
= design stress taken as two thirds ofthe mate-
rial minimum yield strength subject to a maxi-
mum of 260 (N/mmr)
I = joint factor (single-sided lap welds 0.35,
double-sided lap welds 0.65 and
butt wetds 1.00)
P" = external loading (KN/mr)
E .
= Young's modulus of the roof plate material
(N/mmr)
The minamum thickness of roof plates shall be 5.0 mm.
Roofs without supporting structures shall be butt-welded or
double lap-welded.
Lapped roof plates shall be continuously fillet-welded on the
outside with a minimum lap of 25 mm.
For roof plates which are lapped, it is recommended that the
loweredge ofthe uppermost plate should be beneath the upper
edge of the lower plate to minimise the possibility of condensa-
tion entering the joint.
Seams in the roof plating that are included as part of the com-
pression area shall be butt-welded.
With the exception of the small diameter tanks, often for the
storage of oxygen, nitrogen and argon, conical roofs are quite
unusual for low temperature bnks.
18.6.3 The prEN 14620 approach
The minimum thickness of 5 mm and theformulae forcalculat-
ing the roofsheet thickness are the same as are given above for
BS 7777.
A joint factor of 0.70 is given for backing strip butt welds, other-
wise the rules and guidance are as BS 7777.
18.7 Roof frameworks
Fot the cases where the roof sheeting is exposed to the atmo-
sphere, the roofframework design loadings are based on com-
binations of the following:
. The self-weight of the fmework
. The self-weight of the roof sheeting
The self-weight of any supported insulation
The self-weight of a suspended deck (if fitted)
External roof loadings (i.e. snow live etc)
lnternal tank negative pressure loadings (i.e. the design
vacuum)
346 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
. Local loadings from fittings and other similar roof-mounted
equipment
. Differential pressure loadings on the suspended deck (iffit-
ted)
. Wind loadings
. Seismic loadings
. Blast loadings
. lmpact loadings
. Erection loadings
Forcases where the roofsheeting and supporting structure are
to be used to form shuttering to enable the concrete roof to be
erected, the roofframework design loadings are based on com-
binations of the following:
. The self-weight of the framework
The self-weight ofthe roofsheeting priorto concrete place-
ment and thereafter if not tied to the concrete roofwhen this
becomes self supporting
. The self-weight of the suspended deck and any supported
insulation
. Loading from reinforcing placement including any point
loads from accumulations of material
Any loadings during concrete placementwhich are not bal-
anced by ajr pressure
. Differential pressure loadings on the suspended deck
. Seismic loadings
. lmpact loadings which may be transmitted to the framework
. Erection loadings
In this last case the roof framework is largely redundant, apart
from forming a convenient means ofsupporting the suspended
deck, from the point in the erection processwhen the reinforced
concrete roof becomes self-supporting. Sadly it is impractica-
ble to remove and reuse it.
One wayofgaining some advantage from the redundantframe-
work and the sheeting which has been reduced to pressure
sealing steel wallpaper, is to place the roof framework above
the roofsheeting and arrange good connection to the concrete
by the use of shear connectors. By this means the roofframe-
work and sheeting can replace some or all of the lower part of
the reinforcing required for the concrete.
The design of supporting frameworks for tank roofs is an area
where the design codes are less prescriptive than is the case
for other areas oftank design such as tank shells and bottoms.
Consequently different companies have developed their own
desig ns. For the larger dome roof tanks which form the majority
of low temperature tanks being built, the following roof frame-
work types are commonly used:
. The simple internal polar rib arrangement where the polar
ribs all run from the roof periphery to the centre ring, fitted
with circumferential bracing as required, having either unat-
tached or attached roof sheeting.
. The internal polar rib arrangement where intermediate cir-
cumferential rings are used such that the numberof ribs re-
duces as the tank centre is approached. Again having
circumferential bracing as required and either unattached
or attached roof sheeting.
The externallyframed versions ofthe two arrangements de-
scribed above with the roof sheeting being attached to the
underside of the framework.
A geodesic arrangement similarto that used for some ofthe
proprietary roof designs for retrofitting to ambient tanks as
 18 The design of low temperature tanks

unleo valu for Mcmbcrs NotSubj.c( (o Valuc for M.mb.ff Subjccr

Pt surclmposcd t ads ro P..$uc-!mpo-scd Loads
( lbflin..)
(iffit-
Pins dd $mcd bolc in rcmcd or drillcd holes ll,500 r2,000
10.000 8.0m
wcbs of b.ans !d
platc sirdcs whcE At is nor 12.000 ?^ Gnsion val!. rrom Tablc 5- I
moF lha. 60, o. wh@ wcb is adcqlably srif-
d
.n d, gross stid
ot *b
Wc!6 of bcds dd platc 6n&ls wh.E scb is rcr r8.0001t + t rt?0041 (tcmiq uluc fton Tablc 5- I )
.d.quat ly sriffcmd sd /I/l is mor! tto 60, on n + Q?n?Nt Jl

Fillcl wcl.li wh.rc load h pcrFndiculd to tr 12,6m ?0% l.nsion valuc ftDm Tablc 5- I
lcnglh of ecu on tlE s.ction 0lough thc thrcar
(se 5. | 6J3. il.m b)
e are filbl eddt wl|cr! lold i! F.rllcl to 0E l.rg$ of 9,0m 50% tctrrion ulrc ftom Tabt 5' I
(o oe w!14 oo dE s.dion 0uooeh ttlc tlm6t (s
5,15,&3. icm b)
lom-
Pbg wclds or clor vclds, on ctr@rivc fayirS-suF | 1,700 65% t nsion !a!u. froh Tablc 5- |
fr.t lrci of *cld (s.. 5.24.5 md Tlblc 5-2)
Burt sdA! on Lrst ('oss-r.ctional arca, in or at 14,400 80% tcnsion valuc frcm T.blc 5" I
dsc of wcld (s. 5.16.8.3, illh a)
Bc.ring
ace-
r this Pins od !|nt.d bohs in rlocd or drillcd hoLs u,ffi 1.33 xt nsion vatuc fron TabL 5- I
t .d qplicd !o hoh .r oou one sidc of lllc mcm,

)lIed lrad disEibltsl uodoEnly,.pproximarcly, lcross 30,000 1,67 x Ensibn wloc frcm T6b'c 5- l
thi.kEss of ih. m.mbcr corctcd

)oint t !d +plicd io bolt at only orc sid. of ihc mcm- 16,0m 0,{B xt Bion vallc fred TlbL J-|

t rd dittibut d uaifo.nly, alproxioatcly, acru! 20,0m LI x &.sion wlu. iion Tablc 5' I
thickn*of th. m.mbd connct d
oaF
l. Thc v$irblcs io lhc comFEssirc $r.rs .qu|tioN e
d.6n d $ follows:
, = onb..c.d l4gth of thc 6luma in in.i . con spoding hat r.dius ot
= &ddrion ol rhc colurn in ioi r = OickrEsr of rhc rlbule column,
in ic: /= unity (lO) for v.lo6 of /R c$sl to of gElt r hr! O0l5ty
=(2,.j)Ilm,ltr)l l2<2/])llm)/r)ll ftr tih.s of rA lcss rlun 0.15.
:
2. Thc vdiab,er in lhc bcnding strcs .qulrions src dcfincd 5s folld.s: , uruuppo.Ed t..8rh of !h. m.Dbcr; fd . cerjlcvd b.m nor iu lty
shy.d at ns outcr cnd agaiist Fe.lador o. rctadon, / stEil bc rrkln ss rwic. ri. tcn$h of ll)c @opE$ion ndg., in in.; d = dcprh ot ihc
n nb.r, in i.,r , = widnh oa irs @nprc$ion flegq in b.i I = thickBs of ils conpcssion fleg., in io.
/ork e
l. Thc vuiablcs in thc shc&ing stE* cquarions .kfincd as follNs: I = cl@ dii.irc. b.rw.
wb Adgc! in in.: I = urkrncrj of dE w.b.

: :-'e 18.40 Maximum aliowable slress values for structu members

part
' ':'1 API 620, kble 5-3
oed
ced
any part of any internal frarfework shall not be less than 0.17"
allowed by API 650 Appendix G for aluminium roofs. This (4.3 mm).
would normally be with athched roof sheets.
Tte- ::aching the roof sheeting to the iramework brings significant
ure -:'eases in the vertical, and particularlythe horizontal stiffness 18.7.2 The BS 7777 approach
3Ve :' :re composite structure. This is of particular benefit in cases
ete ,-ere high seismic criteria have to be accommodated in the
B57777 : Pan 2 ptovides the following guidance, similar to and
ne- :
=: gn. lt also allows the radial ribs to be used as backing straps based on the requirements of BS 2654:
tof '- ch is convenient when higherjoint factors for the roofsheet-
- are required to allow for hagh design pressures. lf the roof
I The steel for construction of roof members shall have a mini-
fea r-:ets are laid in a radial petal plate arrangement, then onlythe
mum nominal thickness of not less than 5 mm.
tse : -:Jmferential seams will require separate backing straps.
ns. --: different roof framework arrangements come with various The roof-supporting structure shall be designed in accordance
wn . : . antages and disadvantages. The simple polar rib to the tank with BS 449 : Part 2 :1969 (Reference 78.9) or with BS 5950
rity ::^:re type is easy to erect requiring only a central king post to (Reference 18.10\.
1e- :-:lo the centre ring, but is wasteful of material. The more
:: -plex types are more efficient in terms of material usage, but The spacing of roof purlins for cone roofs shall be such that the
-:-e complex to erect. lt is difficult to be specific as to which span between them does not exceed 1.7 m. Where one edge is
- :: ls best as the merits of the different types tend to change supported by the top curb ofthe shell, the maximum span shall
:::ending on the tank size, the local circumstances and the de- permitted shall be 2.0 m.
.'- and erection method experiences of the contractors
-.: ved. Where the roof plate is not welded to the supporting framework,
)ir- for all roofs exceeding '15 m in diameter, cross-bracing in the
'e- plane ofthe roof surface shall be provided in at least two pairs of
'3.7.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q)
'rg adjacent bays. These braced bays shall be equally spaced
--= rrajority of roof frameworks are subjected to ambient or around the tank circumference. This stiffenino is known as wind
-:.' ambient temperatures. Consequently the body of the bracrng.
e- -::: -,can
(section 5) provides some basic design rules based on
For coned roofs with roof plate thicknesses greater than the
- -: siructural steel standards for these frameworks. The
minimum thickness, and for domed roofs, the purlin spacing
--, are shown in Figure 18.40 and make reference to Figure
= permitted may be increased by agreement between the pur-
'e chaser and the manufacturer. A sensible peripheral pitch for a
--: ^ominal thickness, including any corrosion allowance, of large radial rib dome roof would be around 2.5 m.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 347

18 The design of low tempenture tdnks

trualn tast stsrtt$!(Im $5I sYlr&r afrn tut Do$t

I
T

il
It

ll
tl

Figure 1 8.41 A tank anchorage system penelrcting both the secondary bottom plate and the outer concrete tank liner

348 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1 8 The design of law temperature tanks

sgcloit E-E
. EfiEC]EOI CASI
136x di Cnfln ffnNCE

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 349

1B The design of low temperature tanks
18.7.3 The prEN 14620 approach
This provides little in the way of design rules or guidance. Ref-
erence is made to ENV '1993-1-1, the applicable Eurocode for
the design ofsteel stucturcs (Reference 18.12).
18.8 Tank anchorage
The designs ofthe anchorage systems for single-walled metal-
lic tanks and for the inner and outer walls of double-walled me-
tallictanks are based on the methods described earlierforam-
bient temperature tanks in Slorage Tanks & Equipment.
The task is made more difficult by the following:
. The tank design pressures, and consequently the uplift
forces are greater
. The liquid-coniaining tank shells are subject to thermal
movements which must be accommodated in the design
. The anchors for the inner tanks of double-walled tanks will
have to penetrate the outer tank envelope
The total design loading on the tank anchorage is made up of
combinations of the following loadings:
. Self-weight of the metallic tank parts (in the corroded, i.e.
the lightest condition)
. Self-weightof the participating insulation when appropriate
. The internal pressure
. thickness. Strap widths up to say,200 mm, would seem a
Wind induced uplift
. Seismically induced uplift (it is usual not to have to consider
wind and seismic evenb occurring simultaneously)
The form ofanchorage chosen is again based on ambienttank
practices. The boltand chairis less frequently used for low tem-
perature tanks and the welded-strap type is generally pre-
ferred. This is for two reasons. The flexibility of a thin strap
means that loads caused by thermal movements of the tank
can be more readily accommodated. Alsothe attachmenttothe
tank shell ofthe conventional bolt chair gives rise to higher mo-
ments in the tank shell than does the strap attachment. This is
important in an area ofthe tank shell already being subjected to
high hoop and vertical bending loads.
It is usual to consider the liquid-containing tanksto be emptyat
the time that the uplifting loads are applied, with the exception
of the seismic load case described below
Open-topped inner tanks are only subject to uplift loadings aris-
ing from seismic loadings. ln this case it is usualto resist the up-
lift by mobilising a part of the contained product liquid to assist
the tank self-weight to hold the tank down. This is described in
more detail in Chapter 26.
There are however situations where the mobilising of the con-
tained liquid cannot be used, or where it is impractical. These
could be wherethe seismic upliftcomponent is simplytoo big to
be resisted _by self-weight and liquid hold-down. This could in
turn be in situations where the site geometry does not allowthe
necessary adjustments to the tank proportions to enable ade-
quate liquid hold-down to be made. ln these cases hold-
ing-down anchors must be provided which attach to the inner
liquid-containing shell and must penetrate the outer metallic
shell, or the liner of the concrete outer shell, and on occasions
the secondary bottom as well. These penetrations must not al-
low leakage of the product vapour during service. Bearing in
mind the various thermal movements to which these compo-
nents are subjected, and the high anchorage loadings in the
strap, this is a complex design pfoblem.
An example of such an arrangement is shown in Figure 18.41 .
This particular case is about as difficult as innertank anchorage
systems get. In addition to the design problems associated with
350 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
the penetration of the secondary bottom as mentioned above,
the design process was made more complex by the fact that
this tank was built by the spiraljacking system. This means that
the shell seams between adjacent courses are not horizontal,
butfollowa spiralpath. This in turn meansthatthe length ofthe
holding-down straps vary to avoid the strap shell attachments
falling on this seam.
It is interesting to note the use ofthe tube set into the concrete
base slab to artificially lower the lower fixed point and the re-
quirement for accurate erection presetting in the radial direc-
tion. The former allowed strains due to differential thermal
movements in the vertical direction to be accommodated, and
the lattertook account ofthe thermal horizontal displacement of
point B where the strap passed through and is attached to the
secondary bottom.
The various codes give allowable tensile stresses for tank an-
chors under the differing loading regimes. The actual load in
anchors where a thermal movement is involved is a combina-
tion of tension (due to the uplift actions) and bending (due to
thermal movements). As has been mentioned already, the use
of an anchor where the proportions are deliberately chosen to
have a low stiffness in the radial direction minimises the bend-
ing component of the stress, leaving more available effective
strength for the pure tension component. This generally pro-
vides a more efficient solution for the design of the strap itself
and limits the bending loads transferred to the tank shell. There
is however a limit to this freedom to adjust the stiffener strap
proportions based on a sensible strap width and minimum
sensible maximum unless special circumstances dictate
otherwise.
Sorting out the various loading components and load cases for
tank anchors is a tedious business and is an area of design
well-suited tothe use ofbespoke computer programs or spread
sheets.
18.8.1 The requirements of API 620 Appendix R
18.8.1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
For single-wall tanks, or for the inner shell of a double-walled
tank, the following requiremenb apply:
. The anchorage shall accommodate movement ofthe tank
wall and bottom caused by thermal changes.
. Stainless steel should be considered for tank anchors, or
provision should be made for corrosion wherecarbon steels
are used. lvlaterials for tank anchorage shall meet the re-
quirements given for primary materials (see Chapter 22).
. When the too shell course is the minimum thickness as
given in Figure 18.5 and the top corner arrangement is as
So rca of AllowlbL Tdrsion
Uplift Prcrsurc SEarC (psi)
Tanl dcsign Fcssurc Allowablc dcsign ircss. S,,
{scc Tablc J- I )
Tank &sign prcsrurc plus Smalle' of 1.33 t,or 80% or
wrnd or $hquakc lhc spcificd minimum yicld
Tank tcst prcssurc
Smallcr of l.:11t,or 80% of
rh sp.cilid tninimurn yicld
I'Thc rlksab[ Ini nMnocrsc.
tcnsion srrc\{ d]".t! irnrn{d xl ttE
t(rn or trnsr|t strc\s cr dt rhc rn.hor
Figure 18.42 Allowable tension stresses for uplift pressure conditions
From API 620, table ,7
 18 The design of low temperatute tanks

above, Figure 18.34 details a-e, h and l, the minimum anchorage tom. This is most unusual for these tvoes of tanks and will not
rct that shall be designed for normal loads ("normal loads" means be considered further.
ns that the upward loadings less the downward loadings with no
The tank anchorage shall be designed based on the following:
zontat, additional factors applied). In this case the allowable
r ofthe stresses for carbon steels, shown in Figure 18.42. For alu- . The design stresses shall be in accordance with Figures
rments minium alloys and stainless steels the following shallapply: 18.3 and 18.42.
- The maximum allowable tensile stresses for design . When corrosion is specified fortheanchors, thickness shall
ncrete loadings combined with wind or earthquake loadings be added to the anchors and the attachments. lf bolts are
tne re- shall not exceed 90% of the minimum soecified vield used for anchors, the nominal diameter shall be not less
0rrec- strength for the material. than 1 in plus a corrosion allowance of %" on the bolt diame-
'rermal
For the test condition where the tank is filled with water ter
o, ano
nentof to the maximum product design level and an over pres- Attachments of anchors to the shell shall be designed using
to the sure of 1.25 times the design pressure is applied (where good engineering practices. This means giving appropriate af
applicable), the tensile stress shall not exceed 90% of tention to the minimising ofany moments and stress concentra-
the minimum specified yield strength of the material or tions aDDlied to the tank shell.
nk an- 55% of the minimum specified tensile strength of the
oad in As above, the counterbalancing structure shall be designed to
material.
nbrna- resist the uplift based on 1.25 times the internal design pres-
0ue to Allowable tensile stresses shall be taken from Fioure sure plus any wind load on the shell and roof. lf seismic loads
're use 18.4. are specified, uplifr shall be calculated using the internal design
pressure plus the seismic loads. Wind and seismic loads need
sen to r When the top shell course is thickened as in Figure 18.34
bend- not be combined.
details f and g, or where a knuckle is used, the anchorage
'ective shall be designed for three times the internal design pres-
y pro- sure. The allowable stress for this loading is 90% ofthe min- 18.8.2 The requirements of API 620 Appendix Q
) itself lmum specifled yield strength ofthe anchorage material. As
There an alternative, the purchaser may specify a combination of 18.8.2.1 Liquid containing tanks
strap normalanchorage and emergency venting (it is usualto fol-
rimum The requirements are very similar to those spelt out in Section
ow this latter course of action, the addition of emergency
)em a 18.8.'1.1. A couple of extra cond;tions are imposed:
venting systems being generally considered a cheaper op-
ictate tion than the consequences of increased anchorage loads . Allowabletensile stresses shallbe taken from Figure '18.5.
and the foundation provisions that will occur).
. 9a/"or Sok nickel steels, stainless steel oraluminium alloy
es for -'./ ng decided on the anchor loads to be appljed, it is clearly may be used for anchorage and carbon steel may be used
lesign -::essary to provide means of resisting these loads. The Code when a corrosion allowance is provided and the tempera-
pread
., es thefollowing guidancefortankfoundations to resist uplift: ture regime is suitable for this material. Aluminium alloy an-
. For tanks with an internal design pressure less than 1 lb/in2, chorage shall not be embedded in reinforced concrete
rhe uplift shall be taken as the smaller of the maximum uplift unless it is suitably protected against corrosion.
t
calculated in the following conditions: 18.8.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
The internal design pressure times 1.5, plus the design The requirements of Section 18.8.1.2 apply.
wind load on the shell and roof.
valled
The internal design pressure plus 0.25 lb/in2 plus the 18.8.3 The BS 7777 requirements
design wind load on the shell and roof.
) tanK
. BS 7777 does not differentiate between the requirements for
For tanks with an internal design pressure of 1 lb/in2 and
the design of anchors for inner and outer tanks. Although laid
trver, ihe uplift shall be calculated considering 1.25 times
rs, or out in a different wayfrom APl620, the actual requirements are
ileets
ine internal design pressure plus the design wind load on
essentially very similar.
:ne shell and the roof.
re re-
. The design loadings are set out as follows:
22). ,Vhere the anchorage is designed for the three times the
:esign pressure as described above, the foundation shall . Inner tank service loads The uplift produced by roof de-
is as
:e designed to resist the uplift that results from three times sign vapour pressure with seismic loads, counteracted by
:'re design pressure with the tank full to the design liquid the effective weight of the shell, roof, roofstructure, roofin-
:veJ. sulation and any permanently atbched insulation.
:: - 3 r\i of the above it is permissible to utilise friction between . Inner tank test loads The uplift produced by roof test
-: soil and the vertical face of the ringwall (if used) and all of vapour pressure counteracted by the effective weightofthe
-: :ffective liquid weight. shell and roof structure.
-- .
= Code
does not make it clearjust what constjtutes the effec- Outertankservice loads The upliftproduced bythe annu-
:quid weight. The author's view is that this should be calcu- lar space design pressure with either the wind uplift and
:-=: n the same way as WL in the seismic design case, (see overturning, or, the seismic loads (but not acting simulta-
, - =r:ef 26). neously), counteracted by the effective weight of the shelt,
' : 3.1.2 NonJiquid containing metallic tanks roof, roofstructure, any associated structure attached to the
:: ' :'rese non-liquid containing tanks the requirements of sec- roof or shell and any permanently athched insulation.
: - a of the Code apply. . Outer tank test loads The uplift produced by the annular
-- ,i 3 rlows tanks with cou nterbalance j.e. where a counterbal-
(
space test pressure, plus 60% of the wind uplift and over-
:-: -g structure such as a ring wallor a slab type foundation as- turning, counteracted by the effective weight of the shell,
: ,.:-. :ne tank self-weight in resisting the uplift) and tanks with- roof, roofstructure and anyassociated structure attached to
:cunterbalancing weights. In this latter case, no anchors the roof or shell.
: -:
:': :'ovided and the uplift loads are resisted by a stiffened bot- The allowable stresses are given by:

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 351

1B The design of low temperctute tanks
. Service case: not to exceed 50% of the (minimum sDeci-
fied) yield shength of the material of construction.
. Test case: not to exceed 85% of the yield strength of the
material of construction.
Various other items of advice are offered in a fairly haphazard
fashion and these are listed as follows:
. The internal and external tanks or containers (the BS 7777
terminology for non-liquid containing tanks) shall be re-
garded as independent structures where neither contrib-
utes to the other in resisting uplif
. Asuspended deck shall be considered as an integral part of
the outer tank.
. Where insulation of the loose fill type is used, it shall not
contribute to the resistance to uplift of either tank.
. Wind uplift and overturning loadings shall be based on BS
CP 3 : Chapter V : Paft2: 1972 (Reference 18.13).
. Anchorages shall not be attached directly to shells or bot-
tom plates, but shall be attached to pads or brackets (lt is
unclear if this means that anchors can be attached to bot-
tom plates, which is considered undesirable).
. The design temperature for anchorage and anchorage at-
tachments shall be either the design metal temperature of
the tank of container, or a temperature agreed between the
purchaser and the designer.
. Where the top shell course is thickened to provide addi-
tional compression area, the anchorage should be de-
signed for 3 times the design vapour pressure. The
allowable stress for this loading may be increased to 90% of
the minimum specified yield strength ofthe anchorage ma-
terial. The Code then goes on to explain the thinking behind
this requirement, which is helpful. The reason for this is that,
with a thickened top shell course, the anchorage is under-
designed relative to the shell-to-roof connection. Designing
the anchorage for 3 times the design pressure load, en-
sures that the anchorage (strength) is in I'ne with the roof-
to-shell connection (strength) in the event of an extreme
over-pressure. This ensures that the weakest point in an
over-pressure situation is not the bottom{o-shell junction.
. anchor bolts or straps.
Where the top course of the shell is thickened, but normal
anchorage is retained, the use ofemergency pressure relief
valves should be considered.
. lnsulation firmly attached to the inner or outer tank may be
regarded as resisting uplift on either tank. Insulation is not
normally applied until after tank testing.
. Anchorage design should allow for adjustment due to set-
tlement during commissioning. lt is common to attach
welded-strap type anchors to the tank shell pads during the
hydrotest of liquid containing tanks to avoid the need for ad-
justment, which is inconvenient to incorporate into the de-
sign.
. All anchorages should be embedded into the tank founda-
tion.
. For fittings in double-walled tanks where the inner tank is de-
On no account should inner tank anchorages be embedded
in the base insulation for the purpose of resisting uplift.
. Tank (and anchorage) design should accommodate move-
ments due to temperature change to minimise induced
bending stress in the shell. Any additional stress induced in
the shell by the anchorage attachment should be checked
to ensure that the allowable stress level of the shell is not
exceeded forthe conditions ofanchorage load considered.
. Heat breaks may be required at the anchorage of inner
tanks to prevent chilling of the outer tank and foundations.
Heat transfer to the colder parts of the tank structure should
352 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT
be limited, to avoid failures of the anchoraqe due to ice for-
mation or water condensation.
. A corrosion allowance of 1 mm should be aoolied to all sur-
faces of anchorage parts.
. Any initialtension in the anchorage members resulting from
bolting loads or loads due to transient or long term thermal
movements, should be considered in the anchor loadings.
. No initial tension should be applied to the anchorage. lt
should only become effective when an uplift force develops
in the shell of the tank or container.
. Steps should be taken before the tank goes into service to
ensure that anchorage bolts cannot work loose or become
ineffective over a long period.
. Any anchor bar, bolt or strap shall have a minimum cross
sectional area of 500 mm2.
. Anchorage points should be spaced at a minimum of 1 m
and at a maximum of 3 m and should, as far as possible, be
spaced evenly around the circumference of the tank.
When reading through these requirements, it should be borne
in mind that the language is used in a specific way as required
by BS 0 (The British Standard for Producing British Standards).
Hence "shall" indicates a mandatory requirement whereas
"should" and "may" indicate a recommendation of good
praclce.
18.8.4 The prEN 14620 approach
The guidance given for tank anchorage is essentiallythe same
as is included in BS 7777.
Stress limits for tension are given as:
Normal operation 0.50 f"
Test 0.85 fy
oBE 0.67 fv
ssE 1 .00 fv
The point is made that shell attachments shall be designed for a
load corresponding to the full yield capacity of the un-corroded
18.9 Tank fittings
This Section deals with fittings which penetrate both the liquid
containing and the non-liquid containing tanks. Other items of
equipment which are some times included under thls heading
such as in tank pumps, stilling wells, fill columns, etc. are dis-
uur-ru rIv,,dP(v, zv.
As is the case for ambient tanks, there are a variety of types of
fittings for low temperature tanks. Roof fittings are the most
common, being used for liquid, vapour, instruments and ser-
vices. Shellfittings, mainlyfor liquid outlet connections, are less
common. Fittings penetrating the tank bottoms are uncommon
these days and are confined to liquid outlet connections.
signed for the product temperature and the outer tank or con-
tainer is designed for temperatures based on ambient tempera-
tures, there is a need to protect the outer tank materials from
the temperature ofthe cold product in the emerging line. This is
achieved by the use of heat breaks. The thermal insulation of
these heat breaks is discussed in Chapter 19.
Current oractice is to preclude the use of shell and bottom con-
nections. These are seen as weak points in the storage system.
The stress concentrations and discontinuities associated with
fittings are potential sources of leakage from the primary con-
tainment and damage to the externally connected pipe work
o ice for- :truld lead the tank to dump its conients. Consequen all con_
v
- 3ctions
to the tank are required to be through the tink root,
o a SUr- ="rd this involves the use of in-tank pumps. These pumps and
:-e associated equipment are described in some detail in
lrapter 20.
:rngfrom -iere are two areas where this practice is not adopied. The
thermal
::3rage of liquid ammonia traditjonally has not used in_tank
)adtngs.
: -mps as thesewere not availablefor usewiththis product until
)rage. tt :-'re rec-ently. This subject is discussed at some length in
evelops -'aDter 2l
-e storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and
argon has tradition_
)rvice to : ., been in double-walled single containment tanks with liouid
)ecome : -: et connections in the lower shell or tank bottom. lt is aroued
: . the part of the industry that deals with these productJthat
:-:y pose a lesser risk to personnel and the environment
that
n cross ::-er products, being non-flammable and being stored in rela_ Penerfions throuih suspended deck
, aly small quantities. The
use of internal shut_off valves is
of 1m :: 1]mon practice and goes some way to answer the contents
ible, be : - -'rping question. The liquid ouflet connections for such
tanks
k. :-: usually small, rarely greater than 6" in diameter. For con_
-.:tions of this size, effective internal
) borne shut_off valves are
'-:Jily available. For other prcducts,
)quired the sizes ifthe liquid ouflet
-:-necllons are much larger, making the use of internal
dards). .--i-offvalves a less viable option.
hereas
'good :::TAPI 620 and BS 7777 permit and give rules for designing

Thertulins!alon Vapourfl4

Suspended deck vapoLrr veni

Fgure 18.44 Typ catsuspended deck penetrations

tank shell connections. Apl 620 does this without comment as

to the desirability of such connections, which js no surprise as
its origins go back to tjmes which predated the use oi in tank
pumps for land-based storage and concepts other
than sinole
containment type tanks. BS 7777 expresses a rather nril;ty
lfora worded disapprovalofthe use ofsuch connections as follows:
'ooed
"All pipe connections should preferably be made
via the roof of
the.tank.-This is based on the phllosophy that the risk of ser
ous
reaKage lrom the innertank is thereby reduced to a minimum.
ln
this way. the possibility ofsurroundings flooded by teaking pfod_
!rq!lo uct, with the risk of fire and explosion, is minimised.',
Trs of Some of the roof fittings are quite large. For large LNG tanks.
rdrng in-tank pump columns of 42,, in diameter are not uncommon.
) drs- with liquid inlets and vapour ou ets of 32', in diameter. Bearing
in mind that these fittings will need to be fitted with heat
breaks:
then thediameterc of the actual penetrations through the
es of outer
r"lost tank roof will be even bigger. For such large fitting;, their very
size gives rise to structural problems. ThJ compjnenis whjch
ser-
go to make up the roof loadings are:
iess
mon . The self-weight of the fitting, the heat break and ihe at_
tached. internal and external pipework together with t-e
Inermat tnsulatron
:on- Any roof mounted isolation valves
era-
\a typical24" balt la E
lor tow temperature service can wejgh around 2700 kE,
ron
is is Any internal attachments (i.e. in-tank pump columns).
noi Loadings from externally connected pipework wntcr :s
-s __
ally considered to be anchored at the roof conneci o.
pn- Seismic loadings acting on the roof, the fitting and the cotr-
3m. nected pipework.
t iih
Tanks where the structural part of the roof is made of reinforced
' :- : concrete are generally better suited to catering for these load_
ork -
8 4 3 Typical roof iitting arrangements
ings than those made from steel.

STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 353

1 8 The design of low tempercture tanks

For shell connections which Denstrate both tho inner and the
outer walls, a similar probtem exlsb. This is usually overcome
by the use of bellows or pipe work running in the interspace.
Some typical arrangerrents are shown in Figure 18.46.
Tenk bottom connections are unusual but not unknown. Some
pass straight down through the base insulation andlhe support-
ing base slab, and som6 turn through a aight angle and run out
through the base insulalion, which may be thick enough to ac-
commodate tho liquid ouflet line, or may require to be locally
thickened to avoid localchilling of the outertank bottom where
this is not provided in a lowtemperature steel. Some altemative

Inrn.l b{m .fugsdt

Inr.nEl plp*ork lpe

Flgure 1 8.46 Some typical double-walled tank shll connction amangements

Plpe$qrk belwn roof3 io provld nxiblliv

Figuro 1.45 Typlcal roof frttng arangements for tanks with fixed inner and

Otherlarge rooffittings are the roof manways wh ich, forperson-

nelaccess can be 36" in dianieter, andthose usedfor materials
access during the tank construction period are ofren up to 60" in
diameter A number of difierent tank roof fitting anangements
are illustrated in Figure 18.43.

For tanks with suspended roofs, connected internal pipe work

must pass thrcugh lhe deck. There are also fiftings in the deck
itself for personnel access and for product vapourflow across
the deck. Typical suspended roof fiftings are illustrated in Fig-
ure 18.44.

Nowadays, for the relatively rare case, where the tank is pro-
vided with fixed innerand outer roofs, the need to cater for the
differential thermal movemenb between the tianks is an added
difficulty. Some arrangemenb which have been used in the
past are illustrated in Figure 18.45- Figure 18.47 Typicaltank bofiom @nnction arangements

354 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPiIENT

 1B The design of low tempercture tanks

and the
aqckng srrp, il used, may be ren eed anf wtding
ercome
rspace.

Some
r.
upport-
run out
h to ac-
locally
rwhere
rnative

l! d t? ncl ls than 0.71_ d%ncn

Ptml g Plmr n
: _: 1 8.48 Acceptable
;- types of nozzles and olher conneclions - page I
: -- lPl 620, figure 5-o

:-=-gements are shown in Figure 18.47. 18.9.1.1 General requirements of API 620 section 5
These requirements cover the maximum sizes of nozzles
'3.9.1 The requirements of Apl 620 which do not require any additional reinforcing, reinforcing of
nozzles which do require additional reinforcinq material to be
supplied. the details of suitable nozzle and reiriforcing plate at-
--: : ready mentioned, tank fittings can penetrate the roofs, tachments to the tank shell, stress relieving requirements and a
:-: s orfloors ofboth innerand outertanks. Forthe innertank number ofother points. These rules are applicable to nozzles in
:;- -ection the fitting is desjgned to either Appendix R or
e de- non-liquid containing tanks and form the basis ofthe desion of
:i -: rg on the temperature of the product liquid. For metallic nozzles for liquid containing tanks.
:- : containing outer tanks the fittings are similarly designed
.: ::cendix R or Q. For metallic non-liquid containing tanks the Single openings in tanks whjch do not requjre reinforcement
--:-ls are designed to the API basic section of the Code (i.e. other than that inherently available within the provided nozzle
neck and the tank wall thicknesses are:
-:-- cn 5).
-- . 3" pipe size welded into bnk walls of %,, thickness or less
> situation is made more complex by the two Appendices
:,: -cwing" parts of section 5 and then imposing modifications . 2" pipe size welded into tank walls of thickness qreaterthan
: '-:se rules. What follows is an attempt to simplify and sum- %.
-:- se these rules. For those involved in the detailed desion of
=
-. "tt,ngs. it is probably necessary to read the full text oi the . Threaded connections where the opening in the tank wall is
not greater than 2" pipe size
"-:JS sections to ensure a full and accurate understandino of
-: : erhora of deiailed requirements and advice providedl The minimum area or reinforcement required is based on the

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 355

18 The design of low tempercture tanks

Paisl P Plnel q

F gure 18.48 Acceptable lypes of nozzles and othef connections page 2

Fron API 620, figure 5-B

100% replacement of area rule. The basic formula is:
,\ = (d + 2c)(t c)E' equ 18 37
where:
= area of reinforcement to be provided (in'?)
d = the clear inside dimension across the opening
(usually considered as perpendicular to the di-
rection of principal applied stress) (in)
c = corrosion allowance for the part in question (in)
E' = joint factor for the part of the tank wall inques-
tion
The reinforcement shall be provided in the tank wall, an added
reinforcing plate or in the nozzle body within the limits outlined
below. The tankwallmay be arbitrarily thickened to make avail-
able more reinforcing area.
The limitations on the effective reinforcing area are:
It must lie within a distance measured circumferentially or
vertically along the tank shell from the axis ofthe opening of
the greater of:
Adistance equalto the diameter opening after corrosion
ot
A distance equal to the radius of the opening plus the
thickness of the nozzle wall plus the thickness of the
l
tank wall, all in the corroded condition
:
It must lie within a radial distance measured along the fitting :
itself from the inner or outer surface of the tank wall of the
lesser of:
- Adistance equal to 2.5 times the thickness of the tan k
wall less corrosion allowance or
- Adistance equalto 2.5 times the thickness ofthe nozzle
wall less its corrosion allowance plus the thickness of
any additional reinforcement inside the tank wall if avail-
able less its corrosion allowance(s)

356 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 leThedesign otlov@te*

Enh. d8ttr.d ol .tta.lwd k larid.dory

F!o.l F P.n lF2.

3 9le6 slz, nrr

\-l
ll-l
t*trEl5
.\pPf,.-A-3.rssrr

Singb-mH bp sEtd lor haads c.@r b plgsr.

NOTES:

,- : nornmal thickners of the irnl wall, in in., length of projcctior of d|! nozzle watl byond
including cormsion allowEnce, rhc imide face of dle iant wall.)

r. = loninal ninimum thickness of rhe nozzle neck, ,4 = a r"luc not lcss than ojrnnF
in in.in., includina @rrosion allowance,
t5 = a value nor less than o.7rnnn,
r, = nominal rhickress of rhe rcinlorcing pa4 ir in.,
includirg co.rosion allowanc if thc pad is t, = norninal h.rd tlliclmcls, h in.
er(posed io coFosion,

. = conosion allowanc.. in rn.. l.TtE wcld dimcc'oN indicatcd i! Ihir 6gua e

pcdiqcd on 0lc
asuhprion thal no .drosio. tu .nticiprt d or th. oubirlc of fir
tmin = fte smaller of 3/4 in.
or $e thickn.ss lcss fie l,nk. lt oul\idc cotuion is.rpdl!d. dc oukirL w.ld dihcnsio$
co.rosion allowanceof eirherof rbc pans ioined shall b. ircra\ed a@ordingly,

bya filler weld or Foove weld. 2. Erpos.d cdgs sh(M as rudcd hay b. 6nish.d by lighl Eind-
ing b ar tast r 14 in- 6dius or chdf.Ed ar 45 degRs ro ar lcan a

I or/: = a value not less than the smallrotl/4 in. or

IFd!n
o.7rn,Di the sum t+ irshallnor be tesr han FF r'a &.1 smallcr. s cxempoons h 5.16.9. L
l.?5rmi,,.

rr = rhermrllcr ol l/arn,ar0./(r,,-.' {lnsrd.(or-

nerselds nlav h Iunher limired h! ! le$er

Fgure 18.48 Acceptabte types of nozztes and other connections - page 3

F@rn API 820,ligute 5-8

ly or liletal in the tankwall in excess of the thickness required forthe ness at any welded joint, in inches, is greater lhan
rg of $uctural requirements for 100% joint effciency may be mn- (D+50y120.
sltered as available reinforcing material if the fitting is located
s|on ertirely within the plate material (i.e. does not pass through a where:
rlded seam). This is useful for roof penetrations.
f b not usualto fitting nominal diameter (in)
the cany out site stress relief of storage tanks fol-
bvting erection for reasons to dowith the size, weightand need
the For fittings less that 20" diameter, D shall be taken as 20f.
b.localsupport during the operation. There are however local
sfress relieving requirements to minimise local residual stress This requirementfor stress relief is not applicable to tank com-
ttng concentrations. The necessity to carry out such operations, pression areas where the thicknesses of plates used fequenty
the Gually in the fabricator's works, afrer the fiftings have been exceed these thicknesses. This is fonunate as the sib s-tress
relded into the tank shellplate, are based on the shelland noz- relief of a completed compression area wouh be impradical
ank Ae body thicknesses. Hence stress relief is required when: and the restriction imposed on the designerof timiting the plate
. Tank sections which have a wall thickness greater than thicknesses to 1.25" or 1.5" would in effecd limit the maximum
1.25" (this can be increasedto 1.5,,forcertain matedals pro- design pressures for large bnks.
2)e
iof viding a minimum preheat temperature of 200.F has been
maintained during the welding process). Figure 5-8 from section 5 ofAPl620 provides guidance regard-
ail- ing acceptable details for welded nozzles and other @nnec-
. Welded attachmenb and nozzle bodies where the thick- tions. These are shown in Figure 18.48.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 357

18 The design of low temperature tanks

18.9.1.2 The particular requirements ofAPl620 Appendix R
Appendix R contains a number of detailed additional require-
ments relating to the types of connections which are permitted
in primaryand secondary components, the stress reliefrequire-
ments and aspects concerning spacing and inspection.
At fear of repetition, the number of detiailed requirements in this
area makes it necessary that the designer studies the rules
carefully and is hopefully experienced in this type ofwork. The
main Doints raised are:
. All openings in primary components shall have complete
penetration and fusion. Acceptable details are shown in Fig-
ure 18.43 details a,b,c,g,h,m and o.
. In primarycomponents, shop stress-relief of the welded as-
sembly is requires unless:
- The stress in the plate is less than 10% ofthe minimum
tensile stress ofthe plate materialand the opening rein-
forced for this low stress
The impact requirements for the plate and the welding
fulfil the requirements for primary componenb and the
thickness ofthe shell plate is less than %" for any diame-
ter of connection or less than 1 .25" for connections that
have a diameter of less than 12". The thickness of the
nozzle neck without stress relief shall be limited to
(D+50)/120 as above.
. The opening is reinforced with a forging as shown in Figure
18.48 details o-1 to o-4
. The butt weld around the periphery of a thickened insert
plate or the fillet weld around a reinforcing plate shall be at
least the greater of 10 times the shell thickness or 12" from
any butt-welded seams, except where the completed pe-
ripheryweld has been stress-relieved. In this case the spac-
ing shall be at least 6" from any vertical seam and 3" from
any circumferential seam subject in both cases to a mini-
mum of 3 times the shell thickness. These rules shall also
apply to the shell-to-bottom joint. lt is allowable to extend
the thickened insert plate or the rejnforcing plate to the
shell-to-bottom joint and not require stress reliefof the weld
to the bottom or annular Dlate.
. All welds in opening connections that have not been com-
pletely radiographed shall be inspected by magnetic parti-
cle (MPl) or liquid penetrant (LPl) inspection methods. This
shall include nozzle and manhole neck welds and neck to
flange welds. The root pass and each additional %" of de-
posited weld mebl shall be similarly inspected.
. Butt welds around the periphery of thickened insert plates
shall be completely radiographed
It is interesting to see that this section of the Code (and the
equivalent section of Appendix Q) allows the use of slip on
flanges with the agreement of the purchaser.
18.9.1.3 The particular requirements of API 620
Appendix Q
The detailed requirements of Appendix Q are essentially the
same as for ADoendix R. Stress relief of stainless steel or alu-
minium alloys is not required. For 5% and 9% nickel steels,
stress relief is a function ofsurface strain and as such can usu-
ally be avoided.
18.9.1.4 The design of heat breaks
A has been mentioned, many tank fittings have heat breaks as-
sociated with them. These heat breaks are frequently sub-
jected to high axial and bending loads from the attached
pipework and associated fittings, particularly in the largersizes
of connections and where seismic loadings are involved. The
Code does give some guidance which can be used for the de-
tailed design of these items, but this is limited and it is not un-
usualfor additional guidance to be soughtfrom pressure vessel
codes such as ASI\.4EVlll (Reference 18.74) or a similar Code.
This area of design is tedious and repetitive. Well-designed
computer programs or spreadsheeb are a boon forthis type of
worK.
18.9.2 The requirements ol 85 7777
BS 7777 seeks to separate the area of tank fitting design into
the following categories:
. The design ofoutercontainer (i.e. non-liquid containing me-
tallic ianks) mountings
. The design of inner tank and liquid containing outer metallic
tank mountings
. The design of connections between the openings in inner
and outer ianks
The detailed reouirements and recommendations are summa-
rised in the following Sections.
1 8.9.2.1 Outer container mountings
The rules follow almost exactly the ambient tank practices laid
out in BS 2654 described in Chapter 3.
ln brief. the main Doints are:
. No reinforcing required for nozzles oflessthan 80mm diam-
eter
. Reinforcing to be 75% of the removed area
. Reinforcing to be provided either
By a thickened shell insert plate
By a thickened nozzle body
By an added reinforcing plate
. As an alternative the thickened nozzle barrel protruding on
both sides ofthe tank wall such that the j factor does not ex-
ceed 2.0 in accordance with the calculation method given
There are some minor modiflcations to the oermitted weld ioint
details.
18.9.2.2 Inner tank and outer liquid containing tank mount-
Ings
The rules again follow the BS 2654 practices for shell connec-
tions. Table 13 (Figure 18.49) makes slightly different require-
ments for the minimum nozzle body thicknesses.
The Code makes a number of comments and recommenda-
tions (i.e. non-mandatory requirements), some of which are
worth repeating in full:
. All pipe connections should preferably be made via the roof
of the tank. This is based on the philosophy that the risk of
serious leakage from the inner tank is thereby reduced to a
minimum. In this way, the possibility of surroundings being
flooded by leaking product, with the risk of fire and explo-
sions, is minimised.
Minimtrm manhole dd
nozzlc body thicknes
d"< 50 5.0
50 <d^< 70 5.0
70<dn<100 6.0
100<dn<200 8.0
200<4=300 10.0
300 < d- t2.5
Figure 18.49 Manhole and nozzle body thickness
From BS 7777 : Paft 2, table 13

358 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1B The design of low tempercture tanks

i not un- . Where side or bottom entry is specified, the design should
e vessel take account of nozzle leakage, and its consequences, Pqtked ,,ih insulonon
rr Code. from the following causes:
esrgned
; type of - Differentialmovement
- Thermal stress

- Stressintensification
Pipe loads
ign lnto
- Difiiculty of inspection/maintenance

ing me- - Foundationheatingdiscontinuities

Vulnerability of pipework to damage
netallic Where possible, shell-mounted nozzles should be shop-
' Figure 18.50 Possible connection option
fabricated into shell plates
From BS 7777 : Paft2, figure 25
n inner . Where used, shell-mounted inlet and ouflet connections
should be provided with internal shut-of valves
Jmma- -^ s section ofthe Code also gives rules and advice regardjng
:- design of bottom connections. The one rule (mandatory) is
:t connections to inner tank bottoms shall be Drovided with
es laid
f .jt off valves for internal emergency shut off conditions. The
1:.r mandatory comments and recommendations are also
-:eresting and useful:
. Connections to the inner tank bottom should be avoided.
dram-
. Bottom connections for emptying the tank totally prior to
warm up and inspection are normallyof smalldiameter lt is
not advisable to operate the tank through the bottom con-
nections, unless the design allows some liquid to remain in
the tank (this is presumably to avoid accidental tank warm
up during service).
. Where openings (i.e. bottom openings) are unavoidable, Figure 18.51 Further shell conneciion option
the following design procedure should be adopted: From BS 7777 : Patt 2, figure 26

ng on - Entry to the tank is as close to the shell as possible, but

f,t ex- not less than 650mm (to keep the opening close to the - Anti-vortex provisions are considered.
shell but not in the annular plate - this could be a prob-
)jven
lem where the annular plate is made wider for reasons
- Additional localised base heating is considered.
ljoint Much of these mandatoryand advisory requirements werewrit-
of seismic design. The fitting should always be inboard
of the inner edge of the annular plate). ten following the events surrounding the bottom ou et connec-
runt- tions installed on the original Das lsland LNG tanks. poor con-
The nozzle is positioned in an annular or sketch plate, struction details, leakage and poor thermal insulation led to
enlarged if necessary for this purpose. these tanks having to be decommissioned and taken out ofser-
nec-
vice and eventually being demolished and replaced.
uire- - The nozzle opening is reinforced on a replacement of
area basis by a doubler plate, or thickened annular or 18.9.2.3 Connecting pipework between inner and outer
sketch Dlate. tank connections
nda-
are - The design should impose negligible bending moment The Code provides two sketches of possible shell connection
on the inner tank bottom under all conditions of oDera- arrangements. The first uses bellows to provide the reouired
tion, particularly with reference to the difierential con- flexibility (Figure 18.50), whilst the second uses a pipe loop
roof within the interspace for the same purpose, (Figure.lg.5.l).
traction ofthe innertank relative to the outertank. (One
ikof
way to do this is to support the horizontal portion of the The Code provides a number of mandatory reouirements and
toa pipe from the underside ofthe innertank shell-to-bottom
-jing advisory guidance, all of which is useful.
junction bya strap welded to the underside ofthe annu-
plo- The mandatory requirements are:
lar plate and the top of the pipe).

- The pipe should always be full of product in service.
- A high standard of construction and inspection is sDeci-
fied. (lt is advised that the nozzle assembly is prefabri-
cated into the thickened bottom plate and subiect to
inspection and testing prior to laying on the base insula-
tion).
- The unsupported area underthe nozzle is keptto a mini-
mum and the surrounding insulation is designed for the
higher load imposed on it. (lt should also be capable of
withstanding damage at the edges of the hole).
- The space surrounding the nozzle and pipe is filled with
a suitable insulating material.
. Connections shall have a detailed design. (Meaning that
each connection shall be fully designed in its own ight and
not be a tepeat or copy of an eadier similar connection.)
. A heat break shall be fitted to connections between inner
and outer tanks. (ln this case the detailed design ofthe heat
break could follow the requirements of BS 5500. (Refer-
ence 18.15).
.
Connections between openings in the inner and outer tank
shells shall be designed to accommodate the differential
movement between the shells. (lt is importiant to consider
not only the longitudinal thermal differential movemenG,
but also the translation caused by thermal contraction and
the rotations caused by product loadings.)

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 359

 18 The design of low tempercture tanks

. Flanged joints shall not be located within the intersoace be-

tween the inner and outer shells.
. Where welded pipe js used, the welded seams shall be
radiographed for the full length of the weld.
. Connections between openings in the inner and outer tank
roofs shall be designed to accommodate the differential
movements between the roofs.
. For the suspended deck, connections shall be desioned as
an extension to the nozzle in the outer tank roof.
The guidance is:
. Particular attention should be paid to the design ofthe inter-
I
connecting mountings. This is to ensure that no mainte- 't
nance or inspection is necessary during the operational life
of the tank, since access to the interspace between the in-
ner and outer tank is normallv imDossible.
Figure f8.52 Aflat plate type suspended deck
Thermal and hydrostatic forces cause relative movement
between the inner and outer tank, thus jncreasing or de- The use of a suspended deck means that the roof insulation is
creasing the interspace gap. Strain absorbing connections now within the tank envelope and is protected from the wind
are necessary to ensure that the relative movement does and any chemically aggressive atmospheres. As a conse-
not cause unacceptable local stressing of the inner and/or quence, cheap materials such as glass fibre of a very basjc
outer tank. (Guidance on local loads on cylindrical vessels grade (i.e. household loft insulation type), mineralwoolor loose
can be obtained from Reference 18.15.) or bagged perlite can be used ratherthan more expensive insu-
lation systems such as PUF protected by vapour tight metallic ,
Heat breaks should be designed to prevent over-cooling of cladding. lt is not only the cost ofthe roof insutation that is sionif-
the outer shell. icant. placing it in a protected environment gives longevity-ad-
Connections should be made from seamless oioe. vantages as well. Further advantages relating to the need to no
longer require a low temperature grade of steel for the roof
lvlovements between the inner and outer tank roofs arises structure and sheeting also exist.
from either differential thermal expansion or contraction, or
It is usualto arrange a generallyflat profile ofdeck flush with the
differing internal or external loads.
top of the inner tank for double-walled tanks, and located at a
. For suspended decks the connection should be able to suitable elevation to avoid thermal stress problems for sin-
move freely through the suspended deck, thus eliminating gle-walled tanks.
additional loads on either the outer roof or the suspended
The design Codes have little to say about the design of sus-
deck. (l\ileans of preventing roof insulation from falling pended decks, so the designer is lefr very much to his or her
through any gaps and entering the stored product should
own devices. A number of different arranqements are in com-
also be made.)
mon use:
l\y' uch ofthis is self-evident and repetitive, but is nevertheless all

sensible advice.
. A flat plate system stiffened by circumferential mem.
bers The flat deck is usually of lapped and fillet-welded con-
struction. The inner part of the deck is stiffened by
18.9.3 The prEN 14620 approach circumferential flats attached to the upDer surface of the
deck and serving as the attachment points for the hangers.
For membrane tanks all liquid inlet and outlet connections are The outer edge of the deck has a more substantial periph-
to be routed via the tank roof. For othertanks connections to the eral stiffener fitted.
primary container and other parts of the secondary container
The hangers are usually of steel cable or rod material se-
are discouraged but reluctantly allowed. In cases where bottom
lected to be suitable for the loading and temperature. lt is
(and possibly lower shell, the wording is unclear in its intention)
not unusual for the hangers to be made from two different
inlets and outlets are used, either a remote operated internal
shutoff valve must be installed or the bottom (and shell?) con-
nection shall be designed as part of the primary container with
the first valve being a remote operated type which must be
welded to the bottom (or shell?) connection.
The guidance provided is similar to that in BS 7777 and refer-
ence is made to the appropriate sections ofthe prEN on ambi-
ent tanks in Chapter 3.

18.10 Suspended decks

Suspended decks or ceilings are simple covers over the top of
the liquid containing tanks. They can be fitted into single-walled
tanks or above the inner liquid containing tank of double-walled
tanks. They are suspended from the tank roof framework and
their function is to support the roof insulation. They do not re-
quire to be product vapour tight, in fact very much the reverse
as the product vapour should be free to flow across the sus-
pended deck with little resistance and consequenfly causing lif
tle differential pressure. Figur 18.53 A struclural frame and profiled sheeting type suspended deck

360 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 18 The design of low temperature tanks

Figure 18.55 A suspeidd deck vent

=g rte 18.54 A plywood paneltype of suspended deck

ation is 18.10.1 The requirements of API 620
wtnd materials. The lowerpart being suitableforthe lowtempera-
conse- ture whilst the upper part is of a cheaper material suitable Essentially none.
y basic for the local ambient temperature. An example of such a
|tloose deck is shown in Figure 18.52.
18.10.2 The requirements ot BS 7777
e insu-
netallic The design ofsuch decks ofren involves the use offlat plate
rsignif- type bridge deck formulae from The Steel Design Manual BS 7777 has more to say about suspended decks. The manda-
,ty ad- produced by the United States Steel Corporation (Refer- tory and advisory requiremenb are summarised as follows:
dtono ence 18.16\. This type of deck is usually made of carbon The suspended deck support structure shall be designed
re roof steel with suitable low temperature properties or of alu-
forthe lowest temperature encountered by any part in prac-
minium alloy. The plate thickness chosen for the deck flce
plates isfrequently5 mm. This type is quite robust and suit-
fith the
,data able for foot traffic and for use as a working platform forany The design shall ensure that the outer roofshall always be
)r sin- erection tasks in this area of the tank. The deck is heavier at ambient temperature where the hangers are attached to
than the structure and profiled sheeting type and is gener-
ally more expensive on an area-for-area basis. lts use is
rfsus- usually confined to smaller diameter tanks. The structure shall be designed foranyone hanger becom-
or her ing ineffective
com-
Aframework of structural sections supported from the Materials for the suspended deck shall be agreed between
main roof members by cables or rods This framework in the purchaser and the manufacturer and may include:
mem- turn supporb a deck of profiled sheeting. lt is usualfor the
I con- structural members and the sheeting to be made from alu- - Carbon manganese steel
dbv minium alloy. lt is usualforthe design Code minimum thick-
- Aluminium alloy
f the ness requirements of %6" or 5 mm to be ignored for this
ers. sheeting which can be obtained in thicknesses down to 0.9 9% nickel steel
)nph- mm. To simpliry the supporting arangements, it is usualfor
the structural framework to follow the layout of the roof - Stainless steel
framework which is a normally radial rafter type. - Timber
.ltis The suspended deck shall be insulated such that the outer
erent This type of deck is light and economical and is often used
roof does not cool below its design metal temperature, that
for the bigger LNG tanks. The profiled sheeting, especially
in the thinner thicknesses, is susceptible to damage by foot
boiloffofthe product is limited and thatexcessive roofload-
ing due to ice build up is avoided
traffic and erection activities. lt is frequently necessary to
; use walking boards or similar devices to protect it at this The design shall preventthe passage ofinsulation material

tI
stage. Atypicaldeck ofthis type is shown in Figure 18.53. into the Droduct
The design shallallow product vapourto breath through the
Individual deck panels supporled at their corners by
deck to limit anydifferential pressures to less than 2.4 mbar.
suspended plates Atypicalanangement using plywood in
Suitable vents shall be provided which allow this breathing
shown in Figure 18.54. This is an economical and easily

t
erected system. One unforeseen disadvantage with the use
of plywood is its water contdnt. lt is normally delivered wilh
some 10% moisture by weight. This has been the cause of
difiiculties in obtaining a suiiably low dew point during the
tank purging phase.
and prevent cold vapour impingement on and chilling ofthe
roof structure. Such a vent in shown in Figure 18.55.
Fittings which pass through the roof space above the deck
and which could cause cooling of the vapour above the
deck shall be suitiably insulated

I The first two types described are well-suited to a tank roofwhich

6to be airlifted. The suspended deckcan be erected at ground
.$/el, attached to the main roof framework and air-lifted into its
tul position. The latter type is ideal for erection at the full iank
rht.
The deck shall be at a level not less than 0.5 m above the
product design level
In areas of high seismicity the deck should be at a level to
avoid sloshing liquid impingement and be designed for any
lateral loadinos

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 361

18 The design of low tempamture tanks

18.10.3 The prEN 14620 approach . The inspection regime must be similar to that of the inner q
tank bottom with of course the exception of the hvdrostatic d
This Code has little to sayon the subject ofsuspended deck de- test. al
sign apart from requiring the roofand its supporting structure
-
to be designed for the minimum design temperature, to be de- I-
signed forthe failure of any one hanger and to have ventilation 18.12 Bottom corner protection systems
openings such thatthe pressure difierence across the deckwill Again, like the secondary bottom, this is a comparatively new -rd
not exceed the weight of the supported roof insulation. phenomenon in the design of low temperature tanks. API 620 e
and BS 7777 have nothing to say about this part ofthe storage
tank system.
T
18.11 Secondary bottoms !I
The function of this component is to avoid the unsustainable ff
Secondary bottoms are a comparatively recent addition to the stresses which can occur in the bottom corner of concrete outer
list of component parts of low temperature storage tanks. For tanks ofthe fixed or encastr6 design. The fixed bottom corner, -'I
full containment LNG tanks with concrete outer tanks, second-
ary bottoms are now more or less much a standard part. For
as opposed to the pinned and sliding designs, which are dis- F
cussed in Section 18.16.4, is currently the most commonly
other types oftanks for other products, they are an occasional used detail for this part of the concrete outer tank.
'I
requrrement. f
The function ofthe secondarybottom isto protectthetank base
In theinnertank leak or failure case where the product liquid is [r
contained by the concrete outer tank, a situation is created
slab, either of the on-ground or elevated types, from damage where the bottom slab is warm (protected by the base insula- -
caused by an inner tank bottom leak. A leak in the inner tank tion) and the outer wall is cold. This gives dse to shear stresses
bottom will make its way through the sandwich of liquid perme- at the wall-to-base junction which cannot be easily designed
able materials which together make up the tank base insulation for. Without some modification in this region, there exists a sig-
and locallycoolthe base slab, which is usually madefrom rein- nificant possibility of through-cracking ofthe concrete walland
forced concrete. This local cooling can cause through{hick- leakage ofthe product liquidto the environment. This is particu-
ness cracking and consequent liquid leakage either to the larly the case for LNG tanks. Their large size and low design
ground or to atmosphere depending on the type of base slab temperature exacerbate the oroblems.
adopted. There is also a possibility that damage to the base
heating system and anotherpossible route ofliquid leakage via For LPG tanks, the less onerous design temperatures often
the heating element conduits may occur. makes this problem manageable without resort to bottom cor-
ner insulation. To make this bottom corner designable, thermal
The secondary bottom concept came about in orderto prevent insulation is applied to the lower portion of the outer wall for a
the possibility of liquid leakage to the local environment. The
metallic form of this member consists of another tank bottom
located either within or above the base insulation sandwich.
The construction details ofthis secondary bottom are similar to
the inner tank bottom, i.e. a lap-welded membl-ane of minimum q
thickness. There is a possibility that the thickness could be less
than the Code minimum requirements of %6" or 5 mm, but the
most commonly used material (9% nickel steel) is not currently
commercially available at thicknesses less than 5 mm.
There are possibilities of secondary bottom systems using
non-metallic materials and one manufacturer, has developed a
proprietary design using polyurethane foam in conjunctionwith
a glass reinforced plastic covering which has been used in a
number of low temperature tanks. The most common system is
however the metallic secondary bottom.
The secondary bottom is usually used in conjunction with a bot-
tom corner protection system which is the subject of the next
\1
secnon. Figure 18.56 A 36% nickel / 64% iron alloy bottom corner protection arrange-
API 620 and BS 7777 have nothing to say regarding secondary
bottoms.
The design and practical requirements include:
. The thermal contraction must be considered, particularly
where the bottom is attiached to.a bottom corner system
which may provide a peripheral constraint. The bottom
which is embedded within the base insulation willclearly not
contract as much as a bottom which is located on too ofthe
base insulation.
. Differential thermal movement between the various materi-
als must be free to occur without restraint.
. Local cooling of the embedded type of secondary bottom
from some intermediate temoerature in normal service to
the product liquid temperature in the leakage situation must
be accommodated.
. Constructing thin bottoms to tight local flatness tolerances
is difficult. Provision for practical undulations must be de-
Figure 18.57 The installalion ofa 36% nlckel/ 64% iron alloy bottom corner
signed into the system. arangement

362 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1B The design of low temperaturc tanks

the inner -erght which is usually between 3 and 5 m, although there are outer tank wall for a limited distance, or to the full tank height.
drosktic :esigns wherethis insulation is applied for the full height of the
The metallic solution has divided itself into two different ap-
:,-ier tank wall. This insulation prevents the lower portion of the
proaches. The essential design problem for this component is
:,-:er wall from cooling to the product temperature in this acci-
the conflicting need for the liner material to thermally contract
-iElrt situation. ltchangesthe stress regime inthe bottom corner
ems and at the same time to be able to sustain the head of leaked
tea from one of almost total shear stress to one which is a product liquid. Without the structural support of the insulation
r'ely new - xture of shear and bending, and is more readily accommo-
material, the liner on the inside of the wallwill have to resist the
APt 620 in the design process.
=:ed full product head. For a large LNG tank this could result in a 9%
storage -: ensure that this insulation performs its purpose, it is impor- nickel steel liner of some 25 mm in thickness. This is both ex-
E:: that it is protected from the leaked product liquid in the pensive and causes design difficulties at the point where this
tainable r:erspace. This liquid may be at the full equilibdum level and liner is attached to the tank wall due to the large local forces to
)teouter l-E static head will tend to force liquid into the insulation and be accommodated.
r corner, -:- Jer it ineffective unless suiiable steps are taken to avoid this One solution to this problem is to use a protective liner made
are dts- :,:ssibility.
from the 36% nickel / 64% iron alloy which is marketed under
mmonly -=ditionallythere have been two approaches to the solution of trade names such as Invar or Pernifer. This alloy has a coeffi-
: s problem. The non-metallic solution involves
the type of ap- cient of thermal contraction over a wide range oftemperatures
liquid is :r:ach to the secondary bottom described in Section 18.11, which is close to zero. Consequently the thermal contraction
created r'h is continued around the corner and uo the inside of the problems largelydisappear. This is illustrated in Figure 18.56.
r insula-
The gap at the point where the alloy bottom protection liner
tresses meets the outer edge of the secondary bottom is deliberately
)signed
created to allow the secondary bottom to contract and pull the
s a srg-
liner into contact with the outer edge ofthe base insulation ring
valland
walland obtain the necessary structural support. This detailhas
particu-
been supplied for the LNG tanks installed in Greece and Trini-
design
dad. The alloy is expensive at some 4 to 5 times the rate/tonne
as 9% nickel steel. lt is available at thicknesses which are con-
s often siderably less (down to 0.7 mm) than the minimum available
)m cor- thickness of 9% nickel steel (around 5 mm), so this offsets the
nermal basic difference in the material costs. The alloy is easily fabri-
rll for a cated and welded providing the correct equipment and proce-
dures are adopted. A photograph of such a liner during installa-
tion as shown in Figure 18.57. The liner thickness in this case
was 1 .2 mm.
:l= The second approach is to use a 9% nickel steel in the configu-
18.58 A 9% nickel sleel boltom comer protection arrangemenl
raiion shown in Figure 18.58. This does not incorporate the ver-
tical leg at the outside of the base insulation of the previous so-
lution. The liner is constructed from steel of 5 mm to 12 mm
thickness and usually incorporates a swept corner. The accom-
modation of the conflicting needs of thermal contraction and
structural support is achieved by the flexibility of the liner. The
validation ofthis design requires some sophisticated finite ele-
ment analysis togetherwith the use ofsignificantly higher allow-
able stresses than are used in the other metallic component
Darts of the tank.
Guidance is usually taken from the various pressure vessel
codes regarding the allowable stresses. A photograph of a liner
of this type during installation is shown in Figure 18.59. The ap-
parent step atthe top ofthe sweptcorner is because the insula-
tion has not yet been applied to that part of the wall prior to
erecting the wall portion of the mebllic liner itself.
The thermal insulation used on the inside ofthe concrete wall is
usually constructed from cellular glass. This is most usually at-
tached to the wall carbon steel liner with a suitable adhesive
and of a thickness around 100 mm. The welding of the liner, be
it of either material, is carried out from one side by necessity
and cellular glass is tolerant of the high local heat inputs in-
volved.

18.13 Outer tank concrete wall and bottom

liners
The concrete outer tanks offull containment systems are gen-
erally agreed to require to be made vapour tight. The preven-
tion of productvapours from passing outwards through the con-
crete structure and the avoidance of atmospheric water vaDour
from passing into the insulation (particularly of the loose fill
type) are seen to be desirable, if not essential attributes of the
'"i-: ': ag The installalion of a 9% nickel steet bottom corner ananoement system. There are those who suggest that modern concretes

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 363

 18 The design of low tenperaturc tanks
correctly placed have a sufficienfly low permeability and do not
require any additional vapour proofing and that the volumes of
product or water vapour passing through the wall is insignifi_
cant. This view is however not in the ascendant in the industrv
at this time.
API 620 does not venture into this area, not beinq interested in
full containment systems. BS 7777 does not s;ecificallv de-
mand the use of a liner but points quite strongly in that dire;tion.
The intention of words like "Liners or membranes are aDolied
primarily as a vapour barrier. Full containment concrete tanks
will normally be required to inhibit both the passage of both
product vapour and water vapour. Unless specified by the pur-
chaser it is not normally required to provjde ljners or mem-
branes to double containment walls, base slabs or
interspaces." and "Liners and coatings are commonly included
in the design of concrete components for refrigerated storage
systems for the following reasons: a) to make the component
gas andior liquid tight b) to prevent the ingress of water vapour
into the tank." are difficult to misinterpret. Customers or their
engineers often have strong views on the necessity for, and
types of liner systems to be used on, their facilities.
Two different approaches exist:
The non-metallic route involves the direct aoDlication of such
materials as sprayed GRP to the faces of the concrete floor
and walls. These are usually proprietary systems, the exact
details of which are fiercely protected by their owners. One
possible disadvantage of these types of liners is that their
application is generally incompatible with other construction
activities taking place within the tank at the same time. This
gives a programme problem. The extension of overall
timescale and the inconvenience of having to stand down
the mechanical erection team are significant diffjculties.
Building two or more tanks on the same site, suitably out of
phase, may help with the latter difficulty. Developmentwork
is currently afoot to flnd ways of addressing these difficul-
TIES.
The metallic route is the more commonly adopted solution.
The material selected is usually a carbon steel without low
temperature properties. This means that the liner is not ex-
pected to survive a major inner tank leak incident. lt is ar-
gued that such an event will result in tank decommissioning
and possible demolition and problems of a failed vapour
barrier are well down the list of concerns. For the tank bo!
tom the liner is fillet-welded and can be laid like a conven-
tional bottom, or can be attached to casfin inserts for better
control of local flatness. The liner thicknesses often used
are less than the minimum values specified by the Codes.
3 mm is a practical thickness for handling and welding.
For the tank walls, it is usual to arrange for inserts of carbon
steel to be cast into the inner surfaces of the concrete outer
wall. These inserts may be vertically or horizontally disposed.
The wall liner sheets are then fillet-welded to these inserts. The
design of the wall liner must take account of a number of inputs
such as changes in the concrete wall dimensions due to cir-
cumferentialand vertical pre-stressing, creep and shrinkage of
the concrete, thermal movements, insulation loadings, vacuum
loadings and welding shrinkage of the liner plates.
Atypicalwall liner system is shown in Figure 18.60. lt is impor-
tant that the liner conforms reasonably closely to the concrete
wall and that water is not allowed to accumulate behind the liner
during the construction period.
The practice of supplying a liner that is not expected or de-
signed to survive an inner tank leak or failure is somewhat at
variancewith the expressedwishes ofBS 7777: part 3 which in
Paragraph 6.7.2 states "Where contact with a product occurs
as a result of spillage or leakage, the materialof liners or mem-
branes should be selected to withsiand the product temDera-
ture".
364 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
cast tnto inn.r face
ot concrete wall
Figure 1 8.60 A typical wall liner system
Note: lncidentally, note the use of "should" throuohout part3
ot BS 7777 . This is because this section ;f the Cooe
provides a set of recommendations (non-mandatorvl
as opposed to Part 2 which provides a set of specifici-
tions (mandatory).
To select a materialfor the colder products which will be suit-
able for the low temperature, it will be necessary to use g%
nickel steel or stainless steel. However, anchoring the un-insu-
lated linerto the concrete wallwillcause stresses in the liner in
the accident case (where at least for the flrst period of the inci-
dent, the liner is cold and the wall is warm)which can almost
guarantee to give rise to linerleakage orfailure. So, it is simply
not possible to design for liner survival for an un-insulated svs-
tem: and if insulation is used, then why use an expensive lbw
temperature liner material?
The possibility of liner corrosion on the concrete side is some-
-)
times a concern. The view most commonly adopted is that the
alkalinityofthe local environment in this region is such as to in-
hibit corrosion.
1 8.14 Connected pipework
The design and construction of pipework systems is a subject
that in general belongs elsewhere. lt is howeverworth highligh!
ing a few points where the pipes connecting to, and often sup-
ported by the tank, impact upon the tank structure.
. Pipe connections are often anchors in the piping system
and as such can be subject to high loadjngs and moments
which a steel tank shell, bottom or roof is ill-equipped to
cater for. Care in the piping layout and positioning of sup-
ports can minimise such loads and momenb.
. lvlany companies are set up so that the piping engineer de-
signs the pipe work and passes the loadings to the struc-
tural engineerwho designs the structure to support or guide
the pipe workand in turn passes the loadings to the tank en-
gineer who then has to design the tank to cope with these
t
loadings. This compartmentalisation results in each indivjd-
ualsolving his orherown private puzzle without considering t
the effects on their downstream colleagues. lt is important a
that these people talk to one anotherto minimise any prob-
lems, or indeed as often used to be the case, when a single
.
.:
person designed the complete system and had no interest
l
in making his own life any more difficultthan it needed to be!
The other problem with the separate discipline approach, is
that factors of safety get compounded to produce an ineffi-
cient and expensive final Droduct
. Insulation for low temperature pipes is expensive and time-
consuming to fit. The use of prefabricated sections of piping
 1B The design of low tempercture tanks

Figure 18.62 A typical.roof platfom fof a large LNG iank

. Accessfrom localgrade to the tank roof. This can be via spi-

I Part 3 ral staiMaysattiached to the outer tank shell, by access tow-
3Code ers (which may also support the pipework and cabling
datory) running to the tank roof) or in the case ofsecondary escape
ecifica- facilities, by vertical caged ladders with suitable side-step-
ping platforms. In recent times it has become common prac-
tice to fit large tanks with hoists giving access to the roof.
)e suit-
se 9% . Roof walkways and platforms giving access to roof-
f-insu- mounted equlpment. For items such as in-tank pumps, the
liner in roof platforms can become substantial. ExamDles of these
le Incl- are given in Chapter 20 which deals with ancillary equip-
elmost ment.
srmply . Walkways from tank-to{ank, tank{o-bund or to other items
d sys-
of plant.
r'e low
. Runway beams. These can be located within the tank for
=q--e 18.61 An unusual access/pipe insulation arrangement erection and shell inspection purposes or around the outer
rome-
:.:'-.tesy of MB Engineeing Services Ltd periphery local to the top corner for inspection and site
at the painting purposes.
ito ln- systemswhich can befabricated and pre-insulated in a suit-
able factory environment is ofren well worth considering. . Peripheral hand railing providing protection to those who
may have to work on the tank roof away from the existing
. For LOX and LIN tanks in paftcular, as much of the pipe platform and walkways.
workas possible is run within the tank interspace so thatthe
tank insulation provides the pipe work insulation as faras is Such equipment is designed and constructed in accordance
rbject possible. with local codes relevant to the items concerned. Some further
rlight- guidance on this subject is to be found in the tank design and
sup- . The combined access tubular spiral stairway/cold box ar- other related codes. Many of the large process plant contrac-
rangement shown in Figure 18.61 would seem to offer sav_ tors and plant owners have their own standards reoardino the
ings in certain circumstances. The tubular soiral stairwav extent of access equipment to be provided for vario-us diff6rent
stem
was factory-fabricated in sections. The main pipe work run- types of tanks.
rents
ning to the tank rcof passes within this structure which pro-
)d to During the design ofsuch equipment the requirements for pro-
vides the thermal insulation to the vertical legs ofthe pipes
sup- tection from the radiation caused by local and adjacent tank
by virtue of being filled with site-expanded perlite.
fires and the need to avoid damage by direct liquia impinge-
. Bespoke low temperature insulated pipe supports are very ment from roof liquid spillage shall be considered.
rde-
expensive and their use should be minimised. Atypicalroof platform for a large LNG tank with in tank pumps is
lruc-
uide shown in Figure 18.62.
ien- 18.15 Access arrangements
se 18,16 Spillage collection systems
ivid-
:.cess arrangements are a necessary part of all tanks. The
nng required for low temperature tanks is similar to that The spillage of lowtemperature liquids anywhere on a storage
":Jipment earlier in Chapter 7 for
tant -scribed ambient temperature tanks. facility is a source of potential risk. problems associated with
'ob- -:w temperature tanks are more complex and have more tank flammability, personnel contact with cold Iiquids, toxicity and
Ete -ounted equipment and instrumentiation. For this reason the asphyxia make the quick and efficient collection and orooer
rest
'rcfs and operating platforms are more frequenfly visited by storage or disposal of any spilled liquid a desirable event.
be! xrating personnel.
For low temperature tanks fltted with roof-mounted liquid inlet
l, is 3enerally the requiremenb are: and outlet conneclions, the main concern is one of collectino
..fi- any leakage at the tank roof level and conveying this to loca]
. Means of access to the inside of tanks and intersDaces. grade and thence to a safe impounding basin.
This is usually by shell manways. or where the type of con-
ne- tainment precludes these, then by way of openings in the The first step is to decide how much liquid is to be collected.
Ing tank roof and internal ladders. For LNG the design spill is given jn Tabte 2.2.3.5 of NFpA59A.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 365

 18 The design of low temperaturc tanks

For full containment tanks, which currenfly constitute the major_ entlyfall from the damaged or defective pipe work and fittings
ity of LNG tanks, the requirement of ,,the largest flow from iny into the troughs for collection and disposal. A photograph of
single line that could be pumped into the impounding area witir such a system is shown in Figure 18.63.
the containerwithdrawalpump(s) considered to be d;livering at
the full rated capacity" has been the subject of much coniro- At the other end of this scale there is the view that the leakino
versy and different jnterpretations over recent years. liquid will be projected as far as the leak scenario and the liouid
pressure will allow in the most unfavourable foreseen circum_
Does for example, the liquid inlet from an unloading tanker, stances. In this case a large part ofthe tank roof, or indeed the
where rates of up to 12,000 m3/hr are common, form the basis whole tank roofwillform the collection system. Such a system is
ofthe 10 minute spill? lf this is to be collected and controlled. illustrated in Figure '18.64.
then this is an onerous design problem. The confusion may
stem from the fact that the US codes generally do not conslder
full containment and the rules consequenfly do not fit this type
ofstorage tank. This is something which it is understood wilibe
addressed by the appropriate committee in the near future.
It is generally considered that the source of leaks at tank roof
level is the pipe work and fittings such as valves. Flanged joints
are obviously suspect in this regard and allwelded systems are
to be preferred.
The consequences of a liquid spill are obviously related to the
tank roof material. A roofconstructed of a non-low temDerature
steel is clearly more susceptible to damage than one made
from reinforced concrete. Steps can and have been taken to aD_
ply local thermal insulation to protect the materials which would
otherwise be damaged by conhct with the cold liquid.
Perceptions as to what constitutes a sensible spillage collec-
tion system vary widely. At the minimalist end of the scale the
simple stainless steel troughs following the route of the roof-
mounted liquid containing pipe work is a cheap option which re_
lies for its success on the view that the leaking liquid will obedi- Figure 18.63 Atypical minimalist lrough type roofspi age co ection system

Thh]ghtolthep|inihswllhi.lh6
sp a9 6rca are sovefted by rhe

Figure 18.64 Atotal roofspittage co ectjon system

366 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


rnd fittings 18.'17 Reinforced and prestressed con.
tograph of
crete component design
he leaking
I the liquid
18.17.1 ceneral
)n circum-
ndeed the --e design of the concrete parts of liquid storage systems is
system is
."ry much an area for the specialist exponents ofthls region of
: . I engineering. Some of the loading scenados give cause for
:-e use of siate-of-the-art sophisticated analysis tools, which is
:r:bably better left to those familiarwith and experienced in this
-,:e of work.
--e design Codes provide some general guidelines in this area
r.l these will be discussed in this Section. lt is probably fair to
-_. that in the design ofthe concrete components, the designer
,< 1 many ways less constralned than is the case for the de-
:,;rer of the metallic components of a liquid storage system.
:.:.crete parts of lowtempeture liquid storage systems occur
:--rughout the various types of bnks:
. For all above ground tanks the base slab (which may be di-
rectlyon the ground or elevated)orthe foundation ringwall.
. For single containment above ground tanks, the low bund
walls remote from the tank (these may also be constructed
of other materials).
. For double containment above ground tanks, the bund walls
close to the tank.
. For full containment, conventional (i.e. the free standing
metallic inner tank type) above ground tanks, the outer tank
Jyalls, and in some cases the tank roofs.
. concrete or steel bund wall, although there are a few cases
The outer tank walls, and in some cases the roofs of mem-
Srane tanks.
. The inner and outer walls, and in some cases the roofs of
mncrete/concrete tanks.
. The caisson walls, base slabs and in some cases the roofs
of in-ground tanks.
. Various parts offloating and gravity based systems.
: ;:eat deal has been written about concrete tanks. Two excel
p,-: books on the subject are by Harry Turner (Reference
', 14 and Professor Bruggeling (Reference 18.78). Both are
l:.trd starting off points in the study of this area of design. Other
,-ful information is contained in Refere nces 16.27 and 16.31.
,', -at follows is a very brief tour through a subject which
could
:;sily merit its own book.
--e design Codes are variable in the extent of their specific re-
: - 'ements and advice offered in this area. API 620 has noth ino
': say. NFPA 59A, which it shoutd be remembered is specific t6
-'.G tanks, provides some general advice. The design of con-
::.:e containers is to complywith ACI 318 (Reference 1A.19\.
- 3ddition it provides guidance on the allowable stresses in re-
-'rrcing bars and prestressing strands. BS 7777:pan 3 pto'
.,:es quite a lot of detailed and general guidance. BS 9110
18.20)isreferenced as the main civildesign Code.
"ference
18-17.2 Tank bases
rr:st above ground low temperature tanks have base slabs. A
:A are constructed with the ringwalland compacted filltype of
--ndation where the ground conditions allow. lt is difficult to
-f,arate any discussion on base slabs from considerations of
:-e complete tank foundations which are the subiect of Chaoter
base slab arrangements are illust;ated in Figure
:; $in"t""t
--e function of the base slab is to support the loadings which
=-se from the dead weight ofthe tank structure and its contents
18 The design of low tempe@ture tanks
on gbund 3tab- slppon.d eithd on @mpete soiuock
or pil.d/imptuved r@d ba.ing soil
lltl
Elevaled 3tab - Suproited bv stub @1umn; onro a
gEund &sed stab or on exlonded oites
Figure 18.65 Base slab affangemenls
during the hydrostatic test phase and service life, togetherwith
any imposed loadings from events such as snow wind and
earthquake. Whefe above ground full containment is the cho-
sen type of storage, it is usual for a common base slab to sup-
port both the inner and outer (steel or concrete) tanks. In the
case of above ground double containment systems, the base
slab is usually required to support the inner tank and the outer
where the outer wall is supported on a separate ring wall foun-
dation. The base slab must be strong enough to span between
points of local support such as piles or stub columns. lt must
also accommodate the base heating system where this is fitted.
There are two distinct types of base slab.
On ground type. This is directly supported by the ground
which may require to have its load bearing abilities en-
hanced by the use of piles, stone columns, replacement
material or other means as discussed in Chapter 24. In
nearly all cases, the use ofthis type of tank support will re-
qujre the installation of a base heating system. Detailed de-
scriptions ofthe various forms of base heating are included
in Chapter 20.
Elevated type. ln this case the base slab is elevated above
the local grade by the use of pile extensions or by stub col-
umns or similar supports from an on ground slab or direcfly
from the ground where the local conditions permit (i.e. a
tank constructed on competent rock). Forthis type of base,
the heat input to prevent the formation of ice lenses comes
directly from the air circulating beneath the base slab and
no additional heating is required.
It is usual to arrange for the height ofthe elevated base slab
to be such that access for personnel is possible beneath the
slab for inspection purposes. Aspace of 2.0 m makes the in-
spection tasks comparatively pleasant, 1.5 m is a recipe for
an inspector's bad back and 1.0 m is a thoroughly unpleas-
ant place to spend protracted periods of time! Clearly, a
higherspace belowthe base slab costs more and may give
rise to other problems associated with the elevatinq of the
centre of gravity of the tiank and its contents during ieismic
events and the raising ofthe finished tank profile where this
is a contentious planning issue.
The means of supporting the upper slab where a ground
base slab is used can be either by the use ofshort stub col-
umns at suitable centres, or bythe use of a system offadial
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 367
18 The design of low tempercture tanks
F gure 1 8.66 A lypica I support ayolt for an elevaied base
Figure 18.67 The pit base arrangementfor an in-ground LNG tank
Caulesy af LNG Journal
Figure 18.68 A section through the Revithoussa lsland LNG tank base
Couiesy of Whessoe
368 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
walls. The arrangement shown in Figure 'l8.66 allows for a
circumferential layout of supports around the tank perime-
ter to cater for the high line loads from self-weight and seis-
mic loadings, and an orthogonal arrangement in the central
area more suited to the uniform loading from the tank prod-
uct.
Tank base slabs are usually constructed from reinforced con-
crete. There are some designs where some circumferential
prestressing of the concrete base has been adopted, but these
are comparatively rare.
Where in-ground tanks are concerned, the base slab is subject
to different loading conditions. The ground water pressure be-
neath the base is pushing upwards with considerable force and
the base may be tied into the wall. Usually some form of ground
water collection and removal is adopted to control these pres-
sures. A typical tank base for such a tank is shown in Figure
'18.67, where it is some 7 m thick and contributes to the
anti-buoyancy system by virtue of its dead weight. The base
slab for the 200,000 m3 LNG tank built at the Ohgishima LNG
sla b Terminal in Japan and described in Reference 18.21 is even
bigger. At around 77 m in diameter and 9.8 m thick, this required
il
a staggering 11,000 tonnes of concrete. il
aI1
An unusual tank base was that on the island of Revithoussa,
Greece, designed and constructed for LNG tanks. The base 1'
wasofthe elevated slab type (in this casefitted with seismic iso- ::-
lators), constructed within a pit. The rock forming the bottom of
the excavation was found to have some unexpected disconti- ilEE
nuities which gave rise to the need for a 2.5 m thick heavily rein-
forced pit bottom. This is shown in Figures 18.68 and 18.69
::i
18.'17.3 Tank walls
*l
18"17.3.1 Above ground tanks
Concrete walls of above ground low temperature tanks fall into
a number of categories, each of which is described briefly
The design of these walls is complex, having numerous me-
chanical and thermal load cases. Reference to Harry Turner
and Professor Bruggeling's books (References 18.17 and
78.78)would be a good place to start for those intent upon mas-
tering this area of expertise. Both books are now rather dated
so it will be necessary to study some more recent publications
as well.
One basic input to the design process is to decide what the in-
ternal liquid loading will be for the various types of concrete
 18 The design of law tempercture tanks

)fa work was carried out with an empty interspace between the two
ne-
walls. The amplification factor of six is an onerous design condi-
tion and thought was given to ihe possible ameliorating effects
tral
ofthe perlite and glass fibre insulation which is normallv present
td- in the interspace. especially for targe LNG and tiquid eihylene
tanks. (This work is reported in References 18.23 and 18.24.\
The conclusion ofthese theoretical and test studies was that an
lral amplification factor of six is valid for an empty interspace, but
)se the presence ofthe insulation will reduce this factor to between
two and three.
ect The development of metallic materials less susceptible to sud-
le- den brittle failure and better understanding of the mechanisms
rnd involved in such failures together with means of predicting leak
rnd before failure scenarios, meant that sudden failure became no
es- longer a design requirement. This was firsi voiced in EEN/IUA
Jfe : ;!re 149 where the sudden failure of the metallic inner tank was not
18 69 The Revllhoussa LNG tank base stab during construction
:he a design requirement for the outer tank, unless specificallv re-
tse :.tnesy of Whessoe quested by the client.
\G :3nks. The innertanks ofthe double concrete type will require to Particularly for LNG tanks, where double or full containment
'en :e designed for the product liquid loading. lt is unusualforthese
'ed systems together with large unit tank sizes were the norm, this
=nks be subjected to a hydrosta c test as is always the case
to resulted is significant cost savings. lt is currenfly normal prac-
'lr steel tanks. For the outer walls of double or full containment tice to design the outer concrete tank for a non-dvnamic liouid
:anks, the liquid loading to be considered depends on the type loading. This presumes a gradual filling of the out;r rank Lo the
rse 'inner tank failure that is envisaged. In the early days of full equilibrium liquid level, frequently specified in terms of a time to
to- rcntainment tanks where the spectre ofthe eatar accident and fill or as the physical dimensions of the design leak.
rof :Jdden unzipping tank failure was paramount, the overridinq
jes gn condition was the toading resulting from such a lailure. An extreme case of outer tank wall design Jor exceptional load-
lit- ings are the 144,000 m3 LNG tanks built for Distrioas at Staten
-'re first work to determine what this loadinq should
'in- ..
be came lsland. New York. Because of their tocation, lhe t;ks were re-
) J'r'r experimental work carned out by Cup;rus for the Shell
quired to be capable ofabsorbing the horizontal loadings from a
lompany. These are reported in Reference 18.22.
fully-laden Boeing 747 lJavelling at 2OO knots without damaqe
lJperus built scale models of double-walled tanks where the to the liqlrid conta;ni19 i11er tank. This was ach,eved by a wi I
- ner tank wall could be unzipped vertically
for its full height. He constructed from a combination of prestressed and mass con-
:^en measured the resulting pressure profile on the inner sur_ crete to a total thickness of around 3 m as shown in Fiqure
'?ce of the outer tank wall. In simple terms, the peak pressures 1B.70.
-easured were around six times the hydrostatic pressure. This
Prestressed concrete wall internal tendon type
te-
-
This type of construction is the rnost commonly adopted for the
rer outef concrete walls of full containment stofaqe svstems_ The
nd teloons fo. tl-e 1or zonrar prest.ess ng io. peiha[s rrore co.-
is- 'ectly post-tensioning ) o' the talk wal, a.e LSudl y of t1e .nLlt
ed strand type running in ducts close to the mjddle ofthe walland
IS anchored at stressing buttresses equally spaced around ihe
outside of ihe wall. Figure 18.71 shows a typicat buttress.
n- There are usually four such buttresses. These accommodate
;1-a the anchorages which anchor the individual strands and pro-
vide suitable details for the attachment ofthe prestressing jacks
ll!01! !!q!q!g- 1 which impart the required tension to the strands. Followino the
stressing ofthe tendons. they can be grouted (i.e. of the bo;ded
type) or remain non-bonded. These days the popular choice is
the bonded type. This has the advantage that the failure of a
j6 strand or anchorage does not have the same detrimental ef_
fects as jn the non-bonded type where the total orestressino
load of that strand is lost. the grout feeding the load from th;
failed strand into the adjacent strands. lt is important that the
grouting system adopted is proved to be satisfactory, i.e. that
the grout reaches all parts of the tendon within the duct and
bonds to it in a satisfactory fashion.
It is a commonly adopted practice to carrv out a full_scale orout
test on site to demonstrate thar the maierials and instaltition
procedures are suitable. This will jnvolve the sectioninq of the
test ducvtendon sample to demonstrate Lhat the desiqners
aims have been achieved under site conditions. For a larae
LNG tank d is common to use medium-sized tendons from rhe
commercially manufactured range available. These would tvDj_
cally use 19 strands of 0.6 drameter wire jn each duct. iire
ducts in this case would be 100 mm in diameter and most usu_
ally made from a corrugated piastic or steel of suitable robust_
. t-re ness to survive the site conditions and handling. Larger ten_
18.70 Details of the LNG tanks at Staten tstand. New york
dons are commercially available, but their use is restricted by

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 369

18 The design of low temperature tanks'

t
-th
r
r
Figwe 1A.72 A typical multi-strand prestressing tendon and anchofage u
nificant commercial and programme advantages to the con-
-
tractorwho can produce a design avoiding the need for vertical
prestress.
Where access permits, the vertical tendons can be prestressed
from the bottom end, i.e. where an elevated base slab design
has been adopted. An example ofa tendon being stressed from
the bottom end is shown in Figure 18.73. When an on ground
base is adopted, this is not possible and either single tendons
fitted with a blind anchor at the bottom end as shown in Figure
18.74 are used, or the 'U'shaped tendon is used. In both cases
the prestressing must be carried out from the top corner of the
tank.
It is usualfor the thickness of walls ofthis type to be ofthe order
of 600 mm. There is a practical minimum thickness required to
accommodate the circumferential and vertical tendons and to
provide cover for the reinforcing steel needed for local crack
control. lncreasing concrete thickness means more reinforcing
steel, but may provide increasing blast and missile protection.
Clearly there is a construction cost versus the quality of acci-
dent condition protection argumenvquestion which is common
in this area of design and construction.

t
''I
Figure 18.71 Prestressing buttresses for a full containmeni type LNG lank

practical spacing considerations. The steels that the tendon a

strands are made from have a very high tensile strength (typi t
cally in accordance with prEN 10138-1 1991 with a minimum !
guaranteed UTS of 1860 N/mm2). An example ofsuch a tendon !
and its prestressing anchorage is shown in Figure 18.72. .|
a
The vertical prestressing can be of the single bar (MacAlloy)
type, which is usually reserved for smaller tanks, or ofthe same
multi-strand tendon type as is used for the circumferential I
stressing. There are a number of current wall designs where I
vertical prestressing is deemed not to be required. These de-
signs are at this time the sub.iect of an active, and occasionally :
acrimonious debate bet\,veen the interested parties which will a

doubtless be resolved in the near future. Clearly there are sig- Figure 18.73 Vertical prestressing from beneath the elevated base slab I

370 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


:- g!re 18.74 A blind prestressing tendon anchorage
The vertical prestressing is usually applied first to give the wall
the capacity to accommodate the vertical bending induced by
the circumferential prestressing.
BS 7777 gives some guidance in this area which is summarised
as follows:
con-
rtical . Transfer and residual stresses should be taken into ac-
count. The amount ofprestress should be calculated takjnq
into account all losses.
ssed
rsrgn . The total loss of prestress is the sum ofthe individual losses
from arising from transfer, creep, shrinkage, friction, curvature
)u nd and relaxation. Losses should be calculafed in accordance
tons with BS 81'10 : Part 1 : 1985 :Annex C.
gure
. lt js necessary to use concrete of a high quallty level, with a
ESES
strength of 40 N/mm3 or more.
f the
. The totaltensile load capacjty of the tendons, jncluding any
rrder non-stressed reinforcement, should be greater than the
)d to tensile load capacity ofthe concrete tank wall. This is to en-
ro Io sure that in the event of overloading, sudden failure or
racK bursting of the tank in a "brittle" manner js not a credible
cing event.
tron. . The layout ofthe tendons, especially adjacent to the stress-
ing buttresses, should be such practicable spacings are
mon achieved and the placing and vibration ofthe concrete is not
impaired.
. Under maximum design loading conditions, including the
liquid and the temperature loading due to inner tank leak_
age, the minimum residual average compressive stress of
1.0 N/mm2should be provided inthe principal direction(s) of
prestress. This is normallytaken as the hoop direction only.
Prestressed concrete wall wire wound type
- and should now not be a problem. lt did however pose an inter-
1is type ofwalldesign has been menfioned briefly in Chapter
' 7. lt is often known
as the "preload" type of wall, as the design
aas patented by the American company preload Inc.
: 1as been used widely in the USAfor water storaqe tanks and
-
:s some history of use in the UK as the chosen d;sign for the
: -ter concrete walls of double coniainment tanks. The Datent is
-:,v owned by another American company called Cryocrete
of
n-om Whessoe is currenfly a licensee.
-^e double concrete design (i.e. a prestressed concrete inner
=-l concrete outer tank of the full containment
type) uses this
-::nnology. The vertical prestressing is supplied by internal
:?'s or tendons which run in the centre of the wall. The cir-
:-'r'rferential prestressing is applied in the form of a continuous
4 'e strand wound around the outside surface of the concrete
4:L
18 The design of low tempercturc tanks
Figure 18.75 A view of the outer surface of a banded wire wound concrete
Earlier designs had the wire distributed evenly over the whole
outer surface ofthe wall. More recent designs have the strands
collected into bands which may each contain some hundreds of
individual strands, and distrjbuted vertically as required for the
design loadings up the wall. This can clearlv be seen in Fioure
18.7 5.
The application of the strands is accomplished bv the use of a
specially designed carriage which runs around ihe outside of
the wall, usually supported by rubber tyres running on the top of
the wall. This carriage is driven circumferentiallvvia a Revnolds
chain placed around the concrete wall. lt also his the caoabilitv
ro raise and lower providing coverage of tne complete outei
surface of the wall. The stressing strand, which is initially some
'10 mm in diameter, is passed through
a die mounted on the car_
riage, as it revolves around the tank wall. This has the com-
bined eftect of work hardening the wire strand and applying the
required tension to it. As the wire is placed, a suitably strong
grout is applied the wall to provide both bonding and weather
protection for the strands.
The positioning of the circumferential prestressing wires close
to the outer surface of the wall has on occasions oiven rise to
concerns of possible loss of prestress caused by-external fire
events and of possible damage to the wires caused by missile
impact.
There have been a small number of cases where this orout has
not properly performed its weatherprooflng duties. This was
traced to bad application procedures and material selectjon,
esting technicalproblem for the owners ofthe affected facilities.
Clearly some corrosion of the stressing wires had taken place.
It was self-evidently between 100% and 0%, varying over the
height and circumference of the wall. To add some iraction of
the original stressing to the wall (i.e. on top of the existing)
WOUIO;
. Crush the concrete if most ofthe original prestressing were
present
. Leave the wall understressed if most of the orioinal
prestressing were damaged
An interesting quandary!
Considerable effort was put into trying to devise methods of
non-destructive testing
to determine the extent of the
prestressing loss. This was eventually unsuccessful and the
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 371
1
3 t!9 !9:'s! o!l9rL9.p9,atu!93!lk!

only solution was to physically remove the existing prestressing

system entirely and replace it. The author witnessed one such
repair. The thought was that the defective grout/shotcrete
would fail if a band of highly stressed wires were cut through.
Thus a complete band of the circumferential stressing material
could be removed in a single operation.
l\,4uch worryingwas done concerning the energy locked into the
prestressing bands and the potential problems if this energy
were to be suddenly released. Would the band let go ofthe con-
crete wall in an explosive manner? Finally a suitably protected
operative (in a substantial metal cage) was allowed to tenta-
tively apply a disc grinder to the selected band of wire winding.
He eventually cut through all of the wires in the band and noth-
ing happened. The ability of the grout to hold the wires in place
greatly exceeded the influence of the tension in the wires to
separate the band of wires from the concrete tank shell. Having
cut through the complete band of prestressing wires, itwas then Fioure 18.76 LNG ianks wth reinforced concrete earlh erabankmenl walls
necessary to remove the whole band manually, which proved to
be a very difficult and time consuming task.
Forthe innertankofa double concretetankit is usualto provide
a metallic barrier. This is usually made from carbon steel with-
out low temperature properties and is applied to the outside of
the concrete wall before the vertical prestressing and the cir-
cumferential wire winding is undertaken. The argument used to
justify the lack of low tempefature properties for a component
which will clearly see the full liquid design temperature in ser-
vice, is that it will be in both vertical and circumferential com-
pression due to the prestressing of the concrete throughout its
life.
Some of the wire wound concrete tank walls were constructed
from prefabficated sections, something which may be worth re-
visiting in times where the finished cost of a project is often of
less significance that the overall construction programme time.
Reinforced concrete wall with earth embankment
Following the Qatar incident, which has been described in
Chapter 17,the first full containment tanks designed had outer
walls of this type. For various reasons this design has fallen out
of fashion. An example of such tanks is shown in Figure 18.76. Figure 18.77 Example ofa reinforced concrete wallwlth earth embankr.ent
The majority ofthese tanks werefitted with steelouter roofs, al- Fron BS 7777 : Pan2, figure 4
though there is no reason why concrete roofs should not be fit-
ted. 18.1 7.3.2 In-ground tanks
One interesting diffefence between this type of tank and the The in-ground membrane type of tank as shown in Chapter 17,
prestressed types is in the need to provide heating for not only Figure 17.42 will require a concfete wall for a number of rea-
the tank base, but also for the tank wall. The design ofthis heat- sons. During the construction sequence it allows the excava-
ing system to allowfor maintenance and replacement of heater tion of the pit and during service holds back the surrounding soil
elements and to cater for base/shell movements during con- and prevents the ingress of ground water.
struction and service was no easy task. The 200,000 mr LNG tank at the Ohgishima LNG Terminal of
The uncertainty which surrounded the inward loading from the Tokyo Gas in Yokohama, Japan, is described in Reference
earth or rock embankment (the eouivalent of the circumfer- 18.21 . lt ts built entirely underground, that is to say, even the
ential prestressing) meant that this loading had to be viewed at tank roof is beneath the finished ground level as indicated in
its minimum to provide the inward load to resist the liquid load- Figure18.78. lt has a caisson wall of 77.1 mdiameterx68.5m
ing from the inner tank failure condition, and at its maximum to deep with a wallthickness of 1 .5 m. This was constructed by the
des;gn the reinforced concrete wall to resist crushing during slurry wall technique. This enabled the excavation to be com-
service. The accommodation of these two opposites could give pleted and inner structural wall consisting ofa 0.15 m thick se-
rise to an expensive wall design. The early versions ofthis type ries of Drecast Danels and a cast in situ 2.2 m thick concrete ele-
oftank were designed for ihe full sudden unzipping failure of the ment. The total thickness of the wall (i.e. the slurry wall, the
innertank. This gave rise to a robust and expensive walldesign. structural concrete and the precast panels) was 3.85 m.
A section through such a tank, taken from BS 7777 is shown in The design for the external pressures from soil and ground wa-
Figure 18.77. ter is usually quite straight forward, requiring only vertical pre-
StTESS,
The reasons fof the current unpopularity of this type of tank are
based on cost, construction programme time and the site areas
required to accommodate the embankments. The slope of the
't 8.17.4 Bottom corner details
embankment is usually around 1.0:1.5 (vertical to horizontal).
So. for a 100.000 m3 tank with an inner diameter of 70 m and The issue ofthe type of bottom corner detailto adopt is mainly a
height of 28.5 m, a circular footprint of some 156 m in diameter concern of the above ground tank fraternity. Much has been
will be required. The embankment does provide excellent resis- written on the relative merits of the different types of bottom cor-
tance against external missile and blast loadings. ner details by those in the industry who have frequently devel-

372 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT

 18 The design of low temperaturc tanks

Woll rerf, torasehl sh.vn

ind@tive (nornalty ur.d

Ctrrunlrntjol prest.est

Rodiul stmp! to nuinloin

do.ts qi.horad ot buttreses

V..indl dnd.i..!0feretidt
p.*tres3 rorpl.ted b.fde

\
\rall .ointorsent i5 pfovided -

b In oddition foverti.ul pr6h.ss

0tuuf,terentiol pr$hett

vertkol pRrh.*

Figure 18.78 200,000 m3 in-ground LNG tank in yokohama. JaDan

Coutesy of LNG Jounal

oped strong partisan opinions on the subject.

The three designs are: Figure 18.79 Typicatjoints for prestress wa ,to_base iunciion
. joint. In this case the wall is supported
The sliding by the From BS 7777 : Paft 2, figure 3
base slab and is free to move horizontallv under
17, prestressing and service loadings. To ensure thai the wall
forthese high loadings appearto run into practicalspace limita_
cannot move laterally due to wjnd or seismic loadings, ra_
!ons.
dial guides should be provided to ensure lhat all move_ The tendency within the industry to specify ever-increasing
oil ments are concentic with the base slab. A flexlble seal. tank design pressures gives rise to another problem. Undei
frequently in the form of a stainless steel strip is provided to normal circumstances, the self-weight of the outer concrete
prevent leakage of liquid or gas at the joint. tank walland roofwould be more than sufficient to balance the
of
uplifi due to internal operating and test pressures. With internal
ce . The pinned joint. In this case the wall is supported by the pressures rising to 300 mbar, this cannot be relied on and occa_
he base slab and during prestressing is free to move horizon-
in sions arise where it becomes necessaryto anchor the tank wall
tally. After the prestressing operatjon is complete, the wallis
m to the iank base slab, and indeed possibly to require the an_
pinned in position. The joint between wall and base slab is
chorage of the base slab. The anchorage of the wall to the
detailed such that it can transmit shear loads from wall to
IF base, whilst allowing for radialmovement, gives rjse to some in_
base slab, but not bending moments. Again a flexible seal
teresting design problems fortanks with the sliding and pinned
e. will be required to prevent local leakage. joint details.
e-
re
. The fixed joint. This is where the walland base slab are of
The current favourite within the industry seems to be the fixed
monolithicconstruction. prestressing, servjceand accident joint.
loadings must be transferred from wallto base slab without
through-cracking. The provision of local thermal insulation
to allow the accident condition loadings to be accommo_ 18.17.5 The top corner details
dated is described in Section 18.i.1.
For full containment type tanks, a suitable joint is required be_
The three types ofjoint are illustrated in Figure 19.79. The cir_
tween the wall and the roof of the tank for concrete walls with
cumferential prestressing system can be either by internalten_
both concrete and steel roofs. BS 7777 : part 3 gives some
dons or bywire winding in each case. The figure does not make guidance in the design of this detail. The loadings ihould mn-
this clear. The relative merits are briefly summadsed as shown
sider the following:
n in.F_igure 18,80. There is scepticism regarding the ability ofthe
r- sliding jointtype to accommodatethe high lateral loadings usu_ . Gas tightness
F ally associated with seismic events. The radial guides required . Radialand vertical loadings applied to the wall, both uDward

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 373

1B The design of low temperaturc tanks

Slresrs rre D..dicr.d rvith goorl Dependent on adequaa_ ofjoint seal

Sone un.crtrinry ove. de$ee of sli.ling

Second.ry slreses are relrtiaclr

Pfrst.css is tr{rii(l.ri \vith good Subsequenr selond.ry srr6ses a.. lcss

Ilaxinrun nlrm$l ..(u6 rn wall l,alle shers and hiru la.ge mon.nls
arv,y from lh{:.ioinl-s. rt level when
'cnd effects from ver'li.rl t.n.l,Ds
,rc hrklv srnollcd oul
it(n,usl f.r N of lonshucti.n PFdi.lnn otslrc$cs is un.dlxnr
LlEe rrnnents rn(l slrea':
!.{r1r.sse(l {rll! ne.essitrt,. lhe lsc ol
(dnu)us presllBse{l basr 1d s!*itrl
rhennal Uote.rnnr ar tlF l(,inl nrtry be
inlri'(\rccd to rc(lu( rLl(litioral srrlsses
duc to llrcmd niranrg

]h\im!m nromenr o.rnF rt the ion{

Figute 18.80 Summary of the advantages and disadvanlages of lojnls in ihe wal-to-base lunct on
Fron BS 7777 : Pan 3. bble 4

and downward vertical loadings
. Radial thermal loadings
. Abnormal loadings such as blast, fire or seismic
To this list should be added:
. Intefnal pressure loadings
. Trilling, ASME proceedings Vol 56 No 11, November
Constructionloadings
The top corner is usually of the fixed type where a reinforced
concrete roof is used. This is clearly a congested area with
plenty of both vertical and circumferential stressing members
and reinforcing to be accommodated. Where a steel roof is to
be connected to a concrete wall, BS 7777 suggests the use of a
sho( vertical steel shell section. The thinking being that this el-
ement will allow flexibility to accommodate ihe various differen-
tial movements between roof and wall. There are a number of
cases where this cylindrical steel element has not been in-
cluded.
18.17.6 Tank roofs
It is usualfor concrete roofs io be constructed from reinforced
concrete. A finished thickness of 300 mm to 500 mm is usual
with reinforcing mats close to the upper and lower surfaces. A
steel roof framework supporting the roof sheeting is usually uti-
lised to act as forrnwork for the construction of the concrete
roof. As mentioned in Section '18.6, it is possible to utilise the
structurally redundant roofframe and sheeting to replace some
of the reinforcing steel.
The main design criteria for the tank roof are the internal pres-
sure, the self-weig ht of the roof platforms and any missile load-
ings. For the LNG tank at Revithoussa lsland in Greece, two
missile loadings were specified. The first was a soft missile,
which was a helicopter from the local army-training base, and
thesecondwasa hardmissilefiredatthetankwithmaliciousin-
tent. Both were defined in terms of their rnass, velocity, angle of
approach and area of application.
18.18 References
18.1 Stability of API Standard Tank She/is, R.V.McGrath,
Proceedings of the American Petroleum Institute, Sec-
tion lll, Refining APl, New York, 1963, Volume 43 pp
458-469.
1a.2 The design of lanks fo Reslsl External Prcssures,
L.PZick, Document no. 7'1l33508 dated ay 1971, Pte-
N,4
sented to the British Standards lnstitution Technical
Committee PE/12.
18.3 Steel plate Engineering Data - Volume ll- Paft lll- Ex-
ternal pressures on cylinders. Published by The Ameri-
can lron and Steel Institute in cooperation with the Steel
Plate Fabricators Association Inc., Washington DC
1992.
18.4 Collapse by lnstability of Thin Cylindrical Shells under
External Pressure, Dwight F. Windenberg and Charles
1934.
18.5 Table 8.5.1 ofthe American lnstitute of Steel Construc-
tion - Manualof Steel Construction (Allowable slress de-
slgn), Ninth Edition, 1989, ISBN 1 56424 000 2.
18.6 PD 7777 : 2000, Alternative steel selection and its effect
on design and testing of tanks to BS ZZZZ, The British
Standards Institution, London
18.7 ASTM E208: Standard method for conducting drop-
weight test to determine nil-ductility tnnsition tempera-
ture of ferritic steel : 1995.
18-8 prEN 14620 : March 2003- Design and manufacture of
site built, veftical, cylindrical, flat bottomed steel tanks
forthe storage of refrigerated, liquefied gases with oper-
ating temperatures between -5 'C and -165 "C: Pafts 1
to 5 : CEN.
18.9 85 449 : Paft 2 : 1969, The use of structural steel in
building ,fhe British Standards Institution, London.
18.10 BS 5950 i Pad 1 : 1990, Structural use of steelwork in
building Part 1:Code of practice for design in simple and
continuous construction: hot rolled sectiors, The British
Standards Institution, London.
18.11 Recommended practice for LNG above ground stor-
age:1981, fhe Japanese Gas Association
18.12 ENV 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures -
Paft 1-1 General rules and rules for buildings.
18.13 BS CP 3 i Chapter V: Paft 2 : 1972 Code of basic data
forthe design of buildings- Chapter v Loading- Paft 2
Wind loads, The British Standards Institution, London.
18.14 ASME Section Vlll Divisions 1 and 2, rules for construc-
tion of pressure vesseis, ASME, New York 2002.
18.15 PD 550A :2000 specification for unfired fusion welded
pressure vesse/s, BSI London, ISBN 0580 33080 X.
18.16 Steei Deslgn Manual, Unlted States Steel Corporation,
Section 8.2.2.
18.17 Concrete and Cryogenics,F.H.f utner, AViewpoint pub-
lication, The Cement and Concrete Association, ISBN
o 7210 1124 1.

374 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 18 The design of low temperaturc tanks

18.18 Prestressed co ncrete for the storage of liquefied gases,
Professor Dr lr. A.S.eBruggeling, AViewpoiht publica-
tion, The Cement and Concrete Association, ISBN 0
7210 1187 X.
1Al9 ACI 318, Ameican Concrete lnstitate Building Code
Requiremenb for Reinforced Conctete 1999.
18.20 BS 8110: Patt 1 : 1985, Structuraluse of concrete Code
of practice for design and consttuction,fhe British S'tan-
dards Institution, London.
18-21 Construction of an underground storage tank, Kenji
Yanagiya and Tomoyuki Ogawa, Kajima Corporation,
Japan LNG Journal, Nov/Dec 1999.
18.22 Developments in cryogenic storage tanks, N.J.
Cuperus, Shell Intemationale Petroleum, Maabshappij
8.V., The Hague, LNG 6 Conference.
18.22 Damping effect of pedite/fibreglass insulation on outer
tank dynamic loads in double-walled cryogenic tanks,
A.S.Adorjan, bo(on Production Research, Houston;
D.B. CraMord, M.WKellogg, Houston; S.E.Handman,
M.W.Kellogg, Houston; LNG 7 Conference.
18.24 Dynamic load attenuation for double wall tanks, R.A.
Vater, Pitbburgh des Moines Corporation, Pittsburgh
Gastech 1984 Conference.

- Ex-
nefl-
itel
DC

nder
mes
nber

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tde-

tect
ilish

op-
?n-

eot
nks
,er-
bt
{in

kin
''ld
ish

s-
fr
t2
n-
p-

b
ra

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 375

376 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
19 Insulation systems for low
temperature tanks
Insulation systems for low temperature tanks form an essential part of the liquid mntainment
system. The rlaterials used and installation techniques adopted are many and varied. This
Chapter is of necessity a brief review of the thermal insulation for the different parts ofthe tiank,
the guidance given by the various Codes and the calculation methods to be adopted to design
an efiective thermal insulation system.

Contents:
19.1 General
19.1. 1 Basic requiremenb of the insulation system
1 9.1.2 Insulation categories
1 9.1.3 Installation considerations
19.1.4 Basic design and material requirements
19.1.5 Design Code requirements
19.2 Base insulation
'19.2.1 General
19.2.2 The central area
19.2.3 The peripheral area
19.2.4 Design methods
19-2.4.1 lnner arca
19-2.4.2 Periohe'al arca
'19.2.5 Detailed design Code requirements
19.2.5.1 EEMUA reouirements
19-2.5.2 BS 7777 rcouirements
19.2.5.3 Draft of new Euronorm DrEN '14620
'19.2.6 Base insulation materials central area
19.2.6.1 Cellular glass
-
19.2.6.2 PVC foam
1 9.2.6.3 Polyurethane foam
1 9.2.6.4 Lightweight concrete
19-2.6.5 Composite systems
19.2.6.6 Blast furnace slag
19.2.7 Base insulation materials peripheral area
-
19.3 Wall insulation
19.3.1 General
'19.3.2 General reouirements
19.3.2.1 Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic tanks
19.3.2.2 Rigid insulation for the walls of double-walled tanks
'19.3.2.3 Loose till insulation systems
19.3.3 Design Code requirements
19.3.4 Wall insulation materials
19.3.4. 1 Polyurethane foam
'19.3.4.2 PVC foam
19.3.4.3 Other Dlastic foam materials
19.3.4.4 Cellular glass
19.3.4.5 Mineralwool
19.3.4.6 Perlite loose fill insulation systems
19.4 Roof insulation
19.4.1 General
'19.4.2 Externai roof insulation
'19.4.3 Internal suspended deck insulation

19.5 Insulation of heat breaks for fittings

STORAGE TANK$ & EOUIPIIENT 377

19 lnsulation systems for low tempemture tanks

19.5.1 General
'19.5.2 Heat breaks for roof connections
19.5.3 Heat breaks for tank sidewall connections
19.5.4 Heat breaks for tank bottom connections
19.6 Internal pipework insulation
19.7 External pipework insulation
19.8 Heat leak calculations
19.8.1 Basic calculation methods
1 9.8.2 Thermal conductivity values

19.8.3 The influence of different interstitial gases

19.8.4 Calculation of the hot face temperature
19.8.5 Overall heat leak
19.9 Heat leak testing
19.10 The use of the infra red camera

19.11 lnsulation problems from the past and their lessons

'19.1'1.1 Base insulation failure
19.11.2 External vaPour sealing
19.1 '1.3 Bottom corners
19.1 1.4 Perlite settlement

19.12 References

378 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


19.1 General
Systems for the thermal insulation oftanks storing lowtempera-
ture liquids are areas ofinterestwhich could easilyform the ba-
sis of a book in their own right. What follows is something of a
r'r'histle stop tour and is of necessity limited in the amount of in-
fofmation and detail provided. The subject has to be included,
even in an abridged form as it forms an essential part ofstorage
systems which must, in many respects, be considered as com-
tosite systems rather than a series of independent compo-
rents.
The following is based on the assumption that the tanks in
question are vertical and cylindrical in form. lvluch ofthis chap-
:er is relevant to other types of storage tanks, but to include all
rfthe possible variatjons and exceptions would tend to obscure
:he various ooints made.
rhe insulation systems associated with the membrane type of
:anks, both above and in-ground, are quite particular and are
:iscussed in the Sections 17.9 and 17.12 in Chapter 17.
19.1.1 Basic requirements of the insulation system
-he essential functions of the thermal insulation system are:
. To limit the product boil off due to heat in leakage from the
atmosDhere to below the specified limib.
. To protect the non low temperature parts of the tank system
from the temperatures of the stored product.
. To provide structural support where required (i.e. to the tank
oase).
. To limitthe cooldown ofthe tankfoundations to ensure that
cooling of the sub soil and possible damage as a result of
"frost heave" is avoided.
. To prevent or at least minimise condensation and icing of
the outer surfaces of the tank.
1 9.1.2 Insulation categories
:or simplicity and to give this section some structure, the insu-
:ted parts of the tank will be discussed separately under the
': lowing headings:
. Base insulation
. Wall insulation
. Roof insulation
1 9.1.3 Installation considerations
-^ere are various installation related considerations which are
::ecific to particular insulation systems and materials. In addi-
: :n there are some points which are relevant to the installation
:'insulation in general and these should be considered in all
. Installation within a closed space requires careful attention
to the following:
Ventilation. l\y'anyof the materials used are problematic
when used in confined spaces. For example many ad-
hesives, sealants and mastics give off harmful toxjc
and/or inflammable vapours.
- Certain works such as the sanding offoamed insulation
materials can produce fine particles which are suscepti-
ble to flash fires.
The provision of adequate access for personnel and
materials.
19 Insulation systems far law tempercIurc tan|s
Protection from moisture. l\rany insulation materials will
readily absorb water. This usually has a detrimental efiect
on their thermal conductivity. Consequently care must be
taken to ensure that materials are maintained in a dry state
during their transport to the construction site, during any
storage on the site, during jnstallation and up to the point
when the tank is placed in its intended service. There are
numerous examples ol this happening, which have proved
to be both expensive and time consuming mistakes, as wet
insulation materials are often impossible to subsequently
dry out in situ.
Storage tanks are often large in both diameter and height
and are frequently constructed on coastal sites. The combi-
nation of size and severe weathercan cause installation dif-
ficulties for external insulation systems. High winds can
remove all but the most robust weather protection and a
modest amount of rain, blown to one side ofthe tank can re-
sult in a virtual waterfall on the down wind side of the tank.
Strong and well thought out protection systems are a neces-
sity.
Some insulation materials are susceptible to mechanical
damage (i.e. cellularglass). Appropriate care must be taken
during transport, storage and installation to ensure that
breakages are kept to a minimum.
19.1.4 Basic design and material requirements
The following considerations must be taken into account when
designing a thermal insulation system:
Thermal conductivity of the materials used at the design
tempefature. Any anticipated changes of thermal conduc-
tivity with time should be taken into account.
Any long term structural loadtngs to be sustained by the in-
su ation. Any aniicipated changes in strength with time and
any creep effects should be taken into account.
The chemical orooerties of the materials used should be
such that if they are in contact with the product vapour dur-
ing service, theywillbe unaffected by long term contact with
it. Intheeventthattheinsulationmaterialwillcomeintocon-
tactwith the product liquid during an accident scenario, then
the structural propertles in particular shall not be adversely
affected.
The materials shall be suitable for the anticipated operating
and accident condition temperatures.
The insulation system must not give rise to corrosion ofthe
steel or other tank components. Some insulation materials
can give rise to acidic conditions when subjected to water
penetration.
The insulation system, where exposed to the atmosphere,
must resist the ingress of moisture. For cold insulation sys-
tems, the most harmful "aggressor" is the continuous ten-
dency forwatervapourto invade the insulation and make its
way to the cold face. For many insulation materials, small
changes on moisture content can bring about major
changes in their thermal properties.
Problems arlsing from any envisaged fire scenario.
Problems arising from installation difficulties.
Considerations caused by commissioning and decommis-
sioning requirements.
l\y'echanical damage by humans and birds.
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 379
 19 lnsulation systems for low temperaturc :6ln(s
Cellular slass
loos ttu msulants;
eleanded perlite or
vetmiculite
U*d h ohbinstion $trt to@ fi
Flgure 19.1 insutation maiertals for refdgerated storage
From BS 7777 : Patl 3. tabte 2
19.1.5 Design Code requirements
Traditionally, the tank design Codes had litfle to say on the sub_
ject of thermal insulation. The American Codes siill adoDt
this
approach, whilstthe British and European Codes have devoted
more space to this subject with each new document issued.
BS 7777 has a section on thermal insulation in part 3. Table 2,
Figure 19.1, provides a useful list of commonly used insulation
materials and identifies for which component of the tank these
materials are normally utilised. The forthcoming Eurocode,
(prEN 14620), on low temperature storage will have a full sec-
tion devoted to tank insulation and will dealwith the subject in
considerably more detail. lt makes the important point th;t that
thermal insulation system for low temperature tanks differs
from ambient temperature tanks where it is considered a pe_
ripheral component. For low temperature tanks the thermal in_
sulation is an essential part of the overall storage arrangement,
such that without a correcfly designed, installed and maintained
insulation system the storage tank will not operate correc v
There are also numerous Codes which deal with the production
and testing of individual insulation materials. This is a specialist
area into which the authors of Slorage Ia nks & Equipmenthave
chosen not to venture.
The specific requirements ofthe tank Codes to the desiqn ofthe
various pa rts of the tank insulation systems are discuss6d in the
sections which follow
19.2 Base insulation
19.2.1 ceneral
Although generally self-evident, it is worth repeating that the
base insulation systems for low temperature tanks perform two
basic duties:
. .
Structural support for the low temperature tank. The materi_
als should have suitable long term load-bearing prope(ies
to ensure that the tank is supported throughout its intended
service life and is not subject to unacceptable setflements
resulting from uneven compression of the base insulation
380 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
insutdt3 nomeuy for tls mecharncal pbp.ni6.
as the loadings from the tank and its contents are trans_
ferred to the foundation.
. Thermal insulation ofthe base of the storage tank. The sys_
tem chosen should limit the heat leak into the tank. Drevent
the formation of ice on the underside of elevated base slabs
and prevent ice lens formation for on ground type founda_
tlonS.
Despite these modest aims, it is interesting just how few materi_
als are available with the appropriate combination of lonq term
compressive strength. suitably low thermal conductiviW, the
ability to sustain the low temperatures and at an appropriate
cost. This limitation of choice has not been helped bv the es_
sentially conservative nature of the liquid storage industry and
the unwillingness of its participants to be ,,guinea pigs" foi new
systems and materials.
The base insulation for storage tanks divides into two areas.
These are the central area and the peripheralarea. These are
described in Sections 19.2.2 and '19.2.3.
19.2.2 The central area
For a single-walled tank it is quite clearwhatthe centralarea of
the base insulation comprises. For cedain double-walled tanks.
especially those with the base insulation placed beneath the
outer tank bottom, there is also an area of the base insulation
beneath the interspace between the two tank shells as illus_
trated in Figure 19.2. This part of the base insulation is sub_ :'
jected to loadings which are similar to those applied to the cen_ ;
tral area, particularly in the post leakage scenario. To avoid
over complication, only the central area of a single_walled tank
is considered. This is subject to the following loadings:
A uniformly distributed load arising from the product liquid
head and in certain circumstances, the product vaDour
pressure.
. A uniformly distributed load arising from the watertest head
and in certain circumstances, the air test pressure.
 . Wind overturning loadings
. Seismic ovefturning loadings for botr OB= a^: SS
=
:, =
-
=
19.2.4 Design methods

19.2.4.1 Inner area

: gure 19.2 D agram of bottora corner ofdouble-walled tank
. A uniformly distributed loading arising from the self-weight
of the tank bottom plates and the insulation system itself
(usually insignificant).
. A non-uniform loading arising from the seismic loadings to
which the tank is subjected (usually SSE and OBE). The
seismic loadings are made up from combinations of:
Vertical loadings arising from the combined overturning
moments from the action ofthe horizontal design event
on the impulsive, convective and self-weight compo-
nents of the tank and jts contents. This loading, in a sim-
;ys- ple analysis may be considered as triangular in
/ent distribution, but in a more complex analysis may well be
of a different form.
roa-
Vertical loadings arising from the action of the vertical
event on the self-weight on the bnk contents.
For the inner area of the base insulation systern i'e.:-:-,<
loadings described in Section 19-2.2, are surnmaT se: - :-:
most pessimistic combinations which may occu'. as
j: :.,.:
. Normal operation
. Hydrostatic testing
. OBE seismic event
. SSE seismic event
These loading combinations are then assessed for acceo:e:
itytaking into account the compressive strength (and in the ca:
cases with seismic components, the shear strength) of the var -
ous materials making up the base insulation system togethe.
with the factors of safety described in Section 19.2.5.
19.2.4.2 Peripheral area
As in Section 19.2.4.1, the various loadings are summarisec
under the same headings. lt is common to assume that the llne
load spreads out intothe base insulation at45degrees as llus-
trated in Figure 19.3. Based on this assumption it is usual to
work downwards through the insulation system to assess the
acceptability of each layer taking account of the materal
strengths and factors of safety again taken from Section 1 L2.5.
A worked example of this procedure in given in Figure '19.4.
This includes the mechanical loadings on both the central and
the peripheralareas otthe base insulation. lfthe simple triangu-
lar load distribution is considered inadequate, then a more e e-
gant analysis may be undertaken, but the weight of past experi-
ence suggests that the simple method has served the industry
well and there may be a relucbnce to depart from it.

;er - The various combinations ofthe two horizontal components As is the case for the inner area of the base insulation, consid-
trm and the one vertical component of the loadings to be con- eration must be given to the shear strength of the materials or
lhe sidered are described in Chapter 26 . A not uncommonly composite system where seismic loadings are involved.
aIe used rule for this combination is:
es-
100%Fx +/- 30%Fy +l- 31o/a Fz ol
and
tew 3Q'/oFx +l- 1004/oFy +l- 3ookFz ol
30%FX +l 30%f!/ +l- 100okFz
;as. On occasions the 30% comoonent is increased to 40%.
. Shear loadings resulting from horizontal loadings from wind
or earthquake.
. Point loads arising from internal fittings which rest directly
on the tank bottom, such as stilling wells, inlank pump
wells, fill columns etc.
rof
ks. 19.2.3 The peripheral area
ihe
ion -ihe
peripheral area for a single-walled tank is clearly that part
!rs-
rf the base insulation which is beneath the tank shell. For dou-
!le-walled tanks there may be two areas of the base insulation
3n-
,'/hich are loaded in a similar fashion, i.e. the part beneath the
od rner shell and the part beneath the outer shell.
lnk
-hese areas are subjected to line loadings from the various
shells which are made up of combinations of the following:
JO
li.rr
. Self-weightof the tank shelland attached parts including in- Loading on section A - A

sulation as appropriate (i.e. during operation but not per-

haps during hydrotest) \Worst case for rinqwall

. Roof loadings including snow load, live load, internal vac-

u um. Flgure 19.3 Lineload in the base insulaton ng wall

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT :.:'

 19 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks
I

l*4l6ldnl Jrrdr .f bdr hlElttd 1

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I
rirr
5|'.{ }! bsrhn rtld
I
V.rtlcd A!.d'.tbn (oE|, q,
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20.
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Fdif en6.r!t00olg,/# a5
Lrrii!oorwr.8t9/# 5p
?!,lit.c.isd. rck/ii 3A

FoiBrd HJt6o0 rl
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Pqlli.!olEvt700rq/n3
ftidi*F .'d C.hF-tw Snqdb ll|{F. c.E!t! 60ltlgir3
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Fd.lit @i.Er.000tq/il
Ntlt|!.!Er|! 6a0k/ri3

t{ot: I r .idlls anptdtt/t rtrr.. l6.ors.d. h.. b.ar iEdtfird h o..odo*, $?h BS!ll0.

olE 55E
L!r. l,rtt Srnr srn'
i) fi@dffn long dqrdiw tcB. b
OBEI a0?.4o tnyi c4Esr. Rdc40 ll?,5 /ktt 607
'diml 559 | 64.40 tfvn C.tt. 6!.d C2O 322.! t.6a 2,?9
Pa.rlt dstt. Sq{r' 3 Q2.t tJZ l.Bt
- D varid d@t rarld or d! at =*!!4.J3-
txD =
OBE |
95E r
3,t6 ri^Vh
5.27 $Vft
lalit &'tcti.6o0l9/o3 !o2a.t o.'o

i) $do.rofic hrld (ot+ri'r) 0166 l{,hif

rt ?r.q.. GF{tlrg) OD29 tVni
irD r,i/'icdcfic t..d (ir) 9,?3n |\yn#
0036 |yir#

D Tdorg'rdt dri|{&rqt h.d (O8O

l) v..fl.d ..c.l.r!tid ot pnder (q8q
ili) Trh'AddV drrdhtvn b{d (65q
b) Y.rrk l cc..Lrrnon of pru4Er (Sse)

Figure 19.4 Examplo ofa calculation ofthe loadings in an insuladon ringwall- pag6 t
Courtesy of Whessoe

382 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1 9 lnsulation systems lv tow tawane axs

Th" lin" Ioods frcm the 3h.llonto fh" innsr tank ringben ar colorlard bdowr

i) Concri. scrcd C4o

lidxinlm conprcssivc sin9th : 2O62 N/mm?
,qctudl conpfssive str55 (OBE) = 4.30 N/mm' FOS: 4.80
lcnjql compr$ivc slross (SSE) : 6,07 Vmm? + FoS: 3..1O
il) Concr|. scred C20 -
lltoxinun conprc!3iv slrngith : 1O.31 N/rnm?
lctual conprlsiv. stre$ (OBE) : 1.66 Mnrnz + FOs: 6.2t
Actudl coirprelrivc stre$ (sSE) : 2.29 N/mn? :+ Fos: 4.at
iii) P"rlitc concrcle 800k9/n3
f{dxinlm cohprcssive !t cnglh = 5.OO N/nrra?
iciuql compresive rrresr (OBq : 1.32 N/nrm? :::::> FOS: 3.77
icnialco|nprlstivc sfr.ss (SSE) : 1.81 Nhrn2 + Fos: 2.7f
iv) P"rlir. con$et. 600k9/it3
conpr*live sircngth : 2.2O N/nrnrt
^lldxirnun
Actualc.nprcasivc airess (OgE) = 0,69 N/nvn? + =
FOS 3.18
Aciual .ornprar.6ive slr.$ (55E) : 0.90 N/mnr? FOS: 2.'06

-
ft loqds on rhe inncr bdle insuhiion dre cdbukdcd below;

Inhcr bo3c injuhtion usd in design : Fomglas H.3 800

}{v.rog c.rnpr.ssiva strngth =

Fcclor of sdfcty fo. opraling cond;lioE :

Fqcror of sdfely fof hydroi.st condilions :
Focror of sdf.ty for OBE scisnic :
"vnt
Faclor of Jdfery f6r SSE sebmic cvcni :
Notcr POS vdlus idken from forthconing EN 265

i) Op.roting loods
o_t65
Op.ratirq pr.6slrc : o.o29
lnsu htion, scrc.d, Plqte eic : o.oo5
TOTAL 0.200 N/nm'z =
4.00
t
iD -os
O236 N/nrrf
0.036 N/nrrn?
Insuhtion, Scn .d, Platc ctc : O0O6 N/nnz
rornl@uz^nr os: 2.87

iii) szismic load (oB)

Op"r6liB bo4t : 0.200 N/mmz
Verlicol o...l2ruiion of prodqcf : 0.O08 N/mm'?
Triorgulort disrribuf cd load 0.043 N/mha
roreL--T75E-p7amz ===+os. 3.18

iv) Ssilnic lo{d (SSE)

Operdtirts loods : 0.20O N/nrna
Vrrlicol dccEl.rdiion of prcduct : 0.013 N/mma
T"idrg'rhrv dirtribut.d locd 0.05,r N/mn,
roleL--EE-p7- , :s r 3.01 ok

F-rgure 19.4 Example of a calculation ofthe loadings in an insulation fingwalt- page 2

Coulesy of Whessoe

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 383

 19 lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks
19.2.5 Detailed design Code requirements
19.2.5.1 EEMUA 147 requirements
The EEMUA recommendations, first published in 1986. were
the first to include specific requirements for safety factors to be
used for the mechanical design of insulation systems. These
were, not surprisingly, confined to the base insulation and
aimed largely at cellular glass materials, at that time and almost
certainly stillto this day, the most popular choice for this compo-
nent. The requirements state:
"lnsulants placed beneath a tank bottom shall be able to
withstand the loads imposed upon them. For service and
test conditions, the safety factor for cellular glass should be
at least 3.0 based on the average compressive strength
properties of the grade selected, or 2.5 based on the mini-
mum compressive strength guaranteed. Other materials
should be viewed in the same manner, and it is preferable to
use mrntmum guaranteed properties rather than average
values."
19-2.5.2 BS 7777 requirements
BS 7777 was first published in1993 and was based upon the
earlier EEMUA 147 recommendations. ln the case of the
quoted factors of safety for base insulation it has adopted
slightly different values. The Code states:
"lnsulation material located beneaih a tank bottom should
be able to withstand the load imposed upon it. The allow-
able compressive stress for service and test conditions for
cellular glass should be either 0.33 times the guaranteed
average compressive strength or 0.5 times the guaranteed
min jmum strength ofthe grade selected, whichever is less."
It also suggests that other materials can be used in the same
manner (meaning presumably using the same factors ofsafety)
and suggests that guaranteed minimum strengths should be
used rather than average values.
19.2.5.3 Drafl of new Euronorm prEN 14620
This Standard is at the stage of final editing having been issued
for public comment. Although not in its final form, part 4 of this
document probably represents the latest thinking on the sub-
ject.
The structural design of the base insulation system may be
based on the allowable stress method or by using the limit state
rneory
The insulation materials are divided into two categories:
. Brittle materials, i.e. those not subject to creep under sus-
tained compressive loadings. This category would include
cellular glass and light weight concrete.
. Materials subject to creep. This category would include
plastic foams such as polyurethane foam (PUF) and potyvi-
nyl chloride (PVC) foams.
Forthe brittle materials methods are given to allowthe nominal
compressive strength to be determined by test. For allowable
stress based designs, minimum factors of safety are applied to
this nominal compressive strength as follows:
. Normal operation 3.00
. Hydrosiatic test 2.25
. Earthquake (OBE) 3.00
. Earthquake (SSE) 1.50
For the materials subject to creep, a complex method of deter-
mining the nominal compressive strength is given based on
compressive creep testing, some tests being required to have a
10,000 hour duration. Safety factors are then given, to be ap-
plied to the nominal compressive strength to arrive at design
values forthe various loadings forthe allowable stress designs
384 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
An appendix is provided which gives the basis of the Iimit state
design methodsforthe twocategories of materials. This is very
complex and may have to be simplified before it is let loose on
the industry.
19.2.6 Base insulation materials * central area
19.2.6.1 Cellular glass
Cellular glass is formed when powdered glass is heated to-
gether with other carefully selected chemicals which ernit
gases at the appropriate point in the manufacturing process to
create a glass foam. The foam material is cooled down carefully
resulting in a series of near spherical small glass cells contain-
ing an insulating gas. The material is 100% closed cell. verv
stable at ambient and low temperatures and with zero perme-
ability. lt can be made in various grades to have a range of dif-
fering thermal conductivities, densities and compressive
strengths.
As discussed, cellular glass is the most commonly used mate-
rial for the bases of low temperature tanks. The manufacturing
process is complex and must be subjected to a high level of
quality control if the end product is to have consistent proper-
ties. Pittsburgh Corning Corporation (PC) was the first to de-
vote the necessary resources in terms of research and devel-
opment into the understanding of the material properties and
influence on these properties of the manufacturing process.
Thus for many years this company was, quite righfly, the almost
exclusive source of cellular glass blocks for tank bases and its
products were a specific requirement of many tank specifica-
tions and invitations to tender
The materials manufactured by PC are marketed under the
proprietary trade name of Foamglas@. lt is an indication of this
company's dominance in this market over the years that
Foamglas@ is often taken incorectly as the generic name for all
forms of cellu lar glass irrespective of the manufacturer. pC has.
over the years, also devoted considerable efforts to the desion
and installation methods for systems utilising their materials fo.
which they should be given credit.
For tank base insulation the appropriate grades of Foamglas@
are the High Load Bearing (HLB)grades made and marketed in
DENSITY AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Gr.deof Den os@ .(*r4 @o
Aver.Ce y b asrM
k9/mr
300
HLB r35
HLB 1000 140 0.6s
HLB 1200
145 1.20 0.32
HLB 14OO
HLB 16(x) 165
THERMAL CONDUCTIVIry
HLA 1@O 0.053
HLBl2OO
0,056
Figure 19.5 Basic propedies ofthe HLB grades of Foamglas@
Couftesy of Pittsburgh Caming Corporation
 19 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks

fie
ry Thermal conduouvlty (lf l|nlq
)n

7.
t>
/
z
lrit
b
ly ./.,
r} '/a
ry .,'/
n ./

F.
19
6
r-
*
d EeFqECSSq'P
s- Ttnperdrre (.Celsius,
sa
ts Erre 1 9.6 Thermal conductivity vs temprature p'ot for the HLB gmdes of FoamglasrD
a-

Property Ult e-CuF"to:ll Ultra-CUF 929

E gsnralEervlca cryognlcservlcs
b CompesgivE at]englh, avetrge 6t brsaldng polnt 1m (689) 87 (6m)
* pti (kPal (ASTM C 165, c 24o, C 552)
I Den6lty, average, |l]sr''ts lkgltrql (A9TM C 93) I (128) 7.5 O2O)
Flerural strength, block average, psi (kPa) (A'snt C tu3, C z4o) 80 (552) 64 (441)
n Llnear coefficlent ot thermal expanslon, 4.8x10s(8,6x1f) 5,0 t 10{ (9.0 x 10{)
T p.t'F lpet'K) 6sru E 22a)
Specific hoat, Btu/brF (Jftg."K) 0.18 (830) 0.18 (83O)
I Thermal conductivity, Blu-in/hr-ft2-"F (W/mrK)
(ASTMCt77,C51e)
0.30
0.31
@ 50"F
@ 75"F
0.28 @ 50"F
o.29 @ 75"F
h (0.043 @ 10 "c) (0.038 @ 0 .c)
(0.04s @ 24 "c) (0.040 @ 10 "c)
Thermal diffusivity, tt2lhr (m 2/sec) 0.019 (4.9 x 10-i) 0-019 (4.9 x 10-1

Superior compressive strength for tank bases

Propony
$-gr:l|t ujla-culg urrra.cuF rT4 uj:j::13
Compressive slrength, ASTM mlnimum 79.8 (5.61) 100.1 (7.04) 118.9 (8.36) 139.2 (9.79)
psi lkglcm2l (Lowet speciticaton linit
with AQL = lo/" Det ISO 3951)
Comprcssive stngth, ASTM avohge 116 (8.16) 14s (10.19) 174 112.23) 203 (14.27J
psi {kg/cm2)
Nominal average densily. lb/fl3 (kg/m3) 9.2 (135.04) e.5 (140) LS (144.97) 10.2 {14S.e3)
Thermal conductivity, maximum aveaage 0.340 (0-048) 0.345 (0.050) 0.370 (0.052) 0.380 (0.054)
Btu-irthr-lta"F @ 75"F {W/m-"K @ ro"C)

Thermal co.duclivity. highest single value 0.368 (0.0s1) 0.382 (0.053) 0.396 (0.0ss) 0.410 (0.057)
Btu-idhr-fl."F @ 75'F (W/m.oK @ rooc)

Fgrrs 19.7 Basic properties of various gEdes of Cell-U-Foam

htttesy of Ce -U-Foan Cwonlion
lve grades of increasing density and compressiv
tsn HLB 800 to HLB 1000. Asixth stronger grade (HLB 2000)
b curently underdeveloprnent. There is the usual tmde-ofi be-
xeen increasing density/strength and decrgasing thermal effi-
cbncy. The basic physical properties are shown in Figure 19.5
and the all important thermal conductivity-mean tempeftlture
crrves are shown in Figure 19.6. The significant reduction in
lErmal conductivity with temperature is clear. An excellent
strength book has been published by PC covering the manufacture of
Foamglas@, its properties and uses, together with a fund of
other useful informalion (Reference 19.1).
Overthe years a number of mmpanies from different countries
have aftempted to gain i foothold as manufacturers of cellular
glass products ofsuitable quality for the insulation of low tem-
perature trank bases. Until recently none succeeded in produc-
ing a product suitable for this purpose. Some five years ago a

STORAGE TANKS & ESUIPMENT 385

19 Insulation systems for low temperature tanks

10i
-//

r
I
I
I

v
.d
7
'{ l
-tThemalconduciivity
I
I vercus remporature
929 (Brirish units)
---r-------r--- r T
STFIAIN %

: ff '"n"":'#::; l::,"..,.,".
4 Aare, ho cappins

NOTE: lhErepresenlttypicalb.haviorand should nol b. used rd

EigLre '9 9 Tte 11Le,rce of rrlerleaving materalon i1e compresrve slrength

Figure 19.8 Thermal conductivity vs temperature plot for various grades of
Cell-U-Foam

Coutlesy of Cell-U-Faam Caeoration
company which was a part of ACS Industries in the USAand
trading underthe name ofCell-U-Foam made serious and suc-
cessful efforts to break into this area. They have now become
established as suitable suppliers of these materials by most, if
not all ofthe world's tank specification writers and builders and
produce a range offour enhanced compressive strength mate-
rials marketed as Ultra-CUF in grades from 116 to 203. The ba-
sic physical data and low temperature thermal conductivity
curves are shown in Figures 19.7 and'19.8.
It should be mentioned here that cellular glass is an unusual
material. Without venturing too deeply into this subject which
again could be the subject of a book in its own right, a few words
of explanation should be given.
The intrinsic compressive strength of cellular glass materials is
quite high. The problem is in developing this strength (i.e. in
getting the load ffom the tank bottom intothe insulation material
and out again into the foundation). The manufacturing process
for cellular glass ensures that the finished surface is irregular
when examined in close up, consisting ofcutthrough part cells.
When two blocks are placed together, the actual area ofcontact
is a minute proportion of the total area ofthe blocks, consisting
in the main of glass cell walls crossing each other on the two
faces at various angles. When any load is applied to this system
local breakdown occurs atthese highlystressed contact points.
This is clearly not a satisfactory situation. To enable a higher
proportion of the intrinsic strength of the material to be devel-
oped, it is necessary to interpose other materials between the
blocks.
This effect is clearly indicated in Figure 19.9 which compares
the compressive strength of cellular glass (in this instance
Foamglas@ from Pittsburgh Corning Corporation)with no inter-
leaving and with different interleaving materials. These materi-
als must be capable of better distributing the load into the cut
cells of the surfaces of the adjacent blocks. lvlaterials com-
monly used for this purpose are:
. Hot melt bitumen. This material is applied in liquid form,
being dispensed onto the surface of the lower blocks whilst
the upper blocks are placed into the liquid bitumen. This is
probablythe mostcommonly used method oflaying cellular
glass tank bases, but suffers from a number of disadvan-
tages. To ensure that the cells on the lowerside ofthe upper
blocks are correctly filled with the bitumen, to make certain
of the correct load transmission, is difficult to achieve and
impossible to check in a non-destructive manner A great
deal ofthe success ofthis method deoends on the skills of
the installation operatives and their supervision. Another
disadvantage ofthis method is that hot melt bitumen is car-
cinogenic and its use, particularly in confined spaces which
may occur in partially constructed double-walled tanks, is
increasingly unacceptable.
. Damp-proof course material. These are proprietary ma-
terials, made for the building industry to be used as damp-
proof courses between bricks or other building blocks. The
types most suitable for this purpose are usually about 3 mm
thick consisting of a bitumen-impregnated hessian type of
felt. Providing that they are used correctly and consider-
ation is given to points such as: carefully butting the edges
of adjacent rolls with no overlapping, the temperature
dependancies of the hardness/soft ness of the material and
the capping of the roll ends to prevent edge damage on
transit and handling, then this method provides a satisfac-
tory solution without some of the disadvantages associated
with the hot melt bitumen method.
. A base insulation free of organic materials, which it is
occasionally necessary to construct, (for example, for use
beneath liquid oxygen tanks). The materials discussed
above are clearly not acceptable in this case and substi-
tutes must be found. One commonly adopted solution in
these circumstances is to use an inorganic powdersuch as
Kieselguhr powder. This is applied dry and it is clearly eas-
iertofillthe uopercellsofthe lowerblocksthan it is to fillthe
underside of the upper blocks. Despite this practical diffi-
culty, the method has been used successfully for many
years. lt is perhaps fortunate that despite the relatively high
specific gravity of liquid oxygen, the product is normally
stored in smaller tanks than the other lowtemDerature liouid
gases and consequentlythe loadings on the base insulation
are lower Hence a lower load transfer is not so important in
this case. Another solution to this particular problem is to
use a glass fibre interleaving material.

386 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 19 lnsulation systems for low temperaturc tanks

- ensure that the compressive strength data provided by the ment. The lightaggregate concretesare usuallybespoke mate-
-3terial manufacturers are on the same basis and that inter- rials and are consequently expensive to produce. Their use is
:aving effects are equalised, the test methods are specified in more normal in the more highly-loaded peripheral areas of the
::nsiderable detail in various ASTM. Euronorm and ISO stan- base insulation. Air entrained concrete materials are produced
:3rds. on a much larger scale for the building industry and are mar-
>'!rilarly the measurement oi the thermal conductivity of the keted under such trade names as Thermalite@, UltraLiterM and
-aterial, particularly when measured at low temperatures, is SiporexrM. These do not have the same thermal efficiency as
: .|cult and should only be undertaken by laboratories and test the materials described above, but are cheaper Clearlyan eco-
- lL.rses with the specialised knowledge, experience and equip- nomic assessment is reouired here.
-ent. 19.2.6.5 Composite systems
:.:turning to Reference 79.7, there is an interesting chapter on A system using a combination of perlite concrete tubes and free
:^e cellular glass base insulation of the Ambergate LNG tank. perlite has been used on a number of occasions. The perlite
- ris tank was designed and constructed in 1969 for the East concrete tubes are laid on end in contact with the adjacent
! dlands Gas Board at Ambergate, Derbyshire in the United tubes and the spaces filled with free site-expanded perlite parti-
r. igdom, as a strategic inland storage facility and extension of cles. The perlite concrete tubes provide the compressive
:-e Canvey lsland LNG importterminal. The subsequent devel- strength whilst the thermal efficiency comes from the perlite.
: lment ofthe North Sea gas flelds made this facility redundant Some suitable capping for this system is required before the in-
:rd it was decommissioned and dismantled by British Gas in ner tank bottom is laid. This system is illustrated in Figure
'986. 19.10.
-re British Gas Engineering Research Station at Killingworth 19.2.6-6 Blast furnace slag
.1as given a budget to use this tank as a research tool and car-
- ed out a number
Afew tanks have been built on bases consisting of blast furnace
of tests, eventually leading to the collapse of slag. When suitably graded, dried and compacted this material
:-e inner tank under internal vacuum loading. These tests were has a suitable compressive strength and thermal properties in
':ported at LNG I (Reference 19.2).lt is interesting to specu-
the same region as the lightweight concretes. The advantage is
:ie if this opportunity to use a full-scale test piece would be the almost free raw material.
::(en and funded today. As a part ofthis investigation, samples
:'the cellular glass base insulation material were taken and
:ent to the laboratories at Liege University in Belgium. The ma- 19.2.7 Base insulation materials - peripheral area
::rial was Foamglas@ S3S grade (which has subsequently
:een replaced by one of the HLB range of grades). The impor- The higher loadings experienced by the peripheral areas of the
:ant properties of thermal conductivity and compressive base insulation means that frequently the materiais described
in the preceding Section are unsuitable by virtue of their limited
-r:rength were measured and found to be unchanged by the 17
, ?ars in low temperature service. compressive strength and need to be replacedwith otherstron-
ger materials, or be used in different combinations.
19.2.6.2 PVC foam
:VC foam is now Using the 45 degree load-spreading rules described in Section
agenerally acceptable material for base insu- 19.2.4.2, the compressive loading decreases as the point in
allon. lt has a history of being used successfully for membrane question moves downwards from the point of contact of the
:., pe tanks in the prefabricated insulation panels and beneath
shell line load. 1t is important to maintain the best possible ther-
:everal concrete/concrete type LNG tanks. lt is now being pro- mal efliciency whilst catering for the compressive loadings with
-oted for use with the more usual types of low temperature
:3nks. lt claims certain advantages over cellular glass:
. The material is supplied in larger sized sheets, up to 2.4m x
'1.2m. This will reduce handling and installation costs and
also installation times.
. No interleaving materials are required again reducing in-
stallation costs and time scales.
. The materialis considered to have bettertolerance of expo-
sure to moisture during installation.
. The material is more elastic (conversely less britfle) than
cellular glass and thus perhaps better able to resist damage
resulting from seismic loadings and locally imposed vibra-
tions. There is some history of cellular glass bases being
damaged by nearby pile-driving activity and proximity to ro-
tating machinery
{t the end of the day the choice of material will probably be
3ased on economic considerations.
19.2.6.3 Polyurethane foam
rhis material has a considerable history of use in membrane
:)/pe tanks. Most of what is mentioned in Section 19.2.6.2 is
again relevant here.
1 9.2.6.4 Lightweight concrete
there are a number of lightweight concrete materials available.
These obtain their light weight and consequent low thermal
:onductivity either by the use of lightweightaggregates such as
,erlite, Lytag or blast furnace slag, or by the addition of a foam-
Figure 19.10 View ofcomposite perttte concreie tube/toose periite base insula
ng agent to the concrete mix which provides ajr or gas entrain-

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 387

1 I lnsulation systems for low tempenturc tanks
accepiable factors of safety required bythe design Codes. This
is necessaryto minimise the overall heat leakfor reasons ofop-
erating costs, and to reduce the problems associated with base
heating systems where large differences in the heat flux be-
tween the central area and the periphery can prove complex or
expensive to design for. Commonly used solutions to this prob-
lem are:
. thermal and mechanical changes in the tank shape.
The use ofa composite system using layers ofcellularglass
of different grades, frequently capped with reinforced con-
crete with suitable low temperature properties to allow for
the high loading occurring immediately beneath the tank
shell.
. Similarv the use of layers of different grades of foamed
PVC or polyurethane foam, again frequently capped with
reinforced concrete.
. The use of purpose-designed and factory-manufactured
blocks incorporating layers of reinforced concrete and dif-
fering densities of perlite concrete. The design and manu-
facture of such blocks should be entrusted to comoanies
with the necessary experience and expertise in this area.
. The use of purpose-designed and factory-manufactured
blocks using wood. Balsa and pine have been used in this
way. The compressive strength and thermal conductivity of
wood materials are very dependenton the orientation ofthe
grain with respect to the direction of loading. Again the de-
sign and manufacture of such blocks should be lefr to suif
ably expert and experienced suppliers.
19.3 Wall insulation
19.3.1 General
Wall insulation systems for low temperature tanks falls into
three calegories:
. Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic tanks fixed
to the outer surface of the tank shell.
. Rigid insulation systems for the walls of double-walled
tanks. For metallic outertanks this can be fixed to the outer
or the inner surfaces of the outer wall. There are a few ex-
amoleswherethe insulation is attached to the outersurface
of the innerwall. Fortankswith Dre-stressed concrete outer
tanks this insulation is most usually attiached to the inside of
the outertank. Again there are a few exampleswhere the in-
sulation is attached to the ouler surface of the inner wall.
e Loose fill insulation systems for installation between the
steel or pre-stressed concrete outer tank and the steel and
less commonly pre-stressed concrete inner tank,
1 9.3.2 General requirements
19.3.2.1 Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic
tanks
In addition to having suitable long term thermal properties, the
systems used in this category must give due consideration to
the following:
. The provision of a suitable vapour barrier with the ability
over the design life of the system to prevent the ingress of
atmospheric moisture into the insulation material driven by
the thermal gradient.
. The vapour barrier must also act as a weather barrierto pre-
vent the ingress of rain water and to sustain wind loadings.
Storage tanks are tall structures, frequently constructed in
exposed coastal areas where weather conditions are ex-
tremely onerous. Rain falling on a large tank roof is fre-
388 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT
quently concentrated at the tank wall to water fall like pro-
portions
. The insulation and its vaDour barrier/weathercover must be
suitably attached to the tank shellorbe freesianding in their
own right.
. The system must cater for the worst stresses caused by
. The system must caterforany loadings caused by external
ice build up.
. Depending on local circumstances and fire protection sys-
tems, the insulation system must have the necessary resis-
tance to anticiDated heat flux levels.
. Suitable resistance to loadings caused by fire water im-
pingement.
19.3.2.2 Rigid insulation for the walls of double-walled
tanks
Applied to the outer surface of the outer wall
The requirements ofSection 19.3.2.1 apply in this case.
Applied to the inner surface of the outer wall
The attraction of this method of providing the wall insulation is
that the outerwallitself provides the vapour barrier and weather
cover In normal operation the outerwall is at ambient tempera-
ture. A number of new considerations need to be taken into ac-
count:
. The vapourtightness ofthe insulation system during normal
operation when the insulation is exposed to the product
vapour(i.e. an open-topped suspended decktype oftank).
. The liquid tightness of the insulation system in the event of
inner tank leakage or failure.
. The chemical resistance ofthe various components ofthe
insulation system to contact with the product vapour or liq-
uto.
. The abilityto gas free and decommission the tankwithin the
prescribed period.
Applied to the outer surface of the inner wall
This is quite an unusual arrangement. In this instance the fol-
lowing considerations must be hken into account:
. The inner tank leak case will result in the comolete loss of
the insulation system. This will result in a very high heat
leak, theevolution of largevolumes of productvapourwhich
must be handled safely by the relief valve system to avoid
the possibility of outer tank damage due to over pressuris-
ation, and the possibility of substantial ice build-up on the
outer tank shell, possibly giving rise to structural stability
proDrems.
. Careful detail design at the junction between the wall and
roof insulation.
. lfthe insulation materialchosen is permeable, provisions to
orevent convection within the insulation itself.
19.3.2.3 Loose fill insulation systems
This usually means a system using pedite and someform ofre-
silient blanket.
Conceming the perlite loose fill insulation material, allowance
must be made for the following poinb:
. Settlement of the perlite during service. This is usually pro-
vided for bythe provision of a suitable hopper volume in the
top corner ofthe tank above the product liquid level and by
the use of vibration equipment during the initial installation
ofthe material. The sizing ofthe hoppervolume is a function
ofthe geometry and service ofthe tank in addition to the ex-

DTO. perience of the tank designer and the insulation contrac-
tor/designer
N,'luch of this information is of a proprietary nature, some-
trmes based on test work and is not discussed further other
than in general principles. The techniques and equipment
necessary for the vibration of perlite during installation are
ih, again of a proprietary nature, closely guarded by their own-
ers and not for general discussion. Suffice it to say ihat a
:ma runway beam above the insulation interspace to supportthe
vibration equipment is necessary that means for position-
ing the vibrating elements accurately are provided and
means of determining the extent of vibration compaction by
]S S- local level measurement are provided.
. Provision for topping up the perlite during the service life of
the tank in the event that this is found to be necessary This
is usually accommodated by the provision of topping up
lled nozzles located around the periphery of the tank above the
insulation interspace. A sensible size for these connections
is 6 inches in diameter
19.3.3 Design Code requirements
--e design Codes give little gujdance on the detailed design of
-^e various
forms of wall insulation systems. The general points
: scussed above are included.
?a-
' 9.3.4 Wall insulation materials
--e following is of necessity a brief review of the more com-
t-c:
-lnly used materials and some points regarding their correct
::p ication. As has been mentioned earlier, there is no substi-
:,:e for experienced designers and installation contractors in
:^ s area. lvluch of the installation equipment and methodolo-
I es are of a proprietary nature.
1 9.3.4.1 Polyurethane foam
: -obably the most commonly used material for the wall insula-
: :n of tanks discussed in Section 19.3.2.1.
: trlyurethane foam (PUF) can be applied to the tank walls ln a
- many possib e piifalls which can only be overcome by atten-
"mber of different ways:
. lt can be supplied as factory-made slabs and attached to
the tank wall by the Llse of a suitable adhesive. The fac-
tory-manufacture ensures a good quality of foam with con-
sistent properties. The adhesion to the tank wall is more
problematic, but good site quality control and attention to
details such as the correct primer in a suitable condition on
the steel wall should ensure success.
For insulation thicker than 50 mm, it may be wise to con-
sider using two layers of PUF with staggered joints. Clearly
a vapour barrier/weather cover will be required where the
insulation is exposed to the atmosphere. This could be a
metallic sheeting of galvanised steel, aluzinc sheeting, alu-
minium sheeting or stainless steel sheeting, in all cases of
either flat, corrugated or profiled section.
Attention to detail in the design and installation of the joints
between the sheets and the attachment of this barrier to the
tank are essential to ensure adequate long term vapour
tightness and wind and weather resistance. An alternative
vapour barrier/weather cover may be of the sprayed
non-metallic type. This could be of a number ofdifferent ma-
terials depending on the local conditions prevailing.
. ltcan bespray-applieddirectlytothetankshell. Theoverall
thickness being made up of a number of layers, each usu-
ally about 'l2mm thick. This requires considerable experi-
ence and skilled operatives if it is to be successful. The final
quality ofsprayed PUF is notoriously susceptible to temper-
ature and humidity. For this reason one contractor went to
19 lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks
F gufe 19.11 Weaiher protection system for the insulation of an LPG tank
Courtesv of AntwerD Gas Terninal NV
the trouble and expense of providing an inflated dome roof
attached to the top periphery of the outer concrete bund
wall, air conditioning equipmeni and a suitable air lock for
the entry of personnel and materials, as shown in Figure
19.11 to ensure control ofthese variables and to produce a
suitable finished product applied to the outer surface of the
steel inner tank. In this type of PUF applicaiion, the vapour
barrier/weather cover must also be of the spray applied
type.
. It can be foamed in situ between the tank shell and the
vapour barrier/weather shield. This method is only relevant
to external shell insulation. The metallic vapour barrier is
erected on all or part of the tank shell using suitable spac-
ers, usually made from PUF slab rnaterial, to ensure the
correci finished thickness of the foam. The tlvo constituents
which react to fofm the foam are mixed and injected into the
space between the tank shell and the cladding, either
through holes pre-dril ed in the sheeting or poured over the
top of the partially erected cladding. The reaction between
the components produces a foam ofthe appropriate quality
wh ch fllls the space and adheres to both the cladding and
ihe tank shel . This sounds straightfoMard, but there are
tion to deiail and expefience.
19.3.4.2 PVC foam
PVC foam is a factory-made material and as such can only be
applied to a tank shell in ihe first ofthe three methods described
above for PUF.
19.3.4.3 Other plastic foam materiats
The tabulation in BS 7777 : Part 3, (see Figure 19.2), indicates
phenolic foam and polystyrene foam as possible materials for
this purpose. The use ofthese materials is outside the author's
experience and is suspected to be an uncommon practice.
19.3.4.4 Cellular glass
Cellular glass materials have been used successfully as the ex-
ternal wall insulation in numerous cases. The cellular glass can
either be attached directly to the metallic iank shell bythe use of
a suitable adhesive, or be installed as a free-standing wall. For
thicknesses up to about 70 mm it is possible to use a single
layer of cellular glass. For greater thicknesses it would be wise
to consider the use of two layers, installed with theirjoints stag-
gered. As always a suitable weathercover/vapour seal must be
used.
The producers of cellular glass products have their own de-
tailed designs and installation methods for such insulation sys-
tems. Typical details are shown in Figure 19.12.
Cellular glass is also used extensively as the bottom corner in-
sulation in numerous double-walled tanks with pre-stressed
concrete outer tanks. This insulation is necessary to limit the
STORAGE TANKS & EQUTPMENT 389
 19 lnsulation systems fot low temperaturc tanks

shear stresses at the junction of the wall and the base resukirE
from the innertank leakdesign scenario. This is particularlythe
case with the fixed orencastr6 bottom cornerdesign. The insl-]-
lation layer is applied to the bottom of the interspace and to rne
lower part of the tank wall, normally to an elevation of 3m to Sm
from the base slab.
A typical arrangement for a large LNG tank is shown in Figure
19.13. Most pre-stressed concrete tanks have a metallic liner
on their inner wall and base surfaces. The cellular glass must
be suitably attached to this liner and protected from the product
liquid in the inner tank overfill or leakage design case. The case
where the full inner tank contents are contained by the outer
tank is the most onerous for the designer The most frequenfly
used metallic barrier employed for this purpose is faced with rne
following two interesting and conflicting requiremenb:
. To be of an economic thickness, the protective layer must
rely on mechanical support from the underlying thermal in-
2 FOAMGLASo@llu|3rgless
sulation material to resist the hoop stresses which the ful
4 PITTCOTEo 404 (irspecitied) leaked product head will impose.
5 PCo FABRIC 79P {rf specilied)
. The temperature change brought about by coniact with the
product liquid willcausethe protective layerthe contract in-
wards and loose contact with the supporting insulation
The various ways of solving this apparent conundrum is dis-
cussed elsewhere in Sforage Tanks & Equipment.
Non-metallic solutions to this problematic area will require vali-
dation by suitable test work.
One of the attractions of the use of cellular glass materials in
this area is its ability to resist the heat generated by installation
welding activities.
19.3.4.5 Mineralwoo
For externally-applied wall insulation there are a few cases
where mineralwool products have been used. This system will
require even more careful attention to the weather cover/
vapour seal, as mineral wool has a low intrinsic resistance to
I Tankwall the flow of air with in itself. For this reason the orevention of con-
2 Tank root
? FOAMGLAS@cetlutarglass vection loopsbeingsetupwithinthe mineralwoolinsulationwill
4 PC9AA ADHFSIVE
also have to be considered.
5 Resilienl insulaiing matenal
6 PITTSEAL@,144 sealei
19.3.4.6 Perlite loose fill insulation systems
7 PITTCOTEO 404 + PC@ FABRIC 79P

Aloose fillinsulation system installed in the interspace between

Figure 19.12 Wall nsulation using Foamgtas@
two concentric vertical cvlindrical tanks consists of two comDo-
Couftesy of Piltsburgh Corning Corporatian nents. These are:

qL49S EIBBE 8AlNrcL. 350 IXPANDED PERLITE

{UNCOMPRESSED) ICOMPACIEO)
9% NiLINER
(VARY NGTHICKNESS)
5000 mm l\,llN. UP VERTICAL
iNNERTANKSHELL
OUTERTANK

3 mnTTFICKCARBON
STEEL LiNER
9% Ni ]NNER TANK EOTTOIl
CRYOGENIC CONCTE]E
250 rim THICK 1 X75 mm THICK
50 mm SCREED FOAMGLAS (ILB 8OO)

5 mm 9% Ni SECONDARY BOTTOM
SAND
50 mm SCREED

. CONCRETE OUTER TANK

4x t00mmTHIC(
FOAMGLAS (HLBSOO)
INTERLEAVEDWTH
PLUVEX s0 mm RESILIENT
BLANKET

l00mmSCREED

3 mmc STEELVAPOUR BARRIER

50mn RES L ENI 2r 100 mm Tl-llCK FOAMGLAS {HLB 1400)
ELANKET INIERLEAVED WITH PLUVEX
CONCRETE OUTER TANK

Figure 19.13 Boltom corner proteclion system

390 STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 19 lnsulation systems for low temperaturc tanks

. The loose fill insulation

. The resilient blanket.
The loose fill insulalion
:or loose fill insulation systems pedite is reallythe only choice.
)erlite is a naturally occurring volcanic glass rock. lt is a bound
j.uminium silicate which contains some 3% water of
:rystallisation. When the material is ground to a suiiable size
:lrd subjected to rapid heating to around 1000 'C, the glass
:articles melt and the crystallised water evaporates and ex-
:ands the particles to between '10 and 40 times their original
. clume forming rigid foam cells. The resulting material is white
- colour and has excellent thermal properties. In small quanti-
--es the material can be produced in a suitable factory and
:ansported to site in bags.
Figure 19.14 Line diagram showing a site-based perlite expansion plant
-nis approach is a possibilityfor small tanks such as the small
=rd of the LOX, LIN and argon storage tanks. For larger tanks
:-rs rapidly becomes impractical in view of the quantities in-
, trlved. For a large multi-tank LNG facility, thousands oftonnes

:' expanded perlite will be required. At 60 kg/m3 density, 1000

::1nes of perlite requires a volume approaching '17000m3. The
':ctory route is clearly not a sensible proposition in this case.
-'e solution is the use of portable expansion plants. These can
:e set up on the construction site and the unexpanded perlite
:-e can be more sensiblytransported to site in 1 tonne big bags
:. in containers.
--e perlite is produced by continuously feeding the graded ore
-:o a purpose-designed furnace. The expansion is almost im-
-ediate and the product is exhausted from the furnace in the
-at gas stream which is filtered to separate the expanded
:dite. This is then pneumatically conveyed to the tank where it
-ttles out of the air stream and fills the inter-tank void. Special
?re must be taken to ensure that this conveying process does
-:t damage the perlite as attrition maytake place. To avoid this
:-e conveying velocity must be kept as low as possible, the
i.gths of hose should be kept as short as possible and any
:nds as few as possible and of the maximum practical radius. Flgure 19.15 A perlLte vibraiion sysiem
I re diagram showing this process is shown as Figure 19.14.
The solution chosen to solve this problem was to suspend a
I :/picalexample of the vibration equipment required to avoid glass fibre blanket from the top of the outer surface ofthe inner
i,cessive settlement of the pedite as discussed in Section tank shell. This blanket acted like a spring and controlled the
': 3.2.3 is shown in Figure 19.15. external loadings on the inner tank, especially when the inner
The resilient blanket tankwarmed upfollowing a period in service. Atthis point in the
tank's life cycle it is empty and most at risk from possible dam-
--e guroose of the resilient blanket is to control the external
age caused by external pressures. This test work enabled the
:-3ssures which the loose fill insulation material exerts on the design pressures to be predicted with confidence and the inner
--er liquid container These external pressures change in tank stiffening system to be designed. The design of the inner
- agn itude du ring the life cycle of the storage tank, but can gen- tank stifiening is discussed in detail in Chapter 18. The result of
:?lly be assumed to have their maximum value when the tank this work was that the resilient blanket system was the subject
: lecommissioned following a period in service. In simplistic ofajointly held patent, and the technologywas licensed to other
:."ns the wayin which this maximum design pressure is arrived
contractors until the patent cover expired in the late 1970s.
:: s illustrated in Figure 19.'16. Perlite in its expanded form is
: -3sumed to be incompressible at the low levelofloadings pre-
,, ing in this situation (higher loadings will cause expanded
As low temperature tanks, and LNG tanks in particular, became
:.'ite to break down in an irreversible fashion) and to be able to bigger, the suspended method of blanket installation became a
':,v freely into any voids which may be created. problem. The glass fibre manufacturers could only produce
--e problem was first given serious attention during the design suiiably-faced materials in limited lengths and the vertical load-
-" ase of the LNG tanks at the Canvey lsland lmport Terminal. ings on the blanket materials themselves became a limitation.
--e client was the East Midlands Gas Board (EMGB) and the Providing a second support ring at a point halfway up the tank
I was Whessoe Ltd. Ajointlyfunded research and de- shell and using two drops of blanket was one solution. Another
='rtractor
,E cpment programme was undertaken and a series of box was to impale the blanket material on pins which were attached
:s:s weredevised which simulated the intersoace between the to the outside ofthe innertank with suitable adhesives. Afurther
--er and the outertanks, the insulation materials which were to solution was to arrange forthe inner tank stiffening to be on the
:: installed in this space and the thermally-induced move- outer surface ofthe innertank (these stiffeners are most usually
-e'rts of the inner iank as it cooled to LNG temperature and to be found on the inner su rfaces of the inner tanks) and for the
. -rsequently warmed up again. The test facility had the equip- stiffeners themselves to be at a constant Ditch. The resilient
-elt necessary to measure the pressures on the outer sur- blanket material was then installed between these stiffeners
-3:es of the simulated inner tank at various stages during the and held in place with wire laced between the outer edges ofthe
:.s: cycte. stiffeners.

STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 39,I

1 9 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks

Over the years furthertest work has been carried out and Brit-
ish Gas (of whom El\,lGB was formerly a part) continued its in-
terest in the subject and allowed some of its 50,000m3 LNG
Outer tanks to be fitted with pressure and blanket thickness measur-
wall 'Perlite ing equipment. Thus a full-scale test facility, withoutthe uncer-
iainties brought about by specimen end effects, which were al-
waysa problemwith the box tests, was made available. Mostof
the data collected was analysed by the late Dr lan Leadley of
Blanket Whessoe.
The relationship between the perlite, the resilient blanket and
the resultant pressures on the inner tank is complex and in-
volves a bewildering numberofvariables. Amongst these are:
. The physical dimensions ofthe hnks and the interspace
. The product and ambient temperatures
. The materials of the inner and of the outertanks
. The density ofthe perlite
The thickness of the resilient blanket
The compressive properties of the resilient blanket
The angle of internal friction of the perlite (this varies with
time)
The coefficient offriction at the various interfaces
The number of full and partial thermal and liquid filling cy-
cles for the inner tank
. The numberof pressure cycles for the outertank (applies to
- inlorspace filled wih Pedite steel outer ianks only)
All of the tank designers have their own ways of solving this
'"1"'.1*:"*o" \ complex problem. These are usually closely guarded secrets.
The whole subject is shrouded in uncertainty because ofthe dif-
ficulties with the perlite/blankevpressure relationship, the large
factors of safety used in the stiffenersize and pitch calculations
and the small number of lowtemperature tanks which are sub-
jected to the full loading cycle and then decommissioned and
examined.
Cold - inn6r tank conlracts
19.4 Roof insulation
Innr tank warms up and oxpands

19.4.1 General

The most commonly found forms of roof insulation fall into two
categones:
. For single-walled metallic tanks the insulation system is at-
tached to the external surfaces of the roof sheeting.
. For some single-skinned tanks and for the majority of dou-
Pe ite / bl.nket intBrface remains in same position as c) ,bove
ble-walled tanks, the insulalion system is supported on a
Ohis gives maximim exlamal prossure on inner tank)
suspended deck supported from the tank roof framework
and located within the tank.

19.4.2 External roof insulation

This is usually similar in form tothe externalshell insulation sys-

Non-f n6ar lastic proprli6s of reslient bbnket
Figure l9.'16 Resilient blanket pressure history
tems described above. The insulation materials used and the
need for an effective weather cover/vapour banier are the
same. lf anything, the local environment on the tank roof is
worse than for the tank shell in terms of exposure to severe
winds, rain and chemical aggression. For this reason it is not
uncommon for single-walled tanks to be constructed with inter-
nal suspended decks. In addition to the advantages of remov-
ing the insulation from this difficult environment, there are other
potential savings associated with the design temperature for
the outer roof sheeting and its supporting framework being
based on atmospheric temperatures and noton the lowerprod-
uct temperature. The insulation material may be cheaper i.e.

392 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 19 lnsulation systefis for low tempercturc tanks

rit- :r density glass fibre rather than polyurethane foam. The monia where the supply of suitable in{ank pumps is problem-
in- l r, eather cover/vapour barrierwill no longer be required. These atic. This is discussed in Chapter 21. Oxygen and nitrogen
!G ::vings may well offset the cost of providing the suspended tanks traditionally have side wallor bottom connections rather
iJ r- :eck and its supports and the longevity ofthe system is almost than in-tank pumps. Tanks which predated the general move
el ::rtain to be jmproved. away from single containment to the higher containment cate-
gories were also often fitted with side wall or bottom connec-
:o; 19.4.3 Internal suspended deck insulation tions, mainly for liquid import and export.
o'
The function of the fittings heat breaks are:
-.e most commonly used insulation materials for this purpose
i:c :-e low density glass fibre ofthe type often found in domestic at-
. To prevent excessive local heat gain
li
It'- : : :s or lofts, (usually around 0.75k9/m3 in density), mineralwool, . To provide a mechanical load transfer mechanism between
:
=!ain at the lower end of the range of densities available, and the attached pipework and the tank roof, wall of bottom
:dite. The pedite is most usually site-expanded and installed . To protect Darts of the tank which are constructed from ma-
:.3se or in bags. For suspended deck insulation, the following
terials which are not suitable for contact with the orod uct Iio-
::nsiderations must be taken into account:
uid design temperature
. Steps should be taken to prevent the roof insulation from . To avoid condensation orlocalice build uD around thefittino
contaminating the product liquid. For plate type suspended
decks this is only a problem around the periphery of the
deckand atfittings penetrations. A simple fabric shroud will 19.5.2 Heat breaks for roof connections
normally suffice. Fordecks constructed from structural sec-
iions and troughed sheeting where there are gaps between Figure 19.17 shows a typical roof heat break arrangementfor a
the sheets, this is more ofa problem and frequently requires lull containment LNG tank. Roof fittings for product liquid or
a layerofsuitable material between the deck and the insula- vapour can become quite large. The in-tank pump columns for
tion to covef such gaps. A commonly used material for this a typical LNG export terminal tank may well be up to 42" in di-
purpose is a glass reinforced paper. Perlite in particular is a
problem. lt has a tendency to flow through small gaps, and
for an apparently delicate material, can cause problems
with abrasion of the moving parts of certain downstream
process equipment, for example pumps.
. Where fibrous materials are used for deck insulation and
perlite for the wall insulation, the fabric shroud or the perlite
retaining wall must prevent the perlite from getting onto the
deck in addition to its other duty of retaining a sufficient hop-
per volume of perlite above the interspace.
. Steps must be taken to prevent the deck insulation from be-
ing "rearranged" by vapour movements above the deck or
from getting into the product via the deck vents.
. Steps should be taken to ensure that the final, installed deck
insulation thickness is what has been specified and used in
the thermal insulation calculations. A commonly used de-
vice is to put adhesive tape markers on the suspended deck
supporting rods or wires to indicate the required finished
thickness. By this means any settlement during installation
0ecomes oDVtous.
. For tanks where there is a possibility of condensation of the
product liquid on the underside ofthe outer roof (a problem
for butane tanks where the ambient temperature can occa-
sionally be lower than the storage temperature, and in ar-
eas ofthe world subject to very low temperatures, a similar
problem for propane tanks), provision must be made to en-
sure that the condensed liquid can make jts waythrough the
suspended deck. For double-walled tanks it is necessary to
ensure that the condensation will also not enter the wall in-
sulation interspace.

19.5 Insulation of heat breaks and fittings

19.5.1 General

-he majority of fittings in conventional vertical, cylindrical low

:emperature storage tanks pass through the tank roof. The lack
lftank wall penetrations is a prerequisite ofthe fullcontainment
of storage and is strongly preferred for the single and
=tegory
:ouble containment categories.
-here are a fewcircumstances where side walland bottom con-
rections are used. One of these is for the storage of liquid am- Fqure 19.1/ -ypical rool heal break arrange-lent for LNC se-vrce

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 393

1 I lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks

ameter and it is not unusual for the liouid import line and the
vapour return line for these tanks to be 32" in diameter

ln this case the tank roof is constructed from reinforced con-

crete with a non low temperature steel liner, i.e. the roof sheet-
ing. With the product storage temperature at about -162 'C an
efficient thermal heat break is required. The mechanical loads
to be transferred across the heat break arising from the
self-weight ofthe internal and external pipework and its insula-
tion, the piping system anchor loads and any local valves and
fittings will be substantial, particularly when the tank is to be
constructed in an area subjectto a severe seismic environment
and significant amplification of these static loadings can take
place. Consequently a robust connection is required.

Cleady the need for thermal efficiency and the need for me-
chanical strength are in conflict. This makes the design ofthese
fittings interesting. A lot of experience in the use and behaviour
ofthe various proprietary designs is useful here. lt is sometimes
written in specifications that the heat breaks shall prevent ice
formation orcondensation on the tank rooflocalto thefitting un-
der allatmospheric conditions. This is a quite unreasonable re-
quirement which is impossible to comply with. There willalways
be some measure of cooling ofthe roof or the warm side com-
ponents ofthe heat break adjacent to the fitting and under unfa-
vourable atmospheric conditions, some condensation or ice
build up is inevitable. lt would be more reasonable to require
that the heat break design will seek to minimise this phenome-
non.

For double-walled tanks where the inner tank has a fixed roof,
the situation is more complex as a means must be provided to
accommodate the differentialthermal movements which will be
present. These types oftanks are quite uncommon these days
although there are some companies in the Far East who still re-
main wedded to this arrangement. lt is most usual to include a
bellows in the penetration. This can be located between the two
roofs or external to the outer tank roof. Atypical arrangement is
illustrated in Figure 19.18.
For the heat break arrangement shown in Figure 19.17, experi- Figure 19.18 Atypical roof fitting for a double roof type of tank
ence has shown that the most effective form of insulation is
PUF. This can be installed in the fitting prior to its erection into
the tank roof. The most convenient way of achieving this is to
foam the PUF in situ into the inverted fitting using one ofthe pro-
prietary foam kits available on the market. The use ofglass fibre
or mineral wool packed into the insulation space has not been
good for the lowertemperature end of the product range. Prob-
lems of internal convection have frequently led to the appear-
ance of external ice spots.

For warmer products such as butane. ammonia or propane, a

simpler arrangement is frequently adopted. One such is illus-
trated in Figure 19.19. One of the significant savings results
from the elimination of the expensive stainless steel cone
piece. Forthese products the use of glass fibre or mineralwool
insulation may be appropriate.
Gl.ss flbre, miner5l wool

19.5.3 Heat breaks for tank sidewall connections

For single-walled tanks, there is no need fora heat break, since

the wall, fitting and the connected pipework all fallwithin the in-
sulation envelope.
For the now unusual, double-walled single containment type of
tanks, a typical arrangement is shown in Figure 19.20. The de-
sign of such flttings was not easy, the accommodation of the
thermal and mechanical movements of the inner shell and the
reduction ofthe external loadings from the connected pipework
to acceptable limits had to be considered. External spring sup-
ports and pipe loops were frequently required to resolve these
pro0rems. Figure 19.19 Atypical rcoffilting fot LPG or ammonia seruice

394 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Forthe much smallertanks for the storage ofoxygen, nitrogen
and argon, the use of sidewall connections is common. These
are frequently incorporated into a cold box built into the shell of
the outer carbon steel tank. Atypical arrangement is indicated
in Figure 19.21.
19.5.4 Heat breaks for tank bottom connections
Despite the apparent attractions oftank bottom connections in
terms of maximising the use of the tank capacity and of en-
abling the operators to drain the full tank contents for rapid de-
commissioning, bottom connections are uncommon.
For single-walled tanks there is no need for any form of heat
oreaK.
For double-walled tanks with small-sized iittings, the penetra-
tion of the inner tank bottom is connected by pipework running
in the base insulation and exiting through the outer shell. Here a
heat break arrangement similar to that required for Section
'19.4.3 is necessary
Figure 19.22 shows a detail which was used for a double con-
tainment liquid butane tank constructed at l\Iobil Oil's CoMon
refinery This was a double-walled metallic tank where in;or-
mal service the inner pipe is cold and the outer pipe is warm.
Under accident conditions both inner and outer pipes are cold.
This was a fitting which was difficult to construct, but which has
---i-*
-t,.-
l',+ atr-j.r.r,t fr ,./
.//)l !I
tiK ll'1 "",""i
U .''
Fjgure 19.20 A typicat sidewall connection fora double-wa ed sjngle contain-
Figure 19.21 A typical sidewatt connection for a LOX or LtN tank
1 e t,s,Eji9!:EE!:!!!9y!!29EyE !9!
Figure 19.22 The bottom connection at Mobil Oit's Coryton refinery
worked successfully for some 15 years. ln this case the heat
break is the bellows.
19.6 Internal pipework insulation
The only pipework to be found within the tank envelooe is nor-
mallythatwhich runs from the cold liquid orvapour roofconnec-
tion down to the suspended deck. The insulation is simDle usu-
ally consisting of multiple layers of a suitably-backed glass
fibre, wrapped around the pipe and held in place with wire or
plastic ties, or of preformed pipe insulation sections usually
made from glass fibre or mineral wool.
19.7 External pipework insulation
--
The insulation of lowtemperature pipework is a signifi cantsub-
ject jn its own right and more properly belongs in a publicatjon
dealing with pjpework systems.
Regularvisits to sites where lowtemperature liquids are stored
and processed will rapidly revealto the observerthat the maior-
ity of problems of ice build-up and condensation occur in ihe
pipework. In addition to causing expense by virtue of excessive
heat gain, the ice build-up can also be the source of safetv Drob-
lems by inhibiting thermal movements at bellows and pipe sup-
oorts.
Good low temperature pipework insulation is the result of cor-
rect system design, specification, material selection and proba_
bly most importantly, the careful installation and site supervision
by experienced specialists.
Traditionally,pipework insulation has been fitted followino erec-
tion ofthe piping system. In recent years there has been Jmove
away from site installation and it is now common for orefabri-
cated pipe spools to be sent to an insulation specialist to re-
ceive the thermal insulation prior to erection in the field. This
brings the benefits of controlled factory environments for this
activity, leaving onlythejoints between spools to be insulated at
site. Clearly good planning and dimensional control are a Dre-
requisite ofthe successful implementation ofthis method of in_
stallation.
The most commonly used materials for the insulation are pUF
and cellularglass. Both ofthese materials are available in fac-
tory-formed pipe profiles. lvlaterials commonly used for the
vapour seal/weather protection are galvanised or Aluzinc steel
sheeting, aluminium sheeting, stainless steel sheeting, poly-
ethylene and vadous non-mebllic mastics.
For manyyears an argument has raged concerning the relative
merits of the materials and combinations of materials in resist_
ing heat radiation loadings from various accident scenarios.
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 395
19 lnsulation systems fot low tempercture tanks

This still continues, with allsides frequently claiming victory. lt is l\4ost thermal insulation materials have thermal conductivities
not unusual for composite systems using PUF for the inner which change with temperature. This is illustrated for cellular
layers and cellular glass for the outer layer to be specified. glass by Figure 19.6. Hence the mean temperature of a layer of
insulation material within the multi-layersystem must be known
An area where particularcare is needed is in the fitting of insula-
before the thermal resistance of that layer can be calculated,
tion to valves and other fittings.
and the thermal resistance is required to establish the mean
Infrared thermography discussed in Section 19.10 is a useful remperarure.
tool for inspecting low temperature pipe insulation systems.
The way out of this apparent impasse is to assume a tempera-
The identification of the causes of failure or lack of longevity of ture profile for the various interfaces within the system, use this
such pipe insulation systems is not always straightforward. A to calculate the mean temperatures of the individual layers and
refinery in the UK had problems of early breakdown of its care- this in turn to obtain the k values of the various materials to per-
fully installed cellular, glass-based insulation. The cause ofthis form the initial calculation. The results of this calculation allow
problem was eventuallyhaced to the fact that the workforce fre- the interface temperatures to be recalculated and the k values
quently used the larger insulated pipes as walkways to the to be revised. Asecond calculation is carried out and the results
more inaccessible parts ofthe site. The brittle cellularglass was ofthis allow a further revision of the k values. A couple offurther
no match for the workers' boots! iterations should show temperature values at the interfaces
converging and this should be sufficient. Figure 19.23 shows a
numerical example of this Drocess. This is a tedious calculation
19.8 Heat leak calculations
to carryoutbyhand and is ideallysuited to Excel spreadsheets.
The basis of the heat leak calculations is quite straightforward.
Itisonlyin the detail that the subject becomes a little more inter-
19.8.2 Thermal conductivity values
esting. The tank insulation system is divided up into the areas
where similar materials or combinations of materials have been
used. For a typical full containment tank these would be: Initially, the source of the thermal conductivity values (or K val-
ues) to be used in the basic calculations is the manufacture's
. The central area ofthe tank base technical literature. Mosi low temperature tank designers will
. The oerioheral area ofthe tank base produce their own detailed technical specifications for the sup-
ply and installation of the different parts of the insulation sys-
. The lower tank wall where thermal orotection has been in- tem. Within such specifications it would be unusual if there were
stalled not some means of confirming the K values of the materials.
. The upper tank wall where no thermal protection has been This could take the form of regular samples being taken from
installed the place of production, be this a factory for materials such as
slab stock PU F, PVC foam, cellular glass, glass fibre or mineral
. The tank roof wool, or the construction site for such materials as perlite or site
expanded PUF.
19.8.1 Basic calculation methods These samples would be sent to an agreed laboratory where
the K values would be verified at the appropriate temperature
The basic equation to calculate the heatflux through a particu- (or range of tem peratures). lt is usual for the eventual owners of
lar component to be adopted where a slngle insulation material the tank to witness this testing, either themselves or via their
is used is: hired engineering or inspection companies. As has been men-
H=k xAxAT iL equ 19.1 tioned earlier, the measurement of low temperature insulation
properties is noteasyand should be leftto those skilled and ex-
where: perienced in this work. Note that this testing is usually con-
ducted in air.
H = heat flux through component (W)
For porous materials such as perlite, glass fibre or mineral
k = thermal conductivity of the insulation material
wool, the vapour within which the insulation material is operaf
(W/m'K)
ing wiil have a significant effect on lts effective K value. Thus the
A = area of component (m2) test results which are based on air as the interstitial gas will
have to be adjusted to account for the presence of a different
AT = hot to cold face temperature range ('K)
gas. This is discussed in Section 19.8.3.
L = thickness of component (m)
Where the insulation material has been penetrated by items
Where more than one material is used the following method made from different materials, such as is the case for resilient
taken from section A3 oI Reference 79.3 is used: blankets supported by being impaled on pins, the effective K
equ 19.2
valueto be used in the calculations must be adjusted to take ac-
U = 1/ (R1+ R2 + R3+.....+Rn)
count of the short circuiting effect ofthe pins. Asuitable calcula-
wnere: tion method for making this adjustment is given in section ,q3 of
Reference 19.3.
U = thermal transmittance (Wm'? 'K)
Certain insulation materials have thermal properties which
R1 & thermal resistance ofthe various insulation change with time. PUF used as external insulation may display
R2 etc = components (m2'K iV)
- calculated from an increase in its K value as the original foaming gas within the
equation '19.3 below cells is progressively replaced byair.ltis importantthatin these
R=L/K equ 19.3 circumstances a suitably aged property is used in the calcula-
tion.
Hence the equation to calculate the heat flux through a multi-
layer component is:
19.8.3 The influence of different interstitial gases
H=U xAxAT equ 19.4
It is not normal to include surface resistance in these calcula- The various equations which allow the K values of the vapours
tions. ofthe various low temDerature oroducts to be calculated at dif-

396 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 19 lnsulatjon systems for low temperature tanks

ABumptions for the exercise:

To Outer surface tamperature +40'c
Ti lnner sutfsoa ternperature -165 'C
Intef,stltialgas Methane
Installed perlle density 60 kglm3
lnstallsd glass fibre dn8ity 24 relm3
Section through wa[:
Matedal Thickne6s(mm)
Outside Concte 600
Sleel linet 5 lgnor h thermalcalculation
Psdite 960
Glasslibre 240
Inside 90/6 ni inner tank 10 lgnore in thermalcahulalion

Assumed thermalgradienl ('C) CK)

Air/concrelg 40 313 3'13.0000 313.0000 313,0000

Conc|Eie,/perlite 30 3{X} 310.C015 310.256 310.7349
Prlite/gla8s tibre -125 148 117.1301 174,7136 174.5*1
Glass fibr/product -'165 108 108.0000 108,0000 108-0000

TRIAL No 1
' Calculate K values:
Concrete Taken as 1.60 Wm'K tiroughout calqiation
Perlite step l calculate K value of hterstitial gas (f1)
ATp 155 'K
KS1 0.0243158 w,lm'K
step 2 calculate K value of petlib (KP)
R 8.252384i|
y 0.137422
Kp 0.0401584 Wm'K
Gla6s fibre step 1 calculate K value of interstitial gas (lQ2)
ATfg 40'K
l{gz 0.0133521 dm"K
step 2 fuctor ftom Figure 19.25
f 1.455
step 3 calculale K value of glass fibr
Kg 0-0194273

Total hat f,ux (tdal 1)

. Matedal Thidmess (mm) K value Themalresistance(rn2 "K iv) AT
ConaGte 600 1.6 0.3750 2.0985
Perlite 960 0.0401584 23.9054 133.771407
Glass fib|e 240 0.0194273 12.3538 6S.1301

Total 36.6341 m5.0000

Heat FlI( (dmz) 5.5959

Figure 1 9.23 An sxample of a multilayer ln6ulation @mponent cslcllation - page t

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIFII'ENT 397

 19 lnsulation systems for low temperdturc tanks

TRIAL No 2
Calcxrlate K values:
Concrets Taken as 1.60 Wm'K thrcughout calculation
Pedite step 1 calculate K value of intersfital gas (lg1)
ATp 133.7714'K
Kgl 0.0266994 w/m'K
stp 2 calculale K value of pertite (Kp)
R 7.87Tt517
y 0.1374?2.
.l
Kp o.o428oa w/m'K
Glass fib| step calculale K value of inteGfitial gas (Kg2)
Arfu 69.1901 'K
Kg2 0.01499s6 w/m'K
step 2 factor from Figure 9.2S
1
t 1.455
step 3 calculate K value of glass fibre
Kfs 0.0218187

Total heat flux (biat 1 )

Material Thlckness (mm) Kvalue Thermal resistance(mr.XLn) at
Concret 600 1.8 0.3750 2,2744
Perlfte 960 0.042808 22-4287 136.012036
cfass fibr6 240 O.O21B|B7 10.999g 66.7,13

Toiat $.9005 208.0000

Heat Ftux (dmz) 6.0650

TRIAL No 3
Calculale K values:
Conqeie Taken as 1.60 w/m'K throughout clculalion
Pedite step 1 calculate K value ot interstitiat gas (Kg1)
ATp 136.0i20 'K
lQl 0.0285485 w/m'K
step 2 calculate K value of pedite (Kp)
R 7.9020321
y 0.137422.
Kp 0.0426242 wtm'K
Glass fibr step 1 calculale K value of interstitial gas (Kg2)
ATfs 66.7136 'K
Kg2 0.0148s87 dm'K
step 2 factor from Figure 1 9.25
1.455
step 3 calculate K value of glass jibre
Kfg 0.02i6194

Total heat flux (trlat 1)

Matedal Thickness (mm) Kvalue The.malresistance(flf "tgu/) AT
Concrete 600 1.6 0.3750
pedite 960 0.0426242 Z2.Sn4
2.2611
135.8027i18
Glass fibre 240 0.0216194 11.'1011 66.936.1

Total 33.9986 205.0000

Hat Flux (dm2) 6.0297

Figure 19.23 An example ofa multi-tayer insulation component calcutation - page 2

398 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1 I lnsulation systems for low temperaturc tanks

'efent temperatures are given in Figure '19.24. The source of 19.8.4 Galculation of the hot face temperature
tis data is Reference 19.4.
The design specification will require a certain maximum heat
Fomula for themal conductivity In wm"K leak into the tank contents as described in Section 19.7 Ofren
o oorou * u'"tito'Lt'Jli the only data given is the maximum design ambient tempera-
ture, which is a shade temperature at the tank's geographic lo-
5 9l7 t 1o' ca on.
o.oos6r r lT'l''
The actual maximum temperatures to which the tank roof and
o.oorot .
uuttilo'[t.ll' walls will be subjected influenced by the local solar radiation
maximum levels, the attitude ofthe surface in question, the pre-
I 258'10 7
.-,e6rr, vailing weatherconditions (clear orcloudy skies)and the nature
nT t' lr
of the external surfaces. Data and calculation methods allowing
rrr,.1-.""" the actual maximum temperatures to be calculated for any set
\Ttll of circumstances are given in section AG ot Reference 19 3

L For the tank base. two possibilities exist:

-- )r'
^T . For tanks built on the ground, the hot face temperature is
-i--L'r', based on the operational settings of the base heating con-
trol system. lt is clearly unwise to have the base heating
Tl
system maintaining the base temperature at too high a
level. Purchasing expensive energy, be it electrical, steam
T,-T, fK) or heated brine to boil off more product than is necessary
t T+12CK) incurring further costs in terms of re-liquefaction or product
loss to atmosphere is clearly a nonsense. Consequently a
: g u re 1 L24 Formulae for calculating the K values of various gases at d ifferent design hot face value as low as possible is used. -5 'C is a
not unusualvalue to use in the calculations in these circum-
Forcalculating the Kvalue ofperlite with the air replaced byone stances.
cf these gases at a particular set oftemperature conditions, the
. For tanks built on elevated foundations, a hot face design
'ollowino formula can be used: temperature equal to the maximum shade temperature
xo=Kn(-v)+ equ 19.5 would seem to be a sensible choice. There is perhaps a
/^,+o-1f case for using a lower temperature. Experience suggests
that the space beneath the base slab of such tanks is a cold
vhere: place to be, even on hot days.
Kp = thermal conductivity of perlite in the replace'
ment interstitial gas (Wm 'K) 19.8.5 Overall heat leak
Ks = thermal conductivity of the interstitial gasatthe
appropriate temPerature (Wm "K) Acommon wayforthe tank maximum heat leakto be specifled
to the tank and insulation system designer is to express it in
R" = 0.114i Ks+ 3.608 terms of the escape to atmosphere of a percentage of the full
y = 3.9x10'3xp087 tank contents perday. Hence for a large LNG tank we may see:
"The maximum heat leak shall not exceed 0.05% of the full
p = installed perlite density (kgim3)
tank contents per day on the assumption that the tank con-
For calculating the K value of glass fibre or mineral wool, the tents are considered to be pure methane."
graph shown in Figure 19.25 can be used.
The latter requirement to consider the tank contents as a pure
(Both equation 19.5 and Figure '19.25 are attributed to the late product is to avoid the complication of working out the latent
Dr lan Leadley of Whessoe.) heat ofthe LNG which may have a range ofcompositions and to

lhermal conduclivity glass fibre

= factor x average conductivity of
gas

Figurc 19.25 K value ofglass fibre of mineralwool

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 399

19 Insulation systems for low temperature tanks
avoid subsequent contentious arguments. lt is normal to make
the same form of wording for any tank containing a mixed prod-
uct, expressing the permitted heat leak in terms ofa percentage
ofthe major constituent. The following points are worth bearing
in mind:
. lt is importantto use the correct density in the calculation of
the permitted heat leak. For LNG a latent heat of 507.0
kJ/kg should be used with the pure methane density of
0.422. Using the design density of LNG (frequently given as
0.48) will give too high a value of the permitted heat leak.
. lt is often presumed that the worst conditions pertaining at
any point on the tank outer surface at any time during the
whole day will persist for the full 24 hours. This has occa-
sionally become a point of dispute beh,veen the owner and
the designer, with the tank designer claiming that it repre-
sents an unnecessarily conservative interpretation.
. The full tank contents is usually taken to mean just that, i.e.
with no deduction for in-tank pump NPSH etc.
. both the owner and the tank contractor, who would review
Whilst the calculations seek to cover all of the sources of
possible heat leakage from tank to atmosphere, there will
probably be some which have been ignored or overlooked
such as the smaller connected pipe connections. To cover
for these uncertainties, it is usual for the designer to aim for
a calculated heat leak lower than the full target value. A not
unusual starting point would be to aim for 85% of the full
value in the first instance.
A well set out heat leak calculation for a large full containment
type LNG tank is shown in Figure 19.26. This makes use of a
series of linked Excel soreadsheets.
19.9 Heat leak testing
With the customer or his engineer setting a heat leakage re-
quirement for the tank and the distinct possibility that at least
some of the process equipment will be designed based on this
figure, it would seem sensible to test the finished storage sys-
tem to see that it fullllls this performance criteria. This is not as
simple as it would appear for a variety of reasons:
. lvleasuring the heat leak will require either a significant
change in the tank liquid level to occur, which may take
some days depending upon the accuracy ofthe level mea-
suring equipment provided, or will require the accurate
measurement of the vapour flow through the vapour outlet
line, something difficult and expensive to achieve. Vapour
flow measurement is not a normal part of the tank instru-
mentation. For a large LNG tank with a specified boil off rate
of less than 0.05% (a typical figure for such tanks) the level
change will be of the order of 15 mm/day. To get a sensible
measurement which will be sufiicient to negate any uncer-
tainty caused by tolerances on gauging accuracy, it is clear
that the test duration must run into several days.
. The tank must be fullor close to full at the time of the test to
avoid contentious arguments revolving around the extrapo-
lation ofthe heat leakfrom a lowerliquid levelto a fulltank.
. The tank must not be subject to any liquid movements dur-
ing the test period.
. The test must be carried out at a time when barometric
pressure is anticipated to remain relatively constant.
. Ambient temperature must be monitored throughout the
test period.
. For LNG LPG and other mixed products, it is necessary to
determine the composition of the liquid in the tank. This will
require sampling as the iank is filled.
4OO STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
. lt may be necessaryto run the in-tank pumps during the test
period to ensure proper mixing. Allowance for the energy in-
out from this source must be made.
. Boil off is known not to occur at a uniform rate, but rather as
a series of irregular "burps". This is another reason why the
test must be conducted over a protracted period.
. Arrangements must be made to record and take account of
the effects of wind and solar radiation.
These difficulties combine to make a physical heat leak test
time consuming, expensive and inconclusive. To avoid this
problem area, the following procedure is often adopted:
. The tank designer must prepare detailed heat leak calcula-
tions together with the appropriate certification (and possi-
bly QA records if these are available at the time) to
demonstrate that the materials used havethe required ther-
mal properties.
. These calculations and the associated documentation will
be submitted to an expert third party, previously agreed by
the calculations and whose findings would be binding on
both parties.
One of the added advantages of this procedure is that in the
event of a shortfall being found in the thermal insulation pro-
vided, then this can be made good prior to the tank entering ser-
vice. This could perhaps be by a simple addition to the thick-
ness ofthe insulation on the suspended deck, an action with no
knock-on effects. With the physicaltest route, this pre-commis-
sioning adjustment is not possible.
19.10 The use of the infrared camera
An infrared camera will produce images which will identify ar-
eas where the heat leak is abnormal or merelydifferentfrom the
surrounding areas of insulation. lt is a useful tool both at the
time of tank commissioning and as an occasional maintenance
device to locate any changes in the thermal insulation system
and its performance, perhaps due to such time dependent phe-
nomena as insulation material degradation or perlite settle-
ment. The equipment is nowadays quite cheap to purchase, or
there are companies who will come and perform this service.
19.1 1Insulation problems from the past
and their lessons
19.11.'l Base insulation failure
Two LNG tanks belonging to GAZ Metropolitan in lMontreal,
Canada, had been in continuous satisfactory service until July
1990, when instrumentation in the tank base ofone of the tanks
began to show evidence of cold spots. After double checking
and adding new thermocouples, the problem persisted and it
became obvious that the tank required to be taken out of
service.
Following decommissioning it was found that the cellular glass
base insulation was the subject of massive cracking and me-
chanical breakdown.
This damage eventually necessitated the lifting ofthe innertank
andthe complete replacement of the cellularglass base insula-
tion, an expensive and time consuming process.
An investigation into the cause of this base insulation failure
was carried out and this is reported in Reference 19.5.
The investigation revealed that in July 1990, blasting work had
been carried out within 200 m ofthe two tanks. The tank nearest
to the blasting was full of Iiquid at the time and undamaged. The
tankfurthest awayfrom the blasting location was fllled to 20% of
 19 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks

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STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 401

19 lnsulation systems for low tempenturc tanks

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402 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 1 9 lnsulation systems for low tempenture tanks

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STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 403

 19 lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks

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404 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 19 Insulation systems for low tempemture tanks

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STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 405

19 lnsulation systems for low temperature knks

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406 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT

 19 lnsulation systems for low temperature tanks

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STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 407

19 lnsulation systems for low tempercture tanks

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408 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


:s capacity and was damaged as described. The investigation
:ound that the partiallyfilled tank had a higher natural frequency
:han the fuller tank and was thus more susceptible to damage
iom the blasfinduced ground motions.
-lhe
lesson from this incident is clearly that any blasting on the
same, or adjacentsites should be avoided, and ifthis is not pos-
sible, then detailed investigations should be carried out to de-
iermine the susceptibility of tanks with brittle base insulation
naierials to damage.
19.11.2 External vapour sealing
A number of low temoerature tanks with external thermal insu-
ation on their shells, and in some cases also on their roofs,
rave come to grief over the years. The reasons for these fail-
Jres are usually associated with poor performance of their ex-
:ernal vapour sealing arrangements. This has allowed mois-
iure-laden air to invade the insulation material and form ice
/vithin the insulation or on the tank shell beneath the insulation.
The damage can manifest itself immediately following the tank
cool down or following several years in service.
Higher than anticipated heat in leak and consequent product
Soiloff, the appearance of external condensation orofice spots
or (in at least one case) sudden failure and collapse ofallor part
of the shell insulation are the usual signs.
The lesson here is that the external vapour seal and its
ong-term abilityto keep atmospheric moisture out ofthe insula-
tion material is viialto the survival ofthe insulation system. Cor-
r.ect material selection, sDecification and installation are all ac-
livities, which will help to ensure that the required performance
and service life are obtained.
19,11.3 Bottom corners
The bottom corner of tanks where the wall insulation is on the
outer surface ofthe shell and the base insulation is beneath the
iank bottom, have on occasions given rise to problems. Again,
the cause is moisture ingress and the reason is poorwaterand
vapour sealing materials and details. This is a difficult area of
the insulation system to design for, for a number of reasons:
. Large radial thermal movements caused by tank contrac-
tion.
. High shell line loadings, requiring materials with good, me-
chanical and thermal DroDerties.
19 Insulation systems for low temperaturc tanks
. Exposed to frequent waterfall events, due to concentrated
rainfall from the roof and shell.
. Complications to detailed design caused by holding-down
anchors.
. The correct selection of materials, detailed design and
careful installation together with regular inspection all have
their part to play in this area.
19.1 1.4 Perlite settlement
Double walled tianks using perlite insulation have on occasions
had a history of poor performance. Aring of condensation orice
at. or close to the top ofthe outer shell, is an indication of exces-
sive perlite settlement. The reasons for this can be:
. Lack of, or inadequate, or ineffective vibration ofthe perlite
during its site expansion and insiallation.
. The provision of insufficient hoppervolume atthe top corner
of the tank.
. On at least one occasion, the location of a large diesel-pow-
ered generatoradjacentto the tank following perlite installa-
tion.
The use of experienced perlite installation companies using ap-
propriate methods and equipment will help to avoid this prob-
lem and its solution, expensive in service topping up of the
perlite.
19.12 References
19.1 Foamglas@ lndustrial lnsulation Handbook, Pittsburgh
Corning NV Waterloo, Belgium.
19.2 Research into the structural integrity of LNG tanks,
D. Neville and G. White, British Gas Engineering Re-
search Station. LNG 9. October 1989.
19.3 The lnternational Heating and Ventilating Guide, fhe
Chartered Institution of Building Services.
19.4 The Handbook of Cryogenic Engineering, J.G.
Weisland ll, Taylor & Francis, London, 1998.
19.5 Damage to base ofLNG tanks from blast loadings - A
case study, R. Tinawi, A. Filiatrank, C Dor6, Journal of
Performance of Constructed Facilities. Vol 7. No 3. Au-
qust 1993.
STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 409
410 STORAGE TANKS & EQUTPMENT
20 Ancillary equipment for low
temperature tanks
This Chapter provides a brief review of the ancillary equipment which goes to make up a low
temperature liquid storage system.

Contents:
20.1 General

20.2 In-tank pgmps and their handling equipment

20.2.1 In-tank pumps
20.2.2 In-tank pump removal systems
20.2.3 Pumo columns
20.3 Filling columns
20.4 Base heating systems
20,5 Tank cooldown systems
20.6 Internal shut-off valves
20.7 Venting systems
20.8 Fire protectlon aystems
20.8.1 Detection systems
20.8.2 Safety systems
20.8.2.1 Fire water system
20.8.2.2 Foam systems
20.8.2.3 Dry polvder systems
20.8.2.4 Local proteclion of vulnerabb equiprner
20.9 Instrumentation
20.9.1 Level measurement
20,9.2 Pressure measurement
20.9.3 Temperature measurement
20.9.4 Level/temperature/density (LTD) measurement
20.9.5 Leak detection
20.9.6 Internal cameras
20.10 Civil monitoring systems
20.11 Refurences

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 411

20 Ancillary eguipment for low temperature tanks
20.1 General
The ancillaryequipmentassociatedwith lowtemperalure tanks
falls into two categories.
. Equipmentwhich is generally uniqueto the lowtemperature
tiank category such as in-iank pumps, base heating sys-
tems, civil monitoring systems and some items of inslru-
mentation.
. Equipment which is similar to that normally provided for
tanks for ambient temperature service, but in certain ways
different, perhaps by being required to be more accurate or
to be made to higher safety standards. Certainly such
equipment is generally more expensive than the equivalent
items for ambient temperature service. Into this category
would fall level, pressure and temperature measuring in-
strumentation, venting and fire protection equipment.
20.2 In-tank pumps and their handling
equipment
20.2.1 ln-tank pumps
As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, in-tank pumps have
become very much a standard item of equipment for low tem-
perature tanks, especially for double and full containment sys-
tems.
The pumps and their driving motors are fitted into pump wells
which are immersed in the product liquid. The pump wells run
verticallyfrom the bottom ofthe liquid-containing tank upwards,
through the suspended deck where this is fitted and exit
through the pressure-containing tank roof. Such a pump is illus-
trated in Figure 20.1. The pump motor is cooled directly by the
passage ofthe product liquid for all of the low temperature liq-
uids with the exception of ammonia. The reasons why liquid
ammonia is the odd one out are described in Chapter 2l .
Figure 20.1 Alypical section lhrough an inlank pump
Court$y of Nikkjso Cryo Eurcpe
412 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
The modern land-based in-tank pumps owe much to the ship
ping industry where similar pumps have been used for many
years and from whence they were developed. These pumps
are required to lifr the product liquid out of the storage tank, ei-
therto deliver it to external pumps which willimpart the required
pressure to the product, or to impart this pressure themselves
without the assistance of external pumps.
As would be expected, the biggest pumps are associated with
LNG tanks which are in general larger in capacitythan the tanks
for other products and require greaterthroughput. lt is generally
accepted that in order to avoid excessive demurrage charges,
a large LNG tanker should be loaded at 12,000 m3/hr. Presum-
ing thatthis tankeris being loadedfrom two land-based storage
tanks each fitted with three in-tank pumps, then pumps with a
discharge rate of some 2000 m3/hr will be required. A typical
in-tank pump assembly is shown in FigUIe 2o.2.
Pump manufacturers are currently developing pumps with unit
capacities of 3000 m3/hr. Awide range of pressuremow combi-
nations are available and these are illustrated in Figures 20.3
and 20.4.
Clearlythe capacityofan in-tiank pump willdepend on the situa-
tion and function ofthe storage tank. For a liquid exportterminal
the requirement may be for a large capacity to speed the load-
ing of shipping, but a comparatively modest delivery pressure,
sufficientto liftthe liquid from the tank and deliver it through the
connecting pipework and loading arms to the ship. For an im-
port terminal, the requirements in terms ofthroughput are more
modest being related to the needs ofassociated processes, but
the requirements in terms of delivery pressure may be signifl-
cant. Where external pumps are notto used in the system, it is
not unusualforthe in-tank pumps to be required to raisethe liq-
uid pressure to that of the final user, who may require a line
pressure of 40 bar or greater.
Pumps for high throughput but lowpressures tend to be large in
diameter with a single stage. High-pressure pumps with low
Operalionsl condilion
Figure 20.2 A complete in-tank pump assembly
Cou esy of Mkkjso Cryo Europe
 2A Ancillary equipment fot law tempercture tanks

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150

- lure 20.4 Pump pressure/flow raie curues

:lroughput tend to have many stages and be smaller in diame-
.:r
lne area of concern for ihe tank designer is the ability of the
: Jmp to pump down to a low liquid level without losing suction
:td the minimum liquid level at which the pump may be re-
:iarted. These characteristics combine to dictate the unusable
:pace at the boiiom of the storage tank, which economics re-
ruires to be minimised. What was at one time expressed as a
:lngle NPSH figure has in recent times become more complex.
-he variables are;
. The minimum head at which the pump willcontinue to pump
at its full-rated capacity is of interest from overall process
reasons.
. The minimum head ai which the pump willcontinue to pump
at reduced capacity is of interest from tank decommission-
ing reasons. The minimum level of residual liquid left in ihe
tank after the pump has ceased to function will have to be
removed by other means and will have an influence on the
ovefall decommissioning period and consequent costs.
. The minimum liquid level at which the pump can be re-
started will have process consequences. The pump is both
cooled and lubricated by the product liquld and restarting at
low levels may have pump wearand frequency of major ser-
vjcing effects.
The unravelling of these is usually decided by discussion be-
tween the owner, the pfocess engineers, the tank designers
and the pump suppliers.
The electrical power supply to the pumps is usually made via
cables which penetrate the pump column head plate and pass
down ihe pump column to the pump itself. They are supporied
from ihe lifting cable. There is another less ffequently adopted
system which uses power cables that run inside a tubular sup-
port, which is also used to lift the pump.
For service and maintenance reasons the in-tank pump ar-
rangements must be such that the pump can be safely removed
from the tank without any form of interruption to the tank opera-
tion. For this reason it is usual to fit one spare pump and its as-
sociated equipment. The most commonly used purnp removal
system is described in Section 20.2.2.
To ensurethatthe pump is notdamaged bythe ingestion ofany
construction debris which may have been left in the tank or in

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 413

20 Ancillary equipment for low temperature tanks
the connected pipework, it has become usual practice to install
a coarse filter around the bottom of the pump column.
The pumps should not be installed prior to the tank hydrostatic
test.
The European code for the design of onshore LNG installations
is EN 1473 (Reference 20.1). This document requires that
there shall be no penetrations of the primary and secondary
container walls or bases of storage tanks. This requirement
makes the use of in-tank pumps mandatory for all classifica-
tions of containment (i.e. single, double, full, membrane, dou-
ble concrete or spherical above ground types).
20.2.2 ln-tank pump removal system
The system described here is the most commonly adopted
within the industry. The pump column is fifted with a head piate
which is bolted to the top flange of the pump column. This head
plate is fitted with a lifting device which can slide up and down
for a limited distance through a suitable gland arrangement.
The pump body is attached to this lifting device by the pump
support cable. There is a second cable attached to the pump
which also runs up the pump column to the head plate and the
surplus of this longer lifting cable is stored beneath the head
olate. The head olate also contains the electrical connections
which pass through suitable pressure tight glands to an exter-
naljunction box. Atypicalhead plate arrangement is shown in
Figure 20.5.
The bottom of the oumD column is fitted with a foot valve. This is
a spring-loaded valve which is held shut by the spring loading
and the product liquid pressure until it is opened by the imposi-
tion of the dead weight of the pump which has been lowered
down the column onto this valve. Atypicalfoot valve is shown in
Figure 20.6.
The function ofthe foot valve is to allow the pump column to be
emptied of product liquid prior to removing the in-tank pump.
Before removing the head plate, the pump weight is lifted offthe
foot valve allowing it to close. This is done using the pump sup-
port cable. The pump column is then pressurised with nitrogen
Figure 20.5 Atypicalpump column head plate affangement
414 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
FOOT VALVE OPEN FOOT VALVE CLOSED
Figure 20.6 A typical foot valve
gas which forces the liquid out of the pump column through the
foot valve. This then allows the removal ofthe head plate from a
nitrogen gas purged column, a much safer arrangement than
would be the case if product liquid and vapour were present in
the column during this operation.
The head plate is lifted sufficiently to allowfor the pump weight
to be suDoorted whilstthe lift cable is attached to the drum ofthe
pump lifting arrangement. With the head plate removed, the
pump can be lifted and the power cables, which are attached to
the support cable, can be wound onto a suitable drum for safe
storage. This sequence of events is illustrated in Figure 20.7.
The replacement of a pump is simply a reversal of this proce-
d ure.
Hoists for lifting the pumps, which can weigh as much as
4000 kg, are either of the gantry U beam or pedestal type. The
lifting arrangements must clearly cover all of the pump col-
umns, any other associated equipment such as cable storage
drums, and be capable of lowering pumps and other items
down to the local grade. lt is occasionally felt necessaryto pro-
vide a canister at roof levelforthe pump to be placed in immedi-
ately following removal to permit it to warm up and safely
release any product vapours.
There is an alternative in-tank pump support and removal sys-
tem which uses a system of connecting stainless steel tubes.
The use of this system is relatively uncommon.
These operations require considerable space at the tank roof
level and result in large platforms, an example of which is
shown in Figure 20.8.
20.2.3 Pump columns
Pump columns are usually sized by the pump supplier A Iarge
pump column would today be around 42" in diameter' The ma-
jority ofthe column length is a comfortable clearance fit around
the pump. The lower portion, foraboutthe heightofthe pump, is
a closer fit and serves to locate the pump accurately onto the
footvalve and contains a means of preventing pump rotation. lt
is usual for the tank builder to provide a dummy pump of the
same physical dimensions as the real pump. This is used to
demonstrate that the pump column will allow the pump to pass
without obstruction. The column is designed to pressure vessel
Codes and Standafds for the pump delivery pressure and usu-
ally for full vacuum or maximum externalliquid pressure ifthis is
happensto be greater. lt is usualto blank off and carry out an in
situ pressure test of the pump column.
The most commonly adopted material for pump columns is
stainless steel. This is due to the ready availability of suitable
large diameter tubes in this material. There is no reason why

INIIIA! UF'
Figure 20.7 The pump lifting sequence
other materials such as 9% nickel steel should not be used if
these could be shown to be economical.
Pump columns may be supported from the base of the tank or
suspended from the tank roof. The former arrangement would
reouire some device such as a bellows to accommodate differ-
ential thermal movements between the tank and the pump col-
umn and a suitably strong base insulation material to allow for
the local loadings. lf the suspended route is adopted, guides
must be fitted to restrain the bottom of the column. For both so-
lutions it is not uncommon to provide guides or restraints be-
tween the column and the tank shell at higher levels, especially
when seismic sloshing loadings are to be allowed for. To evalu-
ate seismlc sloshing loadings, it is usual to use the work of
Figure 20.8 Atypical roof platform for pump handling
Courtesy of Chicago Bidge & kon Conpany (CB & l)
20 Ancillary equipment for low tempemture tanks
C Headpr.G
'e@r
Wozniak unless more sophisticated methods are readily avail-
aote.
It is wise to position the liquid outlet connection on the side of
the column some way down from the head plate. This allows a
vapour cushion to exist betvveen the maximum liquid level and
the head plate, especially at start-up when the product liquid
rapidly ascends the column. Early experiences where this con-
nection was placed close to the top resulted in the liquid con-
tacting the head plate and flange which promptly contracted
whilst the bolting remained at ambient temperature. This fre-
quently caused a transient leakage situation on start-up which
challenged the operators fleetness of foot.
20.3 Filling columns
These have become a common feature, especially for the
larger tanks with high liquid inlet rates. Theirfunction is to sepa-
rate the liquid and the flashing vapour as they enter the tank.
They are fitted immediately beneath the main liquid bottom fill
line and are suDoorted from the tank base.
The most commonly found detail for this purpose is the propri-
etary design owned by MW Kellogg Ltd. A typical detail is indi-
cated in Figure 20.9. These fittings can be substantial in size.
The columns forthe DabholLNG tanks were 2.2 m in diameter.
Such large and heavyfittings must be accommodated in terms
of base insulation loading and must be located sufficiently far
from the tank shell not to inhibit the uplifting of the tank shell in
unanchored tank seismic design.
Doubts have been exDressed as to the usefulness ofthese ex-
pensive fittings, however a large number of tanks have been fit-
ted with these details, and there is no evidence thatthey do not
perform their intended function.
20.4 Base heating systems
Low temperature tanks require base heating, and in some
cases wall heating, to avoid the possibility ofthe occurrence of
STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 415

SECIION A-A
Figure 20.9 Deiails of a lypical bottom llllconnection
Caunesy of M W Kellagg Ltd
a phenomenon known as frost heave. This is wherethe zero'C
isotherm can penetrate the subsoil and cause the formation of
an ice lens, most usually beneath the tank base. This ice lens
continues to grow and will eventually lift the tank bottom giving
rise to damage and possible leakage. Different types oi subsoil
are more susceptible than others to the formation of ice lenses
and the location ofthe localwatertable is clearly important An
early paper on this problem is given as Reference 20.2.
Tanks with elevated bases do not require base heating Above
ground tanks, with bases located directly on the subsoil, are al-
most alwaysfitted with base heating systems. There are a few
examples ofground-based tanks for the warmer products such
as normaland iso butane where no base heating is provided. In
ground and earth-bunded tanks will also require heating of the
tank walls.
The most common heating systems are electrical These use
cables running in conduits such that any individual heater unit
can be removed and replaced. This is simple for the above
ground tanks, but requires more care in the detailed design
phase to ensure that a heater unit traversing both tank walls
and base is readily removable and replaceable.
The less commonly adopted system uses warm water or brine
circulating through pipework.
BS 7777:Part 3 gives some guidance relating to base heating
systems. In brief these are:
Brine slorage
Figure 20.10 A flow diagtam lor a brine-based heating syslem
416 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
The temperature of the supporting soil or concrete during
normal operation should not be less than 4'C.
When the soil is sensitive to drying and shrinkage, a maxi
mum temoerature should be defined.
The heating system should be designed to minimise exces-
sive temperatures, which could lead to high boil-off rates.
There is clearly little merit in purchasing expensive energy
to boiloff more expensive productthan is absolutely neces-
sary and then purchase more energy to reliquefy it.
VAPO1IR OIJTLFI The arrangement should take account of differences in the
thermal characteristics of the base insulation. For instance
the difierence between the central area ofthe base and the
peflpnery
The system should allowfor the replacement of any heating
element or temoerature sensor
The design ofthe system should be such asto allowthe reg-
ular monitoring of its performance.
. The thermal design ofthe system should be based on the
heat leak calculations. Two sets of boundary conditions
should be considered, the design temperature of the prod-
uct and a soiltemperature at a depth belowthe tank. Forthis
latter flg u re a value of 7'C at a depth of20m is suggested.
. A factor of safety of 1.3 is suggested for the heat input.
. The heating circuit output should be contlolled bytempera-
ture sensors. These should be strategically located through
the system.
. All temperature controllers should have spare sensors
available and permanently installed to allow for rapid
changeover in the event of sensor failure.
. Electrical heating should consist of a number of independ-
ent parallel circuits designed such thatthefailure ofanyone
circuit does not decrease the power supply to the remaining
circuits.
. Heaters should be located such that the deficiency caused
by the failure of any one heating circuit is spread evenly
throughout the heated area.
. Electrical heating should be designed sothat in the event of
the failure of a main supply cable or a power transformef:
- Sufficient time is available to repair the equipment before
damage occurs due to excessive cooling.
- Provision is made for connecting to a stand by heating
power source.
The general flow diagram for a brine-based heating system is
shown in Figure 20.10.
For LNG tanks, EN 1473 requires 100% redundancy to be pro-
vided in the design of base heating systems.
,t')a -'t...\
tt /r/..,.)..
Healing coils in
tank base slab
 20 Ancillary equipment for low temperature tanks

20.5 Tank cool-down arrangements

The cooling down of lowtemperature tanks is an important part
of the commissioning procedure. The rate of cooling and the
permitted differential temperatures between various parts of
the tank structure should be determined in advance of the cool
down operation. lt is usualto cool the tanks with the product liq-
uid to be stored. The one exception to this general rule is the
case of a number of recently-constructed LNG tanks which
have been cooled with liquid nitrogen rather than with LNG
The means of cooling is to spfay the cooling liquid into the tank
through a roof-mounted connection located close to the centre
line of the tank. Clearly for tanks with suspended decks, the
spray connection should be beneath the deck. The spray ar-
rangements should create finely dispersed liquid droplets
which will result in a symmetrical convection loop which will
hopefully cool the tank in a suitably uniform fashion. lt is impor-
tant that the arrangement chosen produces a fine spray of liq-
uid droplets over the full range of cool-down liquid supply flow
rates and pressures. A device which simply rains liquid down
onto the tank bottom immediately beneath the spray location
when the supply of cool-down liquid is throttled back is of no
use. A number of different arrangements are in common use:

Figurc 20.12 A removable spray nozzle arrangement

necessary steps to ensure that damage due to overcooling

does not occur.
In addition to the primary function of allowing a controlled tank
cool-down, the cool-down system may be used during iank op-
eration as a means of controlling tank pressure.

Figure 20.11 A typical propr etary spray connecUon

. Asingle spray nozzle. The nozzle is a proprietary design se-
lected to provide the required dispersion over the full range
of anticipated supply conditions. A typical spray nozzle is
shown in Figure 20.11. This arrangement is prone to block-
age and should be used in conjunction with a suitable filter.
. An internal ring pipe with a series on drilled holes. Unless
carefully designed these can turn into watering cans which
is not good.
. An internalring with multiple proprietaryspray connections.
20.6 Internal shut-off valves
The use of internal shut-off valves is uncommon for low temper-
ature tanks with the exception of those storing liquid oxygen, ni-
trogen orargon. BS 7777 : Pat14, which is specifically applica-
ble to tanks storing these products, makes lheir use mandatory
for all shell and bottom conneciions of 50 mm or laroer in diam-
eter.

. A removable spray head. This arrangement allows for the

single spray nozzleto be removed from the tank without any
decommissioning. The spray nozzle can be cleaned or re-
placed if the original is not found to be performing correctly.
A sketch of this arrangement is shown as Figure 20.12.

Having decided on the intended cool-down rate (usually be-

tween 1'C and s'C/hour) it is possible to calculate the rough
range of liquid flow rates required. Precise control of the flow
using a suitable valveand flow measuring device is necessary

A number of temperature measuring points are located within

the tank around a dozen distributed over the tank floor and
wall with-one located immediately below the spray arrange-
ment. An assessment of what constitutes an acceotable tem-
perature difference between adjacent thermocouples and what
the maximum temperature difference between any two
thermocouples should be made prior to commencement of
cool-down. The coofdown operation follows tank purging so
that the tank will be full of nitrogen gas. Spraying a cold liquid
into a nitrogen atmosphere can produce sub-cooling belowthe
temperature of the incoming liquid. Those carrying out the
cooldown should be aware of this Dossibilitv and take the Figure 20.13 A typical internal shuloff valve and iis opeior

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 417

20 Ancittary equipmenl [ot low temperature lanks
The most commonly found valves of this type are simple flap
valves which are held open during service by cables running to
tank roof connections. In the event of a mishap being detected
by the instrumentation provided for that purpose, operators lo-
cated on the tank roof release the cables and shut the valves lt
is normal to reset (i.e. reopen) these valves manually from the
tank roof. Atypical valve and operator is shown in Figure 20 13.
20.7 Venting systems
As is the case for ambienttanks, the function ofthe venting sys-
tem is to protect the tankfrom excessive levels of internal posF
tive pressure and negative pressure (i e. vacuum).
The design and description of venting systems for ambient
tanks has been described earlier in Chapter 8. The design and
types of equipment used for low temperature storage systems
is essentiallythe same with a few differences to allowfor the low
temperature and higheroperating pressures commonly assocF
ated with low temperature storage and in some cases to cater
for the very high throughputs required.
For the larger, more sophisticated tanks, it is usual to provide
two pressure relief systems. The first of these is connected to a
system of pipes which will deliver the relieved vapours to a re-
mote location, usually a flare stack. where the vapours may be
safely disposed of. The second system relieves directly to at-
mosphere. lt is usualto set the relieving pressure ofthe system
to flare at a lower setting than the relieving system to atmo-
sDhere. This ensures that the safer option istriedfirst and onlyif
this fails or is of insufficient capacity for the particular process
circumstance causing the upset, does the less desirable option
of relieving direct to atmosphere become operational
A typical series of pressure and vacuum settings for a large
LNG tank are shown in Figure 20.14.
The basis of the design of pressure and vacuum relief valve
systems is API 2O0O (Reference 20.3). Fot low temperature
tjnks, the section on refrigerated tanks is to be applied This
document is, unusually, also quoted in BS 7777 : Part 1 lt is
quite unusual for American Standards to be referenced in Brit-
ish Standards.
The design of product vapour (for pressure relief) and air (for
vacuum relief)flow capacities are made up ofthe most onerous
combination of the following:
a) Vapour displaced during filling at maximum rate
MRP, RVs oischa.gi.q to al,nospne6
sP, RYs Oischarging lo Almosphere
MRP, Rvs D6chrrglng lo FlaE
sP, RVs D schaE ng Io Fla
Maxidum Nodal OPe6ling P(essuE
Minimum Nofral Opling Pessure 100
vaclum RlEf FlllFloe
laEc
Glossaryi MRP = Manmum Relieving Pessuc
RV=
PABH = HEh Pressure Tdp {PressuE Alam High HEh)
PAH .- High Pressure Peal.m
PA! = LN Pessure PE-alam
Figure 20.14 Atypical LNG tank pressurc setting tabulation
courlesy of l\4 W Keilogg Ltd
418 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
b) Maximum rate of withdrawal of liquid product
c) Possible escape of product under emergency conditions
d) Suction capacity of comPressor
e) Heat leakage to the tank from atmosphere
f) Barometric pressure variation
g) Fire exposure
h) Any other special circumstances (e.g roll over)
The tankdesign Codes have contributionsto make in thisarea
API 620 requires that:
. Automatic pressure relieving devices shall be fitted to pre-
ventthe pressure atthe top ofthe tankfrom rising more than
1O7o above the maximum allowable working pressure (usu-
ally taken as the tank design pressure) except as provided
DCIOw'
. Where an additional hazard can be created bythe exposure
of the tank to accidental fire or another unexpected source
of heat external to the tank, supplementary pressure rellev-
ing devices shall be installed. These devices shall be capa-
bl; of preventing the pressure from rising more than 20%
above the maximum allowable working pressure. A single
pressure relieving device may be used if it satisfies the re-
quirements of this Paragraph
Note: lt is normal practice to test low temperature tanks to
25% overthe design pressure The 20% maximum ex-
ternal fire induced excursion is then less than the pres-
sure to which the structure has been tested.
. Vacuum relieving devices shallbe installed to permitthe en-
try of air (or another gas or vapour if so designed) to avoid
the collapse ofthe tank wall ifthis could occur under natural
operating conditions. These devices shall be located on the
tank so that they will never be sealed off by the tank con-
tents. Their size and pressure (or vacuum) setting shall be
such that the partial vacuum developed in the tank at the
maximum specified rate of air (or gas) inflowwill not exceed
the partial vacuum for which the tank is designed.
. The system shall be designed in accordance with the re-
quirements of API 2000.
Pressure relieving devices shall be installed such that they
are readily accessible for inspection and removable for re-
pairs. The practices suggested in API RP 520 (Reference
20.4) shall generally aPPlY.
319 lf the relieving devices are not located on the tank roof (a
290
most unusual situation), they shall be installed on the piping
connected to the vapour space as close to the tank as is
245 practicable. lf the relieving devices are vented to atmo-
sphere, they shall be at a sufflcient heightto prevent chance
ignition.
255
The opening from the tank leading to the relieving device
shall have a diameter at least equalto the inlet size ofthe re-
lieving device.
30
When a discharge pipe is fitted to the outlet side of the re-
15
lieving device, itshallbeofan area at leastequaltothe area
0
ofthtoutlet ofthe relieving device, or if a single plpe is pro-
vided for the discharge of several relieving devices, it shall
have an area not less than the aggregate areas ofthe multi-
ple valves. The discharge pipe shall have an open drain to
orevent wateror other liquids from accumulation on the dis-
charge side of the relieving devices.
Discharge pipes shall be installed such that no undue stress
is placed on the valve body. open discharges shall be
placed and orientated such thatthe oumowis directed away
irom thetankand willnot cause a hazard to walkways, stair-
ways or operating Platforms.
 20 Ancillary equipment for low temperaturc tanks

. A vacuum relieving device shall have as direct an inflow to Normally the pressure and vacuum relief valves are sepa-
the tankas is possible, and shallhave no pipeworkahead of rated from each other However a combination may be
the inlet apart from a weather cover. used. This is taken to mean that valves with a combined
. pressure and vacuum relieffacility may be used. There are
Stop valves, if used between the relieving devices and the
such valves on the market and the minimising of the roof
tank to allow seryicing of these devices, shall be locked or
connections and isolating facilities makes this an attractive
sealed open, and an authorised person shall be present if
this situation is changed. lf the tank is in use, the authorised choice. However, care must be taken to ensure that full sys-
person shall remain there until the locked or sealed open tem capacity is maintained at all times and the distribution of
vapours beneath the tank roof is carefully thought out.
state of the relieving devices is restored.
It is interesting that API 620 does not make mandatory the pro-
For a full containment tank, the pressure relief system shall
vision ofa spare valve in any set and the use of stop or isolation be designed such that it can accommodate the vapours
generated from an innertankfailure. For this purpose a hole
VAIVES.
in the flrst course ofthe tank shell of 20mm in diameter may
BS 7777 : Part 1 make similar demands. but with some minor be assumed. The origin ofthis notional leak is a mystery not
differences: least to the authorwho served on the committee which cre-
. For "normal" pressure relief (i.e. as determined from a)to e) aied these rules! Clearly a concentration failure!
listed above), the internal pressure at the top of the tank The number of pressure relief valves required shall be cal-
shall not exceed the design internal pressure by more than culated based on the total product vapour outflow specified.
10v.. ln addition, one spare valve shall be installed for mainte-
. For vacuum relief, the internal negative pressure shall not nance purposes. The inlet piping shall penetrate the sus-
pended roof, where such a roof is fitted, thus preventing
exceed the internal negative design pressure by more than
2.5 mbar.
cold vapour from entering the warm space between the
outer roof and the suspended roof under relieving condi-
. For "emergency" pressure relief (i.e. as determined from f) tions.
and g) listed above), supplementary pressure relief should
be installed. These pressure relieving devices should not
The number of vacuum relief valves shall be calculated
based on the total air intlow specified. In addition one spare
allow the tank internal pressure from exceeding the design
valve shall befitted for maintenance purposes. The vacuum
internal pressure by more than 20%.
valves shall allow air to enter the vapour space located di-
. Where a single valve will satisfy the emergency venting re- rectly under the roof.
quirement, a duplicate valve should be installed to facilitiate
Because the design pressures of low temperature tanks are
inspection and maintenance. generally higher than is the case for ambient tanks, the use of
. Where multiple pressure relief valves are required for the dead weight valves for pressure relief is unusual, and in the
venting duty, they should allbe ofthe same capacityand at larger valve sizes, becomes impractical because of the physi-
least one additional valve should be fitted of the same ca- cal size of the weight required. lt is normal practice to use pilot
pacity as a standby for inspection, maintenance and possi- operated valves which have advantages of not leaking at pres-
ble replacement purposes. sures close to their set point, having a reduced blow down and
being more suited to operation with pipe-work on the inlet and
. The use of isolating valves installed between the pressure ouilet sides. This is discussed in some detail in ADDendix C of
relief valve and the tank should be agreed between the pur- B57777 : Pat11. Atypical pilofoperated pressure reliefvalve is
chaser and the contractor, i.e. is optional. Appendix C ofthis shown in Fioure 20.15.
part of the Code suggests rather more strongly that this
should be the case and normal industry practice usually de-
mands this facilityfor all pressure and vacuum reliefvalves.
. Appendix C repeats some of these requirements and pro-
vides additional guidance on this subject.
The newprovisional Euronormfor low temperature tanks, prEN
14620, is strangely reticent on the subject of pressure and vac-
uum relief bearing in mind the amount of detail that its ambient
tank counterpart (prEN 14015) has chosen to go into. Annex L
of this document provides comprehensive requirements forthe
design and installation ofventing systems, which for once is not
based upon API 2000.
Summarising the requiremenb of prEN 14620:
Venting to atmosphere shall be excluded from tanks de-
signed to contain toxic product.
For tanks designed to store non-toxic products, sufficient
margin shall be provided between the operating pressure
(i.e. the reliefvalve set pressure) and the design pressure of
the tank to avoid unnecessary (i.e. too frequent) venting.
l3 I r+
'T/-_l -T --l
I

The relief valve capacity (pressure and vacuum) shall be

designed based on normal operation and abnormalopera-
f,T*;r
ll-ul
I FT]"r
ll'.:>|
I

tion scenarios. Failures at interconnecting facilities, i.e. pro-

cess plants, vent or flare systems etc., shall also be "....:r+,..,.':F
considered. Note however that the responsibility for speci-
fying the flow rates forthe relief valve system is given byAn- Figure 20.15 Atypical pilot-operated pressure retief valve
nex C, Part 1 of this document to the tank Durchaser. From BS 7777 : Patl 1, figurc C.3

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 419

20 Ancillary equipmentfor low temperaturc tanks
NOIE vImN isan eunpl ol a suluble produd a\aihnF.onner.rxlv
Tlis infomauv. s sven rof ihe eneenihce ot LsE or rhis Pan of BS 77?7
Figure 20.16 A typical dead-weighi vacuum relief valve
From BS 7777 :Paft 1, figure c.4
Vacuum relief valves are commonly of the dead-weight type
and an example is shown in Figure 20 16 Proprietary designs
for pilot-operated vacuum valves and valves which combine
the pressure and vacuum relieving elements within the same
valve are available. These provide the possibility of reducing
the number of roof connections and consequent cost savings'
For tanks of the suspended deck type using the conventional
system of separate valves for pressure and vacuum relief, it is
usualto locate the pressure inlet to the valves beneath the sus-
pended deck and arrange for the vacuum valves to discharge
directly into the roof space above the deck The use of com-
binedvalves clearly does not permitthis arrangementand deci-
sions have to be made aboutthe configuration beneath the tank
roof. Adjustments to the suspended deck venting system may
be fequired if these combined relief valves are used
It isusualto mount pressure reliefvalves, vacuum reliefvalves
pressure and vacuum valves on individual rooffit
or combined
tings. The fittings for pressure and combined valves in non low
temperature roofs willrequire heat-breaks to be fitted Vacuum
valves, drawing in air at atmospheric temperature will have no
need of heat-breaks. Similarly pressure and combined valves
will require to be manufactured from materials with suitable low
temperature properties whilst vacuum valves have no such re-
quirement. There are occasions where two valves or more are
mounted on a single roof penetration
For pressure relief valves, the higher tank pressures for low
temperature tanks means higher flow velocities and conse-
quently larger pressure losses in the connected pipework on
both the inlet and outlet sides of the valve. These losses must
be calculated and subtracted from the total pressure difference
between the tank and atmosphere to give the pressure drop
across the valve itself which is used to calculate the flow rate
through the valve. Some relief valve manufacturers provide
software to assist the tank designer with this task
Reliefvalves are available in a range of sizes depending on the
vapour throughput required. An example of a range of pilolop-
erated pressure reliefvalves is shown in Figure 20.17'
The orecise evaluation of the vapourflow rates resulting from a
tank rollover event is difficult to calculate. In recent times the
420 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
A{nedyGs.e!5.Body
e!' xg|b.|qb.
2x3
t'x4' ft
4x6' wo
6xa
AxlO' !,
10\17 t,
l2'x 16 .q
Figure 20.17 An example of a range of pilofoperated pressure relief valves
Coulesy of Tyca Valves & Conttols
need to design for a rollover has been largely removed by the
orovision of level/temperature/density (LTD) measuring equip-
ment together with provisions for top filling, bottom filling and
product mixing via the in-tank pumps. These provisions gave
ihe tank ooerator an indication ofsituations within the tank con-
tents which were prone to initiate a rollover and the means to
take the appropriate preventative action.
ln earlier times the rollover had to be considered, and one com-
pany designed and manufactured a large capacity relief-valve
ior this puipose. tnis valve was made in large sizes (24" and
36" diameter) and had correspondingly large throughput of
vapour. The basis of operation was a frangible link within the
vaive which held the valve closed in normal service and would
fail at a predetermined over pressure to allow the valve to fully
open. The valvewasfitted with a spring which closed the valve'
albeit at a much lower pressure than the opening pressure'
These valves were also used when sudden inner tank failure
was a design requirement. An example ofsuch a valve, known
as the reserve capacity relief valve, is given in Figure 20 18
For LNG tanks, EN 1473 suggests the use of rupture discs for
rollover relief and references the French AGT Code forthe ba-
sis oftheirdesign. The use ofrupture discs has not been a pop-
ular choice for this purpose, possibly due to the proportionate
uncertainties in the actual failure pressures of bursting discs at
the comparatively modest pressures associated with low tem-
perature storage tanl(s.
Where pressure relief valves are fitted in a system where multi-
ple relief valves are manifolded into to a system of closed
oipe-work (i.e. to a flare) it is necessary to provide isolation
valves on both the inletand outletside ofthe relief valveto allow
for valve removal from the system
Fire orotection for relief valve tail pipes is covered in Section
20.8.
20.8 Fire protection systems
Fire protection systems for above ground, low temperature
tanks are generally a part of the overall facility fire protection
svstem. The development of such a system, sultable for ad-
diessing all ofthe equipment on the site and all of the perceived
 20 Ancillary equipment for low tempercturc tanks

vate the situation, increasing the vapour formation rate which

may increase the burning rate.
The fire water system for the storage tanks is fed from the site
fire watersystem. This may be based on the use of fresh water,
sea water or a combination of both. A large diameter fire main
runs around the site passing the various items of equipment,
adjacent to which suitably sized off-takes are situated. lt is im-
portant that this fire main is itself suitably protected from fire.
This is usually accomplished by burying it. Thefire main is in its
standby state filled with fresh water which is maintained at the
desired operating pressure (commonly around 9 bars) by
jockey pumps. Two fire water pumps must be provided with in-
dependent powersources, such that if one system becomes in-
operative, the second willfulfil the full capacity required.
Tanks with steel outer shells and roofs are clearly more suscep-
tible to damage from adjacent tank fires than those with con-
crete outer shells and roofs. Not withstanding this fact, it is not
unusualfor cjrcumstances to conspire to require the use ofde-
luge systems for concrete tanks.
ohn.ioN,l.che.lmnl
The tank deluge system used to be a simple matter of a water
\6lE C D
pipe to the crown of the tank roof, which delivered the desired
lbllsl
quantity of water to a distribution crown arrangement. This
Fdl trirt @q Fl3| l4| trsl caused the fire water to flow to the periphery of the roof and
lsl thence down the iank shell to local grade. The coverage of the
tsiol tE4 tr164 t4t wl
roof and shell provided by this arrangement was extremely ap-
:igure 20.18 A reserue capacity relief valve proximate and was adversely affected by roof mounted ob-
aauttesy of Anderson creenwood structions and wind. Where steel tanks had external stiffening
and outstanding compression areas, rings of deflector plates
'rsks is a majortask, which is best lefl to companies and jndivid-
were needed to ensure that the fire water ran down the tank
Jals who possess the necessary expertise. Codes such as
shelland did notmerely run clear ofthe shell from the stiffeners.
NFPA58, NFPA59, NFPA59Aand EN 1473 give some general
guidance on the subject, but this falls a long way short ofwhat lvlore recently, where tankdeluging is a requirement, the Codes
the system designer will require. The design of a facility's fire and facility owners require that a system ofdirect impingement
protection system is intimately connected to the riskand hazard offire water on both the tank roof and shell be used to ensure a
assessment process. better distribution of the fire water This requires a series of fife
water pipes running over the tank roof and shell to distribute the
What is included in this Section is a brief look at some of the as-
water to suitable spray nozzles. One such arrangement is indi-
pects of fire protection systems as they relate to the storage
cated for an LNG tank on Figure 20.'19. The water flow rates for
tanks themselves.
a tank deluge system arise either from detailed calculations or
from flre protection Codes. A commonly adopted figure is 10.2
20.8.1 Detection systems litres/min/m2 which is derived from NFPA 1 5 (Reference 20.S).
It is common to arrange the layout ofthe deluge system to suit
EN 1473 (which it should be remembered is applicable onlyto
the local situation. For example, where two storage tanks are
LNG facilities) lists the various detection systems as follows:
located adjacent to one another, the adjacent tank fire risk for
. Gas detection each tank is associated with only one half of the shell and part
of, or perhaps all of the roof. For this reason it may be thought
. Cold detection
wise or economic to concentrate the fire protection on the ex-
. Smoke detection posed parts of the tanks, or to arrange a zoning system which
will allow different parts ofthe target tanks to be selectively pro-
. Fire detection tected.
It is clearly an essential part ofthe protection system to have a
good detection system which will trigger the appropriate re-
sponse from the fire fighting equipment provided.

20.8.2 Safety systems

These are the various items of equipment provided to address

problems arisjng from gas leakage, cold liquid leakage, pool
fires and adjacent tank or plant fires.
Fire protection systems are eitherclassified as being active (i.e.
water spray systems, deluge or sprinkler systems) or passive
(i.e. fireprooflng coatings or shielding systems).
20.8.2.1 Fire water systems
The application of water to items of plant and equipment has
more to dowith keeping them cool, when theyare the subjectof
heat radiation from fires in adjacent areas, than its contribution
to the efforts to extinguish fires. Indeed, in certain circum-
stances, the application ofwaterto liquid poolflres may aggra- Fjgure 20.19 An LNG tank rcof water drench system

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 421

20 Ancillary equipmentfor low temperctute tanKs

lf insufficient fresh wateris availableon the site, itwillbe neces- 20.9 lnstrumentation
saryto feed the fire water system with sea water in the event of The level of instrumentation which is supplied with a low tem-
an emergency. In the interests of corrosion protection following perature storage tank is usually specifled by the owner or his
exposure of all or part of the system to salt water, it will be nec-
engineer in the tank specification documentation The tank de-
essary to arrange suitable facilities for flushing the appropriate
sign Codes such as API 620, BS 7777 and prEN 14620 give lit-
parts of system with fresh water.
tl; or no guidance as to the extent of instrumentation which
It is usual to require the system to be tested on at regular inter- would be appropriate to supply with a low temperature tank to
vals. This is normallycarried outwith fresh waterand limitations ensure its correct and safe operation
in the available quantities of fresh water may necessitate the Codes and regulatory documents which have a wider scope
subdivision of the system such that it can be tested in smaller dealing with the overall storage and handling facility such as
sections. The system illustrated. which is for roof deluging only. NFPA 58, NFPA 59, NFPA 59A and EN 1473 are more forth-
is for this reason divided into six sections.
coming on the subject. The latter Code outlines what is now a
The equipment used to set the deluge system into action ls of- pretty huch agreed industry standard level of instrumentation
ten large, sophisticated and expensive Roof-mounted deluge for LNG tanks.
valves will themselves require a high level of fire protection
In addition to the deluge system, it is common to add a number 20.9.1 Level measurement
of fire monitors. A monitor is a means of providing a spray or
stream ofwaterfrom a fixed station to a locaiion where it is re- necessaryto measure the levelofthe product liquid
It is clearly
quired for fire fighting or equipment cooling. The control of the within theiankfor reasons such as inventory controland avoid-
waterspray and its direction can be achieved by either manual ance of overfilling. The normal form of level measuring equip-
or remote operation. ment used for these tanks consists of a roof-mounted servo
gauging unit connected via a suitable roof connection to a float
20.8.2.2 Foam systems
iitnin iperforateo stilling well inside the tank itself. Atypicalar-
For areas where liquid may accumulate such as tank bunds or rangement of this type is illustrated in Figure 20.20. The level
spillage impounding basins, it is usualto installa system of high gauging unit will be located where it can be readily accessed
expansion foam generators These will allow remotely-con- f-ronithe roof-mounted platform and may have a roofreading fa-
troiled blanketing ofthe spilled liquid which will either douse the cility.
fire or reduce the flame size and consequently the radiation
It is usual to have a remote transmitter associated with the
rate. Suitable systems, designed and tailored for the specific
oauoinq unit (proprietary equipment on the market often has
circumstances, are supplied by fire protection companies who
6uiliin iransmission equipment within the gauging unit) to send
specialise in this type of work. Asystem would consist ofthe fol-
the various level signals to the terminal control room lt is usual
lowing elements:
to provide each tank with two separate level measuring sys-
. High expansion foam generators tems, indeed EN 1473 insists upon this (with the exception of
peak shaving tanks where the level changes are slow and pre-
. Stoo valves
dictable). The level gauging equipment is almost always fitted
. Foam concentrate storage tanks with a set of levelalarms. These would normally be low low level
(LLA), low level (LL), high level (HL) and high high level (HHL)
. Foam inductors
It is also normal to install another instrument which is specifi-
It is usual to test the system at least once per yeat
cally to detect the HHL only The setting up of this system
20.8.2.3 Dry powder systems
Fires in pressure relief valve tailpipes are not unknown Forthis
reason it is common practice to fit a dry powder extinguishing
system. This will inject into the relief valve tailpipes a mixtureof
carbon dioxide and fire extinguishing powder in the event of a
tailpipe fire. The system is fitted localto the reliefvalves on the
tank ioof and should be capable of local or remote operation lt
is usualto allowsufficient storage of powderand propellantgas
to allow for two attempts to extinguish the fire. These systems
are the product of specialist companies and are often supplied
skid mounted.
20.8.2.4 Local protection of vulnerable equipment
It is imoortant that certain equipment associated with low tem-
peratuie storage tanks continue to perform their intended func-
iions when the tank is exposed to heat radiation, perhaps aris-
ing from an adjacent tankfire. ltems which fall into this category
arL relief valves, deluge valves and certain parts of the struc-
tural steel supporting critical equipment.
These are roof-mounted and may require specific fire protec-
tion. This is usually passive fire protection and can take the
form of proprietary intumescent paints, cementious coatings or
purpose designed shielding.
The principal value of this fireproofing is realised during the
earlystages of a fire when efforts are mainly directed at setting
in motion the various fire suppression equipment and prevent-
ing exacerbation by way of the addition of further fuel to the
evlnt. lf the fire is intense and prolonged' then passive fire-
proofing may prove ineffectual in preventing damage Figure 20.20 A typicallow lemperalure iank level gauge serup

422 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


should be such that a safety shut-down of the pumping equip-
ment(often the delivering ship's pumps) is triggered bythe vari-
ous high level alarms.
lfthe tank level measuring equipment is to be used to measure
the exact capacity ofthe tank, or the amount of liquid product in-
troduced to or abstracted from the tank for commercial or cus-
toms purposes, it is important that the equipment is as accurate
as Dossible and that the tank has been calibrated. Calibration is
the precise measuring of the finished or as built primary liquid
containing element of the tank. When the measurements have
been made, and appropriate corrections have been made for
thermal contraction and mechanicalexDansion. a set ofcalibra-
tion tables are produced which relate the measured liqujd level
to the liquid capacity. This activity is the preserve of specialist
companies who carryout this service. lt used to be the case that
ihe various measurements were made by mechanical strap-
ping of the structure, but nowadays there are clever electronic
surveying instruments which can gather the necessary infor-
mation from a single site within the tank.
20.9.2 Pressure measurement
It is clearly important to know what the pressure ofthe product
vapour is within the tank. Too high a pressure would give rise to
unnecessary and expensive venting, and in the extreme, en-
dangerthe tank structure, and too low a pressure would create
a vacuum and cause air to be introduced into the tank, which is
a minor disaster from an operating point of view
It is usualto provide equipment to monitorthe following param-
eters:
. Absolute tank pressure
. Gauge tank pressure
. Tank pressure alarms (high and low) and local pressure in-
dication
As with level measurement, it is usualfor provisions for the con-
tinuous pressure data to be transmitted to the control room to
be incorporated into the system together with the triggering of
suitable safety related activities (i.e. stopping the boil-off com-
pressor when low pressures are detected).
It is usualto mount pressure measuring equipment on tank roof
penetrations.
For double-walled tanks where the inner tank has a fixed roof, it
is particularly important to measure and control the pressure in
the interspace around the inner tank to ensure that no exces-
sive external loads are applied to the inner bnk shell or roof.
20.9.3 Temperature measurement
There are three areas where temperature measurement is im-
portant. These are:
. During tankcooldownto controlthe operation and avoid ex-
cessive temperature gradients
. During normal operation
. To monitor the base heating system
The normal temperature measuring elements are three wire
platinum resistance temperature detectors (RTD). The number
required for the various functions are either for the owner to
specify, or to be based on the tank contractor's experience. It
should be remembered that the temDerature elements cannot
be replaced with the tank in service. Any redundancy required
must be in the form of additional RTDS.
It is usual to arrange for a special fitting on the tank roof with
suitable glands to allowthe RTDS to penetrate the pressure en-
velope of the iank.
20 Ancillary equipment for low temperature tanks
20.9.4 Level temperature density (LTD) measure-
ment
As has been mentioned elsewhere, the need to have knowl-
edge ofthe temperature and densitydistribution within the body
ofthe product liquid is important to avoid situations which could
resultin a rolloverevent, with the possible vapour release which
may be difficult or impossible to accommodate within the nor-
mal tank operating parameters. For this reason, and especially
on tanks containing mixed products like LPG and LNG, the LTD
instrument has been developed. EN 1473 makes the supply of
these mandatory for LNG tanks.
The instrument is in essence a very sophisticated servo driven
level gauge. Like the levelgauges it is roof-mounted and has a
sensor head which can track up and down inside the tank within
a stilling well. lt can measure the product temperature and den-
sity at each location and convey this information to the control
room where suitable software will produce a level/tempera-
ture/density plotfor the tank contents. Armed with this informa-
tion and perhaps detailed knowledge of incoming shipments,
the experienced tank operator should be able to spot potential
roll over situations and take the appropriate actions. These ac-
tions could be to top fill, bottom fillor stir up the tank contents by
running the in-tiank pumps on recycle or by other means.
The relationship between the many variables associated with
roll over and the various remedial actions are ouite soDhisti-
cated and not alloperators are conversantwith what represents
a dangerous situation and what actions should be taken. Gaz
de France has developed some proprietary software into which
the LTD parameterscan befed and which willprovide advice on
the appropriate acfions.
Both the measuring instruments and the operator's software
are expensrve.
20.9.5 Leak detection
The provision of leak detection systems is usually confined to
double-walled tanks. The function ofthe leak detection system
isto identifyant leakagefrom the innertank. This could befrom
the innertankshell, bottom or (foropen-topped innertanks)the
result of overfilling or seismic sloshing.
The most commonly adopted system consists of a number of
RTDS installed on the inside of the outer tank at the bottom of
the intersoace and at various levels close to the bottom of the
interspace. These record a temperature change in the event of
a liquid leak which will be relayed to the control room and raise
the alarm. lt is normal to install a number of RTDS at each level,
say four equally spaced around the tank.
Another system involves the installation of an optic fibre within
the lower interspace to detect leakage.
20.9.6 lnternal cameras
These are thought to be an expensive luxury by manywithin the
industry They are normally only to be found in large LNG tanks.
The camera can either be located within the tank and subjectto
the low temperature, or be external with suitable optics to be
able to view within the tank. In addition to the camera, lighting
and camera manipulation and focussing systems will be re-
quired.
Some tanks have been fitted with cameras. Films taken within
LNG tanks show that the cameras have remarkable resolution
and can identify small marks on the innertank bottoms. LNG is
a very clear liquid. Quite what the realfunction ofsuch a system
is, and whether it justifies the price tag (some $'1.00 million) is
an interesting question. Technically it is an impressive feat.
STOR,AGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 423
20 Ancillaty equipment for low temperature tanks
20.10 Givil monitoring systems
It is not uncommon, especially in the case of large LNG and
LPG tanks, for instrumentation to be required to monitor the
performance of the tank foundauon-
For tanks which sit on ground-based slabs or slabs which are
elevaled above local grade, the measurementof the global set-
tlementand the tilt at the peripheryof the slabs are quite simple.
Allthatis requjred isthe esiablishingofa site datum and a num-
ber of equally spaced points around the base slab plus some
basic surveying skills. The behaviour ofthe slab away from its
edge, particularly for ground-based slabs, is more difiicult. The
casting into the base slab of two inclinometer tubes, set at right
angles to one another, and the use ofsuitable inclinometers will
provide the dab required on anychanges ofshape. lt is usualto
take readings after construction, during and afier the hydro-
static test and at intervals during service.
The LNG tanks on Revithoussa lsland in Greece, were built in
an area of high seismicity. The elevated base slabs were fitted
with a seismic isolation system. To monitorthe performance of
these isolators, a number of accelerometers were fifted to the
iank, some below the level of the isolators and some above.
Under normal operating conditions these accelerometers
would not be remrding, but in the event of a seismic event
above a certain th reshold, the system was triggered to record at
424 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
its full speed- Thus following an earthquake, there should be
suffcient realdata to pmvide adetailed description of the event
itselfand ofthe modification ofthis event caused by the seismic
isolation system. This will allowthe tank and the isolator design-
ers to check the anticipated behaviouragainstthe recorded be-
haviour. At least one seismic event of sufiicient magnitude to
trigger the system has occurred. No doubt when the data be-
comes public, learned papers will appear and theories will be
mnfirmed or will have to be revised.
20.11 References
2O.1 EN1473:1997, lnstallation & eqaipment for liquefied
natural gas, Design of onshore installafions, CEN
20.2 Problems in connection with the foundation of tanks
containing a lower temperature media, E. Zellere\
Linde AG, Munchen, Paper ftom LNG 1.
20.3 Venting atmosphertc and low pressure storage tanks,
non-refigerated and refrigerated,'fhe American pefo-
leum Institute, API 2000, Fifth edition, April 1998.
2o.4 Sizing, selection and installation of pressure relieving
devices in refineies, API RP 520, Part 1 , sizing & selec-
tion, The American Petroleum Institute.
20.5 NFPA 15 : watet spray, fixed system
21 Ammonia storage - a special case
Ammonia is a much used chemical in a number of industries and as such it is in need ofsystems
for its safe and economic bulk storage.
Ammonia is different from the other liquefied gases discussed in chapter 17
These differences in turn give rise to a variety of challenges in the search for suitable storage
systems. In particular the toxicity ofthe gas, the ability ofthe liquid to conduct electricity and the
susceptibility of carbon steels in contact with either the gaseous or the liquid phase to stress
corrosion cracking, give rise to problems. The problems related to toxicity speak forthemselves.
The truly lethal nature of the gas means that special measures are required for the design,
construction and especially the operation of storage facilities.
The significance of the electrical conductivity of the liquid is less obviously a problem area, but
this has, or at least has untilvery recently, prevented the development of in-tank pumps, and as
a consequence, offull containment storage systems for this product.
The stress corrosion cracking of carbon steels in contact with ammonia caused problems for the
early ambient temperature pressurised storage systems and more latterly has been found to
occur in refrigerated storage systems as well. This subiect has been researched extensively,
and would indeed probablyfurnish sufficient materialfor a book in its own right. The problem and
the main findings are discussed and references provided for further study if required.
The commonly adopted forms of refrigerated storage are described as well as an interesting
alternative system. The requirements for periodic inspection and repair of liquid ammonia
storage systems are also described.
Finally, a dramatic incident involving a liquid ammonia tank in Lithuania and the lessons to be
learnt are discussed .

Contents:
21,1 General
21.2What makes ammonia storage special?
21.2.1 Flammabiliiy
21 .2.2 f oxicity
21 .2.3 Latent heat
21.2.4 Eleclrical conductivity
2'1.2.5 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
21.3 Refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia
21.3. 1 Conventional systems
21.3 2 An alternative storage system
2'1.3.3 Chemical Industries Association guidance
21.3.4 Recent developments
21.3.5 Insulation systems
21.4 Inspection and repair of liquid ammonia storage systems
21.5 Incidents involving liquid ammonia tanks
21.6 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 425

21 Ammonia storcge - a special case

21.1 General It is estimated that there are currently around 1000 fully-refrig-
erated liquid ammonia tanks in ooeration worldwide of which
Ammonia is manufactured in large quantities and has numer- some 50 are located in Europe.
ous uses in the chemical industry Amongst these are:

- The manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers

- The manufacture of explosives
- The manufacture of dyes
The manufacture of man made fibres
As a chemical reagent in the forming ofamines and ammo-
nium compounds
- As a refrigerant
Fof these reasons safe and economic bulk storaoe ofthis mate-
rial is clearly necessary
Ammonia can be liquefied bythe application ofpressure alone.
At a maximum design temperature of 38 'C, the comparatively
modest pressure of 14.7 bar is required to maintain the gas in
liquid form. For many years, smaller quantities of ammonia (say
between 500 and 3000 tonnes) were stored in cylindrical or
spherical pressure vessels. For reasons which will be ex-
plained in Section 21.2.5, this practice has virtually ceased.
Liquid ammonia has also been stored in semi-refrigerated facil-
ities. At a storage temperature of 0 'C the pressure required to
maintain the liquid state is only 3.0 bar. Semi- refrigerated stor-
age is usually in spherical vessels, again in the 500 to 3000
tonnes range of unit capacity. This form of storage is also now
quite unusual. Fully pressurised and semi-refrigerated storage
systems are the subject of a Chemical Industries Association
(ClA) Code of Practice (Reference 21.1). This document is now
no longer published, perhaps an indication of the falling out of
favour of the pressurised and semi-refrigerated methods of
storage.
The majority of liquid ammonia storage facilities are now of the
fully-refrigerated type in which the liquid is stored at its atmo-
spheric pressure boiling point of minus 33 'C. Lowtemperature
tanks with capacities of up to 60,000 m3 are not uncommon.
The fully-refrigerated storage systems are also the subject ofa
CIA Code of Practice (Reference 21.2).
21.2What makes ammonia storage
special?
Liquid ammonia differs from the other liquid gas products listed
in Chapter 17, Figure 17.1, in a number ofways.
21.2.1 Flammability
ln common with allof the gases listed in Figure 17.1 with the ex-
ception of oxygen, nitrogen and argon, ammonia is flammable
with flammable limits of between 16% and 25%. lt has the rela-
tively high auto ignition temperature of 651 'C and for this rea-
son liquid ammonia storage installations are not regarded as
representing significant fire hazards in the same way as is the
case for the bulk storage of LPG, ethane, ethylene and LNG.
21.2.2 Toxicily
Ammonia is also highly toxic and it is this property that requires
particularcare to be taken with the design and operation of bulk
storage systems for this product. The health hazards are sum-
marised in Figure 21.1 taken from References 21.1 and 21 .2
mentioned above. lt is to some extent fortunate that ammonia
can be detected by the average person at the low concentra-
tions of around 50 ppm, well below the 500 - 1000 ppm levels
which are considered dangerous. lt is important that due atten-
tion is given to operator training and that the necessary site
safety facilities are provided. Reference 27.2 provides guid-
ance !n this regard.
One example of the special provisions required is that ammo-
nia storage facilities must have one or more wind socks fitted in
high and prominent positions and that these must be illumi-
nated at night to allow personnelto choose the correct escape
route in the event of a leakage incident.

Vapour
concentration
(ppm v/v) Generrl effect Expmure period

Thrshold Limit Value

Maximum for I hour
working period.
Odour detectable by most
persons.

100 No adverse effect for Deliberate exposure for

average worker. long periods not permitted.

lmmediate nose and 1/2 - t hour erposure ceuses

throat irritation. no serious effect.

700 Immediete eye irritation. 12 - t hour exposure causes

ro serious effect.
1,?00 Convulsive cougbing Could b fat'al after l,2 hour
severe eye, nose and
thrort irritation
2,000 - s,000 Convulsive coughing Could be fatal afler 1/4 hour
severe eye, nose and
throal irritation
5,000 - 10,000 Respiratory spasm. Rapid Fatal within minutes.
asphyxit,

Figure 21.1 Vapour concenlrauon health hazards

426 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT


21.2,3 Latent heat
Liquid ammonia is also unusual in having a high latent heat
(327.10 kcal/kg as opposed to the next highest listed gas which
is methane at 121.86 kcal/kg). This makes it relatively easy to
achieve low atmospheric boil ofifigures, usually expressed as a
70 of the full tank contents per day, for liquid storage systems.
The commonly used insulation systems for liquid ammonia
tanks are discussed in Section 21.3.5.
21.2,4 Electrical conductivity
Liquid ammonia in its pureform hasa high dielectric constant. lt
does however have a high affinity for water In addjtion, for rea-
sons associated with the propensity of carbon steels to suffer
from stress corrosion when in contact with ammonia as de-
scribed in Section 21.2.5, water is deliberately added to stored
liquid ammonia. This generally gives a water content of be-
iween 1000 and 2000 ppm and at this level the liquid will con-
duct electricity. The significance of this is that until recenflV it
wasnot possible to develop an in-tank pump for liquid ammonia
serytce.
Conventional in-tank pumps as described in Chapter20foruse
with the other low temperature gases rely on the product liquid
being pumped to both lubricate and cool the pump motor by
flowjng directly through the motoritself. This is clearly not possi-
ble in the case of liquid ammonia. The influence of the lack of
availability of suitable in-tank pumping systems on the contain-
ment systems is discussed in Section 21.3.
21.2.5 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) has been known for many
years to be a problem for the storage of liquid ammonia in car-
bon steel vessels at or close to ambient temoeratures. paoers
were published on this phenomenon as early as 1956 (Refer-
ences 21.3and 21.4). Although the potentialfor SCC to occur in
carbon and low alloy steels in ammonia service was recoo-
nised, it was not until the 1970s that inspection technology ha-d
developed to the point where the problem could be identified
and the effects quantified. This led to the discovery of wide-
spread SCC in liquid ammonia storage spheres. For this rea-
son, many of the facilities which stored ammonia in the
fully-pressurised or semi-refrigerated form were decommis-
sioned and were replaced by fully-refrigerated storage sys-
tems.
To provide more data on the problem of SCC in liquid ammonia
storage systems using carbon steel containment vessels. a
corporale research programme was Set up at the Institute for
Energy Tchnology in Oslo, Norway. This was sponsored join y
by BASF, DSN/, Kemira O! Norsk Hydro AJs, tcl, E I Dupont de
Nemours Company Inc. and the UK Health and Safetv Execu-
tive. The work was all carried out by Lunde and Nyborg and the
early work was published in the proceedings of various confer-
ences and in papers listed as References 21.7 to 21.11.
The general terms of reference for this work were:
a) To investigate the effect of operating parameters (espe-
cially water and oxygen concentrations and temperature)
on stress corrosion cracking.
b) To determine sfe/unsafe operating conditions for ammo-
nra slorage spheres.
c) To investigate the influence of material composition and
mechanical properties on susceptibilityto stress corrosion
cracking for both parent material and weld mebl.
d) To investigate possible means of preventing stress corro_
sion cracking in ammonia environmenb.
21 Ammonia storage _ a special case
Although the main thrust ofthis effort was aimed at the storaoe
of ammoniaasa liquid in spherical vessels at ambienttempeL-
tures, the findings are of interest and relevant in part to refriger-
ated ammonia storage systems. The main conclusions were:
a) SCC initiation is influenced by the water and oxygen con-
tent of the ammonia as shown by Figure 21.2.
b) Sufficient water addition to avoid cracking in liquid ammo-
nia may not always prevent its occurrence in the vapour
phase, in the event ofcondensation, due to adverse oarti-
tion of oxygen and water
c) Under conditions typical of those known to cause SCC
(3 ppm oxygen and 50 ppm water) crack growth rates
found in the studies were similar to those found in service,
i.e. 2-6 mm/year dependent on stress intensity.
d) Crack grolvth rates decreased markedly with time.
e) Lowerstrength steels showed generally lower susceptibil-
ity to SCC for both parent materiat and weld metal.
f) The initiation of SCC is more djfficult and its propagation
slower at -33 'C than at 18 'C, and is less affected by the
oxygen content at the lower temperature.
Both References 21.1 and 21.2include the following text:
"ln order to minimise the risk of stress corrosion crackino
the welding consumables should overmatch the tensili
properties ofthe plates by the smallest practicable amount
and carbon molybdenum electrodes shall not be used in
any circumstances. Furthermore, the tensile strenoth ofthe
plates shall not be allowed to exceed the maximum-detailed
in the plate soecifications."
The original versions of these guides to good practice were
published before the studies mentioned above had been car-
ried out.
It is clear from the volume of work published during the 1970s
and 1980s that SCC, particularly in the ambient temperature
pressure storage area was seriously under the microscope.
Work published by Cracknell in 1982 (Reference 21.5\ and
Towers in 1984 (Reference 21.6) lutlnet explored the problem
and served again to confirm the importance of variables such
as oxygen content, water content, steel strenqth and stress re_
lief. Both suggest that refrigerated storage is l;ss tikely to suffer
from this phenomenon than ambient temperature pressure
storage, but in the light of more recent findings, were wise notto
have been too adamant that SCC will not occur at all in refrioer-
A I
t! 1000 7
e
3
i
g
B c
! 100
a
1 10 100 t0o0
orys.n in trquid ph.$ ippn w/w)
A Itrsp.t rt normlt fftquency,
B Insp.ct rt le8l rwice mrnrt frequeng_
C Donolopfut in lhisrrer.
rrr b bdng op.nring .ondi.iois iib zom A or B_
Figure21.2 S-C-C, susceptibilily of C,lVn steels wilh diffefenl oxygen and water
contents at 18 'C
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 427
21 Ammonia storcge a specialcase
ated storage systems. Alan Cracknell ends his paper with the
following sensible suggestion:
"ltwillbe appreciated that if SCC does turn out to be a prob-
lem in refrigerated storage, it is likely to affect all companies
using as-welded equipment. Proving thatit is absentortak-
ing precautions against it can prove expensive. lt is sug-
gested therefore thatthe companies involved should set out
to share information on their findings in much the same way
as companies involved in the bulk (ambient temperature
pressurised) storage of ammonia. Hopefullythe information
derived will benefit not only the refrigerated storage indus-
try, but will also give clues to the solution of the general
problem of avoiding SCC in ammonia storage."
The earlyworkdone by Lund and Nyborg suggested that stress
corrosion cracking was also a possibility at the temperature of
the low temperature storage systems, i.e. -33 'C. This was
something altogether new for the industry which had up to this
time believed that refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia was
not susceotible to this oroblem.
The inspection of the 12,000 tonnes liquid ammonia tank
owned by BASF at the Seal Sands site in the UKwas something
of a turning point. This tank was designed and constructed by
Whessoe to BS 4741 and the CIA guidelines and entered ser-
vice in 1978.
The tank was previously owned by Monsanto who at that time
were devotees ofacoustic emission (AE) methods of non-intru-
sive inspection. The owners decided to override the CIA guide-
lines for the first internal inspection at six years after entering
service, by carrying out an AE examination in 1984 and a fur-
ther examination in 1985. These test procedures had the ad-
vantage that the expensive de-commissioning, internal exami-
nation and re-commissioning could be avoided. No defects
were found during these tlvo examinations.
ln 1985 the ownership of the site transferred to BASF. This
company did not favour the use of AE testing and arranged for
an internal insDection to take Dlace in 1987. This examination
found a large number of internal stress corrosion cracks, many
associated with original hydrogen cracks. The defects were in
the main associated with welded seams and areas of construc-
tion attachments (such as blank nuts and erection brackets) in
the lower shell where the stronger steel (minimum yield
strength 355 N/mm2) had been used. The upper courses where
steels of lower strengths had been used (minimum yield
strengths 280 and 245 N/mm2) were found to be almosi com-
pletely free of signs of SCC.
This tank insDection is reDorted in considerable detail in Refer-
ences 21.12 and 21.73. The defects were dressed out by local
grinding and the tank was re-commissioned wlth suitable care.
Some years following this inspection the tank was again de-
commissioned and subject to an internal inspection. By this
time the SCC was such that it was decided to remove and re-
place the tank bottom and annular plating and the lower five
(higher strength steel) shell courses. This was an expensive
and time-consuming modification and suggests that if SCC can
be avoided by the use ofweakerand less economical materials
(in the short term), by correct selection of welding procedures
and consumables and by careful commissioning, de-commis-
sioning and operating procedures, then this is money well
spent.
BASF also owned and operated two refrigerated ammonia
tanks at Ludwigshafen Germany. These were each of 25,000
tonnes capacity, constructed in 1969 and 1981 by Ktockner.
Alerted by the Seal Sands experience, BASF decided to in-
spect these tanks internally. Both were found to have indica-
tions of SCC. This is reported in Reference 21 .14.lnteteslingly,
the older tankwas less badly affected than its newer partner (27
reported defects as compared to 214). The report is at a loss to
explain this difference. The tank bottom was of butt-welded
428 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
construction using backing straps. lMany of the cracks were
found in the tank bottoms and were repaired by fitting local
cover strips, a procedure which the authorwould not endorse. lt
would be interesting to find out how these tanks have fared fol-
lowing their subsequent inspections.
The industrywas atfirst slowto hold its hand up to the existence
of this problem. Indeed, it is probably unfair to blame those in-
volved in the refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia of an os-
trich-like disingenuous self-interest for their failure to immedi-
ately acknowledge the difficulty. ldentifying stress corrosion on
the internal surfaces of carbon steel liouid ammonia tanks was
not easy until detection techniques became more sophisti-
cated, largely due to workdone in the UK by NationalVulcan.
Separating the evidence of SCC from original construction de-
fects and from hydrogen cracking is not easy. Since the publica-
tion ofthe reports of the BASF ammonia tank problems and the
availability of the means of detecting and identifying this phe-
nomenon, most of the liquid ammonia storage tanks in the UK
and Europe have been inspected. Some have been found to
exhibitthis problem and some have been found free of any sign
ofthe complaint. The reasons forthese apparent differences in
behaviour between storage tanks (all builtfrom carbon manga-
nese steels) is not clearly understood.
The signiflcant variables would seem to be the same as those
identified for ambient temperature pressurised storage, i.e.:
- Stress in the parts ofthe tank exposed to the product liquid
oxygen content within the tank during its early life (ie dur-
ing commissioning)
- Water content ofthe stored product
- Stress relief
Welding techniques related to heat input and local hard-
ness
- The selection of a weld metal which closely matches the
strength of the parent plate
It is uncertain if this Iist includes allof the important variables. lt
is also uncertain which individual variable, or indeed combina-
tion of variables is the most important. There is however con-
siderable circumstantial evidence to link these to the problem. lt
has become common practice to use a low strength steelforthe
inner tank in contact with the product liquid and vapour (i.e. a
275 N/mm2 yield strength grade steel rather than a 355 N/mm2
grade whichwould otherwise provide a more economic storage
tank) and to pay particular attention to the othervariables listed
above.
Later work, again by Lunde and Nyborg of the Norwegian En-
ergy Institute and sponsored by the ammonia storage industry
was presented to the A.l.Chem.E. Ammonia Safety Sympo-
sium held in Vancouver in October '1994 (References 21.15
and 2t. t6). These papers are well worth reading for those with
a special interest in this problem area and contain a large num-
ber of useful references for further study. The figure comparing
the stress corrosion susceptibility of carbon steel as a function
of oxygen and water content at temperatures of 18 'C and
-33 'C is interesting and is shown in Figure 2'1.3.
21.3 Refrigerated storage of liquid
ammonia
21.3.1 Conventional systems
The early liquid ammonia tanks were of the single containment
type with remote low bunds as illustrated in Figure 21.4. As
safety standards increased, the tank type most commonly
adopted by the industry became the double containment type
 21 Ammonia storage - a special case

as illustrated in Figure 21 .5. The final move through the types of

containmentfrom double to full, which was made in the cases of
many of the other low temperature gases, was not followed in
the case of ammonia. The reason for this is associated with the
last of the properties listed in Section 21.2.4, i.e. the ability of
the liquid ammonia to conduct electricity. For many years this
E
8^l A precluded the industry's ability to develop an in-tank pump for
use with liquid ammonia, a central requisite for the elimination
c yl of bottom or lower shell liquid outlets required for full contain-
ment systems.
u {l As has been stated in Section 21.2.4, in-tank pumps for the
BaY-
8!5 rl .! 83 other low temperature products are directly cooled and lubri-
cated by the pumped liquid. The first of these is clearly not pos-
sible with Iiquid ammonia. This problem was not aided by a fur-
ther unhelpful property of liquid ammonja its affinity for
-
attacking copper bearing alloys. Recent developments which
will hopefully overcome this problem are described in Section
21.3.4.
The liquid containing metaltanks weredesigned in accordance
with API 620 appendix R or to BS 4741 and more latterly to its
E
reolacement Code BS 7777.
E e.< The outer wall may be constructed from low temperature car-
bon steel or prestressed concrete designed to contain the full
liquid contents of the inner tank without leakage. l\ilany of the
-.+' concrete wallswere prestressed using the "Preload" wirewind-
Ing system.
0.1 1 10 100
The tanks were most usually supported on elevated unheated
Oxygen ppm
reinforced concrete base slabs supported on pile extensions or
by other suitable arrangements. The connection between the
concrete wall and the base slab was usually ofthe sliding or the
:igure 21.3 Comparison ofihe susceptibilily of cabon steelio SCC as a lunc-
ron ofoxygen and waler content at temperatures of 18'C and -33 'C

On ground

: gure 21.4 Single containment storage arrangements

: qire 21.5 Double conlainmenl storage arfangements

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 429

21 Ammonia storage - a special case

Thin dudntum $cdon b Pdvido

waalh.rp@nno M tll(t, vt !@l &
hof2.nbl @6trEt of bnk b bto cla6

Prsbrn d ctc6d 6ll polytrm

Figure 21.6 Interspace roofdetailof lcl North Tees ammonia tank No.2
pinned type. The insulation systems were quite unsophisti- 21.3.2 An alternative storage system
cated as described in Section 21.3 5
It is important to prevent
rainwaterfrom entering the interspace The storage arrangement shown in Figure 21.7was developed
between the inner insulated steel shell and the outer steel or between the plant owner and the tank contractor for a
Drestressed concrete wall. The undetected accumulation of 22,000 m3 ammoniatankat a site in the UK and seemsto getas
rainwaterand possible condensation within this interspace has close to full containmentas the lack ofsuitable in-tank pumps at
led to a number of tanks of this configuration having to be de- that time would allow. The outertank is designed to contiain the
commissioned and be the recipients of expensive and time full liquid contents ofthe innertankwhich are assumed to reach
consuming remedial work. Clearly an effective roof covering
the interspace is a necessity.
The design of an efficient roof with a sensible lifespan would
seem straightfoMard, but for the reasons listed is not easily
achieved and requires carefuldesign and careful construction:

- The roof is some 30 m above local grade and conse-

quently subject to strong winds.
Ammonia tanks are mmmonly built at coastal locations
and are subject to adverse corrosion regimes.

- The roof sDans between the steel inner tank which is sub-
ject to thermal movemenb and the concrete outer tank
which is not subject to thermal movements (at least not to
the same extent).

- The roof is difficult to inspect and repair.

The arrangement indicated in Figure 21.6 was adopted by lcl
for the reolacement roof for the No. 2 ammonia tank at North
TeesWorks. This has served its purposewelland seems to an-
swer the various problems posed.
O InBrsh.rl @
It is also important to inspectthe interspace regulailyto ensure oui*3hn
@ @
an early indication is obtained of anywateraccumulation and to @ shlbtrv.N. @
have a suitable drainage system together with site operating @ Bsh.lt.lloi @
Drocedures to remove such water before it can damage the
tank base insulation. Figure 21.7 An alternative storage anangement

430 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 21 Ammonia storcge - a special case

the equilibrium level in the outer tank within 5 minutes of the

leak commencing, i.e. a fast but non-zip type of failure.
The outer tank shell and bottom are cold in service which
means that there will be no thermal shock in the event that the
inner tank leaks its contents into the outer tank. The cold outer
tank also means that there will be no significant evolution of
vapourinthe inner tank failure case. The vulnerable lowershell
liquid outlets are protected by shut-off valves within the
interspace between the inner and outer tank shells as indicated
in Figure 21.8.

Figure 21.9 Bottom corner details forthe altemative arrangement

sons associated with the stress corrosion cracking problems.

The ability to get as much product liquid out of the tank as
quickly as possible leaving the minimum volume to be removed
via the atmospheric heatleak route willclearly be useful in mini-
mising the decommission/inspecvre-commission period and
consequent costs associated with unavailability of the tank. A
@ small drain connection also protected by two interspace valves
@ with a suitable external pump arrangement maywell be a good
investment. A photo of this facility is shown in Figure 21 .10.
@

Figure 21.8 Liquid oullet details for the allernative arangement

The first valve (i.e. thefirstvalve that the exiting liquid meets) is
a manually-operated valve whose purpose is to allow the sec-
ond valve to be serviced. This second valve is open during nor-
mal service, but is pneumatically-closed in the event of liquid
leakage being detected by instrumentation located close to the
liquid outlet connection. The purpose of this arrangement is to
protect the plant and its surroundings from an incident involving
the liouid outlet externalto the outertank and before the first ex-
ternal shut-off valve in the outlet pipework. Without this ar-
rangement, this incident would cause the tank to dump its entire
contents through the liquid outlet connection.

With this equipment in place, the amount of liquid escaping to

the environment would be that which would flow out ofthe tank
during the period that the detection equipment took to identify
the problem and the second pneumatically-operated shut-off
valve took to close. This is bad enough with a toxic product like Figure 21.'10 An ammonia storage tank ofthe alternative lype
ammonia but much preferable to leakage of the full tank con-
tentS.
21.3.3 Chemical Industries Association guidance

The apparently curious arrangementwhere the inner and outer

tanks share a common roof is important. This allows the
interspace between the two tank shells to be filled with air. This
air space is within the insulation envelope and consequentially
at the product temperature of -33 "C. Cold and inhospitable
though this interspace is, it allows the valves in the liquid outlet
lineto be accessed and serviced which is vitaltothe overallvia-
bility of the system. This arrangement does require the inner
tank to be fitted with holding down bolts or straps as the internal
pressure is predominantly applied to the part of the single roof
attached to the inner tank shell. The design of the anchorage
system which must penetrate the outer tank bottom can prove
interesting. The bottom cornerdetail for this tank is illustrated in
Figure 21.9.
As a side issue, when designing such a system it is importantto
remember that ammonia tanks are likely to have to be decom-
missioned, probably more than once during their careerfor rea-
Much ofwhat is discussed in Sections 21.3.1 and 21 .3.2 is also
covered by the latest version of Reference 27-2. This divides
the types of tanks to be used for the storage of refrigerated liq-
uefied ammonia into the nowfamiliar three categories. The ex-
act definitions vary from those given in Chapter 17, Section
'17.6 onwards which were derived from BS 7777 and EN 1473,
and for this reason are ouoted in full:
. Single containment
This is a tank designed and constructed so that only the
containing element in contact with the refrigerated ammo-
nia is required to meet the lowtemperature ductility require-
ments for storage of the ammonia. Any outerwall ofa single
containment storage system is primarily for the retention
and protection of insulation and is not designed to contain
liquid in the event of ammonia leakage from the innertank.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 431

21 Ammonia storage a special case
A single containment tank is traditionally surrounded by
secondary containment in the form of a low bund wall to
contain any leakage.
Afootnote elsewhere in the document shtes:
"storage tanks, for example tanks containing petroleum
products, are frequently surrounded with low earthern or
concrete bunds which will contain the liquid in a large open
Dool should failure ofthe main tank occur. lfthis method was
adopted with an ammonia tank, evaporation from the pool
of ammonia would cause toxic concentrations considerable
distances downwind and is not considered desirable, nor
acceotable in the UK."
We also find:
"lvlany tanks were originally built as single containment type
but have been retrofitted to become double containment
type".
These are quite strong indicators that single containment is not
currently preferred.
. Double containment
This refers to an inner tank designed and constructed with
secondary containment in the form of a wall or outer tank
Both the inner tank and the wall or outer tank shall be capa-
ble of containing the refrigerated liquid ammonia. To mini-
mise the pool of escaping liquid, the wall or outer tank
should be located at a distance not exceeding 1.5 m from
the inner tank. The innertank shall store the refrigerated liq-
uid under normal operating conditions. The wall or outer
tank shall be able to contain the refrigerated liquid ammonia
leakage from the inner tank.
The outer tank is not designed to contain vapour released
due to ammonia leakage from the inner tank
. Full containment
This refers to a tankdesigned and constructed with second-
ary containment in the form of a wall or outer tank. Both the
inner tank and the wall or outer tank shall be capable of con-
taining the refrigerated liquid ammonia
The innertank shall store the refrigerated liquid and vapour
ammonia under normal operating conditions.
The wall or outer tank shall be capable of containing both
the refrigerated liquid and vapour ammonia resulting from
ammonia leakage from the inner tank
It is a shame that the authors of this document have sought to
modify the definitions which were developed in EEN'4UA 147
and repeated in BS 7777. The wording of the full containment
definition suggests a fixed inner tank roofto contain the product
vapourduring normaloperation, whereas the figure (taken from
BS 7777) clearly indicates that a suspended ceiling is accept-
able.
The outer containment of double and full containment systems
is oermitted to be of steel or reinforced or postlensioned con-
crete. For steel components the rules of BS 7777 are required
to be adopted.
As has been mentioned, when this guide was written (1997),
in-iank pumps for ammonia service were not available. Conse-
quently, liquid outlet connections which penetrated the inner
and outer tank walls could not be avoided. The guide gives the
lollowing advice regarding liquid outlet connections:
1 . The liquid outlet pipe (or pipes) should be taken from the
side oithe innertank, as close to the base as permissible'
2. Each outlet pipe shall incorporate a valve for remote clo-
sure. Where internal valves are the preferred type of re-
mote closing valve, two outlet pipes are recommende0'
3. When a remote closing valve is fitted externally to the in-
ner tank, it should be sited in the annular space between
432 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
the inner tank and wall. An isolation valve is required to be
fitted betvveen the remote closing valve and the tank and
should be located as closetothetank as possible Asingle
outlet is permissible.
4. ln the event of power failure, the remote closing valve(s)
should close automatically. The consequences to down-
stream operations should be evaluated
5. The outlet pipe (or pipes) shall be anchored into the base
slab (or wall if this is preferred in a structure which is not
oost-tensioned) and due allowance made for the move-
ments which will occur when the bnk cools down
6. The tank should preferably be fitted with two liquid outlets.
Both shall be fitted with internal valves capable of remote
closure.
Items 1 to 5 apply to double containment systems with concrete
outer walls. ltems 1 to 6 apply to double containment systems
with steel outer tanks and to full containment systems with both
steel and concrete outer tanks/walls.
The document makes it mandatory for steel shell plates with
mountings (penetrating fittings) to be stress-relieved. A sensi-
ble SCC precaution.
The document has a section on commissioning and de-com-
missioning. Again SCC raises its head and the following advice
is offered:
"Recognition should be given to the possibility of stress corro-
sion cracking (SCC) occurring in ammonia storage tanks. Ap-
propriate design and construction techniques wlll minimise this
risk but it should also be noted that research work has shown
the following:
. SCC does not occur without the presence of oxygen
. The oresence of water may inhibit Scc
Therefore the purging ofthe tank with inert gas priorto the addi-
tion of ammonia, and the maintenance of a water content in the
ammonia of 0.15% to 0.20% should be considered The inert
gas purging ofa tank priorto the addltion of ammonia is recom-
mended as a standard industry practice."
21.3.4 Recent developments
Quite recently in-tank pumps suitable for use with liquid ammo-
nia have been developed. The pump is described in detail in
Reference 21 17.fhe design of this pump incorporates the fol-
lowing features to deal with the problems of liquid ammonia's
electrical conductivity and its highly corrosive action on copper
and copper bearing alloYS:
. Electric motor housed in a liquid and gas tight enclosure
. Magnetic coupling to connect motor to pump
. Motor cooled indirectly by the product liquid
. Nitrogen-purged motor enclosure and electrical contain-
ment system
. Power cable assembly enclosed in a flexible bellows type
hose assemblY
. Filtered product liquid bearing and coupling lubrication sys-
tem
The Dumps can be installed with the usualtype offootvalve, op-
erated by the pump self-weight and allowing the pump column
to be purged and freed from ammonia Iiquid and vapour priorto
removal or replacement, especially important for personnel
safety with this particular product.
Pumps of this type have been specified and installed at the
plant operated by Shanghai Golden Conti Petrochemicals in
China. They have been in service for some four years and other

e than problems relating to the product cleanliness, have oper-
o ated successfully.
e All other welds in floor and shell plates
For land-based storage systems, this development opens the
way to true full containment for liquid ammonia.
These new pumos could also be a useful addition to the marine
transport of liquid ammonia where external motors and long
drive shafts have traditionally been used.
21.3.5 Insulation systems
Because of the high latent heat of this gas, the tank insulation
systems are usually quite straighforward.
For the tank base, two layers of cellular glass with a load bear-
ing ringwall dependent upon the seismic environment normally
suffices. For the tank walls, polyurethane foam, either foamed
n-situ behind metallic cladding or spray applied with a mastic
weatherproof coating are commonly used on the outside sur-
faces. There are a few double-walled tanks which use perlite in-
sulation.
The tank roof could have a similar arrangementto the tankwalls
orfor reasons associated with weather protection, befitted with
an internal suspended deck supporting a glass fibre or mineral
wool insulation.
21.4 Inspection and repair of liquid
ammonia storage systems
Reference 27.2 also provides guidance regarding inspection
and maintenance of refrigerated liquid ammonia storage tanks.
Clearlythe possibilityof SCC is the reason why rules specific to
ammonia storage are required. The Reference suggests:
"All tanks should be thoroughly inspected, both internally
and externally, not more than 6 years from the date of inltial
commissioning. Thereafter, the interval between major in-
spections should be determined by the tank owner, depend-
ing on past experience. For example, if SCC was found at
the first inspection, then it may be necessary to carry out
subsequent inspection at an interval of less than 12 years,
and if it (the extent of SCC) was sufficient to warrant sub-
stantial repair or rebuilding, then it is recommended that the
next major inspection should be carried out within a further
6 years."'
For such an important issue in terms of public safety, these
guidelines are remarkably non-specific and non-mandatory
The Reference goes on to say:
"For guidance, inspection intervals in the region of 12 years
are considered an appropriate balance between the need to
monitor the tank and the risk incurred during de-commis-
sioning and subsequent re-commissioning."
And:
"lf, outside the recommendations of this guidance, a single
containment design of tank is operated, then the inspection
period shall (mandatory) not exceed 12 yearc."
It recommends that the first inspection should include:
. Magnetic particle flaw detection (MPl) of all tee welds in
floor plates, for a length of 230 mm along each arm of the
weto.
. l\y'agnetic particle flaw detection in accordance with BS
6072 of lojo/a of first course vertical and horizontal welds
(including the shell-to-floor weld), plus at least 50% of the
tee welds in the remaining shell plates, for a length of
230 mm along each arm of the weld, plus all internal attach-
ment welds below the first to second course circumferential
weld. This shall include all areas of temporarv attachment
wetos.
21 Ammonia storage - a special case
. Careful visual inspection of:
All other internal brackets and attachments
Although it is not expressly stated, it is presumed that this in-
spection will be confined to the internal surfaces ofthe primary
liquid container. The outer surfaces ofthe primary container are
often inaccessible due to the presence of the thermal insula-
tion.
Some guidance is given regarding the methodology of MPI to
be used, but this is in outline only and would not impress those
organisations skilled in the techniques necessarylor the detec-
tion of SCC. The sensible observation that "Those carrying out
the tests should be experienced with the techniques and of the
interpretation of the results obtained." is included.
External inspection is confined to looking for insulation cold
spots and ammonia leakage around fittings and pipework. For
this the tank should be three-quarters full oi liquid ammonia.
Four holding down bolts and their boxes or holding down straps
should also be inspected.
An interesting more recent development is the "Recommenda-
tions for safe and reliable inspection of atmospheric, refriger-
ated ammonia storage tanks" published in October 2002 by the
European Fertiliser ManufacturersAssociation (EFMA) (Refer-
ence 21.18). This document brings attention to the fact that
there are major differences between the national regulations
and/or Codes of Practice from different EuroDean countries re-
garding the frequency of inspection of liquid ammonia tanks.
This is illustrated in Figure21.11.
These regulations and Codes of Practice also do not discfimi-
nate between tanks of diflerent lypes of construction, different
operating practices and posing different risks to the surround-
ing envifonment. This new guidance is based on Risk Based In-
spection (RBl). and seeks to evaluate the pfobability and con-
sequences of failure of each lndividuaL tank. This process is in
turn intended to optimise the lnspection frequency to obtain
knowledge about the tank and its cond tion and the negative ef-
fects of opening the tank for intefnal lnspection which could in-
crease the potential for the occufrence of SCC
An inspection procedure is suggesied (Figure 2'1 .'12). A proce-
dure is given for determining the maximum tolerable defect size
Maximum inspcctioD iotcrvrl for 2tnrosph(flc.
20 years, but a notijled body can de(jde shoner
None (VAWS, weter protection act, state 5, 1 0 or I 5
depending on inspecuon rsults. according to CLA +
C!eicrl lldst y Ass@iatiod Cuidd@ for &c lege scale sromge offtly
.rny.LM ql@olia in ihc UK Jue 1997.
Figu re 21 . 1 1 Nalional rules or recognised standa rds for th e frequ ency of in
speclion of atmospheric (lquld) ammonia storage tanks n Europe
Fram EFMA document. Abjendix 1
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 433
21 Ammonia storage - a specialcase

B;ftom plates
SheLl Dlat6, T-wlds ir co@e I &d 2
Shll plales, honzontal atrd verhcsr
welds itrcowse I ed2
Shell Dlats. T-welds in @us 3 !o top
Shell plat6, horizontal md vertic.l
welds in couie 3 to tot
Marhols, pip cotne.tio&s, purnp sink
dd other sDeaial details
clamp marks or t@pomry fabrieiion
poeeadon welds
89qq!@!e
Ar.a! s biect to prvious repaiB
Figure 21 12 Inlernal nsoeclion Iecommendatol
Frcm EFMA docunent, Aq?endix
E6
0
12 24
Fallure Probabllity number
Figure 21.13 Inspection frequency diagram
From EFMA dacunent
SteD I Step 2 Step 3 tank of carbon steel to retiain and protect the perlite thermal in-
I00% sulation. The tank was supported on an elevated base slab and
100% was surrounded by a concrete wall supported at local grade
50% r00%
level and described as reinforced (as opposed to prestressed).
t00%
t0% ICD% The inner tank was 30.3 m in diameter and 21 3 m high.
to% 50% ILD'/O Itwould seem thatan operating erroralloweda small quantityof
to% tatJ% warm ammonia liquid to enter the tank and this caused a large
quantity of vapour which over-pressurised the tank. Failure of
1rfro/o
the shell-to-bottom joint and of the holding down anchors then
l0/o 100% occurred and the failure sequence is illustrated in Figure 21.14
which is taken from the SUPRA report.
100%
100./"
In much the same way as the Qatar LPG tank failure' the tank
was moved sideways by the reaction to the exiting liquid and
smashed its waythrough the concrete bund wall, tlnally landing
I some 25 m from the originalfoundation. The tank bottom was
left on the elevated foundation slab.
The liquid ammonia vaporised and caught fire, in turn setting
fire to an adjacent 15,OOO tonnes store of NPKwhich continued
to burn/decompose for 3 days. The official number offatalities
was 7, a surprisingly low figure for the magnitude of the event
and the number of employees. Jonava was evacuated for a
short period of time.
10yrs
It is a pity that there is so little published information relating to
this incident. The lessons which can be learnt would seem to
be:
3.0 4.8 60 72
The necessity for careful process control, especially dur-
ing unusual operating conditions such as start up or
re-commissioning activities, to avoid the unforeseen im-
port of warm liquid.

based on BS 7910 (Reference 21.19). An RBI evaluation - The design of a pressure relief valve system adequate to
method is provided which results in arithmetic scores forfailure cater for all uPSet conditions.
probability and failure consequence. These scores are entered incident, the tank failure
- ln an extreme overpressure provisions
in the inspection frequency diagram (Figure 21.13)and indicate modes must be reviewed and to ensure
made
an inspection frequencyforthe particulartank in question rang- that failure cannot occur in elements which will cause the
ing from greater than 20 years to a minimum of 3 years This tank to release the contained liquid, i e failure in the roof
seems a sensible and disciplined approach in an area where sheeting or the shell{o-roof compression area ratherthan
there is a confusing amount of non-specific advice. the shell, the shell-to-bottom junction or the holding down
arrangements.

21.5 Incidents involving liquid ammonia
tanks
The history of liquid ammonia storage has been comparatively
- The location ofthe storage tank relative to othervulnerable
free of incident. A number of minor incidents involving vapour
releases to the atmosphere, non-performance ofvacuum relief
valves and foundation problems usually associated with pooror
inadequate base heating systems have happened over the 21 .6
years.
The one serious incident involved a liquid ammonia storage
21
tankin Lithuaniain 1989. Little information is available concern-
ing this incident due to the site's military links, but despite this
the site was visited some two months afterthe event by a group
from the Swedish National Rescue Group (SUPRA) and a re- 21.2
port was written by a member of that group (Reference 21'20)
This is interesting reading and the dearth (thankfully) of serious
incidents in this area makes it importantthatthose that do occur 21.3
are recorded and published aswidelyas possible so that all the
lessons are learnt and any modifications to industrial practices
and regulations are made and implemented as soon as practi-
2'1.4
caole.
The accident took place at the "Azotas" fertilizer plant'12 km
from Jonava in Lithuania. Jonava has a population of around 21.5
40.000 and the plant around 5OOo employees. The ammonia
tank was of 10,000 tonnes capacity and at the time of the inci-
dent held some 70OO tonnes of ammonia The tankwasofJap-
anese design and was constructed by Soviet personnel in 21.6
1978. The innertank was of lowtemperature steel and the outer
The reinforced concrete secondary liquid containing wall
must bedesignedto containthe productliquid in anycredi-
ble inner tank leakageifailure scenario.
eouiDment or materials on the site
References
.1 Code of Practice for the Storage on Anhydrous Ammo-
nia Under Pressure in fhe UK The Chemical Industries
Association Ltd - January 1980, (nowno longer avail-
able).
Code of Practice for the Large Scale Storcge of Fully
Refrigerated Anhydrous Ammonia in the UK, The
Chemical lndustries Association Ltd - 1997.
Behavior of welded pressure vessels in agriculturalam-
monia service, T.J. Dawson, The welding Journal Vol
35, pp 568-574, 1956.
Sfress corrosion cracking of steeis ln agricultural am-
monia, A.W. Loginow and E.H. Phelps, Corrosion 18
(8), 1962.
Stress Corrosion cracking of Steels in Ammonia,
A.Cracknell,lcl The lnstitute of Refrigeration, Paper
presented 6 MaY, '1982.
SCC in welded ammonia vesse/s, O.L Towers, Metal
Construction, August 1984

434 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 21 Ammonia stonge - a specia/ case

Position before accidEnt

f-
r
F

Failure of anchors Agitation of tank begins

Base break-away

Position of tank afier accident

Figure 2'1.'14 Lithuanian ammonla lank faitu sequonc

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 435

21 Ammonia storage - a speclal case
21.7 Stress corrosion Uacking of some metallic maErtab in
ammonia at ambient and low temperatures, L. Lund and
R. Nyborg, UK Corrosion 1985, Hanogate UK.
21.8 The Etrec't of Orygen and Water on Stress corrosion
Cracking of Mild steel in Liquid and Vapotous Ammonia
P/ant L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, Operations Progress
Vol 6, No 1, Januayl987.
21.9 Sfress Corroslon Cracking in Different Steels in Liquid
and vaporous Ammonia, L. Lundeand R. Nyborg, cor-
rosion '87, Paper no 17, San Francisco, USA.
21.10 Sf/'ess Corrosion Crack Growth Rate of Carbon Manga-
nese Sfee/s, L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, Corrosion Pre-
vention in the Process Industries Conference, 1988
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
21.11 Effect of Welding Electrode Composition and Storcge
Temperature on Slrcss Corroslon Cracking of Carbon
steels in Liquid ammofla, L. Lunde and R. Nyborg,
NACE Corrosion Conference 1991, Cincinnatti, USA.
21.12 Sfress corroslo n in a 12,000 tonne fully-refigerated am-
monia storage tank, J.R. Byrne and F.E. Moir (National
Vulcan Engineering Group Ltd) and R.D.Williams
(BASF Chemicals Ltd), 1988 Ammonia Symposium
Safety in Ammonia plants and related facilities, AICE,
Denver Colorado, August 1988.
21 -13 gructural lntegrity of a 1 2,000 tonne Refrigerated Am-
monia gorage Tank in the presence of Slress Conosion
Cracks, R.A. Selva (NationalVulcan Engineering Group
Ltd) and A.H. Heuser (BASF AG).
436 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
21 .14 New Cases of Stress Co/'rosrbn Cra cking in Large Am'
monia gorage Tanks, M. Appl, K. Fabler, D. Fromm, H.
Gebhard and H.Portl, (BASF AG).
21.15 Measures for Reducing Sfress Conosion Cracking in
Anhydrous Ammonla Storage lanks, Rolf Nyborg and
Liv Lunde, lnstituftfor Energiteknikk Norway, presented
to the A.l.Chem. E. Ammonia Safety Symposium, Van-
couver, Canada, October 1994.
21.16 Sfress Corro sion Cracking in Low Temperature Ammo-
n,a Slorage lanks, Rolf Nyborg and Liv Lunde - Institutt
forEnergiteknikk Norway, presented to the A.l.Chem. E.
Ammonia Safety Symposium, Vancouver, Canada, Oc-
- tober'1994.
21.17 Advanced design for submerged liquid ammonia
pumps, D- Cullen and H. Kimme!, Ebara International
Corporation, Nevada, USA, International Journal of Hy'
drocarbon Engineering, April 1998.
21 .'18 Recommendationsfor safe and reliable inspection of at'
mosphefic, reftigerated storcge tanks, P repared by the
European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association,
(EFMA), October 2002.
- 21.19 BS 7910 : 1999, Auide on method for assessing the ac-
ceptability of flaws in metallic structures, British Stan-
dards lnstitution, London.
21.20 March 20 1989 accident in Lithuanian feftilizet plant'
B.O. Andersson, Swedish National Rescue Board (SU-
PRA). A.l. Chem. E. Technical Manual, Vol 31, 1991.
Am-
r, H.
22 Material selection criteria for low
gtn
ano temperature tanks
nted
'lan-
The means of selecting appropriate metallic materials for the various component parts, which
vno- make up the structure of a low temperature tank, are described in this Chapter and the
Etutt differences between the American, the British and the draft European Codes are discussed.
1. E. An interesting historical material selection procedure is also described.
Oc-
Contents:
,NE 22,'l General
)nal
Hy- 222 The requirements of API 620
22.2.1 API 620 Appendix R
fat- 22.2-1.1 Materials lor parts subjected to ambient temperatures
lhe
22.2-1.2 Maletials tor parts subjected to low temperatures
on,
22.2.2 API 620 Appendix Q
22.2.2.1 Matenals tor parts subjected to ambient temperatures
ac-
En- 22.2.2.2 Maltials lor parts subjected to low temperatures
22.3 The requirements of BS 7777 | Paft2
ant, 22.3.1 Materials for parts subjected to ambient temperatures
su- 22.3.2 Materials for parts subjected to low temperatures
1.
22,4 The requirements of 857777':Patl4
22.4.1 Parts subjected to ambient temperatures
22.4.2 Parts subjected to low temperatures
22.5 The requirements of PD 7777 l2OOO
22.6 The requirements of prEN 14620
22.6.1 Materials for parts subject to ambient tempratures
22.6-2 Matenals for parts subject to low temperatures
22.7 An example of a material selection method ftom the past
22.8 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

22 Mateial selection criteia for low temperaturc tanks
22.1 General
This Chapter is devoted to the rules covering the selection of
materials suitable for use in low temoerature tanks of metallic
construction. lt limits its interest to the selection of plate materi-
als for the main parts ofthe tank structure, i.e. the bottom, shell
and roof plating. The various Codes give guidance for the se-
lection of materials such as structural sections, pipe, forgings,
bolting, etc. Those interested in this sort of detail should make
reference to the appropriate parts of these Codes.
To venture deeply into the philosophywhich underpins the ba-
sis of the metallic material selection for these tanks is beyond
the scope of Slorage Tanks & EquipmenL and certainly beyond
the abilities and knowledge of the author. The detailed discus-
sions surrounding such subjects as avoidance of brittle frac-
ture, fracture arrest, critical defect sizes and the like must be
found elsewhere.
What will be discussed are the relatively simple rules for mate-
rial selection which have been developed from a great deal of
detailed study and test work, carried out over a considerable
number of years, resulting in the requirements of the various
design Codes.
The material selection falls into tlvo separate areas:
. Materials for primary and secondary liquid-containing parts.
- These are the inner tanks of single containment tanks
and the outer metallic tanks of double and full contain-
ment tanks. These parts are subjected to both the mini-
mum product liquid temperature and the full hydrostatic
head.
. Materials for the outer metallic tanks of single containment
tanks.
- These are subjected to the minimum ambient tempera-
tures and comparatively modest stress levels arising
from internal vapour pressures and self-weight, wind
and seismic loadings. For these components the mate-
rialselection rules followthe ambient temperature prac-
tices.
The material selected for the various parts ofthe structure must
possess the necessary strength, the ability to be fabricated into
the required forms, weldability and the necessary toughness at
the design temperature to avoid the possibilityof brittle fracture.
Ensuring that the materials possess the necessary propertaes
to demonstrate their suitability for the first two of these consid-
erations is relatively straightfoMard. The usual tensile testing
required by the material specifications to determine yield
strength, ultimate tensile strength and elongation to failure are
normally sufficient. These properties are usually measured at
room temperature.
As most materials are stronger at the lower service tempera-
tures, this gives rise to a factor of safety additional to that im-
posed by the Codes in the determination of the allowable ten-
sile stresses. For certain materials this can be substantial. ln
the case of 9% nickelsteels used at LNG temperatures, recent
data suggests that this "hidden" factor can be as high as 50%
for both the plate material and the weld metal. lt should be re-
membered that for LNG service, it is the latter property which
controls the selected plate thickness. lt is the last of the re-
quired properties that tends to cause the most concern. Ferritic
steels at warm temperatures, are malleable and can be plastic-
ally deformed without risk of fracture provided the materials
elongation has not been exhausted. When the service temper-
ature is reduced, the material may become brittle and failure
can occurat low stresses with little or no plastic deformation.
The temperature at which the transition from ductile to brittle
behaviour occurs is dependent upon the steel chemistry the
438 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
heat treatment, the applied stress and the number, size and
shape of any defects in the finished assembly.
There are a number of test methods which are used to deter-
mine the material toughness at a particular temperature.
Amongst these are:
. Wide plate tests
. Pellini-type drop weight tests
. crack opening displacement (coD) tests
Allofthese tests are difficult, expensive and time consuming to
perform, but arguably get somewhere close to determining the
intrinsic toughness of the steel.
A test which is suitably quick and cheap, and with which the
steel producers are familiar and comfortable with is Charpy
V-notch impact testing. Unfortunately the industry is less confi-
dent ofthe ability ofthis test to revealthe true nature ofthe prop-
erty of interest for the materials in question. So, the unsatisfac-
tory situation exists of tests which provide an answer which can
be believed with some confidence, but which are too expensive
and slow to be of use as a production quality control tool, and a
test which is quick and cheap, but which produces answers
which are contentious.
Fortunately much work has been done to accommodate this
apparent dilemma. lmproved production methods have
resulted in generally tougher steels and the design codes have
in some cases become more conservative in the material
selection area. As a consequence, for ferritic materials the
Charpy V-notch impact test is used as the toughness criterion
despite its limitations.
Aluminium alloys and austenitic stainless steels are not sus-
ceptible to temperature dependent tough/brittle transitions in
the same wayas ferritic steels and consequentlytheir base ma-
terials are excluded from impact testing requirements.
22.2The requirements of API 620
The requirements of API 620 regarding material selection re-
quirements are based in the main on the use of ASTM stan-
dards. Some Canadian Standards Association (CSA) and In-
ternational Standards Association (lSO) steels are also
included in the listings. The useofsteels manufactured to other
national and international standards requires careful study of
the steel specification and the code rules to ensure that all of
the necessary requirements have been fulfilled. It is frequently
necessary to have to resort to additional testing of such steels
to be able to demonstrate equivalence. The code contains a
large number of rules, specific exceptions and footnotes relat-
ing to material selection. For those involved in the task of mate-
rial selection, there is little choice but to become immersed in
the fine print of the Code and consequently there is no need to
quote "chapter and verse" in Storage Tanks & Equipment. A
brief overview is thus offered with some ofthe significant points
highllghted.
With the exception of plates which have their thickness se-
lected based on minimum thickness requirements, plates are
permitted to be a maximum of0.01" thinnerthan the calculated
thicknesses required, based on edge thickness measure-
ments.
22.2.1 API620 Appendix R
22.2.1.1 Materials for parts subjected to ambienttempera-
tures
The Code describes these parts as basic orsecondary compo-
nents.
 22 Mateial seledion aiteia for low temoenture tdnks

no

er-
ae.
Pcrmi$ribh Spacifi crtio0s
Derign Mctd Plnc Thickn6s
lbmpcnum IrEludirS Co.rosion Spocid Roquilrrncnts
(icc 4.2,1) Allounmc (iD.) Spcci[c.rion Grr& (in ddirion to ,1.2.3)

65'F rrd or{ Any listql io 2-2.3 Nooc

<l ASTM A 36 Nooc
>l CSA C,|{}.21-M Nonc I
Ito
25'F rnd o\rcr 3.tk Any lhtld in 2"23 1o*,mr|/,l5o* NorNc
he sl ASTM A 36 Mod 2 Nonc
ASTM A I3I B Nooc
CSA C'lll2l -M 26|}w3(x)w350w Nonc
he >l Notc I
pv - 5"F jd ovr sth ASTM A I3I B Notrc
IIF CSA G4O2I.M 260fl,3SW,35{tW Nonc
)P
tc- >th ASTtr{A 13l cs NUlc
an ASruA516 55,6(},65.70 Noc I
re ASIl,lA 573 5& 65,m Nd. I
ta ASruA662 BrdC Nel
ASruAn? B Nale
:{s ASTI'iA tal Clsl NqE
csAeo2t-M 26OW 3dtu
350W Notc 2
E '150630 E Zt5. 8355 Qudiry D NccE l.rd2
ve
ve ASTI| A 516 55,60,65, m l,lqF
ial ASIUA 53? Cl|s|.r I rdz Ncte
he ASTlr,lA t3 5& 65, ?0 Noor
m ASTMA d}3 CqdD l{o.
ASTtr{A 662 B rdC tlooe
6?t A rdE I\toE
1S- ^SII{A
ASruA73? B I\bE
h ASruAgl ('|ttt t\hoc
E- csA c(t2t{l 60w'3r[1v.:]fnt Noc 2
ISO 630 E 275, E355 Qutiry D NGtrd2
<l
Astlt A t3t cs l{fic
ASTM A 516 55,60,65,70 Noac 3
ASruAtJ? at-..Gl I .nd 2 Nqrc
e- ASTM A 5t Norc 3
tl- ASTI| A 633 '] C|rdD Nqrc
[} ASTM A 662 BrndC Noac 3
x) ASTI{A 678 A|trlB None
Ef ASTMA 737 B Noo!
(t ASruAgl Cl|sr I Nooc
d cs^ G402t-M 2601V.3mw' 3t0w Ndrs 2 rnd 3
>l tso 630 Ein5, E355 |nlQudhy Norcs 2 |ld 3
ry D
ls ASTM A IlI Noac 4
a ASTM A 516 cs Notc$ 1 d4
rt- ASTM A 5I? 55.60,65, m Norc 4
e- ASTM A 5?3 Ch*.cs I .||d 2 Nolcs I rnd 4
it ASTM A 6!t 5t Nqc 4
b ASTM A 66? CrndD Nqcl| 3 rrd 4
A ASTM A 6?8 EaMC Norc 4
as ASTM A ?I? ArndB N(xc.l
ASTM A 8,1| Clrss I N(|rtc
csA Glo.] -M B Ndcs 1..1. irnd 4
rso 6.1(l l6{rwT. .r(x}wT. r50 wT N(*:\ :- J. and J
rE E2?5, El55Qlalily D
d
I All pht6 ovd lla l. ttkl d.ll b. mr'Idlad
2 Tb! *.cl lrtl lhdl L U[.a lrd nrd. rta! th. grdr prrcd.e
3 Tlc plrt . |rl[ bc .omdh.d o. qrcrcr r.nFrid (..c {.24r)
a Er.b pLae |irll D. lDp.ct ae.!.d tr rccsrd co wXt {2J

tgurs 22.1 Minimum requkemenb for pl6te sFcifcaflons to be usd for design metal temperature
Bo.n API 620, Awendlx R, table +1

STORAGE TANKS A EQUIPMENT 439

22 Matedal selection cdteia for low tempercturc tanks

D.dgn M.rd TcmFnfiE ofsccoid.rJ Compon rt

-6lPF to Bclow -20PF -20'F lo +40'F
M ..Lb 19 llsr.d in Tlblc R-4 Mr|ri* r! lilt dinnbb R4

Pip. ASTM A 106 As lis&d in 2J

SEudonl ntnbcrs Plra or pipc !s list d .borc na. or pipc .! li$.d lbovc
ASTM A 36 Mod | lluctunl dupca (i.c 2.6) Suucnlrrl lhati ar liir.d io 2.6 or a.r li$cd ud.r E
- 6fF to - m'F llmpcr.|un hrding
ASTM A l3lOr?&CS
CSA C4021-M C6d.s 26OW..100W. rnd lsOW (s.. Mt!)

Forlrngs ASTMA 105

Eolu ASTM A l9l Gnd{ a?

ASTM A 120 Cad. L?
Nor(: Thc \lcclthxll h.lolly hillcd m'j madc |oli*-g.n ptulr.c

Figure 22.2 IVaterials for secondary componenls

Fron API 620, Appendix R, table R-3

Minimum D6ign Mctal Tcmpcmturc, oF

Plarc Thickncss lncluding CoFosion Allowsrlcc. in,
Spccific8don
Group Numbct G'adc th6-3ls >3!E-th >l/2-l > t-lr/2
| (scmikillcd) A 36 Mod 2. -m -t0 +5
A I3I B -m -t0 +J
csAG4o.2r-M 260W 0 +10 +zt
150630 E 2?5 Qualhy Co -m -10 +) +)

ll (fuUy ldll.d) A 573 58' -30 -10

A l3l cs -60 -J.' -35 -m
A 516 55 rr|d 60 -30 -N -t0 0
A 516 55 and 60P -40 -ln
ISO 630 E 2?5 Qudity Db -30 -n -10 0
cs^ c40.2r-M 26oWD -,t0 -30 -15 0

Itr (fully killcd utd A 573 65 dd ?0 -N _10 +5

high 3ulNrglh)
A 516 65 .rd 70 -m -t0 +5
A 516 65 rrd ?0 Mod lr -40 -30 _15 0
A 537 l.rdz -60 -50 -15 -m
A662 BandC -40 -30 _15 0
A 633 CtndD -60 -50 -35 -m
A 6?8 A udE -@ -50 -35 -20
AW -60 -50 -35 -m
ISO 630 E 35sQurliry DD -30 -m -10 +5
csA c40.2t-M 3mwo -io -30 -15
+J +m
0
csA G40.2r-M 2{0wD -30 -10
NoEi:
Whrt Dorndizi4 mrtcrirl$ in 6is r.blc |!ry bc urcd at tcmpqafils 20"F blo$, drc6! shown (dccpt fgr A t3l Gndc CS, A 537 Cl.!sc! |
rnd e A 633 Grld.s C ard D, A 6?8 Crad.! A rnd B, And A 737 Gradc B). lf lmpaca tclas Equircd for thc metrrid! listld itr thit tablc,
0l.y rh.ll bc in occordrtE! wfth Tablc f,-5. 'l!
rscc 4,2.3 for r cottrpLtr dclcaiption of ddr hrtrrial.
blftc n cl ihall bc frllly killcd aDd na& witb 6nc-8rain Frclicc, vithout lonnrlizin& fo( thickEoslg of 116 in. ttugu8h I lD in.
cThc mragmcac cootcd shall bc in thc nDg. from 0,&5% ro ll0% by bdlc amlysi!.

Figure 22.3 lvlinimum pemissible design metal temperature for plates used as secondary components without impacl testing
From API 620, Appendix R, tabla R-4

Basic components are those that contain the vapodsed lique-
fied gas from the stored refrigerated liquid, but primarily oper-
ate at atmospheric temperature because of insulation system
design and naturalambient heating. Examples ofsuch compo-
nents are the outerwalland roofs ofdouble walltanks and roof
componenb above the internally insulated suspended deck.
Secondary components are those whose failure would not re-
sult in leakage of the liquid being stored. Secondary compo-
nents also include those components that are not in contact
with the refrigerated liquid but are subject to the refrigerated
temperature vapours and have a combined tensile and primary
bending stress under design conditions that does not exceed
6000 lb/in'z. Secondary components which could be designed
within this reduced stress are roof plates, including roof
manways and nozzleswith their reinforcement, roof supporting
structural members and shell stifieners.
These components are furtherdivided into thosewhich contain
the vaporised gas and those which do not. The materials forthe
former may (a curious choice of word, a BS or CEN standard
would have used "shall" here) conform to one ofthe following:
. Table4-1 (Figure 22.1 )fordesign metal temperatures down
to -35'F (i.e. a lowestone day mean ambient temperature of
-35'F) without impact testing unless these are required by
Table 4-1 or by the purchaser.

440 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 22 Material selection citeia for low temperaturc tanks

Plate Impacr valueb (ft-lb) W.ld Innact Value (fllb)

Speai6cation Rangc in
Number Grade Thickness (in.) lndividual lndividual
ASTM A I3I Csc ,16 - llh 25 20 20 t5
ASTM A 516 55 and 60 11j -2 25 20 20 t5
ASTM A 516 3t6-2 25 20 20 l5
3tft
ASTM A 516 65 ard'tO Mod td -2 25 20 20
ASTM A 516 65 and ?0 Mod 2d 3tft -z 25 20 20 l5
ASTM A 84I I 3116
-z 25 20 20
ASTM A 53? Jlt6 20
I - 2 20
ASTM A 53? 2 3116-2 30 25 25 m
ASTM A 662 BandC 31rc-2 25 20 20 l5
ASTM A 678 3h6
- tt t2 25 m m l5
ASTM A 678 B. 3l16-2 30 25 25 20
th6
ASTM A 73? -2 25 20 20
3116
ASTM A 84I I -2 20 20

ISO 630 D..ac

E 355 Qualiry ,rc-2 25 m m l5
csA G40.21-M 260WT.& 3t6-2 25 ?! 20 l5
CSA G4O.2I-M 3oovrFn ,\6-2 25 m m
csA G40.21-M 350s/tc'd' tlrc-2 25 20 m l5

Notcs:
.SrcR.2.l.2.
bFor design mc(al tcmpcratures of- 40oF ,nd lowcr {tc p(ate impact values shall bc nis.d 5 fl-lh
cThc tiequcocics of tcsting for ncrharical and chemical prcpcnies shall be at l.ast e4ual ro $osc of ASTM A 20.
dscc 4.23 for a complctc dascripiion of rhis matctial.
Thc sEel shall bc fully killd aM madc with fine-grain Factice.

r-rgure 22.4 IVinimum Charpy V-noich impact requlremenls for primary components plate specimens (transverse) and weld spec mens incJuding ihe heal affected

Fron API 620 Appendix R. table R 2

. Table R-3 (Figure 22.2) for design metal temperature down
to -60"F without impact tests unless they are requifed by Ta-
ble R-4 (Figure 22.3) or by the purchaser
. lfapproved bythe purchaser, the material may be seiecled
by the requirements of paragraph 4.2.2 of API 620. This
provides three oossibilities for the reduction in the stfin-
gency of the material selection criteria where the actual
stress under design conditions in the component in ques-
tion does not exceed one third of the allowable tensile
stress.
For the parts of an outer tank which do noi contain the vapor-
sed gas (i.e. in the case of a design using a fixed roof inner
tank), the material may conform to any of the materials listed in
Table 4-1 . Consideration ofthe design metal temperature is not
required if the actual stress in the component of the outer tank
n question does not exceed one halfofthe allowabletensile de-
sign stress for the material.
22.2.1 -2 Materials tor parts subjected to low temperatures
These parts are described as primary components which are in
turn defined as components whose failure would result in leak-
age of the liquid being stored, components which are exposed
to the refrigerated temperature and those subject to thermal
snocK.
supporting structufal members and shell stiffeners where the
combined tensile and primary bending stress under design
cond tions exceeds 6000 lb/in2.
For components falling into this category, Charpy V-notch im-
pact testing at or below the minimum design metal temperature
shall be carried out to achieve the energy values given in table
R-2 (Figute 22.4). f he impact specimens shall be taken trans-
verse to the difection of final plate rolling. This is different to the
requirements of BS 7777 which requires the impact test speci-
mens to be taken parallel to the direction of final plate rolling
(i.e. longitudinal). Some steel specifications quote impact en-
ergy levels for both longitudinal and transverse specimens, in
which case the steel seleciion is quite straightforward. Other
specifications only quote longitudjnal Charpy V-notch require-
ments, in which case additional testing must be undertaken to
ensure that the required properties are provided.
It is not wise to estimate the transverse plate properties based
on the longitudinal properties determined at the same tempera-
tures. The relationship between the two properties is depend-
ent upon the directionality of the plate which is in turn a funciion
of the amount of cross rolling in the production process. As a
guide, the transverse energy levels can be between 50% and
90% of the equivalent longitudinal values.

These primary components shall include, but not be limited to, Note: Table R-2 also gives energy values for the weld metal
the following parts ofa single walltank or the innerwallof a dou- and the heat-affected zone (HAZ)for use in the welding
ble walltank: shell plates, bottom plates, knuckle plates, com- Orocedure Oualifications.
pression rings, shell manways and nozzles including reinforce-
ment, shell anchors, piping, tubing, forgings and bolting. Roof 22.2.2 API620 Appendix Q
nozzles in contactwith the refrigerated liquid shall also be con-
sidered as pfimary components.
22.2.2.1 Malerials lor parts subjected to ambient tempera-
Also included are those parts of a single wall or an inner tank IUres
which is not in contactwith the refrigerated liquid butare subject
to the refrigerated temperature. Such components include roof The Code describes these as secondarv comDonents defined
plates, roofmanways and nozzles with their reinforcement, roof as follows:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 441

22 Mateial selection c teia fot low temperature tanks

Secondary components include those components thatwill not . 9% nickel steel

be stressed to a significant level by the refrigerated liquid, those
whose failure will not result in leakage ofthe liquid being stored, . 5% nickel steel
those exposed to product vapours, and those having a design
metal temperature of -60'F or higher. When roof plates, . Austenitic stainless steel
knuckle plates, compression rings, and manways and nozzles
including reinforcing are primarily subjected to atmospheric
. Aluminium alloy
temperatures, these shall also be classified as secondary . Nickel alloys (i.e. Invar, Hastelloy etc)
components.
9% nickel steel is the most commonly used material for LNG,
The selection of materials for these oarts is as described in
ethylene and ethane service. lts strength, weldability, availabil-
Section 22.2.1 .1.
ity and cost make this the obvious choice.
22.2.2.2 Materials tor parts sublected to low temperatures
5% nickel steel is less widely available and its use is normally
These are described as primary components, and again API
restricted to ethylene and ethane service.
620 launches into a lengthy definition of which parts fall into this
caregory: Austenitic stainless steel is uneconomic for large low tempera-
Primary components include those components that may be ture tanks, but is commonly used for the smaller tanks for the
stressed to a significant level, those whose failure would permit storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon.
leakage of the liquid being stored, those exposed to a refriger-
Aluminium alloy was once wideiy used for the construction of
ated temperature between -60"F and -270'F and those that are
large low temperature tanks. The manufacture of aluminium al-
subject to thermal shock.
loys is an energy intensive process and the significant in-
The primary components shall include, but will not be limited to, creases in energy costs which took place in the early 1970s
the following parts of a single walltank (most unusual to Appen- caused the pendulum to swing towards 9% nickel steel as the
dix Q), or ofthe innertank in a double walltank: shell plates, bot- economic choice, and this remains the case today.
tom plates, roofplates, knuckleplates, compression rings, shell
stiffeners, manways and nozzles including reinforcing, shell The use of nickel alloys is most unusual and will not be further
anchors, pipe, tubing, forgings and bolting. considered.

This part ofthe code allows the use ofthe following materials for The commonly used AST[,4 materials are listed in table Q-1
pnmary components: (Figure 22.5).

PlaGs ar|d Sruclu.al Piping

Mcmbcrs and Tubing Forgings BoltinB

A 153 (Scc not. l) A 333, C.adc 8 (scc not.2)

B 444 (UNS-N06625), Cr. I

A 553, TyF I (scc not. l) A 334, Gradc 8 (scc notc 2)

B 444 (UNS-N06625). Gr. 2

A 645 B 619 (UNS-N l0276xscc norc 3)

B 622 (UNS-N102?6)

A 24O, Typc 304 A 213, Gr.de TP 3O4 A 182, Gradc F 304 A 320, CradcsBE, B8C, B8M
A 240, Tnc 3ML A 2 I 3, Gradc TP 304 L A | 82, Cradc F 304L and B8T
A 312, Crrdc TP 304 (scc notc 3)
A 313, GrNde TP 304L (s.c norc 3)

A 358. Gnde 304, Class I

(!cc Dote 4)

B 209, Alloy 30034 (scc notc 5 B 210, Alloy 3003-0 B 247, Alloy 3m3-HI12 82l I, Alloy 606l -T6
B 209, Alloy 5052{ (s.t notc 5) B 2 10,Alloy 3003-H I 12 E 24?, Alloy 5083-Hlt2Mod
B 209, Alloy 50E3{ (!.c nolc 5) B 2lq Alloy 5052{
B 209, Alloy 508tu (scc notc 5) B 210, Alloy 508tu
B 209, Alloy 51544 (!cc notc 5) B 2l0,Alloy 5154{

B 209, Alloy 545@ (scc notc 5) B 24l,Alloy 50524

B 22t,Alloy 6061-T4 udT6 B 241, Alloy 5083-0
B 3O8, Alloy 6061-T2 ard T6 B Zl, Alloy 5066{
B 241, Alloy 5454{
B 241, Alloy 5456{)

Notas:
l. Whc{r Fcssurc para d! rndc ofASTM A 353 orA 553 rnat dd or nickcl rlloy, pipe nangc! or pipc may bc rustcnitic stainlcss sl.cl of
r rr?c that cannot bc hardcdcd by hat EEaEncnL Pipc nanSca or pipc may bc wcldcd to nozzlc nccks of dE prcssurc part mat tial if thc
butr wcld b locltrd rno(c than I dist$cc cqual !o thc 4 mcrsurcd from thc facc ofthc rcinforccmcnl whcrr r= insidc ridius of $c nozzlc
ncclq in iL
rnd r s thick|ess of thc mzzlc ncck in in. Thc d.sigr of thc nozzlc ncck rhall bc bas.d on thc allo*blc stcss veluc of
wcrkcr mrlc.ial.
2. Scrmlcss piping rnd rubing only.
3. Wcldcd piF sha bc wcld.d ftom rhc ootsidc only by thc tungstcn-arc inscn gas-shieldcd CfC) prcccss nithout $c addition of 6llcr
mctrl and Ehall bc hydroslaticdly testcd.
4. Impacl lcst of wcld! shall bc madc for thc w.lding proccdurc whcn rcquncd by Q.6,3.
5. ASTM B 221 structural scctions dE also Dcrmittcd.

Figure 22.5 ASTM materials fof primary components

Fron API 620.Iable A-1

442 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT

 22 Mate al selection criteria for low temperature tanks

for
V.lu. R.qoicd Mhimln V.l@ Wi$oot vrlcRcqli!dd MiniooD hlc Wirh&l
Aeco(li.C Rcquiriq R.r.!P A...ptd R.qrili.t Ra6tr
(rr.lb) (ftlb) (ftnb) (finb)
l0 x 10.00 a l6 25 2A

l0 x ?J0 t5 t2 t9

l0 x667 t3 t0 t7 ll
l0 x5.0 l0 8 t0

r0x333 7 5 a 1
.NG,
abil- t0x2-!) 5 6 5

N'ld:
rA$dg. of dr!. rFdeaB
rally lonly G .pcdm of. .c!
: gure 22.6 Charpy V-notch impact value
+om API 620, table Q-2
the
mpact testing is not required for primary components made
iom austenitic stainless steel, nickel alloys oraluminium Mlntnrm Thtclness Mste d2)
1of ddlgn metd .
aUoys.

in- mpact testing is required for primary components made from

70s 3% and 5'/o nickel steels. T>O ts15 BS EN 10025 : 1990
Fb 430 B or
the )laie matedals shall be imDact tested in accordance with the Fe 610 B
'bllowing:
15<t<36 BS EN 10026 : 1990
ner . lmpact test soecimens shall be taken transverse to the di- Fe 430 C or
Fe 510 D1
rection of final plate rolling.
. T> -20 ,<16 BS EN 10026 : 1990
Charpy V-notch specimens shall be cooled to a tempera- Fe 430 B or
ture of -320"F for impact testing (conveniently the tempera- Fe 610 C
ture of liquid nitrogen). 15<ts35 BS EN 10026 : 1990
. For 5% nickel steel only, the test temperature may be raised Fe 430 Dl or
Fe 510 DD1
Io -22O'F.
'/ See 6.2.2.
. The transverse Charpy V-notch impact energy values shall Other matelials may be used pmvided thy ar equivalent
'?)
conform to table Q-2 (Figute 22.6). to rhos spcilied, and pfolided rhe purchasr and
manufacturer aSree [o such a subsriturion.
. Each test shallconsist of three specimens, and each speci-
men shall have a lateral expansion opposite the notch of not F gure 22 7 Stee s fof outer tank compresson area, roof and roofstr!ct!re
less than 0.015". where the minim!m desgn tempeture is based on ambient lempeture
Frcn BS 77/7 : Pai2, table 6
The Charpy V-notch impact energy levels quoted in Table Q-2
afe low by comparison with the levels usually associated with
5% and 9% nickelsteel olate materials ofrecent manufacture.
-ihe 22.3.1 Materials for parts subjected to ambient
code also gives rules for the impact testing of structural temperatures
shapes and forgings in these materials. The manufacture and
rse of these is most uncommon.
For steel outer tank parts where the minimum design tempera-
ture is based on ambient temperatures, the materials shall be
22.3 The requirements ol BS 7777 i Paft 2 selected from Table 6 (Figure 22.7). These parts would nor-
mally be the compression area, the roof plating and the foof
'.1inimum supplied plate thicknesses for tanks designed to this
rode fall into two categories: structure. lt is recommended that for the uK the design metal
temperature should be taken as -10'C. For areas outside the
. For shellplates where thethickness is based on axialstabil- UKthedesign metaltemperature should betaken as the lowest
ity or internalvapour pressure considerations, for roofthick- daily mean temperature (i.e one half of the sum of the daily
nesses based on minimum requirements, bottom or maximum and minimum temperatures).
annular plates, The minimum thickness based on edge
measurement shall not be less than the specified thickness For the outer tanks of double-walled single containment tanks
less one halfof the total thickness tolerance specified in EN (i.e. those for containment of gas only), the materials shall be
10025:1990. selected from Table 7 (Figure 22.8).
. For shell plates where the thickness is based on fluid pres- Note: The steel designations given in these Tables are those
sure considerations or roof Dlates where the thickness is from the earlier version of BS EN 10025 (Reference
based on a calculated thickness. the minimum thickness 22.1). fhese have now changed and the appropriate
based on edge measurements of the plates supplied shall new designation should be used taken from the latest
not be less than the calculated values. version of this Code (Reference 22.2).
:or 9% nickel steels where the required thickness is based on
:re properties ofthe weld metal ratherthan the properties ofthe 22.3.2 Materials for parts subjected to low tempera-
rlate, local thinning remote from the edge of the plate, due to tures
'olled in scattered scale on the plate surface, is acceptable pro-
/ided that the measured thickness is not less than g0% of the The Code focuses its attention on the use ofsteels for inner and
:alculated thickness of the Dlate. outer tanks designed to contain refrigerated liquid.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 443

22 Material selection citeria for low temperature tanks

]Iinimum design Thickness Materiatl) Product SinBle Double or Typical

contrlnment full product
cont$lnment etordge
7' tempetatute
Butane Iype II *10.c
T > r l0 I =:10 BS EN 10O25 : Ammonia Tlpe II Tlpe I -35 0C
1990
Fe 360 B, Propane/ TYpe iII Type tr *50.c
propylene
Fe 430 B or
Fe 510 B Ethare/ Tlpe W lVpe IV - 105 0c
ethylene
+10>7>0 t s25 BS EN 10025
LNG D?e V or I}pe IVr) - 165 0C
1990
VI
Fe 360 B,
Fe 430 B or 'r For thicknesses geater than 30 rnrn and less than or equal
to 40 mm, 'lvpe V or VI is necessary,
Fe 510 B
2'o <t <35 BS EN TOO25 Fjgure22.9 l\4aterial iypesfortankshell and bottom
1990 BS 7777 : Part 2, table 2
Fe 360 C,
Fe 430 C or quently been replaced by BS EN 10028-4 (Reference
Fe 510 Dl 22.7)).
0 > 7 > -20 t < 12.5 BS EN 10025 : . Type V steel: lmproved 9% nickel steels conforming to BS
1990 15O1 : Par12: 1988 type 510 improved.
Fe 360 B,
!'e 430 B or . Type Vl steel: Austenitic stainless steel conforming to BS
Fe 510 B 1501: Part 3 : 1990 (Reference 22.8).
12.5<r<20 BS EN TOO25 : It is interesting to note that the BS Code does not quote or allow
r990 the use of a 5% nickel steel which API 620 indicates as being
Fe 360 C, suitable for ethane and ethylene storage tanks. A reason put
Fe 430 C or forward for this was that the use of 5% nickelsteelwas quite un-
Fe 510 C usual and the infrequent manufacture ofthis steelwas inconve-
20<r<35 BS EN 10025 :
nient to the mills which charged a premium for its supply. This,
1990 together with the difierence in strength between 5% and 9%
Fe 360 Dl, nickel steel, combined to make gyo nickel steel a more eco-
Fe 430 Dl or nomic proposition and consequently the 5% nickel steel be-
Fe 510 DDI came irrelevant. A recent re-examination of this supply
rrSee 6.2.2. cosUstrength issue suggests that this perception is no longer
true.
z)Other ma.tedals may be used provided they are equivalent
to those specified, and provided the purchaser and The use of the six types of steel for the various products to be
manufacturer agree to such a substitution, stored is described in table2of 857777 :Paftz, (Figurc 22.9).
For single containment systems, the material chosen is gener-
Figure 22.8 Steelfof outer conlainers forsingle containmeni ianks
ally one type higher in quality than is the case for double and full
BS 7777 : Patl2, table 7 containment systems. Although experience has demonstrated
that the risk of failure of a single containment system, correctly
The use of aluminium alloys is subject to agreement between designed and fabricated in accordance with British Standards,
the purchaser and the manufacturer of the tank in question. As is very low, an enhanced material quality for this type oftank is
has been mentioned earlier, the use of aluminium alloysforthe made in the attemptto offset the more serious consequences of
construction of low temperature tanks these days is very un- failure. This table gives no rules for materials to be used for the
usual. storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon. These products
Guidanceforthe use of aluminium alloys is given in AnnexC of are covered by BS 7777 :Paft4 (Reference 22.9) ,the rcquie-
B57777 : Patt2- This Annex requires the use of plate materials ments of which are described in Section 22.4 below.
to BS 1471 (Reference 22.3) and structural materials to BS The Charpy V-notch impact testing requirements for the plate
'1474 (Reference 22.4). No doubt these rules could be ex- materials is given in Table 3 ofthe Code (Figure 22.10). Note
tended to cover materials of US origin to ASTM standards by that the impact testing is specified as longitudinal which is dif-
agreement. The maximum shell plate thickness is restricted to ferent from the API requirements.
55 mm.
The CharpyV-notch impact testing forthe weld metal is given in
For the use ofsteel materials, the code has defined six material Table 5 of the Code (Figure 22.11).
types:
The philosophy behind the materialselection and testing ofthe
. Type I steel:
Normalised carbon manganese steel con- types ll and lll steels needs some words of clarification. The ba-
forming to BS EN 10028-3 (Reference 22.5) gtades P275 sic requirement is to provlde a toughness of at least 27J at the
NLI or NL2 or grade P355 grades NL1 or NL2. design metal temperature in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of
. Type ll steel: lmproved toughness carbon manganese the production welds of tanks for double or full containment
types, and 27J at 25"C +/- 5"C lowerthan the design metaltem-
steels.
perature for single containment tanks. The steels used in these
. Type lll steel: Low nickel steels (normallythese are propri- categories are well known to be susceptible to degradation of
etary steels with nickelcontents of between 1 .5 and 3.5%). the weld metal impact properties in the HAZ.
. Type lV steel:9% nickelsteels conforming to BS 1501: Part The normal practices of allowing the tank manufacturer to
2 | 1988 (Reference 22.6) type 510 (this code has subse- specify and purchase the steel, the welding methods and

444 STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT

 22 Material selection citeria for tow temperature tanks

n?e I Nomalized carbon-manganese 27 J at -50 'C Not required

TYpe tr Irnproved toughness caxbon-manganese 27 J at -50 oC - LIa) -20 ac
\?eIIl Low nickel steel 27 J -80 oC
- L?a) -50 oc
'I!"e IV I % nickel steel 36 J
^t
at 196 oC Not required
I}pe v Improved I % nickel 100 J at -196 .C Not requircd
TJpe VI Austenitic stairiless steel No impact testing requircd
'' Ener$ lelue the minirnufr 8kge oI itRe sleimens, wi$ only one siqle r?rue bs than the i?tue specified and with no
i5
stnele Elue les than ?6 * ol the lalue soeified.
a,
For matedrl lh'cknes ls rhm 11 nn, 10 nn x 6 m sub,si@ specihens are ro be u*d, rnd demonstate ?O % of the
values speilied lh thri ia.ble_ Ibr 1}?e V sieet, rhe lulue js ro be 50 % of the Btu spejfld in tnis t5bte,
3r lrnp&i t$rhg i5.arnd our on esch Dtare ro demorotrate the required inpacr rrlue. In ad<tftion, rGring rr s frcquency of one
t4t pr40 t batch i! to be clrded out to demomtrate the 120 J requiremtrr (4e anner A). The deti iions of pl&te.nd iaich
aE given in BS EN 10025.
', RefeFnce should be hdde to urex A,

. gLre 22.10 Longitudinal Charpy V-notch impact lesling

33 7777 : Pat12, table 3

Weld metrl tor desiglnrtrd Charpy V-not h lnpact te8t

steel tyle enefgy,
For matedals used at 27 J at -L0 6C
BS
ambient temperatures lo Hut weld
|- :loo t
For lype I steels 60 J at -30 'Cz) I - rJ
tsS
For $pe tr steeis 60 J at - 60 ocz) f-_-lE ut_l_
For TYpe III steels 50 J at -80 ocz)

rg
For l}pe [V steels 35 J at - 196 oCa) NqlE l A mininun oi 15 pllre specinero are taken ar mid rhickne$ ioh rhe 3de side

l..li For lYpe V 35 J at - 196 oC3) Longitudinal dis of sDcinens ii !o be prpendicutd to weld uis.
NOlIj 2. A ninjhum of 15.pecimens.F taken ar mjd rhickne$, wiih rhe noLh tdated in
For $pe VI Not rquircd lhe tlAz, and e etched io denon6i6ie that rhe norch is hoi in veld melat o. parnt

.S, ', Enerty velue ls the minihum average of three spcimns,

with otrly one sirui]e !'alue leis than the value specilid and
).: Mth no single value less than 76 % of the vatue specified.
u )
Th intent of this speciJication is to ensurc that the
F gute 22 12 Lacal a. af Charpy V,noich impact energy test spec mens
)?- Foduction \ileld6 in the tank meet ihe 20 J minimum at the
te8t temperoiue gi\,n above. In ordet to achieve thjs, the Fron BS 7777 : Pan 2. figure A3
procedur tst of weld mtal for \?es I, II and III steels is
ie: requird to demoistmte a higher Charpy V-notch energ/
this lT. involving a standardised weld specimen as illustrated jn
value to compensate for the scatter oi rcsults inherent in
Chaey V testiru of weld matdals. figure A.1, A.2 and A.3 (F)gwe 22.12).
Employing the forcgoing welding prccdure, prcduclion test
plates are nolmally unncessaq/, and ai not a feaiure of thjs Th jsallowed a minimum of 15 Charpy V-notch specimens to be
standard. However, if Uoduction test plates arc called for t'y taken from both the parent plate and the HAZ, tested at different
the pllldns! minimum averaS energy values of 2? J for temperatures to allow the 27J transjtion graph indicated in Fig-
three speeimem with no single mlue less than 20 J are
requLed at the te8t temperature given. ure 22.13lo be produced. With the AT determjned, the plate
3)
'Ihe minimum average impact enemr for the weld metal for material could be tested at a temperature of AT below the de_
'Ihes lvand V is based on the high nicket, austenitic weld sign metal temperature to ensure that the required 27J will be
metal. In the event of weld metl bing offered in achieved in the HAZ at the design metal temperature.
composition matching that of I % ntckel plate, additiona.l
speciallst advice ehould be obtelned. To ensure that the material does not exhibit a flat Charpy
NmD. Where austenitic weld metal is usd for weldin! V-notch transition, a batch test (one test per 40 tonnes) is re-
T}?e I or'IVpe m stls, Charpy V-nokh inpact rcsring of quired to show a longitudinal impact of .120J at either _20"C
the tlcld metal is not rqukd.
(type ll) or -50'C (type lll).
't-,e 22.11 Weld metat C harpy V-notch impact test energy This then pre-qualifies the particu lar steel. lf any ofthe following
:'.n BS 7777 : Patt 2, tabte 5 change, then the test must be repeatedl

r:'rsumables, and to then demonstrate that the 27J had been . Steelmaker
::rieved in the HAz by means of production weld testinq on . Steelmaking process
: ::. carries with it the possibility offailure to attain the req;ire-
-ent. This would have a devastating effect on the cost and . Deoxidation process
:'rgress of the project in question as by this time the steel . Desulphurisationprocess
, : JId have been purchased, delivered, fabricated, erected and
:;'iially welded. To avoid the possibility of encounters with this . Casting practice
:-barrassing and expensive scenario, it was decided to devjse . Heat treatment
: -ethod of pre-qualification for the steels commonlV used for
:-:se products. . Changes in specified chemical composition including mi_
cro-alloy additions.
This materialselection method has given rise to a long-running
-- s pre-qualification procedure was based around the deter-
and occasionally acrimonious argument. The UK a;d
- -atron of the AT shift for the material jn question. This
is the pean-based steel producers were opposed to the proposal and
Euro_
-:asurement by testing of the actual decrease in the touoh_ refused to carry out the test work necessary to pre-qualify their
-
.:s ofthe parent plate and the HAZ of the steel. Annex Aof -BS steels. When BS 7777 was presented as a possible draft for in_
---7 : Patt 2 gives the details of the methods of determinino corporation into the new European lowtemperature tank Code,

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 445

22 Mateial selection citeia for low temperature tanks
Figure 22.13 Temperature shift (AT)at the 27 J toughness tevel
Fram BS 7777 : Parl2, figure A.4
this issue was atthe heart ofan ill-tempered series of meetings
which delayed the production of the new standard for years, a
reaction which seemed to be disproportionate to the impor-
tance of the issue. The end result is that the new EN will not
have this selection method for the materials to use for butane,
ammonaa, propane and propylene tanks. The pre-qualification
route always seemed sensibleto the author, and it is hoped that
nottoo many tank builders fall into the holes described above.
Type lV steel is now something of a historical irrelevance these
days. lmprovements in production methods and chemistry
have meant that nearly all9% nickelsteels produced are nowof
the improved quality. lt is not uncommon for the tank specifica-
tion writers to require restrictions on sulphur and phosphorous
tevets.
22.4 The requirements of BS 7777 : Part 4
As has been mentioned earlier. this Dart ofthe Code is for tanks
for the storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon. lt was wri!
ten at the request of the UK paft of the industry which had for
many years specialised in the production, storage and distribu-
tion of these products. This group argued that their intrinsically
safer products did not require double or full containment sys-
tems which form much of the thrust of the remainder of BS
7777.
They were of the opinion that single containment was appropri-
ate to their industry and persuaded the committee to let them
write BS 7777: Part 4 which gives the rutes which they consid-
ered that they needed.
22.4.1 Parts subjected to ambient temperatures
The materials for these parts are carbon steels selected in ac-
cordance with the appropriate parts of BS 7777: Pan 2 Gee
Section 22.3.1).
22,4,2 Parts subjected to low temperatures
TypeV orVlsteel in accordance with BS 7777: Part 2 (see Sec-
tion 22.3.2) or aluminium alloy in accordance with Annex C of
BS 7777: Pan2 shall be used.
The most usual choice is austenitic stainless steel.
22.5 The requirements ot PD 7777 : 2000
This published document (Reference 22.10) has been dis-
cussed in Chapter'18. lt is concerned with the use of 9% nickel
or of austenitic stainless steels which can be demonstrated to
possess crack arrest properties and the influence ofthis fact on
the hydrosiatic testing requirements.
446 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
At the time when this PD was published, there were no national
or international standards for ferritic steels in which toughness
requirements are specified for crack arrest capability. Anumber
of proprietiary steels have been developed for which some test
datia have been provided, and these are summarised in Table 1
(Figure 22.14)with their related references.
It isthe responsibility of the purchaserand the manufacturerto
satisfy themselves that the steel suppliers possess the neces-
sary expertise to produce suitable steels and provide the nec-
essary evidence that these properties can be achieved in pro-
duction. Where possible such evidence should be based on
production data, but, because of the stage of development of
these steels, the evidence may have to be based upon trial pro-
d uction run data. In this case, the PD recommends that the ma-
terial property data should be based on a minimum of two casts
of steel of at least 250 tonnes each.
The PD goes on to make a number of points relating to the steel
making process and the chemical composition of the steel. In
brief these are:
. All steels should be produced by a basic oxygen process
and vacuum degassed.
. Steels should be made to fine grain practice.
. It is likely, but not mandatory that these steels will be pro-
duced by either a thermo-mechanical controlled process
(TN/CP), or by quenching and tempeing (Q&T).
. The tank manufacturer should obtain from the steelmaker
the composition limits of the elements specified in EN
10028-4 (Reference 22.7)together with those elements, as
agreed between the purchaser, the manufacturer and the
steelmaker, which are likely to afiect the final properties of
the steel.
. The chemical composition as measured by the ladle analy-
sis should be reported.
. Requirements for product analysis and for carbon equiva-
lent should be agreed between the purchaser, the manufac-
turer and the steelmaker.
Next, detailed Charpy V-notch testing requirements for the
plate and drop-weight testing to determine the nil ductility test
temperatures (NDTT) of the plate and the HAZ, are given in
considerable detail.
Two points are worth making at this stage:
. The various parties required to come to the above agree-
ments will need to have knowledge in depth of the
steelmaking process and the influence of the variables on
the steel orooerties.
. This process makes the steel very much a non-standard
product. Bearing in mind the arguments surrounding the AT
proposals which took place in the CEN committee, much of
which was lead by European steel makers who were reluc-
tant to manufacture non-standard or special steels, it willbe
interesting to see if this proposal gains in popularity. Per-
haps the "carrot" ofthe steel weight-saving associated with
the partial hydrostatic test may prevailand force the issue.
22.6 The requirements of prEN 14620
The material selectjon requirements of this draft Code are in
general similar to those of BS 7777 : Part 2, described in Sec-
tion 22.3. The AT method of pre-qualif,/ing steels oftypes ll and
lll has been excluded for the reasons given. At risk of tedious
repetition, it should be remembered that this is a draft or provi-
sional document and the formally adopted Euronorm may con-
tain changes.
 22 Material selection criteria for low temperature tanks

fypkrl BoUrrg Sultrblc stccl g.rdcs Pbt NI}TT l{ln. Bib.

deBlSr
Uqutd SG (Not rotc! .thrn NDI-T + t0'C)
qc
'c t
n-butne 0.60 GMn TMCP 35 -55 l7l
iso - -12.0 0.60 0.16%NiC-MnQ&TGr33B 38 -rc t8l
butane 0.15% Ni GMn Q&T Gr3? 38 -66 t8l
GMn TMCP 35 -70 -30 {71

0.2 96Ni GMn TMCP 35 -30 tel

0.25 96 Ni c.Mn TMCP GESB 38 -70 -30 t8l
Propane -44.6 0.59 0.26 96 Ni Glvln TMCP Gr 33B 18 {81

0.25 96 Ni c.Mn TMCP Gr 33B 30 -95 t8l

0.6 % Ni GMn TMCP 40 -100 -60 f)
1.6 % Ni 1MCP 20 -105 tel

_IUt'
kopylene -,t8 0.61 3.5% Ni Q &T -05 tiol
2.6% Ni TMCP M -110 -70 I71

3.5%NiQ&T - lrc t8l

3.6%NiQ&T -115 t10l
3.5%NiQ&T 26 -r20 -80 t?1

2.6% Ni TMCP l0 -r20 -80 I8l

3.5 % Ni Q &T 25 -r20 -80 t81

2.6 % Ni 'IMCP zo -:126 I7l

2.6 % Ni TMCP 60 -126 t81

Etlrane 0.65 2.6% Ni TMCP 20 -130 -90 t81

-88.6
2.696 Ni 'IMCP -lso -90 t8l
Etlylene -,.04.0 0.67 2.6 96 Ni TMCP - 1,15 - 105 t8l
2.6 % Ni 1MCP -145 tsl
2.696 Ni TMCP ID <1500 <1I5 t9l
Methane 0.47 9 96 Ni NNT rge tul
9%NiQ&T =$6b tlu
996 Ni Q&T <196b tLzl
'Ba.ad on rid,. NDTT + {0!C'
b'Nobr?!r rt tnprsore lntticrr.d, NItTT.r l4* I - 6'q D.6sibly lofti

Bibliography
qflah atrest @ aeptsfor
tll SJ. Carwood and C S, wiFl er., lan tetupetuhttein tute reqiru,nenls drtd'
it;roge tar*s, Proc Conf. "Bulk Storage lbnlis', Paper 4, IBC Guif Confelenceq Abu Dhabi, 1996'
[2] C.S. wie6net and B. Hayesi A rari4u oJ L'rt/* araest t2sta, nadds unl' applica'i'7t5' Ptoc Conf 'Crack
iirest Concepts for Failure hevention and Life b<tension", Papr 3, Abington PubXshing, 1996'
[3) C.S. Wiesner, SJ, Ga$rood and J.B, Denham; Thz s"ecili/ntiorl oi crock arrest Pvperti$ Jor stornse tanks
'b;ci$dnd d.nd tqownadati.otls. ASTM SI? 1337, Symposia on Design Cdteda to assue Stuc'h|ral Integdry,
New Odea$, May 1997.
[4] c.P Smedley; Pr"dtcrira and. specifiaatiotu oJ crad anest
poperti.4s oJ stcd plalr. Intemational Jounal for
Prssure vessels and Piping, 40 (f989), pp 279 - 302
[5] C.S. Uinet B. Hqyes and .!LA Mlowhb$ Ctudk d|'tzst in nadern steels ond, theb udhnetts
-Cowarison, -
behtwn snat! and large scdle tzst fta
,s. Int4rtBtional Joumal for Prs$rc Vssel md Ptping,
53 (1993), 100.
qnest bdtsviour 6i/ng s1t81Ls@14 ,nilefial chdlv.Eti&liort
[6] C.S. Wiesnef Predtcaing sttltotrEal, cftek
isrs. Intrnational Journal for hessule vessel ard Piping' 69 (1996) pp185 - 196.
lfl Y. fawauchi and A-A- Willoughby; Ctu.& orsst tpst and t].eir uae i,n etxhaliw nraterialytpefli8,'fhe
W;lding Institute Sympooiuft\ Newcasde upon Tne' Apiil f986.
[8] B6syo, Ozaw4 lbwaguchi and Nalonishi n@cerrt dadrpnett of 6beLplat"s for lan lqtuperfr1re sbt!4e
;aalis. 'Ihe Sumitomo Se;ah No. 2q November l9B4 Sumitomo Metal llrdusbies Ltd, 'Iblvo
I9l K Bessyq lMcPsred plorpJo lau tzrhperal'un stotuge ta*s, ?m Intnrational hEss|ne Vessd
Conference, Druseldo4 September l9g2
l10l hirate corununication' British Steel Corporatioq June 1984
Illl
'un'
Doucet, hessouyre, Bourges, Blondeau and C?diou Raenl yrogress in 9% Ni stzelfor LNG 6ppli.olions:
WCS gron" E;oya n;mish Society of Engineers Ltrnational Confelence, Brugge, MAy 1984.
$4P "bel.
alrd WJ M!trplry, Erpldsion bulge and d'tq ueight bsnkt4 oJ QT I Ni stql A&IE
oA
llzj Benter,
Peholeun MedEnical EngineeF Confercnce, September 1967.

: !ure 22.14 Suiiable steels

:'.n PD 7777 :2000,table 1

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 447

22 Mateial selection criteria for low temperature tanks

22.6.1 Materials for parts subject to ambient tem- 2) The steel shall be in the normalized condition or produced
peratures by the Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (Tl\y'CP).
3) The carbon content shall be less than 0.20 %. The carbon
The steelfor the vapour containing outer tank shall be selected equivalent Ceq shall be equal to or less than 0.43 with
in accordance with Table 3 Figure 22.15. alternative types of
C"o = C + lVn/6 + (Cr + N.4o + \4i5 + (Ni + Cu) 115
steel are permitted providing equivalent properties can be dem-
onstrated. c) Type lll steel:
AType lll steel is a fine grained low nickel alloy steel which shall
22.6.2 Materials for parts subject to low tempera. be specified for pressure purposes at temperatures down to mi-
tures nus 80 'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb:

The plate materials are again classified into a numberoftypes

1) The steelshallbe specified to meetthe requirements ofan
established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-4);
in the same way as 857777 :Patt2.The normalor unimproved
9% nickel steel is no longer included for reasons already dis- 2) The steelshallhave been heattreated to obtain a fine, uni-
cussed. The steeltypes, products to be stored and containment form grain size or produced by The Thermo-l\.4echanical
types are the subject ofTable 1, Figure 22.16. The general re- Control Process (TlVlCP).
quirements of the five steel types are as follows: d) Type lV steel:
a) Type I steel: A Type lV steel is aI %-nickel steelwhich shall be specified for
pressure purposes at temperatures down to minus 196'C. The
A Type I steel is a fine grained, low carbon steel which shall be
specified for pressure purposes attemperatures downto minus steel shall meet the following requiremenb:
35 'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb: 1 ) The steel shall be specified to meet the req uirements of an
1) established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-4);
The steelshallbe specified to meetthe requirements ofan
established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-3). Steels 2) The steel shall be quenched and tempered
with a minimum yield skength greater than 355 N/mm, e) Type V steel:
shall not be used.
A Type V steel is an austenitic stainless steel type which shall
2) The steel shall be in the normalized condition or produced
meet the following requiremenb:
by the Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (Tl\4CP).
3) The carbon content shall be less than 0.20 %. The carbon
1) The steel shall be of 18 Cr 9 Ni type with low carbon con-
IENI,
equivalent Ceo shall be equal to or less than 0.43 with
2) Flat plates shall be obtained from rolled coil, cold finished.
C",r = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)i5 + (Ni+ Cu) 115
3) The steel shall be delivered in the solution annealed con-
b) Type ll steel: dition.
AType ll steel is a Jine grained low carbon steelwhich shall be Plate thickness tolerances for Types I to lV shall be in accor-
specified for pressure purposes at temperatures down to minus dance with EN 10029 : 1991 , Table 1, classB, Reference 22.12.
50 'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb: Plate thickness tolerances for Type V shall be in accordance
'l
) The steel shall be specified to meet the requirements of an with EN 10082-2, Reference 22.12.
established European Standard (e.9. EN 10028-3). Steels Charpy V-notch impact test values for base material; HAZ and
with a minimum yield strength greater than 355 N/mm2 weld metal shall be in accordance with Table 2, Figve 22.17 .
shall not be used. Note the change lrom longitudinal to transverse specimen ori-
entation.
The document goes on to make a number of more general
Marenalsrade (EN 1002sr1993)
points amongst which are:

'c . For material thickness less than 11 mm, the largest practical
S 235 JRG2orS;75 JR orS 3551R sub-size specimen shall be used. The minimum Charpy
S 235 J0 or S 275 J0 or S 355 J0 V-notch impact test values shall be in direct proportions to
S 235 J0 or S 275 J0 or S 355 J0 the value sDecified for full size soecimen.
S 235J2G3 orS 275 J2G3 ors 355 J2G3
s ?35 J2G3 0r S 275 J2G3 0r S 355 J?G3
. lmpact testing shall be carried out for each inner tank shell
s 235 J2G3 or S 275 r2G3 or S 355 J2G4 plate and annular plate. For other components impact tests
Fo'desiQn meral lempeEtures below 20 "C 6nd/or for rhicknesses shall be carried out per heavcast of the material.
above 40 n6. lhe charovv notch value shll be 27.1 rono rud,nar
NOT For desiqn neiar Gmpra|lr6 be]ow 0'c, rhe rouqhness or l}E Ne d . The degradation effect due to welding shall be taken into
account.

Figure 22.15 Sieel for vapour container/outer tank

Fron prEN 4620-2 : 2003, table
1 3

Low remperature ca6on-

lmoroved 9 % n,ckelsleel
NOIE For nidrer base weLd nerars ior Type rv sGsrs th rmp8cr roughns 6n6Qy tu w6ld m5r6l
and heal fiecred 20n6 shan be 55J

Figure 22.16 Product and steelclass Figure 22.17 lrinimum Charpy V-notch impact lesl enercy
Fron prEN 4620-2 : 2003, table
1 I Fran prEN 14620-2:2043, bble 2

448 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 22 Material selection citeria fot low temperature tanks

!
-f!
lE*
VTI
IBe
g!r
cFg ^
"Ill 5

rrr .E

ag

.E

I !;
e btl r
ff .e!. i
EE;P
;!;d
; i:" o

:;gure 22.18 l\/linimum Charpy V-notch inrpact

requifemenls for ptates and sections
-.an BS 4741, figure 6

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 449

22 Material selection criteria for low tempercture tanks
. For certain materials, higher Charpy V-notch impact test
values of lower test temperatures may be needed for the
base materials to meet the requirements in the HAz
The latter two requirements perhaps represent an olive branch
to the losers of the pre-qualification arrangemenb.
22.7 An example of a material selection
method from the past
Travelling back in time, the British Standards for low tempera-
ture lanks were published as two separate documents. BS
474'l (Reference 22.73) dealt with tanks for service down to
temperatures of -50"C and BS 5387 (Reference 22.14) deall
with tanks for service down to temperatures of -196'C.
As was, and indeed still is the case for API low temperature
codes, these British Standards contained rules for single con-
tainment designs only.
The material selection criteria for BS 5387 were unremarkable.
For BS 4741, which confined its attention to carbon manganese
steels, the material selection methodswere more adventurous
Based on test work on a series of notched and welded Wells
Wide Plate Tests (WWP tests) carried out by the Welding Insti-
tute (reported in the main in The British Welding Journal ir'
'1964), a new selection process was devised The tesl work
showed that the resistance to brittle fracture ofcarbon and car-
bon manganese steels at low temperatures is dependent upon:
. The notch toughness ofthe material.
. The plate thickness.
. The extent ofcrackiike defects present (The introduction to
the Code states: "lt is believed that if such defects are ab-
sent, brittle fracture will not be a problem at normal rates of
loading").
. Degree of local embrittlement at the tip of pre-existing de-
fects. (The introduction to the Code goes on to explain that:
for carbon and carbon manganese steels, post-weld heat
treatment in the stress-relieving range temperature is effec-
tive in removing severe embrittlement arising as a result of
welding or flame cutting during fabrication and construc-
tion.)
. The influence of mechanical over-stressing during the hy-
drostatic test.
In an attempt to relate all of these variables to the material se-
lection process, figure 6 was produced (see Figure 22.18) This
involved the use ofscales L. M and N and was quite difficultfor
the designer to use. The result of using this figure often meant
that a single tank shell could have four or five different steels
Sadly the early version of this code was held to be a contribu-
tory cause to the Qatar LPG tank failure, and the rules were
changed. In particular the elegant figure 6 was removed and re-
placed by a simpler API type material selection method, and a
full height hydrostatic test requirement was imposed
So it was discredited and deleted, but nevertheless to the au-
thor's mind, itwas an heroicattemptto relate a large numberof
different variables to a material selection method on a single
450 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
sheet of Dapef. lt also reflected a time when the material cost
savings in a structure were seen as being a major factor in the
final price. The increase in the cost of the labour element of
such work in relation to the material costs in the intervening
years, has made this rather fussy procedure seem less rele-
vant.
22.8 References
22.1 BS EN 10025: 1990 specification fot hot rolled products
of non-alloy structural steels and their technical delivery
conditions.
22.2 EN 10025:1993 plus Amendment number 1, dated 15
June 1995, Hot rolled products of non-alloyed steels -
Tech n i c al de I ive ry co nd iti on s.
22.3 Bs 1471:1987 Specification for wrcught aluminium al-
loys for general engineering purposes: plate, sheet and
striP.
22.4 85 1474: 1987 Specification for wrought aluminium al-
loys for general engineeing purposes: bars, extruded
round tubes and sections.
22.5 BS EN 10028-3:1993 Specification for flat ptoducts
made of steels for pressure vesse/purposes - Weldable
fine grain steels, normalised.
22.6 Bs 1501:Paft 2 : 1988 Specification for alloy steels -
ptates.
22.7 BS EN 10028-4 :1995 Specification for Flat products
made of steels for pressure purposes - pa ft 4 : Nickelal-
loy steels with specified low temperature propeiies
22.8 BS 1501 :Patl3:1990 Specification for corrosion and
heal resisfing sfee/s: plates, sheet and strip
22.9 BS 7777 : Paft 4 : 1993 FIat bottomed, vertical, cylindri-
cal storage tanks for low temperature seruice: PatT 4
Specification for the design and construction of single
containment tanks for the storage of liquid oxygen' liq-
uid nitrogen or Iiquid argon.
22j0 PD 7777 : 20OO Altemative steel selection and its effect
on design and testing of tanks to BS 7777
22j1 EN 10029 : 1991 Specifications for tolerances on di-
mensions, shape and mass for hot tolled steel plates 3
mm thick or above.
22.12 EN 1OOB2-2 Staintess steels - Paft 2 : Technical deliv-
ery conditions for sheet/plate and strip for general pur-
poses.
22.13 BS 4741:1971 Specification for vedical cylindrical
welded steelstorage tanksfor low temperature serutce:
singte walltanks for temperatures down to -50'C (sub-
jeci to major amendments in January 1980).
22.14 BS 5387:1976 Specification for veftical cylindrical
welded storage tanks forlowtemperature lanks servlce
double watl tanks for temperaturcs down to -196'c'
x)st
the
Iof 23 Erection considerations for low
ring
ele- temperature tanks
Efficient erection techniques have always been important to trank constructors for reasons of
'finished costs". Nowadays it is frequently the case that a short construction timescale is as
,cts important as the cost. Driven by the need for fast, cheap and high quality site construction and
Ery further driven by tha often-onerous financial time penalties for non-performance, numerous
novel construction techniques have been adopted by the industry.
Whilstseeming to lag behind industries such as shipbuilding and offshore rig building in terms of
| 15 the scale of modularisation and prefabrication methods adopted, tank builders have made
6- modest steps in the same general direction and some of these are described in brief in this
Chaoter.
I al-
and
Contents:
23,1 General
I al-
hd 23.2 Air raising of tank roofs
23.3 Tank jacking (or jack building)
,cts
rble 23.4 A fast track ethylene tank
23.5 A fast track liquid orygen tank
b-
23.6 Spiral jacking

6 23.7 The construction of tanks with reinforced conclete roofs

lal-
23.8 Concrete wall construction
tnd 23.9 Wall and base linels
23.10 Modular construction and p.efabrication techniques
dti-
tt4 23.11 Automated welding methods
gte
Its- 23.12 Large inground LNG tanks
23.13 References

cli-
s3

tiv-
w-

'cal
oe-'
l.|b-

@I
@:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPITIENT 451

23 Ercction conaiderctions lor low tempercture tanks
23.1 General
Large low temperature tanks are often the critical components
of a terminal or storage facility in terms of time. This fact tends
to place a great deal of emphasis on the tank construction pe-
riod. Time is often equally, or on occasions, more important
than cost to the facility owner. Early completion equals early
revenue, and forfacilities such as LNG terminals, the revenues
are enormous and so speak loudly in this equation.
As a consequence, the tank contractors and their subcontrae
tors are always under pressure in their efforts to obtain con-
tracts by promising tighttimescales and furtherdriven in this di-
reclion, once successful, by the financial penalties associated
with not performing to these anticipated schedules. Over the
years, these pressures, together with those aimed at'Tinished
costs", have given rise to some interesting and ingenious con-
struction methods. lt would be thought that novel and advanta-
geous construction methodswould remain the closely guarded
secrets oftheir originators, but forvarious reasons the geneEl
methods tend to leak out into the Dublic domain and become
common knowledge quite quickly, whilstthe details and equip-
ment used tend to remain the property of individual companies.
Some of these methods and sequences are described in the
following Sections.
Figure 23.1 Atypical airlifted roof conslruction sequence
452 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
The basic methods oftank erection, particularly relating to the
steelcomponents, are based on the methods used for ambient
tanks and these are described in ChaDter 12.
23.2 Air raising of tank roofs
This is a commonly adopted practice for large tanks of the full
containment type, although there is no reason why the tech-
nioue should not be used in other circumsbnces.
Where a pre-stressed concrete outertank is adopted, there are
two options for the construction ofthe steeltank roofframework
and roof sheeting which will be required for both steel or rein-
forced concrete roof types:
It can be built at the fulltank height afterthe outertank shell
is completed.
It can be constructed within the outer tank whilst the con-
crete shell is being built and air lifted into its final position
when both are complete.
The former route requires the outerconcrete tank shelland the
roof framework construction operations to be in series, whilst
the latter puts these operations substantially in parallel. The
time required to design, procure the materials, carryout the fab-
rication and erect the steel roof is often comparable with the
time to construct the concrete wall, which is convenientfrom a
programming point of view.
 23 Erection considerations for low temperature tanks

the The roof framework is erected within the concrete outer tank
ient during the construction period forthe latter method, starting as
soon as materials become available and the concrete workswill
allow lt is usual to provide a central king post and a peripheral
ring ofsupports to construct the roofframework. For certain de-
signs of dome roof structures further intermediate supports
rfull may be required.
)ch- The roofsheeting can be constructed to be a loose membrane
only supported by this framework, or may be welded to the
iramework to provide a generally more robust structure. lt is
usual to construct the suspended deck and arrange for it to be
/ork
lifted with the roof. The sealaround the Derimeter ofthe roof can
ein-
be a specially designed segmental rubber type or a simple ar-
rangement of polythene film and wire mesh. Other aspects lo
hell be considered are:
. Suitable details must be provided to ensure that during the Figure 23.4 Large dome roof under construction, showing king post in position
and slart of roof plating
lifting operation the roof remains level, circularand concen- Cautesy af Whessoe
lron tric within the outer shell.
. When the roof arrives at the top of the shell, suitable ar-
Ine rangements are made to secure it from its upper surface.
,lilst . Trial lifts are helpful to trim and balance the roof before the
fhe final lift.

the
. The roof and the concrete shell must be surveyed prior to
lifting to determine that no unacceptable out ofshape prob-
lems exist.

Tempory extension to
Cantibwr sction of roof

Figure 23.5 The dome roofemerglnq towards the end of a successiutair-tift

Couftesy af Whessoe

. Arrangements must be made to collect and dispose of rain-

water which falls during roof construciion period, particu-
larly if other works are being carried out beneath the roof
prior to air-lifting.
Many of these details are of a company-confidential or propri-
etary nature. Figure 23.'1 shows a typical construction se-
quence involving an air-lifted roof.
Alternative arrangements involving air lifting are possible and
: 9(]re 23.2 Air lifiing a roof up the inside of the inner shell of a double-watted
Figure 23.2 shows diagrammatically one such, where the roof
was air-lifted up the inside of an inner steel tank.

: gure 23,3 Large dome roof framework under construction

:curlesy of Whessoe

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 453

Figures 23.3 and 23.4 show a large dome roofframework (77 m
in diameter) being erected within the outer pre-stresseo con-
crete wall. The two people to be seen walking around the perim-
eter support in Figure 23.3 gives an indication of the scaie of
this particular structure. Figure 23.5 shows a dome roof emerg-
ing into view towards the end of a successful air-lifting opera-
lon.
An alternative, but generally similar erection technique involves
the roof structure being erected at a low level. Instead of the
roof being lifted into place by air pressure, a mechanical lifting
method using multiple strand type jacks is used

23.3 Tank jacking (or jack buitding)

Aswith ambient tanks, jack building hascertain attractions For
a single-walled tank or the outer metallic wall of a double-walled
Figure 23.7 Atank beingiack built
tank, the usual construction sequence is:
. Erect and weld the top two shell courses on temporary sup-
Suspended deck erected
ports.
. Erect the compression area
. Erect the tank roof.
. Install the jacking system.
. Jack up the tank and install the remaining courses one at a
time and weld.
. Installthe annular plate.
. Jack down the tank and weld the shell-to-bottom joint
Jack building can have certain advantages lt clearly depends
upon local circumstances but these can be:
. The tank is protected from the possibility ofwind damage as
shown in Figure 23.6 |n this example, the outer tank of a Figure 23.8 A possible variation on jack building
double-walled LNG tank was being built by conventional
methods. lt blew down just before the compression area stalled at a low leveland the permanentwind stiffening is in-
and tank roof could be installed, which would have stabi- t
stalled progressively as the shell increases in height,
lised the structure. The temporarywind stiffening used was consequently the structure is saieguarded from possible
clearly inadequate. With the jacking method, the roof is in- wind damage at all stages of the erection procedure
. Roof erection is carried out at a low level.
. Shell erection, welding and inspection is carried out at a low
level and this technique can be combined with automated
welding techniques.
. "staging out" ofthe tank shelland subsequent clean down ls
avoided.
The disadvantages can be the cost of the jacking equipment
and a lack oi flexibility if anything goes wrong
Fioure 23.7 shows a tank beingjack built. Figure 23 8 illustrates
a Sossible variation which has been used where the outer tank
is jacked and the inner tank is hoisted up with it such that.both
tanks are builtfrom the top down and allerection and welding is
conducted at low levels.

23.4 A fast track ethylene tank

This tankwas a double containmenttype consisting ofan inner
tank of 9% nickel steel, an outer tank of carbon steel wlthin a
hiqh Dre-stressed concrete wall ofthe Preload wire wound type
tni base was ofthe elevated type built on a poor riverside allu-
vial site which required heavy piling. The tank was of modest
orooortions, the innertank being 23 0 m in diameterand 23 5m
in height giving a useful capacity of 9730m3 A set of unusual
lomm"ercial colndition" relating to the price and availability of
liouid ethvlene pertained at this time ('1977) which dictated the
Figure 23.6 Wind damage to an outertank being buili by conveniional
meth- necessity of a very fast construction programme 1o allow the
owner to take advantage of this transient economic situation'

454 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 23 Etection considerctions fot low temperature tanks

1) - Sta.i pemanenttoundalion prling The tank owner was lCl at North Tees Works, situated in the
- Erect temporary ioundaton
north east ofthe United Kingdom, who at that time had its own
engineering and construction staff. The tank design, fabrication
and erection contractor was Whessoe Heavy Engineering who

I had its head offices and fabrication facility nearby in Darlington.

The erection sequence proposed involved the placing in paral-
lel of the following activities:
. The construction ofthe piled base slab and the erection on
2) - Consrrucl pehanenr elevared slab an adjacent temporary foundation ofthe outercarbon steel
tanK.
. The construction of the base insulation and the inner 9%
nickel steeltank and the outer ore-stressed concrete wall.
:= The first of these parallel activities required the moving of the
completed outer steel tank from its temporary foundation onto
the permanent elevated base slab. This was accomplished by
the hovercraft technique of attaching a specially designed skirt
around the bottom of the tank shell. The tank was to be lifted by
this means and towed onto its new permanent base slab. This
3) - Aj. I comp eled outd tank ahd technique has been around for many years and has been com-
mo! onto comdeted elevaled
monly used to move mainly ambient temperature tanks, usually
to other locations on the same sites. ln this instance the tank
was quite heavy and calculations showed that the pressure re-
quired to lift this tank could damage the shell-to-bottom detail
due to high radial loadings caused by the pressure beneath the
bottom plates.
To avoid this possibility of damage, air was bled into the tank to
balance the pressure beneath the tank bottom. During this op-
eration, an interesting and amusing event took place. The skirt
was fitted, the air blowers installed and the operation com-
- Remove tedporary f oundaton
menced. The air pressure beneath the tank bottorn was moni-
tored and rose slowly to the pressufe calculated to equate to
the tank weight. Nothing happened. The pressure continued to
rise to around iwice the calculated lift pressure and still nothing
happened. Greai consiernaiion. much head scratching and the
beginn ngs of rurnblings amongst ihe numefous onJookers of:
"lt was a silly scheme anwvay. , lt will never work." and "lt will
have to be cut down and erected conventionally." took hold. All
of a sudden, there was a loud bang, the tank leapt some 3 feet
into the air and lurched alarmingly, sending the accumulated
onlookers scuttling away from the tank in panic. The tank then
behaved perfectly and was duly towed to and installed on its
5l E.e6t nne.9% nickelster sherl new base.
- Erdl outer pr6lr6sed conc.ete shell
nternal plate handling arEigemenl

6)- Complete nnerlank, hydrc tesl

- Codpl.16 ouler concGle wll, prslrds

Complete fLfiings ] a E, elc

Figure 23.10 Simultaneous conslruction of the carbon shell ouler tank and the
elevated perma nent fou ndation
::-re 23.9 The fasl track elhylene tank erection sequence

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 455

23 Erectian cansicleratians far low tenperctLtre lanks
Fg!re23.1lTre nf atec sk rt used to fl lh-..!1-.. isrrk
F g!re 23.12 Wife w nd ng afrangernents
The problem was tfaced to the temporary foundation being fin-
ished with a sand /bjtumen layer. The welding of the iank bot-
iom had effeciively glued the tank down, and refused to allow
air beneath to I ft it, untiL such a point where it dec ded to sud-
denly unstick itselfl
The second of the paralel activities required the steel outer
tank to be fitted with lnternal liftjng arrangernents to handle the
inner tank insulation and I % nickel steel plate materials to-
gether with a sultably waterproofed foof material access
arrangement.
This construct on sequence s I ustrated in Figure 23.9.
Photographs show the simu taneous construction of the outer
cafbon steel tank and the elevated base slab type foundat on
(Figure 23.10), the beginning of the air rnoving operation (Fig-
ure 23.11 ), the cjrcumferential wire w nd ng in progress (F gure
456 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
.t
F.
-F3"rb.!+*FF=?.=_
Fgure 23 13 The neary compleied strLrcture
23.12) and a view on the roof showing the nearly compleied
tank (Figure 23.13).
The existing good relationship between the owner and the tank
contractor, the r geographical proximity, the existence of a sub-
stantia site work force who could be quickly mobilised to sort
out problems and obstacles, and a generous penalty/bonus
scherne all conspired to get this project compleied some three
months ahead of the programrne, to the satisfaction of all of the
part es involved.
23.5 A fast track liquid oxygen tank
This tank was built at the British Gas Research Centre at
Westfield in Scotland. lt was a part of a development project to
update the gas from coal technology and for reasons which
have now van shed into the past, was fequlred to be built in a
shod period of time.
The tank was supported by a ground-based, electrically-heated
slab which was supported by piles. The tank itself was a typical
liquid oxygen tank consisting of a stalnless steel lnnef tank wiih
a fixed dome roofsituated withln a carbon steel outer tank with a
radial rafter-supported cone roof.
The construction/erect on sequence adopted involved:
. Start construction of the permanent tank foundation and
siart construction of two temporary foundations immedi-
ately adjacent to the permanent foundation.
. Start construciion of the lnner stainless steel tank on one
tempofary foundatlon and the outer carbon steeltank on the
second temporary foundation.
. Lift the outer tank onto the permanent foundation as soon
as both are comp eted.
. InstalL the cellular glass base insulaiion within the outer
tank.
. Lift off the removable roof of the outer tank.
. Lift the now completed inner tank into the outer tank to be
supported by the base insulation.
. Replace the removable roof of the outer tank.
. Complete the tank insulation and fittings.
 23 Erection considerctions fot low temperature tanks

1) slanphqror pemaneft base srab

TWTWV,Z - Z-
2)-comprere peJma^0dbasesrab
.::

I
!

Figure 23.15 Remov ng lhe roofofthe outer carbon sieeltank

i=

Eq 2 16I1-q -l .<SSee ra e.(dr. orreol.p tda-

5) Lfl ,enovabreroorottoder taik aid This sequence put various operations in parallel and produced
a very shorl constructlon period. The erectlon sequence is illus-
tfated n Figure 23.14.
What made it possible was the relatively small size and weights
ofthe two tanks lnvolved. The inner tank was 12.0 m in diameter
and 12.35 m high whilst the outer tank was 16.0 m in diameter
and 16.9 m in height. The useable capacity was 1326 m3 which
is not unusual for a liquid oxygen tank. With careful attention to
the detailed design, it was possible to arrange for both tanks to
be lifted with a reasonable sized crane.
Figures 23. 15 and 23.16 show the removal of the outer tank
roof and the installation ofthe innertank within the outertank.

6)- Lift 6nerlankhlo oute,bnk

. Rp ace oulerbnk,ool
'comdere nsurdon r& E. rttnss pipework etc
23.6 Spiral jacking
Spiraljacking is an erection technique which has been around
for a number of years and has been used for both ambient and
low temperature tanks. The basics of the technique are illus-
trated in Figure 23.17.
The top and bottom course are made from tapered plates and
this seis up the spiral. The remaining plates are of constant
width and are reciangular, as for conventional tank erection.
Thetop and bottom coursesare set up and their vertical seams
welded. The two parts of the tank shell rest one upon the other,
supported and separated by a system of rollers, and can be
pushed around in a circumferential direction to produce a slot
into which one of the rectang u lar plates can be fitted. lt is usual
to join a numberofthe rectangular plates togetherand feed this

: ;-re strip into the slot formed by rotating the upper part of the shell
23.14 The fast track lquid oxygen tank ereclion sequence
on the lower part.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 457

23 Erection considerctions for low temperature tanks

Step 2 -
SlKlniionu'rv ti,e bottom course of tank coivenLrona ly erect the top course of tank complete

w
"r""t w h toD strfiener directly on top of bottom course.
lnstatl iackrnq equrpmeni and drect suooort steework for
plate cbrl and'wdldlng machines (rnside and outside oftank)

\,.-
N----l
\De ivered plates
prepared at mil
N\i-t\

\fl\ _Delivered plates

prepared at mill prepared at mill

Step 3 - Step 5 -
MJJe p ate coil forward and acd Contrnue assernbIng plates Complete
Stari plate coild outside of the tank. next plate We d veriical jo nt rnsrde.
Tack and roofweld vertical ioints. welding vertical joints.

Delivered p ates

Step 6 -
Spiia top course round 1 plate length, move coil n and make vertical
conrnJe sorralino lanl shelland wed Lpp'l'o'iTorta
r:ms end no sltreneB nsrdeLan^ hsb;ctweloeo sedn5

Figure 23.17 The spiraljacking erection technique

458 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


-re equipment used io allow the shell parts to slide on each
-:her and be pushed circumferentially is of a proprietary nature
ird the patents are owned by the Swedish company
iodoverken. lf spiraljacking is the chosen erection method, it is
-sualto hire the necessary equipment and the site supervision
'lr its operation from this company.
- re advantage of this erection method
is that all of the plating,
,,e ding, inspection and repair activities take place in fixed ar-
?s which can be arranged to have more sophisticated equip-
-ent that might normally be the case. lt is particularly suited to
-echanised plate handling, welding and inspection methods A
: g LNG tank of 75 m in diameter and 32.5 m shell height will
-?ve some 242 identically sized (apart of course from the plate
:-lckness) rectangular plates to erect. This volume of repetitive
., ork is suited to the setting up of a factory-like environment and
':r continuous shift operation to reduce costs and programme
: Tles. No scaffolding and subsequent cleaning down of the
:lmpleted tank shell will be involved
-re disadvantages are thai the equipment is expensive to hire
: rd if anything goes wrong, perhaps with the plate material
: Jpply chain orwith the equipment used, the method leaves lit-
: : flexibility for
alternative methods to be considered, whereas
:cnventional erection would provide a numberofways of possi-
: y circumventing the problems.
-1e design of tanks for erection by spiral jacking is interesting.
'',/ith the exception of the upper courses of minimum thickness
js required by the design Codes, all of the other shell plates,
'.nere the thicknesses are derived from hydrostatically-in-
:Jced loadings, can in theory be of different thicknesses. The
:'oblems of manufacturing all of these shell plates at margin-
. ly different thicknesses and of maintaining their identification
:r avoid getting them mixed up during ihe subsequent fabrica-
: on, transport and erection processes are well known. To min!-
-;se these potential problems, it is usual to arrange ior the
: ate thickness to change only for each full or half revolution of
:re tank circumference. This small sacriflce n overall shel
,,eight is usually considered as money well spent.
-'re disposition of the shell stiffening is also lnteresting. lt LS
-sual to arrange these members as a series of fings set paralle
:l the ground. This however does not suit the erection and
', elding mechanisms for which an arrangement with the stiffen-
:'s running parallel to the spiral is more convenient. A tech-
- a ue which has been used is to allow the stiffeners to follow the
:eifal for the majority of their circumference and to have a spe-
: al section which crosses the main tank spiral seam ioining the
:,vo ends of the ring of stiffening. The detailed design of such an
:rrangement to cater for wind, vacuum and insulation loadings
s quiet demanding.
-he full containment 105,000 m3 tank built at the Cartagena ter-
-.lnal in Spain had its inner 9% nickel steel tank built using this
= gure 23.18 The 105,000m3 Cartagena terminal LNG tank
:.unesy of Enagas
23 Erection cansiderations fat law tetlperctute tanks
erection method. The outer pre-stressed concrete tank was
built whilst the outer steel portions of the roof were being con-
structed within it and air lifted to its final position when it was
completed. The inner tank was built by spiraljacking with the
"tail" of shell plates, joined by having their vertical seams
welded, protruding out of the concrete shell via a suitable ac-
cess opening. This tank in its finished form is shown in Figure
23.18.
23.7 The construction of tanks with rein-
forced concrete roofs
Full containment tanks often have reinforced concrete roofs for
reasons associaled with providrng protection From external
missiles, fire or blasi loadings. Such tanks will also require a
steel roof sheeting to provide a product vapour and mols-
ture-tight lining fof the tank roof.
To erect such a roof sheeting clearly requires a supporting roof
framework, as does the placing of the concrete feinforcing sys-
tem and the uncured concrete. lt is this latter loading which
causes the problems. A 500 mm thick layer of concrete at 25
kN/m 'willgive a roof loading some 10 times the 1 .2 kN/m' used
to design a "normal" roof framework. To design for supporting
the full 500mm ofwet concrete will give rise to a massive frame-
work and the costs associated with such a structure. This
seems a very wasteful concept, made the more so by the
thoughtthat the roofstructure is only required to fulfll its full load
bearing function for a brief period during the placement and ini-
tial curing of the concrete. Indeed, if it were practicable to re-
move ihe roof framework once it had done its job, this would be
done providing rneans were made to support the roof sheeting
from the now load-beafing reinforced concrete stlucture.
Even if the con cfete ls placed n two or rnore layers ltlsstillex-
penslve to provide a foof framewofkwhich w i dlrectly support
such a loadlng. So. as concrete toofs becarne more common,
the ndustry cast about fof means of avoid ng these costs. Most
of the tank contfactors came to the sarne conclusion which was
to use internal air pressure to balance the weight of the uncured
concrete and to maintain this pressure unti such a time that the
concfete roof could be considered self-supporting.
Points which require consideration when designing such an
erect,on syster wrll include the tollowing:
. lt is normal to provide an erection opening in the shell of
concrete outer tanks and this opening will be required after
the roof concrete-placing operation. Conseq uentially a suit-
able air tight door is needed to provide a temporary seal for
this opening. lt is usual to incorporate connections for the
incoming air and control and measuring equipment as a
part of this door. A typical arrangement is illustrated in Fig-
Figure 23.19 Atempofary closure lor the concrete outer tank wall
Couftesy of Whessae an.l DEPA
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 459
23 Ercction considerctions fot low tempetuture tanks

ure 23.19. Such a closure may also be useful during the in-
ner steel roof air lifting operation if this is the chosen
erection method.
lf a concrete roof can be designed which is self-supporting
with only a part of the cured concrete present (typically one
halfor one third ofthe totalfinished thickness), then this can
provide advantages. For large diameter tank roofs, the air
pressure required to balance the whole weight of the con-
crete placed in a single thickness pour may give rise to in-
creases in the plating thickness above the Code minimum
values of 5 mm ot 3/16".
lvlultiple layer concrete placement may lead to costly clean-
ing ofthe upper parts ofthe reinforcement which may have
been effected by earlier concreting operations.
The air oressure must be maintained until such a time that
the newly placed concrete can be considered self-support-
ing. This usually takes a few days depending upon the de-
tails and the concrete mix chosen. Arrangements must be
made to ensure that the air supply is secure for this period.
Duplication of blowers and power supply to drivers willavoid
any unpleasant surprises. The thought of watching the roof
slowly succumb to the full weight of the wet concrete and
disappear from view, to take its piace on the tank bottom
with the carefully constructed roof frame crumpled beneath
several hundred tonnes of heavily reinforced concrete, cur-
ing rapidly in the hot sun, is one which should concentrate
the mind on this matterl
The slope of the roof at the periphery may be such that the
newlyplaced concrete tends to slide off the roof. lfthis is the
case then shuttering may be required to contain the un-
cured concrete for some distance radially inwards to the
point where there is no longer a tendency to slide. A
mock-up of this oortion ofthe roof can be useful in assess-
ing the need for shuttering.
. Slip forming is fast
. Slip forming systems must run continuously once started to
avoid expensive cold joint work Th's means shift working.
. Afullset of slip formworkfor a big tank is expensive. This will
militate against the simultaneous construction of more than
one tank at a time on a particular site.
. Cleaning ofjump formwork is labour intensive. Cheap la-
bour favours this aspect.
. Slip forming requires the whole supply and installation sys-
tem to work close to perfectly. Jump forming is more accom-
modating of delays and interruptions.
. Different areas of the world have their own traditions and
skills. An area where slip forming is common will have com-
panies, workpeople and supply infrastructures who are
used to this technique. Introducing it into other areas may
present problems.
Which ever construction method is adopted, there are a lot of
different activities going on in a confined area and good organi-
sation and supervision are essential to good performance.
Some indication of the congestion may be gleaned from Fi9-
ures 23.20 and 23.21 . Figure 23.22 shows a jump form at the
Dabhol site in India.

The loading on the roof during concrete placement should

be maintained as circumferentially uniform as possible
Placing the concrete in a series of single or multistart cir-
cumferential pours is the usual choice. The radial width of
Figufe 23.20 Tank wallformwork
these pours should be related to the speed of placement to Counesv of whessaelTaylor Woodrow Construction
ensure that no problems related to the joints between adja-
cent poureo nngs occurs.

23.8 Goncrete wall construction

Pre-stressed concrete walls for double orfull containment stor-
age systems generally divide into the wire wound or Preload
types and the internal multi strand tendon types. Both have the
vertical pre-stress (where required) applied by internal tendons
located within the walls, the difference is in the manner of the
application ofthe circumferential stressing. Both types are sub-
ject to similar construction methods.
The two principal contending methods are slip forming and
jump forming;

The first involves the setting up of a complete inner and

outer circumferential form and the continuous casting of
the wall from bottom to top. This requires the continuous
installation ofthe reinforcing bars, the post-tensioning ten-
don ducts and the placement of the concrete
The second uses a small number of inner and outer forms
which are in an area where the rebar and ducting are al-
ready installed and remain in place until the concrete is
placed and partially cured. when they will be relocated cir-
cumferentially untilthe complete lift is finished. Atthis point
the next lift of the wall is started
The relative merits of these methods have amongst them the Figure 23.21 Rebariltting above the iomwork
following; Cauttesy of WhessoelTaylor Waodrow Canstructian

460 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


to
9.
an
/s-
nd
tre :gure 23.22 Example ofajump form
a), :cunesy of Whessoe
23.9 Wall and base liners
E merit in pursuing these methods. As has been discovered by
As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, the provision of a
9-
ner, impervious to a degree specified in the tank specification
I'e
:c the product vapour and to watervapouris a common compo-
"ent, particularly for the inner surfaces of the outer
3re-stressed concrete tanks of full containment systems
\on-metiallic systems involving the spray application of propri-
alary coatings, such as are marketed and installed by Recinco
.f Belgium, have been successfully used, either in isolation or
:ombined with an insulation layer.
-he more commonly adopted system is to use a metallic car-
tron steel barrier for both the wall and the base of the bnk.
he base liner is usually lap-welded from 3 or 5 mm thick steel
,
:lates. For reasons to do with the finished flatness of such a
ner, it has sometimes been found convenient to weld this liner
:J cast-in inserts in the tank base slab.
-te
wall liner is also usually made from 3 or 5 mm thick steel
:lates and the most common means of installation is to weld
--'rese plates to inserts cast into the concrete wall. Vertical in-
-.erts at between 1.5 and 2.0 m centres (usually dictated by the
tf .vailable width of carbon steel strip mill plate) seem to be the
tl :Jrrent favourite.
inother method which has been utilised is to make use of the
JJi -ner steel liner as the inner shutter for the construction of the
:oncrete wall. This involves the earlier construction ofthe liner,
: ther as a complete tank shell or course by course in advance
:! the construction of the concrete wall. The liner/shutter must
:e strong enough to resist the external loadings from the con-
:'ete as it is placed. This will require an increase in the thick-
-ess of the plating or temporary/permanent stiffening being
:dded.
23.10 Modular construction and prefabri-
cation techniques
it -f're tank construction industry has, to the mind of the author,
8 agged behind the shipbuilding and offshore industries in the
-se of modular construction techniques. The building of low
::mperature tanks is no exception. The building of ships fre-
:Jently involves subsiantial component parts being made in
r'fferent locations, commonly in different countries, being
:'ought together and assembled in a single location. Similarly
:^e offshore industry has equipped itself and become familiar
.,,.th the lifting and moving over considerable distances, of
^:odules in excess of 5000 tonnes in weight.
?nk builders are new boys on this particular block, indeed in
:.rms of modular construction techniques, may even be mov-
p'
23 Erection considerations for low temperaturc tanks
Figufe 23 23 A modulaf stairlower
ing backwards. This is a shame as there seems considerable
the shipbuilders and the offshore rig-builders, productivity and
quality can both be improved by operating as far as is possible
in a factory environment. The examples described in Sections
23.4 and 23.5 show a tentative step in this direction, although
both of these examples are now somewhat dated. Further
steps in this direction involve:
. Prefabrication of steel shell plates intodoublewidth panels
This can save some 50% of the onsite circumferential
welded seam length.
. Prefabrication of roof frame sections away from the tank
and lifting these into place
. Prefabrication of concrete tank parts for wire-wound type
tanks
. Modularising the roof platforms, especially the in-tank
pump platforms. These could be factory-builtand lifted onto
the tank roof as a single module.
. Modularising the tower stairway. Figure 23.23 shows a stair
towerwhich was factory-built in three sections and fitted out
with the stairway, the lighting and electrics priorto being de-
livered and erected in a single day. The intention was to in-
clude all of the pipework (including the thermal insulation)
running to the tank roof in these modules, but circum-
stances prevented this.
. For membrane type tanks there is considerable prefabrica-
tion in the production of the stainless steel panels and the
insulation panels, both of which are factory made.
Clearly there is a lot of work to be done in this area.
23.11 Automated welding methods
The low temperature tank builders have followed the practices
of the ambient tank builders in this respect. There seems con-
siderable room for automated welding methods, perhaps ac-
companied by automated inspection methods, to be borrowed
from other industries and used in the tank building area. For
conventional tanks, the focus of automated welding has been
the tank shell, and in the past particularly the circumferential
seams. In more recent times, the vertical seams have also
been welded by automated methods. As has been mentioned
earller, automated welding techniques are particularly suited to
the spiral jacking erection methods.
One area where this apparent Luddite approach to automation
is not the case is in the construction of membrane tanks. Auto-
matic welding of the seams between the membrane sheets is
an essential part ofthe construction of these tanks. The smaller
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 461
23 Ercction considerations for low temperaturc tanks

Excavalion

Figure 23.24 Atotally buried 200,000 m3 tank

Couftesy of LNG Journal

'.._.-.-\

Bottom SIab and Side Wall

t'-

Figure 23.25 A200,000 m3 tank buried up 1o the-shell-to-roofjunction

Coulesy af LNG Journal

size of the fabficated stainless steel panels means that the

lengths of welded seam in these tanks are much greaterthan is
the case for a conventional tanks.

23.12 Large in-ground LNG tanks

The majority of in-ground membrane LNG tanks are to be found
in Japan, with a few in both Taiwan and South Korea. Their ad-
vantages over the above ground tanks are numerous: @

. Being buried provides protection from adjacent tank fires

and external missiles and blast loadings. Some like the
200,000 m3 tank at the Ohgishima Terminal of Tokyo Gas
are totally buried (illustrated in Figure 23.24) and some like
the tank of the same capacity at the Chita l\ilidorihama Ter-
minalofTohoGas, are buried up to the shell-to-roofjunction
(shown in Figure 23.25), so the roof is exposed and must be
suitably protected.
. lt is argued that in-ground tanks can be designed and con-
structed at greater capacities that the above ground tanks
. Because of the protection provided by burial, in-ground
tanks do not need such large separation distances from Figure 23.26 construcuon sequence for a 200,000 m3 in-gtound LNG tank in
each other or from site boundaries. This means that more
produce can be stored in a given area. This is important Couftesy of LNG Jaurnal

462 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


when land is expensive, perhaps because it has been re-
claimed from the sea as at Inchon in South Korea, or is just
expensive or in short supply.
. The partial or full burial is a useful plus in planning discus-
sions, and may allow in-ground tanks to be built in locations
where the visual impact of above ground tanks would pro-
hibit their use.
The disadvaniages lie in the increased construction costs,
f,/hich may be offset bythe better use of land or planning issues
Tentioned above, and in the increased construction time. Fora
oig LNG tank the approximate construction time would be 54
Tonths which comDares with around 36 months for an above
lround iank.
The construction of thesetanks, currentlyata maximum capac-
ty of 200,000 m3, is quite remarkable. There are a number of
Dapers and articles which describe the construction process
rublished in the LNG Journal (References 23.1, 23.2and 23.3)
rr presented at the LNG conferences.
The 200,000 m3 LNG tank, described in Reference 23.3 andil-
ustrated in Figure 23.25, at the Chita Midorihama Terminal is
rypical. The construction sequence is shown in simplified form
n Figure 23.26. The following lists some ofthe construction as-
rects of this project:
. The liquid containing membrane is 74.0 m in diameter and
46.6 m deep.
. The site has been reclaimed from the sea and was of such
poor load bearing capability that a major soil improvement
programme had to be undertaken before construction vehi-
cles could access the site.
. The nature of the subsoil was such that a slurry wall 100 m
deepand'1.4 m thick hadto be constructed to reach downto
the impermeable rock layer The excavation ofthis retiaining
wall, the balancing ofthe soil pressures with heavy benton-
ite muds, the insertion ofthe 100 m deep reinforcing cages
23 Erection considentions for low tempetaturc tanks
and the placement of the concrete from the bottom up-
wards, so as to displace the bentonite mud, is a remarkable
achievement in its own right. 35,300 m3 of concrete and
2,300 tonnes of rebar were used.
This retaining wall allowed the inner excavation to take
place. Around 284,000 m3 of material were removed.
When the excavation was completed, a gravel layer was
placed in the bottom of the hole and a heavily reinforced
base slab 9.0 m thick was cast involving 42,200 m3 of con-
crete and 7,600 tonnesofrebar. Thethickness and strength
of this base slab is a function of the high groundWater uplift
oressures.
The concrete side wallwas 2.5 m thick and required 33,200
m3 of concrete and 5,100 tonnes of rebar
The steel roof was assembled on the bottom ofthe tank and
ised to its permanent position by air lifring orjacking.
Both the walland the base werefitted with a heating system
to protect from frost heave.
The fitting of the thermal insulation and the membrane fol-
lowed the conventional membrane type bnk methods.
23.13 References
23.1 Development and construction of large LNG in-ground
storage tanks, Junji Umemura and Sasao Goto, Tokyo
Gas, LNG Journal November/December 1996.
23.2 Construction of an underground storage tank, Kenji
Yanagiya and Tomoyuki Ogawa, Kajima Corporation,
LNG Journal November/December 1999.
23.3 Construction of a new LNG receiving terminalin central
Japan, Naoshi Furukawa, Toho Gas, LNG Journal
March/Apil .1997.
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 463
464 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
24 Foundations for low temperature
tanks
This Chapter provides a brief review of the basic requirements for the foundations of low
temperature tanks. The guidance provided by the tank design Codes on the subject is ou ined
and a few examples of past practice and some of the problems encountered are discussed.

Contents:
24.1 General
24.2 Code requirements and guidance
24.2.1 API620
24.2.2 BS 7777
24.2.3 DIEN 14620
24.3 Some examples and problem areas
24.4 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 465

24 Foundations for low temperature tanks
24.1 General
The foundations for above ground vertical cylindrical tanks for
low temperature service are generally similar to those de-
scribed in Chapter 13 for ambient temperature tanks. The addi-
tion of base heating systems and the use of base insulation
constructed from brittle materials such as cellular glass means
that in general low temperature tanks have less tolerance to
settlement and foundation movement durino service that their
ambient temperature cousins.
For these reasons the foundations tend to be of a higher quality.
Reinforced concrete ring wallswith graded infillare uncommon
for LPG tanks and almost unknown for LNG tanks. The most
commonly adopted foundation types for low temperature tanks
are the ground-based and the elevated reinforced base slab
types.
The finished shape of the foundation, especially around the pe-
riphery is important. Agood levelfoundation in this area means
that the steel tank erector has a better chance of producing a
good shaped tank. A poor foundation means that he willalways
be struggling to achieve the desired tank shell tolerances.
ln-pit tanks tend io have the same types of foundations as
above ground tanks with the added complications brought
about by considerations of possible floatation and ground, rain
or flre water removal.
In-ground tanks are a specialist subject area, which is not dis-
cusseo nere-
24.2 Code requirements and guidance
24.2.1 API620
Appendix C of API 620 provides some general guidance on
foundations, which is intended for tanks operating at ambient
temperatures. This Appendix is invoked by both of the low tem-
perature Appendices (Q and R), which both go on to give spe-
cific instruction regarding the design loadings for downward or
bearing loading and resistance to uplift from anchorage where
this is fitted. lt will be remembered that an essential difference
between these Appendices is in the test water levels required.
Appendix Q allows a partial test filling height whilst Appendix R
demands a test fill to the maximum operating liquid level.
One requirement oJ Appendix C is worth highlighting. For con-
crete ringwallor slab foundations, the leveltolerances are given
as+%" in any 30 feet of tank circumference and t %" around
the total circumference. As it is common for the foundation con-
tractor and the tank contractor to be difierent companies, these
tolerances often become the subject of heated discussion at
the point of handover.
Specific limits for foundation settlement are not provided, al-
though the section dealing with tank hydrostatic testing does re-
quire level readings to be taken at the start of the test and at
"reasonable" intervals during the test. These readings are to be
plotted promptly in a suitable form to see if undue or uneven
settlement is occurring. The results ofthese observations shall
be reported to the tank erector and the purchaser or his engi-
neering representative.
lf anyexcessive rate or amount of settlement is found, the filling
shall stop until a decision is reached as to what, if any, correc-
tive measures are needed. lf a minor amount of settlement is
found to occur during filling and this continues after the tank is
at the full test water height, the water level in the tank shall not
be lowered until the settlement has substantially ceased, or a
decision is reached which suggests that it is unsafe to maintain
the full test water level.
All of this is sensible advice, but for various reasons, non-spe-
466 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
cific and consequently of little help in resolving contractual
disputes between the parties involved in a particular project.
24.2.2 BS 7777
Part 3 of BS 7777 has quite a lot to say about foundations ofver-
tical cylindrical above ground storage bnks.
It should be remembered that this part ofthe Code represents a
set of recommendations, and hence its contents are not man-
datory
The foundation design should be in accordance with BS 8004
(Reference 24.1).
Prior to the design and construction of a foundation, a number
of site specific investigations are suggested;
. Soil investigation
. Ground water investigation
. Seismicinvestigation
These should be carried out by individuals or companies suit-
ably experienced in this work.
The following types of sjtes should be avoided:
. Sites where part of the tank is on rock or other firm undis-
turbed ground, and part is on fill. Sites where the depth offlLl
is variable. Sites where the ground under part of the tank is
pre-consolidated.
. Sites on swamps, or where layers of highly compressible
material lie beneath the surface.
. Sites where the stability of the ground is questionable for
reasons which may be associated with proximity to deep
water courses, mining operations, excavation or steeply
sloping hillsides, karst topography or gypsiferous mater;als
which could include weak lenses subject to dilution.
. Sites where tanks may be subject to flood waters.
. Sites near active faults or susceptible to liquefaction during
seismic excitation
The Code addresses the subject of permissible settlement duf-
ing the life ofthe tank. The limits are to be agreed between the
foundation designer and the tank designer and between the
purchaser and the contractor(s) and take account ofthe design
of the tank, the size of the tank and the local subsoil conditions.
The values given in Figure 24.1 are to be used for guidance.
Advice is given on the means of monitoring foundation move-
ments during the construction, test and operating phases ofthe
tank's life. These include conduits within the foundation to ac-
commodate suitable instrumentation.
Where the subsoil on the chosen site is found to be incapable of
carrying the loadings without sufiering excessive settlement, a
number of methods of improvement are suggested:
. Removal and replacement of unsatisfactory material by a
suitably compacted granular fill
Diffcrcntial setllement llEil
Tilt oI the tank Ir500
Thnk floor srttlcnleni 1r300
along a mdial line from
the pcriphery to the
2
Settlement aroun.l the 1 : 500 but not
peripherl of thc tank exceding thc maxim'rm
.:
calculated for tilr ol thc
-
Flgure 24.1 Differential settlement limiis
Frcn BS 7777 : Pat13:1993,table 3
 24 Foundations for low temperature tanks

ntractual . lmprovement by vibration or dynamic compaction expensive to construct in the first olace.
proJect.
. Pre-loading with a temporary overburden For a site which has been piled, the elevated slab may be con-
structed on extended piles which will make the cost difference
. Enhanced sub soil draining with pre-loading
between on-ground/elevated solutions perhaps less than
. Stabilisation by chemical or grout injection where a ground-based slab, columns and an upper slab are
1S Of Ver- reoutred.
. Piling
Where seismic isolation is required, an elevated slab is a matter
esents a idvice is also offered on the avoidance of frost heave and local
of necessity. lsolator inspection, maintenance, removal and re-
)ot man- :?lnage. placement may have an impact on the design.
:our different types of foundation are suggested and a brief
Worries about product vapour accumulation beneath the ele-
35 8004 :ommentary is provided on each type. These are:
vated slab, particularly for LPG, may have an influence on the
. The ring beam type choice. A butane iank at the CoMon refinerywas designed and
number . constructed with an elevated base slab. Worries about safety
The surface rafr type
caused this to be subsequently back-fllled with sand and fitted
. The pile supported base type with a base heating system to give the arrangement shown in
. The elevated base slab type
Floute 24.2.

-he commentary includes much sensible advice. Amongst

,{hich is the suggestion that the minimum space beneath an el-
es suit- ?vated base slab is 1.5 m and that gas detection equipment
s'rould be insialled within this space.
-eveltolerances forthe as-constructed base slab are given as
undis-
6 mm in any 10 m of tank circumference and :t 12 mm be-
://een any two points around the circumference. These are
th oftill
tank is
louble the values allowed by API 620. *\-
24.2.3 prEN 14620 -
-sssible
Part 3 ofthis provisional Standard provides a limited amount of
ble for lformation regarding tank foundations which are classified as
) deep shallow foundations and piled foundations. The shallow type
iteeply are further divided into Iaft (or ground-supported slab) and ring
terials ram types.
=he rafr type is appropriate for soils which are shown to be ca-
trable of supporting the designated loadings and may require
:rickened sections in areas ofadditional loads such as beneath
luring
:re tank shell or concrete wall.
-he rjng beam type is the cheapest foundation option and is
rlour-
:rearly dependent upon the ability of the subsoil to bear the im-
ln tne
In the
ssed loadings. The ring beam must be designed for the shell
're loadingsand any uplift loadsfrom tankanchors. Differential
esign
:ettlement between the ring beam and the soil or iniill must be
tlons.
:onsidered for its possible effects on the tank bottom, the base
nce.
:sulation and the base heating system.
love- -he piled type includes both on ground and elevated bases. Figure 24.2 The CoMon butane tank foundation
lf the The owners of an liquid ethylene tank built on a Teesside site
Part 2 of the provisional Standard provides tolerances for the
were concerned about the vulnerability oftheir elevated slab to
3s-built tank base. The peripheral tolerances, which include an
deliberate sabotage. Their solution was to fit a substantial gril-
:rea 300 mm inside and 300 mm outside the line of the tank
)le of lage around the perimeter of the elevated slab to prevent ac-
snell, aret 3 mm in any 10 m of circumference and t 6 mm be-
Int. a cess to the space beneath the slab.
:,,veen any two points on the complete circumference. These
are interestingly the same as API 620 and one half of the BS Tankswhich have bottom liquidllttings, which are quite unusual
Dya -777 tolerances. these days, give rise to problems for theirfoundations. The first
-ne Code also provides a localflatness tolerancewhich can be LNG tanks on Das lsland were eventually demolished and re-
'nportantforthe correct insiallation of base insulation materials placed for reasons closely associated with problems to their
sJch as cellular glass. This is: Any deviation, measured with a foundations and bottom connections
i m long template, shall not exceed 15 mm. Clearly the decision as to the choice of the base slab type re-
\o guidance regarding permissible settlement is provided. quires all ot these considerations to be taken into account on a
job-specific basis.

24.3 Some examples and problem areas
-he choice between a ground-based slab and an elevated
'cundation and the reasoning behind this choice is interesting.
lleady a ground-based slab will require some form of base
-eating which is itself expensive and has ongoing costs in
:erms of power and maintenance. The elevated slab does not
-ave any ongoing costs in the same sense, but may be more
Most elevated slabs are supported by a number of columns of
square or circular section. The number and layout ofthese col
umns may be dictated bythe shength ofthe elevated slab orthe
pile layout. An alternative scheme, which has been used be-
neath the liquid ammonia tank built at Ravenna in ltaly, uses a
series of radialwallsto separate the ground bearing and the el-
evated slabs. Some of these walls run almost to the centre of
the slab and some stop short. lt had been questioned as to

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 467

24 Foundations for low temperature tanks

Figure 24.3 The Reviihoussa lsland LNG tank arrangement

Coulesy of Whessoe

Flgure 24.4 The Trinidad LNG piling anangement

Cowlesy of Whessoe

whetherthis arrangementwould allowa suitablyfree circulation Figure 24.5 Concreling oflhe reinforced base slab at Reviihoussa lsland

of air beneath the slab, but experience has shown this not to Couiesy of Whessoe
have been a problem. revealed a widecrack in the limestone, running acrossthe base
For the LNG tanks on Revithoussa lsland in Greece, the ele-
ofone ofthe tanks. Aprotracted discussion took place to decide
vated slab located within a pitwith an interspace covershown in
if this was a harmless defect, a seismic fault or an ancient de-
Figure 24.3 presented problems of limited air circulation to pro-
bris-filled sea cave. lt was eventually sentenced to be the latter
vide heat to both the tank bottom and the tank walls. This was
for a mixture of reasons, a decision which allowed the project to
eventually overcome by the installation of a quite sophisticated proceed. The technical solution adopted was to construct a
(and expensive) system of forced ventilation.
massive 2.5 m thick, heavily reinforced slab. This shown under
The LNG tanks at Point Fortin in Tdnidadwere constructed on a
construction in Figure 24.5.
site with very poor load-bearing ability. The eventual solution
chosen was to use a ground-based slab supported by some
'1200 steel pipe piles, each of 600mm diameter and around 30
24.4 References
m long, beneath each tank base. This is shown in Figure 24 4.
Returning to the LNQ tanks in Greece, the excavation ofthe pit 24.1 BS 8004:1986 Code of practice for foundations

468 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 25 Regulations governing the layout
of refrigerated liquid gas tanks
There are a host of regulatory documents, which seek to dictate the layout on a particular site of
refrigerated liquid gas tanks and associated equipment.
The more commonly used ofthese regulatory documents are examined in this Chapter and their
differences highlighted.
There are some interesting differences in approach, especially between the European and the
USA's approach to the various problems which arise.

Contents:
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Regulations governing LPG storage tacilities
25.2.1 NFPA 58
25.2.1.1 Pressurised LP-Gas storage
25.2.1.2 Rettigetaled LP-Gas storage
25.2.2 NFPA 59
25.2.2.'1 Pressurised LP-cas storage
25.2.2.2 Reftige.aled LP-cas storage
25.2.3 fhe Institute of Petroleum rules
25.2.3.1 Genetal
25.2.3.2 LPG pressure storage (Volume 1, Chapter 2)
25.2.3.3 Refrigerated LPG storage (Volume 2, Chapter 3)
25.2.3.4 Storage tank spacing
25.2.3.5 Vapour travel requirements
25.2.3.6 Bunding requirements
25.2.4 APt 2510
25.2.4.1 Pressurised LPG storage
25.2.4.2 Re'friget ated storage
25.3 Regulations governing LNG storage facilities
25.3. 1 DOT.CFR rules
25.3.2 NFPA 59 A rules
cide 25.3.2.1 Origin and development of NFPA 59A
25.3.2.2 lmpoundment
?tte- 25.3.2.3 The design spill
qIc 25.3.2.4 Thermal radiation
rde-
25.3.2.5 Vapourdilution considerations
25.3.2.6 Minimum spacing requirements
25.3.3 EN 1473:1997 rules
25.3.3.1 Scope
25.3.3.2 Scenarios to be considered
25.3.3.3 Design spill
25.3.3.4 Thermal radiation
25.3.3.5 Vapourdilution
25.3.3.6 Minimum spacing requirements
25.4 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 469

25 Regulations governing the layout of refrigerated liquid gas tanks

25.1 lntroduction
This Chapter is devoted to the codes and regulatory guidelines
which govern the layout on site of vertical cylindrical fu lly refrig-
erated tanks for the storage of the various products described
in Chapter 17. For completeness and for purposes of compari-
son some of the regulations relating to pressurised storage of
these products are also included in this chapter.
The various codes and standards are soecificallv addressed to
the storage of LPG and LNG.
The discussion ofthese regulations has been confined to those
most widely used. The National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) standards are legal requirements in the USA and are
commonly employed elsewhere in the wodd. The US Depart-
ment of Transport Code of Federal Regulations
(USA.DOICFR) is mostly confined to use in the USA and
makes many references to the NFPA regulations over which it
interestingly takes precedence. The American Petroleu m Insti-
tute (APl) publish guidelines for LPG installations which fall out-
side the NFPA area of regulation. The Euronorm Regulations
(EN) are more recent documents which reflect European prac-
tices taking into account the various categories of containment
discussed in Chapter 17. The Instltute of Petroleum (lP) repre-
sents UK Dractices for LPG and it is oresumed that the lP rules
will eventually be replaced by EN rules.
There are a multitude of other regulatory guidelines, some
country specific or even more locally based where certain local
circumstances may necessitate their own requirements. No at-
tempt has been made to address these other documenb.
25.2 Regulations governing LPG storage
facilities
25.2.1 NFPA 58 Reference 25.1
-
The areas ofapplicabilityofthis documentare not entirely clear.
It appears that it is; "The design, construction, installation and
operation of marine terminals whose primary purpose is the re-
ceipt of LP-Gas for delivery to transporters, distributors or us-
ers". This is then conditioned by two exceptions:
pe!
Exception I - Marine terminals associated with refineries,
rochemicals and gas plants.
Exception 2 - lvlarine terminals whose purpose is the delivery
of LP-Gas to marine vessels.
This seems to leave LP-Gas marine import terminals not asso-
ciated with refineries, petrochemicals and gas plants - not a
very wide area of application.
The Code also excludesa numberofother applications includ-
ing frozen ground containers and underground storage in cav-
erns.
Note LP-Gas is defined as "any material having a vapour
pressure not exceeding that allowed for commercial
propane that is composed predominantly of the follow-
ing hydrocarbons, either bythemselves or as a mixture;
propane, propylene, butane (normal butane or isobu-
tane) and butylene". This is similar to but not exactly
the same as LPG as defined in Chaoter 17. Section
17.1.
25.2.1.1 Pressurised LP-Gas storage
The Code provides a bewildering number of spacing rules and
exceptions to these rules. Much of this is devoted to small ca-
pacity storage units (cylinders) and is of little interest to storage
tank designers. Figure 25.1 giving the separation distances be-
tween containers, important buildings and other properties is
interesting particularly because of the apparent advantages of
mounded or underground containers over above ground con-
tainers in terms of spacing requiremenb.
25-2-1.2 Relrigercted LP-Gas storage
lmpoundment
The main rules governing impoundment for refrigerated
LP-Gas tanks are given briefly below:
- lmpoundment shall have a volumetric holding capacity
equal to total volume of liquid in the container assuming
that the container is full.
- If an outside container wall is used as a spill containment
the materialto be used shall be suitable for exposure to the
temperature of the refrigerated LP-Gas liquid.
- lmpoundment structures, and any penetrations thereof,
shall be designed to withstand the full hydrostatic head of
impounded LP-Gas and the effect of rapid cooling to the
temperatures of the liquids to be confined.
Provisions shall be made to clear the impounding area of
rain or other water.
Minimum spacing requirements
For refrigerated tanks designed to operate at below 15 psig, the
minimum spacing from occupied buildings, storage containers

Midrnum Dltt ncca

Moundcd o.
rllhi.. Crpdty Und.igmurd rt5ov.!tound
plr Cont incr Conr.lncri'

s.t
<129d <o.5d lo 0 0" 0 0
125-250 0.5-1.0 l0 $ l0 3 0 0
25t-600 1.0r-1.9 l0 n l0 3 3 I
50r-2000 l.9r-?,6 l0 25 7.6 3 I
200r-a0,000 7.6+l 14 50 50 l5 5

30,001-?0,000 11{r-265 50 23
?0,001-90,000 265F:Xl 50 t00 30
90,001-120,000 Wlt-454 50 125 38 diamctc$ of
I m,001-200,000 SL-157 50 ?00 6t aqjaccnt con-

200,001-1,000,000 751+-3185 50 300 9l

>1,000,000 >3?85 50 400

'S.c !.2.2: Exc.Ptiotr No. ,

rsbc !,2.t.:(g)
.s..3.2,t:(0.
ds.. !.2.?.2(r).
'scc !.?.2.2(b),
(.), sd (d).

Figure 25.1 Sepafation disiances betlveen conlainers, imporlani buildings and olher propedies
Fron NFPA 58, table 3.2.2.2

470 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 25 Regulations governing the layout of reftigerated tiquid gas tanks

i asso-
\thicr Cryacity Abovcgrourd
-nota Pcl coIrtaber Codain ll Walcr C.pa.ity

cd (-)
s.r (m)
nctuo- Up lo 70,000 (265)
<70,000 965 15
't cav- 70,00r to9o,0,00 (265.0 3{r} 100
>?0,000 >265 100
'l) 90,m1 to l1O,O00 (!41 to4t{) 7

/apour : 25.2 IVinimum disiances

tm,oor to mO,00O (454 to 757) 20O
200,001 ro 1,0O0,00O (757 to 3?85)
-:Lrre
'ercial :'on 300
NFPA 58, table 9.5.2
bllow- oi,r 1,00o,mo (3785) 400
xture: 'rr flammable or combustible liquids and lines of adjoining Figure 25.4 Refrigerated conlainer insta ations minimum distances
Sobu- :ropertywhich can be built upon shall be in accordance with Ta_
xactly From NFPA 59. table 3.5.1
:le 9.5.2 as shown in Figure 25.2.
eclion
-he edgeofa dike, impoundment or drainage
system that is in-
25.2.2.2 Retrigercled LP-cas storage
:ended for a refrjgerated LP-Gas container shall be 100ft or lmpoundment
rore from a property line that can be built upon, a public way, or
: navigable waterway. These requirements are the same as those required bv NFPA
s and
58 (see Section 25.2.1.2).
l ca- -he minimum djstance between above ground refrigerated
Minimum spacing requirements
-P-Gas contiainers shall be one half of the diameier of the
arger container. Spacing of refrigerated propane containers (and presumably
es is
containers of other LP-gases) from important buildings, stor_
Fire exposure
-he reference to fire exposure is concerned only with age for flammable or combustible liquids and lines of adjacent
con- the nec- property that can be built upon shall be in accordance with Ta_
3ssary provision for pressure relief related to fire exposure for
ble 3.5.1 as shown in Figure 25.4.
vhich detailed rules are provided.
The remaining spacing requirements are the same as required
Vapour dilution requirements
by NFPA 58 (see Section 25.2.1.2).
\FPA 58 does not have vapour dilution at site boundary re_
:uirements.
Fire exposure
These requirements are the same as are required for NFpA 5g
25.2.2 NFPA 59 (see Section 25.2.1.2).
r' .E - lReference 25.21
Vapour dilution requirements
-he scope of this Code states that it shall apply to the design,
NFPA 59 does not have vapour dilution at siie boundary re_
:onstruction, location, installation, operation and maintenance
quirements.
):te rf refrigerated and non-refrigerated utility gas plants. Installa-
:ons having a capacity less than 15.14m3 are referred to NFpA
td. 25.2.3 The Institute of Petroleum rules
,:c'
25.2.2.1 Pressurised LP-cas storage (Reference 25.31 -
>ressur-ised storage is generally
referred to in this Standard as This Code is Part g of The Institute of pet roieum Modet Code of
.on-refrigerated storage. For above ground coniainers the
-r|nrmum spaqng requjrements Safe Practice in the Petroleum Industry.fhe latest edition was
are given by Figure 25.3 which published in February 1987 replacing the earlier edition pub_
s the same in most respects as the NFPA 58 Table 3.2.2.2 but
lished in 1967. lt represents a series of recommendations for
loes not consider mounded or underground systems.
safe practice ratherthan a set of rigid rules. lt interestingly sug-
-he following rather ominous requirement for above ground gests that this more flexible approach should more easilv allow
oressurised systems is made: the use of new methods, techniques. materials, etc., whi;h mav
"Containers shall be orientated so that their lonqitudinal be developed in the future and which meet the requirements for
axes do not point towards other containers, abovJground safe practice given in the Code.
LNG tanks, and flammable liquid storage tanks on th5 same The Code is arranged as two volumes with the followino con_
or adjoining property". tents:

trlulcont ber ao Ned'i l|bDortrat

Buildlag or Cloop of Bolldlob Not
AsEo.tat d *16 ine udtt.y c.3 Phoi"
or r rit of Adjorohg piprty Tha!
lrrrter .rf-tq ofEad Coa.atrer Btw.e! Conbirct' Cian Bc BuIt UDod

20Ol ro E0,000 7.6 nt ll4 50

3O,O0l to 70,000 ll4 to 2d5 r/i of surt of diaoet r! ofadjecor 23
coIttainerl
70,001 to 90,000 265 b 341 100 30
9O,0Ot b 120,000 A4l @ 4U 125 E8
12o,O0l to 200,000 451to 757 200 6l
200,o0l ro I,OO0,0O0 747.ogiA5 300 9l
or more
I ,0OO,0OI ovcr 3785 {00 tn
Note Thc.pacinE of@ntdD4 &om butlditra! at5_l2r.d sith u.iug,
Te.blc 2.{.t.2, eirh e minlmluE epndon of 50 n (l5 m). -ts pLnt3.h.lt b. F.r ned b b. rcduccd @ 50 pcrccDr of the dilqncci in

:igure 25.3 Above ground

container instaltation minimum djstances
=rcn NFPA 59, table 2.4.1.2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 471

25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfigented liquid gas tanks

Volume I cluded.
. Chapter 1 - General information applicable to LPG
. Chapter 2 - Pressure storage at reflneries, bulk distribution
plants and also industrial consumer premises, where such
storage is large
. Chapter3-RefrigeratedLPG
. Relevant appendices
Volume 2
. Chapter 1 - Pressure storage at industrial, commercial and
domestic premises
. Chapter 2 - Plant for filling, handling and storage of cylin-
oers
. Chapter 3 - Transport by road and rail
. Relevant aDoendices
25.2.3.1 General
This document contains a great deal of sensible and practical
advice and guidance, only a little of which will be described in
this Section. Three baslc points relating to safety of LPG stor-
age systems in general are worth repeating;
. LPG at ambient temperature and normal atmospheric pres-
sure is normally heavier than air. Commercial butane
vapour and commercial propane vapour are approximately
2.0 and 1.5times as heavyas air respectively. LPG vapours
will therefore sink to the lowest levels of the surroundings
and flow along the ground or through drains or similar pas-
sages. Under still air conditions the natural dissipation of
accumulated vaPour may be slow
The rules governing equipment layout are numerous and in-
cruoe:
LPG storage vessels shall be located to ensure that the
minimum distances to fixed sources of ignition are:
22.5m for storage vessels not exceeding 337m3
30.0m for storage vessels exceeding 337m3.
The radiation flux levels given in Table 1 of Appendix'1 (Fig-
ure 25.5) shall be complied with. Calculation methods for
determining the radiation flux levels are given in Appendix
2.
The rate ofspillage and its duration used to calculate the ra-
diation flux levels shall be based on identified potentialleak
sources in the system. The identification and quantitative
assessment of such leak sources requires a systematic SJ
evaluation of the design and operating procedures taking
into accountfailure modes and the likelihood oftheir occur-
rence. Examoles of potential leak sources and indications
of leakage rates from them under specific conditions using
simplified typical equations are given in Appendix 3.
Provisions shall be made to minimise the prcbability of a
flammable cloud resulting from a spill as defined above
from reaching the site boundary Typical provisions may in-
clude such measures as spacing, limitation of spill pool
area, screening and vapour dispersion equipment. Appen-
dix 3 gives examples of leak sources and Appendix 4 pro-
vides means of calculating hazard distances for these
releases.
The permitted radiation level on thermally protected adja-
cent LPG storage vessels is based on the protection ofthe 2a

. LPG has a low viscosity. Hence it is more likelyto find a leak- adjacent vessel bythe application of cooling water at a rate
age path than water or most other petroleum products. of 7 litres/(minute,m3).

. Although LPG in its liquid and vapour phases is colourless, There shallbe a minimum spacing between adjacentabove
'e
the evaporation which occurs when liquid leaks results in ground vessels of 1.5 m or 0.25 times the sum oi the adja-
water condensation or water freezing which appears as a cent vessel diameters.
white mist or cloud. For below ground-mounded vessels, the spacing between ]
a'
25.2.3.2 LPG pressure storage (Volume 1, Chapter 2) adjacent vessels shall be determined by the site conditions
.a
and the requirements for safe operation/ removalofthe ves-
The scope of this chapter covers above ground, mounded or 5t
sels in addition to inspection, testing and malntenance re-
belowground storage of LPG involving vessels ofindividualca- qutrements. 2l
pacity greater than 135m3 or group storage greater than 450m3
Storage in frozen ground or underground caverns are not in- The maximum number of vessels in any group shall be 6.
Prcesurc siongc

Mesimum radialiott lux hrcb

rwd BTU(hd)

Bquipdcrt
Thcoutcrrurfrcasof adjaccdt
prsuEtaftge Y?rtcb(l)
TrAnfltlb proi.crcdQ) 44 13,750
Unpro&cr.d (3) 2,ffi
f h! outcrrurf acas ohdjacc
itoragc kr&rco rinin&flamttabL
products (4) mdproccss tacilitics
Th.nnallt protcd.d (21 10,000
UnFotdcd (3) 8 25@

F liog/dirdErgc poitrts 2,51X)

Pc.Eonncl iosidc boundary

Proca$ .tc! (5) 8 2,5m
Protr.lcd wolk rrca (6) 8 2,5m
Wo.t lrcr(7) 5 1,5m
Critical src.a (8) 500

Plant boundary
Romorc rroa (9) 4,000
Urban lrcr (10) 5 1,500
Critical arcr (8) 1.5 500

Figurc 25.5 Radiation flux levels for pressure storage

From The lnstitute of Petroleum Code of Safe Practice, Appendix 1 , table 1

472 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


. Any one group shall be separated from any other group by
ano ln- 15m.
. In any group vessels shall be in a single line, i.e. shell to
rat ihe shell and not shell to end or end io end.
. The layout and spacing of above ground vessels should re-
ceive careful consideration to ensure accessibility for fire
fighting and to avoid spillage from one vessel from flowing
1(Fig- under any other vessel or other vulnefable equipment.
rds for . The provision of bunds around above ground pfessurised
cendlx LPG storage is not normally required.
. Separation cufbs may be required to direct spillage away
:ne ra-
from storage vessels and other vulnerable equipment.
alleak
-he Code gives wide spread advice on good practice in pres-
:rtative
ematic :urised LPG storage facilities under ihe following headings;
taking . Pressure storage (i.e. the design of the pressure vessels
cccur- themselves)
ations
using . Piping, valves and tlttings
. Foundations and supports for vessels and piping
:lofa . Pumps, compressors and meters
:oove
'ay in- . Road and rail loading and unloading facilities
pooi
. Electrical, static electricity, lightning protection
cpen-
. Each refrigerated storage tank shall be completely sur-
.1 pro_ Reouirements for fire orotection
. Operations
adJa-
. Inspection of pressure storage
trf the 25.2.3.3 Refrigerated LPG storage (Volume 2, Chapter 3)
r rate The scope ofthis chapter covers refrigerated LPG tanks, above
;round, fully in-ground and partly in-ground. lt does noi cover
cove storage in frozen earth pits, in underground caverns or partially
adla- 'efrigerated storage.
-he three categories of liquid containmeni are discussed to-
I een :ether wlth guidance for provisions fof spil age containnrent
:rons :nd handllng, the avoidance of leakage, the minirnising of
/es- ,'apour formation following a liquid leak and reducing the con-
I re- sequences of a fire following a liquid leak.
25.2.3.4 Storage tank spacing
Ihe rules for location and spacing of refrigerated storage tanks
are summarised as follows;
. Refrigeraied LPG storage tanks and their containment sys-
tems shall be located and soaced so that the minimum dis-
tance to any fixed source of ignition is 30m, irrespective of
radiation flux levels.
. Containment systems, i.e. tanks and the associated bunds
and impounding basins, shall be located and spaced so that
in the event of a fire, eg a tank fire or fire resulting ffom the
ignition of spillage of flammable products, thermal radiation
flux levels shall not exceed the maximum levels given in Ta-
ble 2 ofAppendix 1 (see Figure 25.6)
. The thermal radiation flux levels in the above requirement
shall be based on the ignition of flammable product either in
a tank or from spillage. In the case of spillage, the pool
formed will be dictated by the spillage rate, the evaporation
rate and the duraiion ofthe spill (see below) and the topog-
raphy/locatlon of the site and facilitjes associated with it.
. Reference should be made to Appendix 2 for guidance on
ihe calculation of thermal radiation levels with respect to
LPG facilities. Appendix 2 includes comprehensive guid-
ance, references and a number of excellent worked exam-
ples on this subject.
. The rate of leakage of flammable product and its duration
25 Regulafions goveming the layout of rcfigercted liquid gas tanks
used above shall be based on ideniified potential leak
sources in the facilities which need to be considered. The
identification and quantitative assessment of leak sources
should be based on a systematic evaluation of ihe design
and operating procedures of such facilities, taking into ac-
countfailure modes and the likelihood oftheif occurring. Ex-
amoles of ootential leak sources from LPG facilities and
indications of leakage rates from them under specific condi-
tions are quoted in Appendix 3.
25.2.3,5 Vapour travel requirements
Provision shall be made to minimise ihe possibility of a flamma-
ble vapour cloud of LPG from a spill as defined above from
reaching the site boundary. Such provisions may include such
measures as spacing, limitations of spill area, insulation of the
bund or impounding areas, screening or vapour dispersion
equipment. Appendix 4 contains references relating to various
mathematical models for calculating hazard disiances arising
out of spillages of LPG and the resultant vapour cloud forma-
tton.
25.2.3.6 Bunding requirements
The various requirements relating to the need for bunding, the
bund capacity and the bund design include the following:
. No refrigerated tank shallbe located within the bund enclos-
ing any other storage tank.
.
rounded by a bund unless the topography of the area is
such, either naturally or by construction, that spills will be di-
rected safely by gravity drainage and diversion walls (if re-
quired) away from adjaceni tanks, equipment and sensitive
areas to an impound!ng basin suitably located within the site
oounoary
. Fu I and double containment systems by def nition fulfil the
above requirements but low bunds may be required around
the tank main connections to contain leaks ffom external
piping. valves and fittings.
. Forsystemswhichdonotconformtodoubleorful contain-
ment, the bund/impoundlng basin sha I be capable of re-
tain ng the tota content above ground level or of the largest
tank connected to any shared impounding basin.
r Where bunds are provided around tank connections they
should be of sufficient capacity to contain the anticipated
spill volume.
. Bunds and impounding basins shall be provided with water
removal systems designed to prevent LPG spiilages escap-
ing into any system outside the area of the bund/impound-
in9 basin.
. The capacity and reliability of water removal systems for
rain and fire waier where aDolicable shall be sufficient to
prevent the accumulation of such quantities of water as
would cause damage to the tank foundations, bund wall or
would lead to tank flotation.
. Consideration should be given to the monitoring of bunded
areas for LPG leakage.
This section of the Code also gives sensible advice on a num-
ber of other related subjects.
25.2.4 API2510 (Reference 25.41
-
The scope of this Siandard includes the design, construction
and location of both pressurised and refrigerated LPG storage
vessels, loading systems, unloading systems, piping and re-
lated equipment for installations at marine and pipeline termi-
nals, reiineries, petrochemical plants and tankfarms. Excluded
from the scope of this Standard are:
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 473
25 Regulations goveming the layout of refigerated liquid gas tanks

Rc(rigc.atcd storsgc

Maximam rtennat radiationfur kv.l\

kwm2 B11r(h ftr)

Equipmcnt
Thc outcr surfaccs of adj accot
I cfr4c rutc d s to n Ee la n ks
Thznw lproucad(z) 32 10,000
Unprotc.tcd (3) 8 2,5m

Thc outcrsurfaccs of adiacent itorugc

unkr @n|,'ininglfa,''|tnatLproducts (4)
The,rnaIy prokd.n (2) 10,m0
Unprot..lcd (3) E 2,500

Thc outcr surfaccs of adj aocnt LPG

prcrsufa ttorrga v.Jsels and proccss
fadlitics (U) 2,vn
Pclsontrcl i8idc boundary
Proccss arca(5) 8 2,500
P.otctcd$,ork.r.a (6) 6 2,ffi
Work.!ca O) 5 1,500
Clitical arca (8) 1.5 500

Plart boutrdary
Rcrdotcarca (9) 1,000
Urbno arca (10) 1Joo
Gitical area (8) 1.5 500

Nots
(1) The distance from all LPG presrare storsgc v.ssel to a refrigeruted storage rark is detcrmincd by thc
re{uircmcnt of Chapter 3 (Eee 3.3.1) ard Tsble 2 of this appcndix.
(2) Such facilitieJareas arg protcctod by means ofwater sprays, iosulation, mdiation screens or similar systems.
(3) Protecion is providcd by spacing alooe.
(4) Spc<ial co[sidcration Ehould bc givcn to the location of floating roof tan&s containing high vapour pressurc
produds si[cc cffcctivc watcr cooling of thcir roof structures is impraciicablo.
(5) A normalty unocorpied arca occasionally Dattncd by traincd and suitably clothcd pcrsons familiar both with
cscapc rout6 and opportuoitics for tcmporary shcltcr afforded by tbc proccss plant,
(6) A pcrmancnt building whcrc pcrsonnl insidc arc shicldcd and/or bavc shicldcd mcans ofcscapc.
(7) An open arca or small (c,g. temporary) building without shicldcd mcaus of cscapc.
(8) This is cithcr an uoshiclded 8(ca of critical imponaoce where pcoplc without protcctivc clothing may bc
rcquircd it all timcs iocludiog during cmcrgencies or a place diffiorlt or dangerous to cvacuatc rt short
loticc (e.g, a spors stadium).
(9) An arca only infre4uently occupied by small numbcrs of persons, c.g. moorland, farmland, dqscrt.
(10) A.u arca which is noither a remote area oor a Gitical arca.
(11) Thc allowablc thermal ndiation flux levcl is rcstrictcd for thcr facilitics h vicw of the potcntially longer
duratioo of crposure resulting from a rc/z'gc rafud t4nkl bund fiIe.

TigLre )5.6 The'mal'ad alion irux levels forefrge'aled slotage

From The lnstitute of Petroleum Code af Safe Practice, Appendix 1, table 2

. Frozen earth pits . Where residences, public buildings, places of assembly, or

industrial sites are located on adjacent property, greater
. Underground storage caverns distances or other supplemental protection must be pro-
. Underground or mounded storage tanks vided.

. Above ground concrete tanks . The minimum distances betvveen the shells of pressurised
LPG tanks or between the shell of a pressurised LPG tank
. Tanks covered by NFPA 58 and NFPA 59
and the shell of any other pressurised hazardous or flam-
. Tanks with capacities less than 2000 US gallons mable storage tank shall be as follows:

It is not entirely clearjust howthe decision is made, presumably

by the local regulatory authorities, as to which facilities fall
within the scope ofthis Standard, of NFPA58 and of NFPA59.
25.2.4.1 Pressurised LPG storage
The Standard provides spacing and impoundment rules for
storagevessels and other equipment which are briefly summa-
rised in the following Sections.
Minimum spacing requirements
. The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of a
pressurised LPG tank and the line of adjoining property that
may be developed shall be as shown in Figure 25.7.
- Betvveen two spheres, between two vertical vessels, or
between a sphere and a verticalvessel, 5 ft or halfofthe
diameterof the largervessel, whicheveris the greater.
- Between two horizontal vessels, or betlveen a horizon-
tal vessel and a sphere or vertical vessel, 5 ft or three
quarters ofthe diameter ofthe largervessel, whichever
is the larger.
. The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of a
pressurised LPG tank and the shell of any other non-pres-
surised hazardous or flammable storage tank shall be the
largest of the following subject to a maximum of 200 ft:

474 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


Water Capaciry of Each Minimum
Tnnk (gallons) Distance (feet)
2,000-30,000 50
30,001-?0,000 75
70.001-90.000 100
90.001-120.000 125
120,00t or grcater 200
:rqJ'e 25.7 ll"e mrnrmum d stance between lhe -nel' ola p'essur sed LoG
:ana drd t1e rine ol adjoirilq propeny thal Fay be developed
non APl251A, bble 1 facilities located in the facility of the horizontal vessel). The vi-
- lf the other storage is refrigerated, three quarters of the
greater diameter.
lfthe storage is in atmospheric tanks and is designed to
contain a material with a flash point of 1000 F or less,
one diameter of the larger bnk.
- lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks designed to
contain materials wiih a flash point greater than 100" F,
half of the diameter of the larger tank.
- 100 ft.
. The minimum horizontal distance betlveen the shell of an
LPG tank and a regularly occupied building shall be as fol-
lows:
lfthe building is used for the controlofthe storage facil-
ity, 50 ft.
lf the building is used solely for other purposes (unre-
lated to the control of the storage facility), 100 ft.
- Both of the above requirements may be replaced by
comDliance with API 752.
. The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of an
LPG tank and facilities or equipment not covered above
shall be as follows:
- For orocess vessels 50 ft.
For flares or other equipment containing exposed
flames, 100 ft.
For other fired equipment, including process furnaces
and utility boilers, 50 ft.
For rotating equipment, 50 ft, except for pumps taking
suction from the LPG tanks, 10 ft.
- For overhead powertransmission lines and electric sub-
stations, 50 ft. In addition siting shall be such that a
break in the overhead line shall not cause the exposed
ends to fall on any vessel or equipment.
For loading and unloading facilities for trucks and
railcars, 50 ft.
. The minimum horizontal distance betlveen the shell of an
LPG tankand the edge ofa spill containment area for flam-
mable or combustible Iiquid storage tanks shall be 100 ft.
. Pressurised LPG tanks shallnot be locatedwithin buildings,
within the spill containment area of flammable or combusti-
ble liquid storage tanks as defined in NFPA 30, or within the
spill containment area for refrigerated storage bnks.
. Compressors and pumps taking suction from the LPG tanks
should not be located within the spill containment area of
any storage facility unless provisions are made to protect
the storage vessel from the potential fire exposure. Exam-
ples of such include (a) a submerged motor direct-coupled
pump with no rotating equipment outside the pump contain-
ment vessel or (b) a submersible pump within the LPG tank.
. Horizonial LPG tanks with capacities of 12,000 US gallons
or greater shall not be formed into groups of more than six
25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfigercted liquid gas tanks
tanks each. Where multiple groups of horizontal LPG ves-
sels are to be provided, each group shall be separated from
adjacent groups by a minimum horizontal shell-to-shell dis-
tance of 50 ft.
And again
- the ominous Note: Horizontal vessels used to
store LPG should be orientated so that their longitudinal axes
do not point towards other facilities (such as containers, pro-
cess equipment, control rooms, loading or unloading facilities,
or flammable or combustible liquid storage facilities or offsite
sion of a ruptured LPG vessel "rocketing" through a control
room is difficult to suDoress!
SDill containment
Spill containment may be achieved by either remote impound-
ment or by the provision of a dike around the tank. The main
points to consider are:
. For remote impoundment systems:
- The remote impoundmentarea shall be located at least
50 ft from the vessels draining into it and from any hy-
drocarbon piping or other equipment
The holdupofthe remote impoundmentarea shallbe at
least 25% of the volume of the largest vessel draining
into it. lf the material stored in the vessel has a vaoour
pressure that is less than 100 psia at 100'F, the holdup
forthe remote impoundment shall be at least 50% ofthe
volume of the largest vessel draining into it
. For diked systems:
lf an LPG sphere is diked, each sphere shall be pro-
vided with its own diked area. lf LPG stored in horizontal
vesels, a single diked area may serve a group oftanks
- The holdup ofthe diked area shallbe at least25% ofthe
volume of the largest vessel within it. lf the material
stored in the vessel has a vapour pressure that of less
than 100 psig at 100 'F, the holdup for the diked area
shall be at least 50% of the volurr]e of the larqest vessel
withln it.
25.2-4.2 Retrigetale d storage
Again a number of requirements are included in the Standard.
Minimum spacing requirements
The following requirements apply:
. The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of a re-
frigerated LPG tank and the line of adjoining property that
may be developed shall be 200 ft. Where residences, public
buildings, places oi assembly, or industrial sites are located
on adjacent property, greater distances or other supple-
mental Drotection shall be orovided.
. The minimum distance between the shells of adjacent re-
frigerated LPG tanks shall be halfthe diameterofthe larger
taNK,
. The minimum distance between the shell of a refrigerated
LPG tank and the shell of another non refrigerated hydro-
carbon storage facility shall be the largest of the following
subject to a maximum distance of 200 ft:
lf the other storage is pressurised, three quarters ofthe
larger tank diameter
lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks and is de-
signed to contain materialwith a flash point of 100'F or
less, one diameter of the larger tank.
- lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks and is de-
signed to contain material with a flash point greaterthan
100 'F, half the diameter of the larger tank.
- 100 ft.
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 475
25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfrigeated liquid gas tanks
Soill containment
As is the case with pressurised storage, spitl containment may
be achieved by the provision of remote impoundment or by
diking.
Remote impoundment
The following requiremenb apply:
. The remote impoundment area shall be located at least 50 ft
from the vessels draining into it and from any piping or other
eouroment.
. The holdup of the remote impoundment area shall be at
least 100% of the volume of the largest vessel drain ing into
it.
Diking
The following requirements apply:
. Each refrigerated LPG tank shall be provided with its own
diked area. The holdup of the diked area shall be at least
100% of the volume of the tank.
EXCEPTION: More than one tank may be enclosed within
the same diked area provided provisions are made to pre-
vent lowtemperature exposure resulting from leakage from
any one tank from causing subsequent leakage from any
other tank.
. When dikes are used as part of the spill containment sys-
tem, the minimum height shall be 1.5 ft measured from the
inside of the diked area. When dikes must be higher than
6 ft, provisions shall be made for normal and emergency ac-
cess into and out of the diked enclosure. Where dikes must
be higher than 12 ft or where ventilation is restricted by the
dike, provision shall be made for normal operation ofvalves
and access to the top of the tank or tanks without the need
for personnel to enter into the area of the diked enclosure
that is below the top of the dike wall. All earthen dikes shall
have a flat top section at least 2 ft wide.
25.3 Regulations governing LNG storage
facilities
25.3.1 DOT.CFR rules
The appropriate section of these documents from the tJS De-
oartment of Transport is:
DOT.CFR Title 49 Transportation
Subtitle B Other regulations relating to
transportation (continued)
Chapter 1 Research and special pro-
grams administration
Department of Transporta-
tion (continued)
Subchapter D Pipeline safety
Part 193 Liquefied natural gas facjli-
ties
Federal safety Standards
This is lengthy and so is normally referred to as DOT.CFR.49.
Part '193 (latest version dated October 2000).
This document has little to say in its own right, but makes refer-
ences on most subjects to other Standards (mainly NFPA 59A
which is discussed in Section 25.3.2) which are described as
"N,4aterials Approved for Incorporation by Reference". Interesf
ingly and rather confusingly, the DOT document makes refer-
ence to different earlier versions of NFPA 59A in different sec-
tions and not the most recent publication as one might expect.
Fortunately the document is well indexed and the various incor-
476 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
porated documents are listed with the appropriate edition re-
lated to each DOT.CFR paragraph.
In brief, the salient points from this document are:
. ln the event of conflict between DOICFR and NFPA 59A.
the DOT.CFR prevails.
. This Standard applies to any new LNG facilities placed in
service after l\4arch 31, 2000.
. lf an existing LNG facility is replaced, relocated or signifi-
cantly altered after March 31 , 2000, it must comply with the
salient part of these regulations (with certain exceptions).
. Each container must have a thermal exclusion zone in ac-
cordance with NFPA 59A 2-2.3.1 (see Section 25.3.'1).
. Each LNG container must have a dispersion exclusion zone
in accordance wjth NFPA59A2-2.3.2 (see Section 25.3.2).
. Average gas concentration at boundaries = 2.5%.
. The design spil! shall be determined in accordance with
NFPA 59A 2-2.3.3.
. An outerwallofa component served by an impounding sys-
tem may not be used as a dike unless the outerwall is con-
structed of concrete.
. A covered impounding system is prohibited except for con-
cfete wall desjgned tanks where the concrete wall is an
outer wall serving as a dike.
Note: These last two points suggest that this Agency has be-
gun to accept the concept offull containment tanks and
the advantages which accompany this category of con-
tainment.
. Each impounding system serving an LNG storage tank
must have a minimum volumetric liouid imDoundment ca-
pacity of 1 10% of the LNG tanks maximum liquid capacity
(for an impoundment serving a single tank).
. Aflammable non-metallic membrane liner may not be used
as an inner container in a storage tank.
Note: A throwback to the Staten lsland LNG Tank incident,
see Chapter 17, Section 17.3.
25.3.2 NFPA 59A rules
25.3.2.1 Origin and Development of NFPA 59A
Acommittee of theAmerican GasAssociation beganworkon a
Standard for liquefied natural gas circa 1960. Intheautumnof
'1964 a drafr was submitted to NFPAwith the request that it be
considered asthe basisforan NFPAStandard. The first official
edition was adopted at the 1967 NFPA annual meeting.
By early 1969 it had become apparentthatthe use of LNG was
expanding and the API suggested that its Standard PUBL
2510A (Design and Construction of Liquefied and Petroleum
Gas (LPG) Installations) be used to help develop a Standard
having a broader scope. The committee on Liquefied Natural
Gas was established and in 1971 a new edition encomDassino
the broader scoDe was adoDted.
Subsequent editions were adopted in 1972,1975, '1979, 1985,
1990, '1994 and 1996. The 2001 edition was developed in a
joint effort between NFPAand the Canadian Standards Associ-
ation LNG committees to harmonise the requirements of NFPA
59A and CSA Z 276.
25.3.2.2 lmpoundment
The rules governing impoundment for LNG tanks are given
briefly below. lt should be noted that for an LNG storage and
handling facility, areas in addition to the storage tanks such as
process areas, vaporisation areas and transfer areas will also
reouire their own imooundment.
 25 Regulations governing the layout of rcfigehted tiquid gas tanks

. Flammable liquid and flammable refrigerant storage tanks

Contaiaer Dsigtr Spll
shall not be located within an LNG container impoundment. Dstp Sp[I Duraiio!
' The impounding area shall have a minimum volumetric ContaineBwith A3pil thougha$ Us rhe fomrula
holdlng capacity equal to the total volume of liquid in the
pntfations assumedoDeDins
,59A, belo{ &e liquid aq ara eq;a iD 4 a r-
container assuming the container is full. Thisisforanim- pe!- q = aa-4n
il-:Tli9::--
rnremalsnuron
ffea to, tha!
poundment for a single LNG tank and allowance shall be Eation bloi r}re until rhe differen-
red in made for any displacement due to snow accumulation or IiI: l:"lto*.o tial head aadng on
other eouiDment. P-q T 9I
tlow
gryt the openins b o
rom alr rnn
gn ifl- . Dikes and impounding walls for LNG containment shall be tiauy full containex'*'"''
n tne constructed of compacted earth, concrete, metal or other Us the coolzinr
)ns). materials. They shall be permitted to be independent of the ni& the largeJi flow
container, or they shall be permitted to be mounded integral if more itlao on
't ac- contairr ia the
to or constructed against the container. They,andanypen- iErgouddi-og erea-
etrations thereof, shall be designed to withstand the full hy-
zone Coltaioenwith Th largerr0ow The largestdow
drostatic head of impounded LNG, the effeci of rapid cooling over-drc-top 6ll, tom anyslagte ftoma{ringle !!e
2\ wltn oo
to the temperature of the liquid to be confined, any antici- Peft$a- lile llra! could b rlEtcould be
pated fire exposure and natural forces such as earth- F.99.*r:. Y
tn. puEpd i.oro rlrc puopd hro itle
[qurorever' impoundtagarea i-por*a;"g..*
quakes, wind and rain.
with ihe cotrtaiqer lvith tbe cootaisr
,,y'tth
. Where the outer shell of a double wall tank complies with wiihdiav-al withdrrl|?lpulrpG)
puep(s) coDsid- dli\rirg fie tujl
these requirements, it shall be permitted to be considered ered to be delivr- raoed capacirF
SYS- as the impounding area for the purposes of tank siting dis- rared (l)ForloEitruG!
ilrg the full
tances etc. lf the containment integrity ofthe outer shellcan c.rpacity. ifsunillalrce atrd
shurdovrx b dla-
be affected by an inner tank failure, mode, then an addi- oBtrated atrd
tional impounding area shall be provided. apProved by the
iaa . The relationship between dike and impounding wall heights
aurhodry harhg
juridictioo.
and their distance from the primary container shall be as (2)For the tilDe
ce- Figure 25.8. [eded to ernpt/ e
full cotrtailei
anc . Provision shall be made to clear rain or other waterfrom the rvhere rurveillance
tc l- impounding area. Clearly such provisions shall not allow and 3hutdor{tr ir
0or app(red,
the escape of LNG.
Codtaitrerswidr Thendw*|rowhao Us the formula
2n4 . The impounding system shall, as a minimum, be designed Peleo-atioos
oeloav urc xqrxq
assuEedoPohgaq
?.od equ"l io area !o, 4aE4
to withstand an SSE event whilst empty and an OBE whilst poetndoD q=
11,LT-T.1."_5.':_ tlar iz-4
contajning the maximum volume of LNG as defined above.
After an OBE or SSE, there shall be no loss of containment
fl"J:A'#* F\*,n"r,q*g
with6.s.3.3. *1l"'.-lto
forrhour.
capability. regrlt n tnela gs!
flow fto(o a! ilitialy
25.3.2.3 The design spill firfl coDtainer.

Figure 25.9 attempts to define the design spill, forthree types LDpoundingarea Th oow bom any For l0 mioures or
*rvt(Ig only sirgle accidenral for ? shodr tjroe
of storage tank: !?Ponzauon,.., leakagesource. ba5edoodemon-
proceJs, or LNU
. Containers with penetrations below the liquid level without trarBfer areas
sFable surveil

internal shuloff valves. shuadol{n provi-

siors acceptable to
. Containers with penetrations below the liquid level wiih in- the aufioriry hav-
ternal shufoff valves in accordance with certain desion re- irgjuridicrion.
Nore gbdteflosBre lftmin (m3,hin)l o{tquld dirdrcdianFcr [i!.
(mm)l of tank Fr.trariod bdos rhc &uid t'icl. Ll! dl. h.qttt tft (m) l
ofliquld abo! p.n duion ln dE contetne. *hcn fic @nt2lncr t fdt

Fgure 25.9 Design sp llfor three types of siorage lank

From NFPA 594, tabte 2.2.3.5

quirements.
. Containers with over the top fill, with no penetrations below
the liquid level (also presumed to be equipped with in-tank
pumps for unloading).
For the first two tank types ihe calculation of the design spill is
quite straightforward. The formula given is:
Noiac
4 ^-
. oimensbn Xshall q]a, or xced the sum of fmendoo yDlus t|e
sqivalnt head ln LNG of he prgssu.o In tt vapor spaco abovo
o'3= d'Jh equ 25.1
t|s huld.
Excf,pfKn: WtBr tto h,lght ol he dl@ or hrvwNing *aI ls equdt A where
or gealer tlgn, tE nptdmrm qtfr le'/el, X ntsl hd!.e any velue-
. Do|enslon Xb h dshnco ipm fie hnr wall of fis cootalnr b tl6 q = flow rate (ft3/min)
closest hce of |hs dik6 or [npounding walt
. DinFnslon yb fls dstance ftom t| marmun lilrld lgvel h ho d = diameter of the tank penetration (ins)
conblnr b tho iop ol th dlks or trpoundng wafl.
h = height of liquid above the penetration when the
Figure 25.8 Dlke or impoundment wallproximtty ro conlarners tank is full (ft)
Fran NFPA 59A, figute 2.2.2.6 The spill duration is also given in Figure 25.9.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 477

25 Regulations goveming the layout of refigerated liquid gas tanks

For the third tank type the picture is less clear. The industry shows the large differences in the various spacing require-
practice has been to take the maximum export rate (i.e. the ments and the savings in site area arising from the use of the
combined flow of all of the installed in-tank pumps assuming different types ofcontainmentcategory The summary ofthe re-
these to be manifold together) as the 10 minute duration spill sults of this exercise are given in Figure 25.10.
(presuming a suitable shutdown system is provided). However,
One additional requirement relating to thermal radiation is that
the design spill wording "The largest flow from any single line
the LNG container impounding areas shall be located so that
that could be pumped into the impounding area with the con-
the heat flux from a fire over the impounding area shall not
tainer withdrawal pump(s) considered to be delivering the full
cause major structural damage to any LNG marine carrier that
rated capacity,", leaves room for doubl.
could Drevent its movement.
Fora typical LNG import terminal, the liquid pumpout rate from 25.3.2.5 Vapour dilution considerations z
a large tank may be ofthe order of 2000 m3/hr whereas the liq- ,1
uid import rate (i.e. the carrier's maximum unloading rate) may NFPA 59A has the following requiremenb:
be as high as 12000 m3ihr The 10 minute spillvolume in one . The spacing of an LNG tank impoundment to the property
case is 2000 x 10/60 = 333 m3 and in the othercase is 12000 x line which can be built upon shall be such that, in the event
10/60 = 2000 m3. ofthe design spill(Section 25.3.2.3), an average concentra- lr
The logic of postulating a possible failure in the case ofthe liq- tion of methane in air of 50% on the lower flammability limit
uid export line whilst not doing the same in the case ofthe liquid (LFL) does not extend beyond the property line that can be
import line seems contentious. The differences between the built upon. Three different calculation methods are given:
two figures in terms of the cost and difficulty of containing the
spill at the tank roof level, the conveying ofthe spilled liquid to
- GRI 0242 "LNG vapour dispersion prediction with the
DEGADIS dense gas dispersion model".
localgrade and the further guiding of liquid to the site impound-
ing basin are substantial. - GRI-96/0396.5 "Evaluation of mitigation models for ac-
cidental LNG releases-Volume 5; using FEM3Aforac-
25.3.2.4 Thermal radiation
NFPA 59A requires provisions to be made (almost always by
adjusting the site layout)to preventthe thermal radiation from a
tire from exceeding the limits listed belowundera defined setof
atmosphe c conditions (zero windspeed, 70oE 50% relative
humidity):
o 1600 Btu/hr/fi3 (5000 w/mr) at a property line that can be
built upon for ignition of a design spill (see Section
25.3.2.3).
. 1600 Btu/hr/ft, (5000w/mz) atthe nearest point located out-
side the owners property line that, at the time of plant siting,
is used for outdoor assembly by groups of 50 or more per- 2
sons for a fire over an impounding area containing the full
T
design volume (see Section 25.3.2.2).
3000 Btu/hr/ftz (9000 Mm2) at the nearest point ofthe build- ]
ing orstructure oulside the owners property line that is in ex-
istence at the time of plant siting and used for occupancies =(
classified by NFPA 101 (Life Safety Code) as assembly, ed-
ucational, health care, detention and correction or residen-
tial for a fire over an impounding area containing the full
design volume.
',OOOO t,urn7ftz (30000 wim2) at a property line which can
be built upon for a fire over an impounding area containing
the full design volume.
The calculations of radiation distances shall be calculated by
the following method:
Gas Research lnstitute Reoort GRl0176 "LNG Fire:Ather-
mal radiation model for LNG fires"
lfthe ratio ofthe majorto minor dimensions ofthe impound-
ment does not exceed 2 then:
d =F./a equ25.2

where
d = distance from the edge ofthe impounded LNG
(ft)

A = surface area of the impounded LNG (ft )

F = flux correction factor as follows: 3.0 for 1600
Btu/hr/ft2 2.0 for 3000 Btu/hr/ft, 0.8 for 10000
Btu/hr/ft'z
An example using the simpleformula for tanks for the storage of
Figure 25. 1 0 Comparison of site layouts with differenl types of liquid contain-
160,000 m3 of LNG of the single and full containment types

478 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


requtre- cidental LNG accident consequent analysis".
se of the
of the
Another model subject to stated guidelines.
re-
. Provisions shall be made to minimise the possibility of a
In isthat flammable mixture of vapours from the design spill from
i so that reaching the property line that can be built upon and that
;hall not would result in a distinct hazard. Flammable mixture disper-
rier that sion distances shall be calculated in accordance with GRI
0242 subject to certain stated conditions.
25.3.2.6 Minimum spacing requirements
n addition tothe spacing requirements arisingfrom the require-
Tents of impoundment (Section 25.3.2.2) thermal radiation
rroperty Section 25,3.2.4) and vapour dilution (Section 25.3.2.5) con-
e event siderations, the following minimum spacing requirements ap-
centra- lly:
lity limit
can be
. The minimum distance from the edge of the impoundment
to buildings or property lines shall not be less than 0.7times
given:
the container diameter or 100 ft whichever is the greater.
/iih the
. The minimum distance between LNG storage containers
shall not be less than 1/4 ofthe sum ofthe diameter of adja-
for ac- cent containers or sfr whichever is the greater.
lor ac-
Hote: Both ofthe above applyto LNG tanks with capacities in
excess of 265 mJ. Forverysmall tanks refer to Table
2.2.4.1 of NFPA 59A.
. In no case shall the distance from the nearest edge of im-
pounded liquid to a property line which can be built upon, or
the near edge of a navigable water way as defined by fed-
eral regulations be less than 50fr.
xoie: Clearly for tanks with capacities >265 m3, the first con-
dition above willgovern for disiances to property lines.
25.3.3 EN1473 : 1997 rules
25.3.3.1 Scope
-r;s European Standard gives guidelines for the design, con-
3:!ction and operation of all onshore stationary LNG installa-
:ons including those for the liquefaction, storage, vaporisation,
-nsfer and handling of LNG The Standard is valid for the fol-
c$iing plant types:
. Export terminals between the desjgnated gas inlet bound-
ary limit and the ships manifold.
. Receiving terminals, between the ships manifold and the
designated gas outlet boundary limit.
. Peak-shaving plants, between designated gas inlet and
outlet boundary limits.
. LNG satellite plants with a totial storage capacity above 2OO
tonnes, including the loading station up to the designated
gas outlet boundary limited.
tlote: Satellite planb with a total storage capacity less than
200 tonnes are excluded from the scoDe of this Stan-
dard.
-^is Standard is very difierent in philosophy and content from
1- USADOT.CFR and NFPAStandards. lt is based on hazard
rd consequent risk assessment methods and is generallyless
in its requirements than the American Codes. The fol-
=ecific
or/ing Sections are an attempt to abstract the salient points
:r',en jn this EN Standard astheyrelateto LNG storagetanks.
25.3.3.2 Scenarios to be considered
-'ese are summarised for the full range oftank types in Figure
:5 11 . lt is interesting to note the distinction made between full
tanks without concrete roofs where the pool fire
=.ltainment
;ze is based on the secondary contiainer and full containment
E-KS with concrete roofs where no collapse is considered and
r., implication no poolfire is to be considered.
25 Regulations govening the layout of rcftigerated liquid gas tanks
e Part 6.1 ofthe Standard states "Tanks can be Dlaced on the
ground.....
.....The raft of the tank can be supported by raised piles.
. Part 6.2.3 states "there shall be no penetrations of the pri-
mary and secondary container walls or base.
.....The absence of wall or base penetrations requires the
use of submerged pumps." Le. tanks ofall types must be fit-
ted with in{ank pumps, This is very different from NFPA
59A.
25.3.3.3 Design spill
The Standard mentions "loss ofcontainment of LNG and of nat-
ural gas" in Section 4.4.3.1, "Evaporation of spilled LNG" in
4.4.5.1, "Atmospheric dispersion of LNG vapour'' in Section
3.3.4 and "Provisions for control of leaks or spillage" in Section
4.5.2. lt does not provide means of evaluating the flow rate or
duration ofthe design spill. The Standard provides guidance on
hazard assessment using probabilistic and deterministic ap-
proaches, the use of hazard and operability studies (HAZOP),
failure mode effect analysis (FMEA), eventtree method (ETM)
and fault tree method (FTM) together with a listing of possibte
hazards of both internal (i.e. within the site) and external origin
(i.e. from outside the site).
There is also some briefguidance on the estimation of probabil-
ities (Section 4.4.4) and the estimation of consequences (Sec-
tion 4.4.5 and Annex F). Whilst allof this guidance is admirable,
it leaves the deflnition ofthis important design event a matter of
conjecture and debate which will require a lengthy and expen-
sive site specific studyto resolve. The much simplerapproach
to this issue taken by NFPA 59A, albeit not entirely clear in all of
its aspects, may appealto terminal designers and contractors
and to the various regulatory authorities in view of ib clarity.
25.3.3.4 Thermal radiation
Figure 25.12 gives recommended maximum incident radiation
values for equipment within the site boundary including tanks
with outer surfaces constructed of concrete or steel. oressure
vessels, process facilities, control rooms, workshops and ad-
ministrative buildings arising from an LNGtankpoolfire. These
are maximum values to be used unless deflned otheMise in lo-
cal regulations. The Standard then moves on to suggest that
the maximum radiation flux levels for each main structure shall
be calculated and provides some guidance on how this may be
achieved.
For LNG storage tanks, the permissible radiation flux shall be
determined taking into account the following factors as a mini
mum:
. lf no deluge system is installed, watercooling is deemed to
applyafterthe time required to provide firewater in sufficient
SingIE conteinnent l)
Double co0unn$eltt 2)
Fltl contairunent 2) s)
Mernbrane 2) 3)
Ctyogmic conste 2l 3)
l)
Slraical
fngrttrd 4 3)
S@Ei6 to b @Eid.rE l:
r) Ir .3le of @Uar6e of tlE Lrik
lrlnrry .onr.hr, !n pool
rlr. conldpd& !o the inpdtndng.ie..
4 h ce ol @0qe o( dE tsn* rcoq tlE !E loot tdr!
@nt{d& b dE lDdlry cont lE
r) No @U!9e i! @Etder.d for tlse t !* h,!..,
Figure25.11 Scenarioslobeconsidered inlhehazad assessmentasfunctionof
tank types
Frcn EN 473, table
1 5
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 479
25 Regulations goveming the layout of refigerated liquid gas tanks

Eqqlpn..r luld. bouduy

(lwD'l)
Remote areal) t3
Concrete outer 6urf9ae of adiacmt 32
storage tanls: unprotectedi) 3) or Urban atea 6
behind thennal proteciionz, Critical area2)
Mtal outer surface of adja4ent storage t) An area only infEqu4tly o.cupied by smal nmbB of
tanlr unplotected3) or behind thermal peMF, e8. moorlmd, fanntand, de&
gotctionz), (see n3) D'ftis is ettle-r !n u$hhlded e. ofailical lnlortrnce eh@
The outer surfaces of aqjacent prss&e Deoole sit rout prctecdre .lothi.8 ce b iequjred at 3I tiro
lnctudinS duing energendes or B plae difrodt o! dangercus to
storage vssls alrd plocess facilities
eEurte !t dblt nodce (eg sports stadrum, play groud,
(se ng)
C4ntrol room, Maintenaice workshops, 8
laboratoriG, werehouss, etc. (see P.2) Figure 25.13 Allowable themal radiauon flux excluding solar rad ation outside
Administrativ buildin$ (see P.2) 5
rJ For prest@d concrelt t2.k, naximum ddiation nues Frcm EN 1473, table 2
my detlnnined bt fie requiremenG given in 4,5.2.
be
:)such facih es are prot crld by m.es or watf,r srrEys, firc
Eq{lDn.rt luide bouar.ry
Dmiing, rad8tlon *reens o.simil& systms
3' Proteciion is Drcvidd by sDa.inr .lone.

Flow rtte e dnled lD 11.6

Fig ure 25.1 2 Allowable thefmal radiation flux exclud ing sola r tadiation inside lhe Base of the flai in a tsbcted 5 I
Dounoary ala wher well trained
FFrn EN 1473. table I operators wil be present only
for maintenarce. (s P.3)
ouantities from external sources Roads and open aras 3 6
'Ibiks erd proce$ equipments 5
. Loss of strength of container
Contsol room, mahten nce 1,5 5
. Pressure build up within the container workshops, Izboratones,

. The temperature ofthe safetyvalve shallnot reach the auto Adminjstrative buildings 5
ignition temperature of the flammable substance in the
tank. Figufe 25.14 Allowable themal radiation flux excluding solar radiation inside
the boundary
. Surface emissive powers Fron EN 1473, table 3

Figure 25.13 similarly provides maximum recommended inci-

dent radiation flux levels arising from an LNG poolfire within the radistion nux (kwn'?)
boundary on different types ofareas outside the site boundary Flow rrte a delined ir 11.6 Nomal I Ac.ident'l
The maximum recommended incident radlation levels arising Remote arear.) 3 5
from the flare are given in Figure 25.14 for areas within the Urban area 3
boundary and in Figure 25.15 for areas outside the boundary Criticrl area2) 1,5
These Tables give two levels of radiation fluxfor normal and ac- 1r @a only infrequntly @cupid by sall nmbe6 of
An
cidental operations. pcen' e,g, m@rle4 fmland, desrr
,) This is eirler d NNelded ea ol cdtical importa@ ttEre
25.3.3.5 Vapourdilution psple witlDur pmtectiv clothing cd be required at all tines
inctuding duinS emergencies or e pl&e drfficuli o. dege.os to
EN1473 gives no specific rules for dilution levels at site bound- evacuare at short nolice (e,9. sports stadjw, pl4v groud,
aries. lt does give some guidance on the calculation methods
to determine the furthest distance to the lower flammable limit
Fjgure 25.15 Allowable thermal radlation flux excluding solar radiaiion outside
and of what factors to take into account in this calculation, but the boundary
no specific requirements.
Frcm EN 1473, table 4
25.3.3.6 Minimum spacing requirements
Again EN1473 gives little guidance on this subject. lt does troleum lndustry - Part I Volumes 1 and 2 - Liquefied
Petroleum Gas February 1987.
stater "The spacing between two adjacent tanks for which no
collapse is considered (i.e. full containment, membrane, cryo-
genic concrete or in-ground tanks, in each case with a concrete
25.4 API 2510 Eighth edition, May 2001 Design and Con-
struction of LPG lnstallations.
roof), shall be (as a) minimum equal to a half diameter of the
secondary container of the larger tan k". Th is is essentially sim- 25.5 United Sfates of America Deparlment of Transpotl
ilar to the NFPA 59Aone quarter times the sum ofthe diameters Rules.- Title 49 - Subtitle B - Chapter 1 - Subchapter D
of the adjacent containers requirement. - Part 193 - October 2000.
25.6 NFPA 59A, Standard for the production, storage & han-
25.4 References dling of liquefied natural gas (LNG), 2001 Edition,
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massa-
25.1 NFPA 58 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code 2001 Edition, chusetts.
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massa-
chusetts. 25.7 BS EN 1473 : 1997 lnsta ation of equipment for lique-
fied natural gas - design ofOn-shore installaflo,s, Euro-
25.2 NFPA 59 Utility LP-Gas Plant Code 2001 Edition. pean Committee for Standardisation and British
25.3 lnstitute of Petroleum Code of Safe Practice in the Pe' Standards Institution.

480 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 26 Seismic design of low temperature
tanks
This Chapter represents a brief visit to what is a large and complex area. Much has been
researched and wriften on the subject and it is difficult to do it justice in so few words. lt has
becomethe practice to approachthe seismic design of low temperatu re tanks at a higher levelof
sophistication than has been the case of tanks storing products at ambient temperatures.
The Chapter is restricted to the design of metallic, liquid-coniaining, vertical cylindrical tanks.
Those looking for detailed information on the seismic design of low temperature tanks of
different geometries and construction materials will have to seek the information they require
elsewhere.
The importantareas of seismic design have been reviewed and illustrated by means ofa worked
example, using an LNG tank of modest proportions.

Contents:
26.1 General
26,2 The basic seismic design data
26.3 Damping
25.4 Directional combinations
26.5 The behaviour of the product llquid
26.6 Natural frequencies
26.6.1 The horizontal convective frequency
26.6-2 The horizontal impulsive frequency
26.6.3 The vertical barelling Aequency
26.7 Ductility
26.8 Calculation of the design accelrations

26.9 Product liquid pressures acting on tank shells

26,10 Tank stability under seismic loadings
26.11 Tank sliding
26.12 Liquid sloshing
26.13 Seismic isolation
fed 26.14 The design Codes

26.15 Gonclusion
bn-
26.16 References
nrt
YD

fl>
'ot
,
aa-

IF
to-
istr

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 48,I

26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks
26.1 General
Chapter 15 describes the relatively straightforward rules given
in the various ambient storage tank design codes to cover the
design of such tanks for seismic loadings. These are based on
the work of Wozniak and Mitchell and use as their input the ac-
celerations given for the various zones given in the American
Uniform Building Code or similar sources. This approach ig-
nores the influence of the vertical components of the design
seismic events. The recent earthquakes, particularly those in
Kobe in Japan and in Taiwan have provided evidence that this
componentis particularly destructive and has traditionally been
underestimated.
For low temperature tanks where the risks associated with Iiq-
uid containment failure are generally considered to be more se-
rious and certainly the costs of the facility are generally greater,
the seismic design is taken more seriously as has been men-
tioned in Chapter 15. Whether the risk or the cost arguments in-
deed justify this approach is perhaps contentious. Large single
containment refined product tanks are themselves dangerous
beasts, the consequences ofwhose failure in refineries are per-
haps the equal in terms of risk and cost of similar events in
many low temperature facilities.
Passing over this point, it is the case thai low temperature tanks
have traditionally warranted this enhanced level of attention
Perhaps the apparent recent trend of placing large LNG export
and import terminals in areas of high seismic activity has had
something to do with this. The LNG tanks located at the Bay of
Marmara in Turkey, Revithoussa lsland in Greece and Point
Fortin in Trinidad are all examples of this trend.
The amount of theoretical and test work carried out in this area
is awesome. Not only have the giants of the subject
Housner, Veletsos, Yang, Haroun, Manos, Wozniak, Newmark
and Hall been publishing learned works for many years. but
they are joined by a host of other authors working in the same
area. A fook at the list of publications in References 26.1, 26.2
and 26.3 will illustrate this point.
In addition to the volume of work existing in this area, there are
also a variety of different approaches to the seismic design of
the various components which go to make up the difierent types
of low temperature liquid storage systems described in Chapter
17. For example the approach of the designer of the steel inner
liquid container is often very different to that of the designer of
the outer pre-stressed concrete tank.
It is clearly not possible to describe the whole breadth of this
area of activity in a single chapter, indeed it would be difficult to
envisage doing itjustice in a single book. Forthis reason the fol-
lowing Sections confine their interest to the seismic design of
vertical, cylindrical, flat-bottomed steel primary liquid contain-
ment tanks. These are one of the most commonly found com-
oonents of low temperature liquid conbinment systems
The level of sophistication of the analysis is that which the au-
thor has found to be sufficient to satisfy the owners of newstor-
age facilities togetherwith their engineers and technical consul-
tants. To those seeking information on the seismic design of
-500
<Q
il5
F gure 26.1 A typical real 1me history ground ac.elerai on rccord
482 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
concrete tanks, membrane tanks, roof-mounted equipment,
in-ground tanks and tanks of shapes other than vertical and cy-
lindrical, apologies are given. However, a brief search of the
subject area should produce the necessary information.
The various national and international Standards and regula-
tory organisations also have views on the subject ofthe seismic
design of liquid storage systems. These are reviewed in the ap-
propriate Sections of this Chapter and in Section 26.13. . '-.:
26.2 The basic seismic design data
A real or a design seismic event can be expressed in a number
o{ different ways. A real time history is a plot of the actual re- :=
corded ground motions (acceleration, velocity and displace-
ment) against the elapsed time of the event. lt is acceleration
which interests the designer most, and an example of such a
plot is shown in Figure 26.1. There are techniques which allow
the design process to be based upon such realtime histories,
butthese are outside the chosen scope ofthis Chapter. In such
cases it is usual to use a number of real time histories of events
from a similar geological setting and of a similar magnitude, or
scaled to the same magnitude.
A more useful starting point for the designer is the response
spectrum. The response spectrum repfesents the peak re-
sponse ofa single degree offreedom damped system to a base
excitation. Such a single degree of freedom system is illus-
trated in Figu re 26.2. The precise means of getting from a real
time history considered relevant for the particular site to an
agreed design response spectrum are complex and are best
left to those with the appropriate expertise in these matters
like
:J,
I
L______' t,
I
SUPPORT I.IOTION: v, v, v MASS f10Ti0N:
Figure 26.2 Asingle degree offreedom damped system
The provision ofdesign spectra to the tank designer is usuallya
task placed in the hands of specialist geo-technical consul-
tants. These are companies with wide and respected experi-
ence in the study of seismic events. The days when a single nu-
merical reference to an anticipated seismic event using such
devices as the Richter Scale was considered sufiicient input for
the tank designer are long past. The RichterScale isstillused in
the media to describe the magnitude of seismic events, and for
interest the scale and a subjective set ofeffects is shown in Fig-
ure 26.3.
The usual outputfrom such specialists is a site-specific seismic
 26 Seismic design of low tempercture tanks

-oquipment, necessitate a site investigation if the information is not al-

caland cy, Modified Mercali Richter
Acceleration ready available)
arch of the Intensity Scale Magnitude Scale
rtion. . The nature ofthe structure, its contents and the possible in-
M fluence ofthese on the people and property adjacent to the
nd regula-
letected only by very site
he seismic rE srDve rn$rumenis
J in the ap- '-:tt by b* persols at The sections of the SHA whjch the tank designer is most in
"
Lspended objecls swing need of are the design response spectra. lt is usualforthese re-
'.13. u3
sponse spectra to be presented for both the horizonial and the
I F"[ l"d"-"jut""id ,005 vertical seismic events. Until quite recently only the horizontal
as an earthquake
=cognised
:;TA spectra was provided and a factorwas given for scaling this to
a number Indoot bv a fevr
uolor cars rock nbliceably .01 M4 be used as the vertical seismic design criteria. This factor has
actual re_ grown with time from 0.5 to 0.6 and 0.67 as the significance of
displace- , Feitby most. Som this part of the seismic event became apparent. Following the
)eleration ..ndows break. Little damage
recent events in Japan and Taiwan it could well be the case that
u5
of such a
rich allow
;"- b*r r"r*
:. mneys. Damage-smatl .05
this factor will increase and approach unity. lt is now usual to
presentseparate vertical design spectra, whichtake account of
histories,
t-rn the magnitude ofthis part ofthe event and anydifferences in the
"t*" -ar*
0.1
r. ln such rependrng upon construction applicable spectral shape.
u0
lfevents l1l Fall of watts. cht'nnevs
ritude, or -ionuments. A fair amoutit The usual practice is to considertwo levels of seismic event for
the design of a particular structure. The allowable stress and
x B!ildinqs 6hifted otf
0,5
SZ levels of permitted damage criteria which apply to each level of
esponse =fi dation-s. Much damage
event are described below There have been a varietv of differ-
)eak re-
cabase
;;""*'""*"" d"",,** 1.0
ent definitions for these two event levels used over ihe vears.
3rcund cracks, Landslide's The most commonly used in the past have been the operating
is illus- UC
basis earthquake (OBE) and the safe shutdown earthquake
m a real
a**u|"" or"r*
f,iiges destroied
" (SSE). These were events with return periods of 475 and
etoan 10,000 years respectively. ln recent time things have become
rre Dest
"-"."t*","t W**
sen on oround suna@. more complex. NFPA 59 A which is a significant design docu-
rlters. f,tiecls thrown in sr
ment for most LNG tanks has chosen to introduce the maxi-
mum considered earthquake (MCE) which is the event having a
:ure 26.3 The RichterScale and set of subjeclive
effecis 2% probability of exceedance within a 50 yearperiod (mean re-
currence interval 2475 yearcl. subject to a number of defined
-azard assessment (SHA). This is a substantial document
exceptions. The liquid container and the impounding system
:ank designers have been known to unkindly suggest that this are then designed for an OBE and SSE which are deiined as
:ocument is sold by weight alone). lt takes account of the fol- follows:
owing in arriving at ib conclusions:
The OBE shall be represented by a ground motion response
. The detailed geology and tectonics ofthe selected site spectrum in which the spectral acceleration at any period T
. The seismic history of the area shall be equal to 2/3 of the spectral acceleration of the NICE
ground moiion defined. The OBE ground motion need not ex-
. The details of the matedals and structures which will lie be- ceed the motion represented by a 5% damped acceleration re-
tween the bedrock and the base of the structure (this mav sponse having a 10% probability of exceedance within a S0
Typical Horizontal Response Spectra
tatry a
0.500
)NSUF
(pel.-
0.450
e nu-
suc- 0_400
ut fo-
0.350
d fo.
I o.3oo
OBE - 5% Damplng

E 0.250
6
9 0.200

0.150

0.100

0_050

0.000
0 0.5 11.52 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 77.58 8.5 9 s.5 10
Priod T , secs

:igure 26.4A Atypical horizonlat seismic

design response spectra in graphicatform for 5% damping

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 483

26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks

Typical Vertical Response Spctra

t
l - 5% Damping
c 0.200
-OBE - 5%
-ssE
E o.tso

0.100

0.050
\

0.000
0.5 1.5 4.5 5 5.5
Period T , secs

Figure 26.48 A typical vertical seismic design response spectra in graphicalfom for 5% damping

year penoo. of accuracy when extracting design data. An example is given

in Figure 26.5. -9
The SSE ground motion shall be the motion represented by a
5% damped acceleration response spectrum having a 1% Damping levels arediscussed further in Section 26.3. On occa-
lE
probability of exceedance within a 50 year period (mean return sions the seismic design spectra are presented in the form ofa
interval 4975 years). Howeverthe spectral acceleration of the series of equations. An example ofthis type of presentiation, to-
ns
SSE resDonse spectrum shall not exceed twice the corre- getherwith the graphs which can be derived from these equa-
recipe tions is shown in Figures 26.6 A & B. lt is usual for the time-
f,rr
sponding OBE spectral acceleration. This seems to be a
for confusion, but doubtless there are good reasons for the scaleto run from zero upto, orjustbeyond'10 seconds. Thiswill
tx
cover the sloshing or convective periods of the biggest tanks
ilc(
changeswhich willbe apparenttothose skilled in the prediction
'r(
of seismic design criteria. currently envisaged,
It is most common to present the seismic design spectra in Where a site specific SHAis not carried out, the seismic design
graphicalform and atypicalexample is shown in Figures 26.4A data can be based upon artificial response spectra. Onesuch is
& B. These are given for 5% damping which is also usual and Desisn Spectlm {5%)
for both the OBE and the SSE events. Plots, which include the Hodzontal

displacement and velocity data in addition to the acceleration

data, are frequently used and these can includethe data atvari-
ous different levels of critical damping. These tend to get con-
gested and are sometimes difilcultto usewiththe required level

eadhd@ke. acceler,alion (a)

0,+1.0

OBE oos+

ssE o-+

Figure 26,6AAn example of sismic design data presented as a sedes of

Figure 26.5 A typical t.ipa.tite acceleration, veloci9 and displacement plot equalDns and also In grapnrcr rcrm

484 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 26 Seismic design of low tempercturc tanks

able to use this guide meaningfully. The use of an artificial re-

sponse spectra is a cheaper but very much inferior means of
providing a seismic design basis than that provided by a site
specific SHA study.

26.3 Damping
It is important to select the appropriate level of damping for the
djfferent component parts of a storage system for the (usually
two) levels of seismic design event being considered. Guid-
ance can be found in Iable 4.2 of Reference 26. / which is reoro-
duced in Figure 26.9. This reference uses the ierms "probable
design earthquake" (PDE) and "contingency design earth-
quake" (CDE) in place of the more familiar OBE and SSE.
Where the seismic design data provided is tied to a single
damping level (usually 5%), it is necessary to have a means of
converting to other levels of damping as indicated in Figure
26.9. The accepted means of doing this is to use the Newmark
and Hall amplification factors as shown in the table (Figure
26.10). The three columns headed A(B), V(p)and D(B)apply to
the constant acceleration, constant velocity and the constant
displacement parts ofthe response spectrum. This is illustrated
"-'i in Figure 26.11. T2 is usually around 3 seconds.
a3@
?t\r)
or+ So, by way of an example:
The natural frequency of the impulsive portion of the tank liquid
contents falls between To and T1 and is 0.609 taken from the
OBE 5% critical damping horizontal seismic response spec-
: trre 26.68 An example ofselsmjc design data presenled as a series of
::.a1ions and also in gfaphical form
trum. lt is required to determine the acceleration appropriate to
2o/o ctilical damping as required for OBE design as shown in
',-at given in the USAEC Regulatory cuide 1.60 (Reference Figure 26.9.
r5.4). The spectral shape is expressed in a tabularform cover-
-g a fange of levels ofdamping (Figure 26 7). When plotted oui The acceleration is then
ue-
'q --is is as shown in Figure 26.8. The point where the accelera- Nt3\(2V"\
: rn intercepts the zero time axis is known as the peak ground - -" '"
nA^
4 B ttsv" )
::celeration (PGA) and in these plots it has a value of unity. lt is
-ecessary to know the PGAappropriate to the chosen site to be Using the data from Figure 26.10 this becomes:
is 9-
0.60 y::: = 0.81o
c-s ' 2.71

26.4 Directional combinations

0,5 l Cr 5.95 -1.20
Any seismic event is made up of a combination of motions in the
2.0 1.0 3_54 4.25 2.t0
5.0 i.0 2.61 3 ri 2.05 two horizontal (X and Y) and the vertical (Z) directions. Clearly it
7,0 i.0 2.27 2_12 1,88 is unreasonable to assume that the three orthogonal compo-
10.0 t.0 t.90 2,14 l.?0
nents will be simultaneously at their maximum values. The in-
rlv nnum sohd displacnenr r ekcn proporriont io nuxinro dustry has decided that the following represent sensible
sound accelsalion, dd is 36 in. for Brornd accelsationol l.0 gravjry. combinations:
:Acelchrto. rid
reonhond"roir
disFlacenrem
siver rnEfergncc l
xmplifiolioi raao* rs bk.n f'orl
. 100% X +l- 30o Y +l- 30%Z
. 30'/oX +/- 1004 Y +l- 3O%Z
Amprili.ation F .rou ro' conror Poina . 3Oo/oX +/- 30a Y +l- l}OYaZ
It is convenient to combine the two horizonlal components.
So for --
the first two combinations listed above a facior of
t.0
t, :-
0.5 4.96 t 6rl
J(10' 0.3') - 1044can beuseoandforthethirdcombination
2_t3
2.0 t.0 3.54 4.05 ).67
5.0 1,0 2.61 2.94 1.31
1.O 1.0 2.27 2.59 1.25 a factor of 03+ 03'z) = 0424 is appropriate.
10.0 i.0 t.90 2.17 r.l3
There have been occasions when a 100% +l- 40% +l- 40ok
'Maxjmum grolnd displaetent is r.l.n troportionit to nariDun combination has been required, bui this is less usual.
grou.d a.eletation and is 36 i.. aor eround acehrarion of I 0 gnvily.
! Acceleration anllticarion facros aor fie vertical dcxrsn r$pon*
sp.ctra aE eqkl 16 ihos ior horizonlal deslgn rcspoise 3p.cttr ar r sivcn
rr.qu.ncy, lhereas di$lacamenl aBpuliBIion lacroB aIo 2/3 nb$for lrori.
anlal destgn lesponse specta. Itles rdios blveen llre amptitierion tuctou
26.5 The behaviour of the product liquid
for the r{o desiri spectarretn agre.ftenr pnh lhosg tecomneidcd
in retercnce I . 'espone The means of calculating the effective masses ofthe impulsive
!Th6e valu.s were changed lo ruke rhis tablc consistem Nilh rhe dn and the convective portions ofthe stored liquid and the heights
cusion dl veniel.onponenls in Sectiod B ol tirguide.
above the tank bottom of their centres of gravity are exactly the
same as are used for ambient temperature tanks. This is de-
Figure 26.7 Tables I and ll from ihe IJSAEC Regulatory cuide 1.60 scribed in Chapterl5, Section 15.2.2.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 485

26 Seismic design of low tempenture tanks

ll

Figure 26.8 The USAEC date plotted out

26.6 Natural frequencies where:

In orderthatthe designer can extract the appropriate accelera-

T = first liquid sloshing period (sec)
t
tions from the design seismic response spectra provided, it is K = a factor taken from figure L-4 (Figure 26.12) !
necessary to determine the naturalfrequencies associated with
the significant loading componenb. These are the horizontal
D = tank diameter (ft)
;
impulsive frequency of the liquid tank system, the horizontal H = liquid fill height {ft) I
convective frequency, and the vertical "breathing" mode fre-
quency. There is a considerable volume of information on this
Note: lf the tank diameter is given in metres, this equation be-

subject and the influences of tiank flexibility and foundation stiff- comes T = 1.81 1k(D)' '. (Rememberto use consistent
ness. In the interests of avoiding over complication, the meth- units for D and H in Figure 26.12.)
ods considered in this ChaDterare limited to those discussed in This calculation method is probablythe most commonly used to
References 26.3, 26.5 and 26.6. determine this period.
From References 26.1, 26.3 and 26.5
26.6.1 Horizontal convective frequency
The same equation forthe frequency ofthejth sloshing mode is
oiven in each of these references and is:
From APf 620 (Reference 26.q
.1
This is the same method as is used for ambient temperature
tanks (see API 650 Appendix E ) and is described in detail in '2n .F'*"6H equ26.2

Chapter 15. For convenience this is repeated here:

where:
The period of the first liquid sloshing mode is given by:
R tank radius (m)
u
r = t(D)o equ 26.1 n liquid fill height (m)

486 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 26 Seismic design of low tempercture tanks

c.itical D;npjne'
constanr cssbnr comt.nr
I I vr.dry I dr!pr.c.m.d
)'obdble De)lgn
:.rt\qudre (P0F)
biplig, v"ssels, 5!a.ts, eqJio- to ? +--+--,-
'c.6rrarion
_,__+
flusr r4.in elasric
lelded sleel, p.est.essed
concreter rcll relnforced
concfete (only sli9hr c.acking)
Reinforced .o^.rete Hith
conside.able c.acklns
Bolted andlo. .iveted sreel,
{ood st.uctu.er rith nailed

eral Tanir - .onvecrlve {slosh)

- inpulsive

Pltinq, v4iele, sract5, equlp-

ne.t, and ce.laln sttuclures that
Fig ure 26. 1 1 lllustraling the porlions of the response spectru m associated wilh
constanl acceleration, conslant velocity and constant displacement
telded steel, Orert..ssed
conc.ete (rjthout cooplete
I oss or P.strets)i Presr.ess.n
prethess lef! 1.0

0.8
Bolred and/or rivered steel, rood
stfuclu.es rlrh bolred jojnts
$ri nal red joln.s 0.6
Ileial ranks - convective (slosh) 0.5
- rnp! r5lve 4.O 7.0 80
Soil-str0ctu.. iiteraction effectr nor in.1!qe!
DIH

:gufe 26.9 Damping levels appropriate for different componenls Figure 26.12 Figure L-4 from API 620 Appendix L
-.ken fram Table 4.2 from Relercnce 26.1
E Young's modulus of tank shell material (N/m2)
pm density of the tank shell material (kg/m3)
Cr A dimensionless coefficient which depends on
the tank proportions (H/R and VR in consistent
units), the Poisson's ratio of the tank shell ma-
terial and the relative densities of the oroduct
liquid and the shell material (p /p.)
nence:
;
-1
P'
In rhi$ obr. rhe f!.rots (P), v (P) and D (p) ryty ro ie conea r..l.mnD. !,n$d \ dsi!. rd
^
r.nianr dBprrancm p.niotu. esperildy. ofrtrc tl.ssn sp.(nnn.
where:
pw = density ofiresh water (1000k9/m3)
:igure 26.10 Newma* and Halldamping amptificalion factors
pr = density of the product liquid (kg/m3)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) pn = density ofthe tank shell material (kg/m3)

li = 1841 C" = factor taken from Figure 26.13 (also plotted as

Figure 26.14)
using real numbers (D= 65 m and H= 25 m), equation 26.1
gives a period of8.76 seconds, whilstequation 26.3 gives 8.95 It as suggested that for a shell of non-uniform thickness, the av-
seconds which is reassuringly close. The small difference is al- erage thickness is used. The data in Figures 26.13 and 26.14
most certainly due to the manual interpolation of Figure 26.12. assumes a Poisson's ratio of 0.3 for the tank shell material.
Equation '15.2 in Chapter 15, gives means of calculating K ex- The method given in Reference 26.3
actly.
The period ofvibration ofthefirst impulsive tankiiquid horizon-
tal mode is given by:
26.6.2 The horizontal impulsive frequency
_rr =5.61rH n; equ26.4
The method given in References 26.1 and 26.5 Kn ll tr9
The formulae given in these References are essentially the
-./=-
where:
same and take account of the flexibility of the tank itself. The
natural frequency ofthe tank{iquid system, using the terminol- TI product liquid fill height (m)
ogy given in Reference 26.5, is given by: kh period coetficient from figure C2.29 (Figure
{ _ "1
.fF iL
26.15)
equ 26.3
z^n ! pm \ts liquid density (kg/m3)

wnere: E Young's modulus of the tank shell material

(N/m,)
fo = natural frequency (Hz)
It is again suggested that for a shell of non-uniform thickness,
H = liquid fitl heisht (m) the average thickness is used and that the data in Figure 26.15

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 487

26 Seismic design of low tempercture tanks

o28
Frequent @6cient, C-, in expressio! for fthdmertal
Mtdal frequelcy, to, of tels fll wirh wateri v=03,
AIP =0'127
HIR vzt@ ol c.
tlR=00fd5 I JR = 0.N1

0.5 0 050 6 o.t1r9

0.6 00538 0.9763 0.20
0.7 00564 0.079 9
O,E 0 058 ? 0.02 9
0.9 0.060 5 0.065 4
.9
1.0 0.062 0 0.08'/ 5
5
0 064 1
0.065 0
0.090 3
0.0915
I
0.065 1 0.091?

Figure 26.13 Table 1 from Reference 26.5

Height !o radius ratio, H/Rm

Figure 26.15 Figure C2.29frcm Relerence 26.3

andaql ol0.127 (i.e. a steeltank containing water).

These tables give a very limited amount of data when com-

pared with Figure 26.13 and for steel tanks, is confined to a VR
ratio of 0.001 . This makes it quite hard to use in practice. It also
requires adjustment for different product specific gravities in
the same way as C1 in Section 26.6.2.1.
Thus the value of this factor to be used in equation 26.5 in the
place of Cu is:

The method given in Reference 26.3

The period ofvibration ofthe flrst tank-liquid vertical (breathing)
mode is given by:
Figure 26.14 Data from Figure 26.13 extrapolated and plotted
equ 26.6
is based on a tank shell material with a Poisson's ratio of 0.3.

Using real numbers again (D = 65 m, H = 25 m, product liquid

Where the variables are as given in Section 26.6.2 with the ex- 2e
SG = 0.48, shell material density = 8000 kg/m3 and E= 210 x 10e
ceDtion of:
N/m2, average shellthickness = 20 mm) both methods give a ti(
period of0.35 seconds, which is again reassuring and suggests ku = factor taken from figure c2.30 (Figure 26.18)
that they emanate from the same source.
When the same real numbers given above are used, these two
All of these References (26.1, 26.3 and 26.5) provide worked methods give values for this period of 0.32 and 0.30 seconds
examples which are helpful, particularly in sorting out the ap- respectively.
orooriate units.

26.7 Ductility
26,6.3 The vertical barrelling frequency
This is a complex subject about which much has been written.
In this level of analysis it is dealt with in a very simple manner.
The method given in References 26.1 and 26-5 Wozniak and Mitchell in their paper (Reference 26.7) support-
The natural frequency of the axisymmetric breathing mode is ing their proposal for a seismic Appendix to API 650 suggest
grven by: the following:
"The increased hoop tension due to earthquake ground motion
{,YLl: equ 26.5 should be added to the hoop tension due to hydrostatic pres-
z,rn \l pm sure. The hydrodynamic portion (i.e. that part due to the earth-
quake) should be divided by a ductility factor of2.0 for applica-
Where the variables are as given in Section 26.6.2 with the ex- tion in the design at the normal allowable stresses."
ception of:
This method ofanalysis treats ductility in a different way. Forthe
C" = factor taken from table 7 .5 of Reference 26.1 oBE condition the structure must remain elastic and a ductility
(Figure 26.16) or table 4 ot Reference 26.5 factor on 1 .0 is used. For the SSE condition the structure must
(Figure 26.17). remain nearly elastic and ductilityfactors of 1 .2 to 1.3 are usual.
Note: This table is for materials with a Poisson's ratio of 0.3 A factor is calculated using the formulal

488 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

C0EFFICIENT Cv IN EXPRISSIoN FoR FUNDAT4ENTAL FRIQIIENCY 0F events at 5% damping in Figure 26.6 and using the periods cal-
AXISYI'1I,IETR1C, SREATHIN6 I,IODT OF VIBRATI(]N OF TULL TANKS culated above (i.e. horizontal convective = 8.95 sec, horizontal
impulsive = 0.35 sec and vertical barrelling = 0.30 sec) the ba-
sic accelerations can be taken from the graphs, or more accu-
Bending Bending rately calculated from the formulae given.
Sol ution Sol uti on
These accelerations must now be adjusted for the corlect level
of damping, the inclusion of the second horizontal component
!.?0 0.0467 0.052I 0.0787 0.1135
and the influence of ductility.
0.30 0,056/ 0.06 L0 0.09/ 3 0,1250
0.50 0.0705 0.0738 0. t230 0,1414 Figure 26.6 does include a means of adjusting the damping
0,75 0.0808 0.0834 0.1423 0.1564 from the 5% figure provided to othervalues, but in this instance
1.0 0.0868 0,0889 0.1533 0.1650 the more commonly used Newmark and Hall relationships will
1,5 0.0925 0.0950 0.1641 a -r7 26
be adopted (see Figure 26.10).
?.0 0.0949 0.0964 0.r688 0. i/56 The damping values suggested in Figure 26.9 for the OBE and
3.0 0.0969 0,0982 D,TI24 0. l7 70 the SSE for various actions have been adopted. These adiust-
5.0 0.0979 0.0992 0.1/44 0.1775 ments are illustrated in Figure 26.19.

* h/R = 0.001, erlp = 0.127, ! = 0.30

26.9 Product liquid pressures acting on
t h/R = 0,01, o!/o = 0.40, ! ' 0,17
tank shells
:.ure 26-16 Table 7.5 from Reference 26.1 The tank shell is normally designed for the hoop tension result-
ing from either the maximum operating liquid fill height orfor the
Cofrcienl C, in exPrssion hydrostatic test condition as described in Chapter 18. Where
for tundalaental ftequency of the tank is subjected to seismic loadings, the hoop stresses are
aisymmetric. breatbing node increased.
ol vibration of full lanh =
'
0.3, tlR = 0'$1, PtlP =0127 The total hoop tension is made up ofthe following components:
The stress due to the normal operating condition (P")
05 0.ff70 5
The stress due to the horizontal impulsive action (Pi)
075 0.080 8
10 0-086 8
15 o.w5 The stress due to the horizontal convective action (P")
The stress due to the vertical barrelling action (P")
. aJrc 26.11 Table 4lrcm Reference 26 5 These are all the maximum values calculated when the tank is
_,1 equ 26.7
full of product liquid. From Section 26.4, it can be seen that
t^ these actions do not act simulianeously at their maximum cal-
'- -J zlt - ,|
culated values. but give rise to the following two combinations:
. Ps +P +P.+0.3P,
u = ductility faclor (i.e. 25"k is given as 1 .25) . Ps + 0.3(Pi + Pc) + P"
-ris factor is then applied directly to the design accelerations The means of calculating the actual values of these various
:s indicated in the following section. components are taken from Reference 26.7 This refefence
uses US units.
26.8 Calculation of the design accelera- R = 2.6YDG equ 26.8
tions wnere:
-aving calculated the naturalfrequencies ofthe Iiquid-tank sys- P" = hoop tension per inch of shell heightdueto
:em for the horizontal convective, horizontal impulsive and the normal product filling (lb/in)
.ertical barrelling modes, the basic accelerations for each
'rode for both the OBE and the SSE cases can be found from Y = distance from the point on the tank shell under
:re appropriate response spectra. consideration to the liquid surface (ft)
arom the datia given for the horizontal and vertical seismic D = tank diameter (ft)
6 = product liquid specific gravity
For tanks where D/H is greater than 1 333:
rY' -0.51.v''l , .^^Dt
P .4.5A.GDH| -l I tanh 0.5oo equ 26.9
' JH tt-lrl
where:
0r
Pr hoop tension per inch of shell height due to the
horizontal impulsive action (lb/in)
horizontal impulsive design acceleration (g)
see Section 26.8 above
2
TI liquid filling height (ft)
For tanks where D/H is less than 1.333:
Figure 26.18 Figure C2.30ftom Reference 26.3 Y< 0.75D:

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 489

26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

oosign lIod6 Priod Batrc gcond Crilical Dqmping Ductility 0uctillty O..lon
aerSmlc tonzonlEl dafiprn0 adjul|med factor adjultm! Edjustod
EV6nl (c) lclor faclar
faalor s6lgclgd A'B'CD
(%)

Horizontl conv6ctiv6 8S5 0.0028 1.U4 0.5 1.512 1.00 1.000 0,0044
HorizonlEl inpLrlsive 035 0.175 1.U4 1.00 1.000 0.2645
Vertlcel barrsling 030 0.1153 1.000 2.O 1.35i 1.00 1.000

Horizontel convclive 0.0112 1.044 0.5 1.512 1.25 0,816 0.0144

Horizontl impuliive 0.35 0.7500 LU4 '1.000 1.25 0.816 0.63E9
Varlical ba ling 030 0.4610 1.000 5.0 1.m0 1.00 1.000 0.4610

Figure 26.19 Adjustments to the basic acceleraions

Y Y o prEN 14620
P o.sl
-277AGD,[0.75D r 0.75D'
l'z equ 26.10
L
This allows '1.33 times the allowable stress for normaloper-
ation (as Chapter'18) for the OBE case and minimum yield
Y> 0.75D: of the olate or weld metal for the SSE case.

R = 1 .384AiGD'z equ26.11 The required thickness of the tank shell to comply with these
criteriaforthe OBE and SSE casescan becalculated and com-
/HY) pared with that derived from the static normal operation rules.
cosh 3.68
P^ 0.975A-cD/ / ^'
u
equ26.12
As the seismic loadings can be the governing criteria for shell
H\ thickness at different levels, it is necessary to calculate the
cosh 3.68 I I thicknesses required for both the OBE and the SSE cases for
T D,j
each course of the tank shell. This is lengthy and tedious work,
wnere: best carried out by bespoke computer programs or by the use
of spreadsheets.
P" = hoop tension per inch of shell heightduetothe
horizontal convective acceleration (lbi in) It is customary to use the fixed fraction combinations of the
three components for the OBE thickness calculations and the
A" = horizontal convective acceleration (g) souare root ofthe sum ofthe souares forthe SSE thickness cal-
see Section 26.8 above culations. Using the 65 m diametertank adopted as an example
I rr-r-v'l
P" = AP,cos ,r * equ 26.13
earlier, and the accelerations from Figure 26.19, Figure 26.20
shows these calculations. lt can be seen that to accommodate
L \ zn 1)
|

the OBE. courses 4.5 and 6 need to be increased in thickness

where:
P" = hoop tension per inch of shell heightduetothe
vertical barrelling acceleration (lb/in)
A" = vertical barrelling acceleration (g)
see Section 26.8 above
normalto calculatethe hoootension in the tank shell result-
It is
ing from the operating static loadings combined with the most
onerous combinations of the OBE and SSE loadings.
The allowable tensile stress in the tank shell for seismic OBE
and SSE loadings are given in the various tank design Codes.
Briefly these are:
. APt 620
Appendices Q and R suggest that 1.33 times the allowable
stress for "normal" operation may be used. As API 620 does
not consider the seismic events at two different levels, this
allowable stress is usually taken to apply to the OBE case.
Q.3.3.6 does apply the additional criteria of not exceeding
90% of yield stress for tanks of stainless steel and alu-
minium alloy only. The criteria for the "normal" allowable
stress is as described in Chapter 18. As API 620 gives no
criteria for the SSE case, the rule in NFPA 59A is frequently
borrowed. This limits the tensile stress to the minimum
specified yield strength of the plate, or of the weld metal if
this under-matches the plate material.
. BS 7777
In Annex B of part '1, the tensile stress in the OBE case is
limited to 85% of the plate or weld metal minimum yield
strength, and for the SSE case to the yield strength of the
plate or weld metal.
whilst the SSE courses 2,3,4,5 and 6 need to be increased in
thickness.
The distribution of Pi, P", and Pu over the height of the tank are
shown in Figure 26.21. fhe impulsive and vertical barrelling
comoonents are at their maximum value at the bottom of the
tank whilst the convective comoonent is at its maximum value
at the liquid surface. There is a school ofthought that Pu should
be distributed in a Iinear fashion over the tank height. Figure
26.21 shows the more onerous ootions.
The distribution of the impulsive and convective components
around the periphery of the tank shell is a function ofthe cosine
of the angle to the point under consideration whilst the vertical
barrelling pressure is equally distributed around the tank
circumference.
That partofthe seismic moment which acts onthe basearea of
the tank may be required to be evaluated for reasons offounda-
tion design or base insulation compressive loadings. As has
been described in Chapter 15, this moment is the difference be-
tween l\illBP and MEBP The distribution of this moment in
terms of base pressures across the tank bottom is given in Ref-
erence 26.3.
26.10 Tank stability under seismic
loadings
The basic calculation methods used are the same as are used
for ambient tanks and described in Chapter 15. These come
from API 620 AppendixL (Reference 26.6) which is based on
the workofWozniak and Mitchell (Reference 26.4. Appendix L
of API 620 is essentially the same as Appendix E of API 650.
The methods of calculating the impulsive and convective

490 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

TANK SEISMIC DESIGN .SUMMARY OF HOOP LOADINGS

Fixed fraction load combination
Square root of lhe sum of the squares combinalion

OAE LOAD CASE

Design code API 620

A i =l 0.2645 I Kl= 9774,Q28 A{rowabre srress =L9q!!9L

H, Tank ht: ac =[ ooo+l ] K2= 42.944
25.000 & =fo.r55tl D/H = 2.600

P' P. Pa,* P",.. P".., Ts

2 2.700 22.3AA 19471 3352 4830 43 25350 24245 25351 14.83 14.52 13.91 14.52
3 2.700 13.600 17114 3207 4659 45 22740 21732 22770 13.03 '13.04 12.44 13.04
2.704 16.900 14756 297A 4374 4A 20069 19053 20443 11.49 10.91 11.48
5 2.704 14.240 12399 2647 3975 51 17219 16254 17175 9.44 9.86 9.31 S.84
6 2_704 11.500 10041 2249 3r'62 56 14234 13346 14170 8.00 815 7U 8.11
7 2_7AA 8.800 7644 1786 2835 62 11117 10339 11035 8.00 6 37 5.92 6.32
)e1 I 2_7AA 6.'100 5326 '1272 2094 fa 7472 7247 7777 8.00 4.51 4.15 4.45
I 2.744 3.400 2969 721 1239 79 4503 4085 4404 8.00 2 5a 2.U 2.52
10 90

Ph*, = The maximum hoop tension as a rcsult ol the combined masses in lhe horizontat; phnax=ps+pi+pc+0.3pv
:--
P",". = The maximum hoop tnsion as a resuttoflhe cdombined masses tn the vedjcal;
-9
:_ -: P","" - The squarc rcol ot the sum of the squares Ps/ss=Ps+!@-t[7;j
-:-
Ts: Thickness ofsnettdue to hyd.ostatic toadings onty

Th = Thickness otshelldue to maximum hoopiension as a resutt of ho zontalmorion;

T,= Thickness ofshellduelo maximum hoop lension as a resutr of verricai motionj

:_:
:_: T*" = Thicknss ofshelldue to maxrmum hoop tension irom squarc rcot otthe sums sqlaredi

:' TANK SEISMIC DESIGN .SUMMARY OF HOOP LOADINGS

a-= Fixed fiaclion load cambinatlon
Squarc rcol ofthe sum of the sqlares combination
:- SSE LOAD CASE

Design code API 620

Ar =l 0-63E9 | K1 = 23609.174 Allowable stress =l 400.000

:_: Ac=-o.oi K2 = 140.556
_- 25.000 A"=T;36fi--l D/H = 2 600

-: G. Product SG =

2 2.700 22.300 '19471 9919 11667 142 34256 32932 34785 14.83 15.00 14.42 15.23
3 2.700 19.600 17114 9489 '11254 147 31362 30023 31835 13.03 13.73 13.15 13.94
2.700 16.900 '14756 8788 10565 156 28113 26760 28499 11.24 12_31 11.72 12.48
5 2.700 14.200 12399 7834 9602 168 2451A 23163 24792 9.44 14.74 10.14 10.86
6 2.700 11.500 10041 6655 4362 '184 20544 19260 20730 8.00 9.01 8.43 9.08
2.700 8.800 7684 5285 6848 204 16321 15084 16336 8.00 7.15 6.61 7.15
8 2.700 6.100 5326 3763 5058 229 11742 10675 1 1635 8.00 5.14 4.68 5.10
I 2.700 3.400 2969 2133 2993 259 6861 6078 6653 8.00 3.00 2.66 2.91
10 442 1338

Ph,* = The maximum hoop tension as a resu[ o he combined masses in the hodzontat] phnat=ps+pi+pc+0.3pv

P*,"= The maximum hoop tension as a rcsutt ofthe cdombined masses in the vedicat; Ps+ Pv + A.j ei + Pc)

P"* = The square rootoithe sum ofth squares csns=es+1/jF +a +Ej

Ts: Thickness ofshelldue to hydroslatic toadings only

Th = Thickness of shell due to maximum hoop le.sion as a resutr of ho zontat motion;

T" = Thickness ofshelldue to naximum hooptension as a resutt of vedica{motion;

T"* = Thickness ofshsttdue to maimum hoop tension frcn square root ofrhe sums squaredl

: gure 26.20 Spreadsheets showing the calculaiions for siabjtity and axiat compressive toadings

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 491

26 Seismic design of low tempercture tanks
N\
0.8
\
\ ,a
p
.g
t
-o 0.4
0.2
Pressure (1.0 = maximum value)
Figure 26.21 The distribution ofthe ho zontal impulsive, horizontal convective and the vedical barrelling pressures on lhe tank shell
masses and their moment arms, the resistance to overturning
provided by the liquid action on the annular plate, the axialcom-
pressive stresses in the tank shell and the overall stability are
exactly as described in Chapter 15.
One difference is that the calculations are carried out for both
the OBE and the SSE seismic events and for a numberofload-
ing casesfor each event involving the directions [horizontal (H)
and vertical (VI and coexistent proportions (usually 100% and
30%). lt is usualto look at the following for both OBE and SSE:
. 100%H + 30%v
. 100%H - 30%v
. 30%H + 100%V
. 30%H - 100%v
This represents quite a lot of work and is best achieved by the
use of spreadsheets. The means of including the vertical com-
ponent into the calculation is to increase or decrease the den-
sity of the product liquid and the effective weight of the tank
shell. These calculations have been carried out for the 65m di-
ametertankand are shown as Figures 26.22 to 26.26. Notallof
the load cases have been included as it is clearthattheydo not
all play any part in the selection of the tank scantlings.
It is clear from these soreadsheeb that the various OBE load
cases do not change anything other than the annular plate
width, which is increased from the API 620 minimum require-
ments. The dominant load case is the SSE 100% horizontal
plus 30% vertical combination. To achieve a workable solution
for an unanchored tank, the annular plate must be thickened
and made wider, and the lower shell courses be made thicker.
The axial compressive stress criteria adopted in this calculation
has been theAPI 620Appendix Lvalue increased bya factorof
1.33.
As has been mentioned in Chapter 15, the API allowable axial
492 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
-e!
:'f,.
o =P ae,
-:C
:lr'
\ \
\.
\ Pi
Pv \,,
\
\
\
0.4 0.6 1.0
compressive stress is one third ofthe classical buckling stress
for a perfect cylinder When the influence of the internal liquid
pressure is considered, there is clearly room to increase this
stress, especially for extreme load cases like the SSE. NFPA
59A, which is often one ofthe significant design codesfor LNG
tanks, requires the design limit for the SSE case to be "critical"
for buckling.
l\.4uch has been written about allowable buckling stresses in
vertical cylindricalvessels. Before choosing a value for the SS E
condition it would be wise to look at in Figure 18.5, in Chapter
18, (The Royal Aeronautical Society Structural Data sheet).
This takes account of fabrication and erection imperfections
and the influence of internal pressure on axialbuckling strength
of vertical cylindrical vessels.
A similar relationship between these variables is illustrated in
Figure 26.27 taken ftom Reference 26.3. Also the elastic plastic
collapse (elephant's foot buckling) criteria given in this Refer-
ence could usefully be explored. Figure 26.28 shows a tank
which has suffered an eleDhant's foot buckle in the first course.
It may be that in the light ofthese investigations, a factor of 1.33
is found to be conservative figure for SSE buckling. Indeed, BS
7777 in Annex B to part 1 suggests that the same value for al-
lowable compressive stress as is permitted byAPl 620 is used
for the oBE and a vatue oto.+lEllis used for the sSE. This is
\R/
two thirds ofthe "critical" value and is the same as using a factor
of2.0 rather than 1.33.
lf it isdecided thatan anchored design can be adopted, then the
situation becomes easier in certain respects. The axial com-
oressive stresses in the lowercourses ofthe tank shellare con-
siderably reduced, as are the local high line loadings being fed
into the base insulation and thence into the foundation.
As has been discussed in Chapter 15, this is due to the bending
 26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

-eutral axis of the cylinder being maintained in a central posi-
:on, ratherthan being displaced to one side and effectively con-
:entrating the axial compressive portion of the bending load
rto a small Dortion of the shell circumference. In certain cir-
:umstances, perhaps where the site is of restricted area and
:re spacing rules diciate a tank of proportions unhelpful to the
sismic design process (i.e. tall and of a small diameter), then
anchorage is inevitable unless expensive options such as seis-
-ric isolation are adopted. Where either design is a possibility,
:ren a number of other factors come into play:
. Where the tank can withstand the seismic loadings without
increasing the tank shellthickness, the only increased cost
ofthe unanchored alternative being an increase in annular
plate width and thickness, then it is usualto choose the un-
anchored alternative.
. When significant increases in shell thicknesses are re-
quired to make the unanchored alternative viable, then an
economic assessment will help to make the decision, un-
tess:
- The owner, or his engineer have strong views regarding
the use of anchors. These usually relate to the non-de-
sirability of attaching anchors to an already highly-
stressed part ofthe tank shell. The anchors may require
to be substantial and will need to be attached to the low-
est shell course where the hoop and vertical bending
stresses are high during the defining seismic event. i.e.
when the tank is full of product liquid. The addition of
large localstresses into this area is seen by manyas en-
hancing the risk of tank failure under seismic loading
conditions.
26.11 Tank sliding
As has been mentioned earlierin Chapter 15, there are differing
views held by those with seismic design wisdom on the need to
prevent tanks from moving horizontally during seismic events.
One school ofthought, which probably represents the majority
view and certainly has determined the Code requirements on
the subject, requires there to be no movement during the most
onerous seismic design event. The second school of thought
considers the horizontal seismic desagn event to be a sefies of
rapid reversals as is illustrated in Figure 26.1 with the input en-
ergy equally distributed around the zero acceleration axis. Con-
sequently the tank shuffles around on the spot and any lateral
displacemenb are small. This shuffling about is considered a
useful and harmless way for the system to increase damping
and dissipate the input energy.

Seishic Design of Storooe Tonlc Seismic Desiqn of Storoqe Torks

!!q 65m dio x 27ln high LNr tonk Mg 65n did x27n high LN6 tonk
Led @s. OB 100% horizodol+ 30% vedi@l Ldd .ose OBE 100% horizoni.l - 30% ve.ticol

*zon c.efticient -l
z.fl--o.+loo 'Zo^z c.ztticient
Essntidl Fociliti.s fodor r.[--iE--l i<entidl Focilitier f octor
weighi of l@k shell. insulotion Tsoa- Weighl of rank shell+ insuldtion W,= 1021577 l') T?rn
Roof l@d c.frled by 5hll
Height oJ tdnr shell Hr= 88-58 ft
r-nrl
?r.oo
|- I
Roof led cd.ied by shell
Height of tonk shell
w.= O lb
HJ. 88.58 fr
T-rl
t ,?.@-l
uid 'fork Dionete. D= 213-25 fr f6;_oo I Tdnk Diohetef D: 213.25 lt l-6l-00
his Produ.t specif ic 6.dvity 6.fi---5024 -l P.odlct specif i. Gravit 6=f-nE6-l
I

IPA H= 42,02 ft frj.oo I H. A2.OZ tt

liloxihuh liquid level Moxilnln liquid level frjoo I
\iG rhickne3 of firsr course 0,657 in Tl-.io I Thi.kn$ of first colrte t= 0.657 in fto.?o l
T1lkkness of 6d!ld.s pldte3 0.1rc9 in T-ioE-] Thicknels of onnsldrs Plotes 'rb' 0.409 ir frcro l
Yield sfEngth of onNldrJ Yield strengih of dnnulo.s
l in yieid of 1st.ourse l ii yield of 15i @u.se
tn Forc @efficient Force coeffi.i.ht
Sate Atnplif i@tloh f oclof
SE Site Anplif i.otion f octor
ter W.i9hl of tdnk .orterrs Wight of tonk conints W,. 37961434.83 k9

lm
= z 6ot)
D/H
= 2.600
: 0,613k
D/H
k. 0613
'r= kool = 8.958
ln c?= 3-375 3/12. 0.0166
r. koo5). 8.958
c2.3.375 S/t2 - 00166
bc Wtlwt- 0:4344 wl= 39914438.12 O 4344
Wzlwt. 0.5309 Wz= 44742749-44 Wr/W'= W1= 36355188.86
'tk x/H: 0.3750 Xr. 30.76 W?/q. 0.5309 Wz- 44432695.35
xz/H- 0.5693 Xz- 46.69 X1/H. O.37aO X1 = 30.76
iLn.nr (EBP) lb-fr : 334rt99504.9 xz/H - 0.5693 x, . 46.69
P.oduct weight wL = 6053.70 lblfi
l enent (E8P) lb-ft = 322887096.9
'J Productweight WL=
S Min ridth of onnu,or = 4925 ft -
5777.49 tb/tt
F sloshing mve height d= 0.656 lt Mii widih.f dnrulor 4.28
GHD,/1, . 4335010 sloshihg wove heighi d. 0.656 fr
d shelllii lood GHD,/t,
M/ID1WJ+ W!) : I.0O9 5helllihe lood Wi. 1524.85

iEX loi9 @lnp force b- l$47.O1 M/tD1%* w,) . 0.972

longiiudiml cohp strss l4al.29 nBx bng .ohP rorce b: 10388.93
tf 't316.76
oll.wable conp shs F.. 3083.11 longitudiml comp stress
che.k stresses : Ok allowoble cohp stfess F". 3083.11
check stobjliiy : Ok ch.ck dr6se5 : Ok
3
check stdbilily ' ol

l.!ote: ZlCi A\and ZIC2. A. Note: ZTcFAno d ZIcz=A.

,{nnriL. plate thick|l6i fron,lPI620 rabl. Q-4A ploi thi.kh.$ from API620 Tabl Q 4A
l ^n.!lo.

Figure 26.22 Spreadsheet calculations for stability and axial compressive Figure 26.23 Spreadsheet calculations forstability and axial compressive
|oaorngs rcaorngs

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 493

26 Seismic design of low tempenture tanks

Scienic Dcsion of Slorooc lanks

s.ishic Desion of Storooe Tqnk API 620 oppendix L
rPl650 oppcndix

!!t 65n dio x 27n high !| ronk !S9- 65n dio x 27|n nigh LNG tonl

l4s!L!s$ sse rco% ho.itontdl * 30U wrt 6l L.od c.t sSE I0o% horieitdl- 3o%v.tti6l

'Zoe .oetficiqt 'ZotE ..ettiei'n z=[---iG-l

B34tiol F4ilti* fdri4 .!rtiol F.cilhi.s f dctor r = f---i-oo--l
W.ight of td|( 3h.ll. i@krion Weight of tonl sh.ll+ in3rhiion fu'-s3l
Roof l@d 6ried by shell Roof l@d .drri.d by shcll
t1: 88.58 t
f!"0 I
H.jght of t@k sh.ll
ldk Dio|n.i4 0. ?13.25 ft
Height of tdnk lhell F ,r"oo I
Tonl Diomeler D= zB.e5 ft frr-06-1
Prod@t Sp4'fi. 6mttt 6 =[-i.-6d.l Produ.r s?cific orovit a [-o.-ii:?-l
MqiNn liquid l.vel l1= 4232 ft t ,5,@ l"' =

,5'o
Thi.lB of fhst .dE f ezoo l* l^.rihuln liquid l.vel H: 42.02 ft T 1
_rhickn
Thi.l6*s of @nuhB pldtd T ro.oo l.'" $ of fa.sr cou.s. |z16-l
Yi.ld siretdn of omhrs r,,.f-J5@-*ltuzin' ThicloBs of .irEh.s pldta f-63o-l
l in yi.ld of 13t @urs. rn = l--ffi--lturin' Yield srreryth of orrul@s Fq.f--ffi-lturin'
FoE e.fficidt l^in yield of lsi cours? r,".|--ffi-.]tuuin'
sir. I nplifi..rion fodd "'=|"-_-l
s.l 1.0o I For.e coefficient =f-o;-l
c'
site Arnplif icotion fdctor s:l r.@ I
W.irhl ot ronk @nr.ii3
Weight of tonk contnis wl: 3112963719

- 2.600
0/H
, = 0.613
T.k(Dd5). a.95a 6/H= ?.600
C2: 3.375 s/T? : 0.0135
I : 0.613
wl/Wi. 0.4344 wt= 44O7f444.59 T. k(Dot) = 8.956
W,/W'. 0-5309 W,.53870759,14 c2 :3.375 s/.'2. 0.0135
Xt/ta= O3IAJ Xr = 30.76 wy'W.= 0.4344 Wt. 32459497.b?
x,/H: 0,5693 X2= 46.69 wrl4. 0.5309 W,: {01503?0.8
l.ndt (ESt) lb-fi = 937391231 X,/H : 0.3750 X, = 30.7b
Product rejghr wL. 1212996 lb/ft X/H: 0.5693 X, = 46.69
l{in width of omkr : 73U lt iLn r$ G8P) lb-fr : 6984?51Y.4
5l6hin9 ME h.ignr d= 1-?91 ft P.oduci ri9hi wt= 9o42.al lb/L
6H6"F . 1331396
sh.ll liE load . M46.72 lbltt l in wadrh of .nelqr = 7.304 f+
d-
Wt
Sloshiis *6ve heighi 1.291 tr
. 7.475
^.!/lo'(wi*wJ
M lo'g .olnp fft. 6 : 797A2.A6 l6/lt 6Hb'/{ . t36a295
r4itudjel @nP 5116 6254.5a lb/inz shelllihe lodd wl: 1378.39 lb/ft
otkMbl coinp iifd F,. 49A4.68 lb/i.z l 4D'z(wi* wD = 1 475
|mx loig conp for@ b = 59472.33 lh/tr
chck !i..sg dlebl. conP.6iv. !tr4 sceed.d
= Wornhg longiiudiml .onp s+fss 4662.34 lb/i,J
olloftbL @hPte$iv. st,B O(
Enhohc.d .lloebr. comp dr63 F,= 49W.6a lb/i^z
-
chal srohili'y ol' check sire$e. : Ol
zIq+\atdzrc2=A. (mlu.s of z did c,.djGr.d r. suir) chak ndbility : Ok
amslor lhte rhicktEs iMr@.d to lllow d tukhor.d $iurroh
Eotros shll couE. 6lso ind.@d to ollow oh uMchorsd $lution N.ie ZIc'=iiand 2TCr:,t" 1o erit)
(wiues of Z 6nd C, adjusted
Othc. low *ell cdr36 tjll rcquir. chcli'g fof 4Pr6ive str4 dd 5ow lnruld. pldle thickrcss inc@!d to dllo{ uekhored solution
on
Sottoh colrse sh.ll plot. thickns. incM!.d fo dlloa oi un nchor.d sorution
(e. Figta 26-24)

ap|.""O"n""t calculations for stability and axial compressive Figure 26.25 Spreadsheet calculations for stability and axial compressive
lJSOrffi.rO toaotngs

using the materials and finishes proposed. Small-scale testing rc

The calculations are simple and are shown in Figure 26.29 for
the 65 m diametertank. The direction ofthe verticalcomponent
is taken to give the minimum effective self-weight and conse-
quently the minimum horizontal restraint.
The maximum value of the required coefficient of friction be-
tween the tank and the underlying base is calculated, for the
SSE case with the verticalcomponent in the unhelpfuldirection,
as 0.3478 in this case. For mnventional LNG tanks, the inner
tr
must be carried out with care by those experienced with this
type of work. The apparently simple small scale friction tests
f
can be misleading. There is some published data available and
one such source is Reference 26.8.
The various design Codes give some limited guidance in this
. API 620 Appendix L This suggests the use of a coefficient ta

of friction of 0.40. B
tank bottom will be constructed of9% nickelsteeland the base
insulation willmost usuallybe capped with a concrete screed or .
t
BS 7777 This gives no advice regarding this matter.
similar lt is this interface that predominantly concerns the de- n
signer, although it is worth considering the possibility of there o prEN 14620 This gives the following mandatory (i.e. shall
being another interface within the base insulation "sandwich" rather than should) requiremenb n
which may be the more likely slip plane. This is not usually the n
case. Assuming the 9% nickel steeliconcrete screed situation
- Horizontal sliding ofthe tank shall not be allowed
in this case, the efiective ooefficient of friction can vary widely - Friction factors shall be based on literature ortesting I
depending on the surfacefinishes ofthe steeland the concrete.
- For the OBE case a factor of safety of 1.5 shall beap-
The steel can be supplied untreated, shot-blasted or shot-
olied
blasted and primed. The concrete screed can be supplied with
a wide variation of compositions and finishes. Proprietary mate- - Far the SSE case a factor of safety of 1.0 shall beap-
rialssuch as are often used onfactoryfloors and concretewalk- plied
ways can be used to increase the coefficient of friction. I
The resistance-to-sliding throughfriction between the tank bot-
The best source offriction datia is derived from laboratorytests tom plating and whatever lies beneath will impose significant I

494 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

XE Seisnic besion of Storooe Tar*s

EL 66h dia x 27n high L|.l6 tdnk
l,.d .@ SSE 301 hod:ontal + $0n varicdl

rzor..o.tfi.i!nt z=[-o.orE
*l
ilr" rtrtidl F@iliris f.dor r=[--i]ii-l
W.i+t of iq.k 3h.lllin{ldrion &= 1238549 rb | lflr 1

-Jr" Roof lo.d.dried hy!hll f-0.i-l

lJ' Holgnt ot tok4.ll | 27.00 |
lJh TokOl6etcf D: 2F-45 ft f6r.oo I
Prodlcr Sp.cltic 6.dviy o.[-i]EEiil
Mdxinub liqlid l.!.1 H: 42.02 fi Ta5.oo I
l'' Thickn.# of fir.t .oqrr.
Thickn.s of d.ular pldr.r
Yalld rtrcngth of dnnuldH r',=l---5i6-o_lruzi"'
rirzii-l
T ,oJo I
fiin yi.ld of l.r couB. Fo
=f-166-d--lttri"'
Forc. co.ffi.iqt c,=f o.o--l
5it. Anplif icarioi f @r.r s:l 1.00 |

W.igl'r of rdk.6ir.nr.

D/H: 2.600
k= 0 613 Figure 26.27 Figure C4.5lrom Reference 26.3
T= ktDo6) = a.958
C2= 3.375 Sff2. O!:o41
WtIWr= 04344 Wt:440774aa.59
WrlW1: 0,5309 Wr= $47O75t14
x/l: 0.3750 x= 30.76
X?Al: 0-5693 Xz= 46,69
l 6at (EBF) lb-ti = 27361536!.3
PFodu.r w.ighr WL= 1?12956 l6/tr
Min odth of qnnula : 7.304 fi
slhingMw highr d: O.ll7 ll
a\bz/rz : 1831396
sh.ll litr. load Wr = t84A.72 lb/lr
M/tD1W'tw.) . o43o
nd hn9 .ohP f.r.. b = 94f,7-9o lb/I1
longitudind conp.rr.s 74537 lb/it'
.lloeble conp dr.# F. = 49t4.68 lb,li?
chak.t..#ee = Ok
ch.ckltability: Ok

ACiArad4cz=A\ {vdlue of zod c, adjBred to surr

Annuld Phterhi.kn # in+.c.d 16 i{ir rcO%H+30AVcG (i..li9 26.24)

=igure 26.26 Sp.eadsheet calculalions fof stabilily and axial compressive

odrngs

ing loadingson the bottom as a membrane. The loadings which are

N|s the cause ofthe sliding are acting on the tank walls and the re-
sistance to this are acting on the iank bottom. Consequently
no there is a need to transfer the loading from the bottom to the
wall. For reasons which are not entirely obvious, the industry
lrs
has largely turned a blind eye to this aspect ofthe seismic de-
sign. lf this scenado is to be taken sedously, it could result in in-
creases in the bottom plating joint factor (i.e. from single-sided
nt lap welds to double-sided lap welds or buttwelds), increases in Figure 26.28 Alank whjch has suffsred an elephant's fool buckle in the tirct
the bottom plate thickness or changes to both joint factor and
thickness.
down systems were even more relevant. This option, despite
lfthe requirements for sliding resistance cannot be met and the being cheaperthan the eventually chosen seismic isolation ar-
argument that sliding does not matter are not accepted, then rangement, was rejected for reasons associated with the per-
the designer has no option butto provide some form ofphysical ceived increased risk of failure due to stress concentrations in
restraint or to change the tank geometry The design of a sys- the lower tank shell. lf there are particular constraints which
tem to provide physical horizontal restraint to a large tank is prevent either of these courses of action being appropriate or
both difficult and problematical. possible, then the next steps are relocation of the facility or
seismic isolation.
An early design forthe 65,000 m3 LNG tanks at Revithoussa ls-
land in Greece had a system of inclined seismic anchorsforthis
purpose. These are illustrated in Figure 26.30. The anchor
26.12 Liquid sloshing
straps were large (some 300mm x 25mm in section) and gave
rise to serious congestion in the bottom corner ofthe tank. The This is discussed in Chapte|l5, Section 15.2.7. The basic Apl
loads transferred to the tank shell were massive and the argu- formula for calculating the slosh height is given in equation
ments which have been used agalnstthe use of simple holding- 15.27. There is a suspicion thatthisformula may not be correct.

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 495

p
2 6 s ei
]!f39:p!!! j!!!!9E!Ep!t

Inc_rsd-di(a|a
W
ho|tl tt'" cclier 6ladrtilm5 thc 6lbr'1l|g psk grod dccetariicrs d[I b. ur.d r. d"rrfriE
if tl'. i||'s td* is sbirct t6 taizurtol stdiB due ro s.irric fr.c.i

o!!E 55E
,tccbnrion of itqdd!. .o{pqsr,
",=f.:,645-1 f o.e:r, 1

/tcclrlti)|| of 6aE in:coi?orE r'. q..r3ffi-l rT:6m-l

,t...lel!tia of raridl coi?aEr, .,=r-T:iE-l f-6r6o I

TIle dio4.|n sl|ors d'. drsfim of dcftE fof.es;

@Cdr|lcti{dcc

*E- lqdicft?cc

.@
hortzortrlslidiq t'I
slf |.dgkr

W
ll'a folbaing l.3ds nrrst S oo.6id.rc4

o 5.F r"&||l of tu* dE[, niffas! drd 6rry aiidch.j in$hticr W : f:G6]r.
b E tecti tr6 of tutt c.frbs rhich nlows iI l,|is.ri rith rE k C*ll is irqrli\*; Y,r: fEzlr.
c Ef6".ti!" tl6otftikdrdlnt3di.fi ne!s in t E fst slo*iT hode i.c-.rn crirc %: fiiifiIlr.
&srn'c td* s?F r.iglt Fc*.rr&ds tipubw liquid

Thre 3".isric eE|rs dbfi bc cordd:rc,*

I Horizlrdrl sisnic ont

2 "!'t|rt
lhrizontdl + O-3 V"rli.al sieric ?Etrt
3 o'3 lhri:ontal + V.rtiool s.isfc ?srt
irors Dirr.tiofi df l.rlic.l ac.dadi|n is idl(.,' to educc ff..tiE slidh9 rt*rdi.c

Figure 26.29 Sliding calculations - pag6 I

496. STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks

m 3.1 OOE das.

r+: oYrrytq . (w'q,

4: 4:n 5-OO T.
T6id .tf,lctiri sdf rdghr. S'Wi YrW,rW?
5Ir: t69ta@ TG

R!+irdcocffid.nrof fti.t.\ i= jL . O-t?re,

SI'

3,2 sSE CG
lhi.(rrhl frtr.G, t+= (y . yiq + (g?)q.

f+! rtg-17 L
Totd dnlciiF.dfndgftt, Sl{: t' + yr. y,
SAr: 3AIa.lD Tc

F.{itd *fftdarot frLrhr. t* = o-gf

ff

%aant.
/t.f OBE d@
lhdzrrrd ft.c., l*= (W*Ur)c * (Vtq.

+: ,r7 .q) Tc

Tordcft rliE.dt $rhr SW: tW. Vr + W.) - O.3atU + Ur . W.)

-O.3 tdtid -{* er,
5Y: 37@a97 f.
r.4*ld.ocffi.irrt.ffii.tbq rt : O.ta,3
fl

4.2 SSE Cca

!t: (v.woq + (w!)q

l|f: tt66-ry Jc

Tstd .ff.clir! rdf r4tr su. (W r g ' lyr - o,3o.(V + ry1, W,

- Oi tr.rfi.d *-*rr,
Stit: 33535,64 T.
E S.!d .o.ffi.-riof 6icrbr. |lt= _!L : O-:ifrt
fl

Frgure 26.29 Sliding calculations - page 2

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 497

26 Seismie design of low tempenturc tanks

Fgcrh
5.1 OBE f@
o3lr,rard fq!.. lt= or'[*'t1". ft;* ]
+: 143E8O TG

Totdcff*li*rdf righr, S[tr (V r lttr . vr) - * {rry,rv!)

- V.rnid aidsckt
ff: 3?45{.54 TG

Rlqild.o.fftd.'t|ot ftidn , 4 : O-Oa3a

F
5.2 SsE Cot

o.3lci',id fd!.. rlr: *'fo-*,1.,. (r * ]

llr = 3,1t9.34 T.

Taid.f6EiiEdf dgft!. slt: (ly. Wr + r, -.r (I+w|tlrt

- trrlird ..*ric .{t|t
54.! 20976,80 T.

Fleftd @ctfi.i''taf ticfdt. 6! = }t . o-165t?

5v

Figure 26.29 Sliding calculations - page 3

498 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks

It does seem to give similarslosh heights fortankswith verydif-

ferent geometries. For this reason it is probably wise to check
the value given by equation 15.27 using the following:
d=0.837xRx,\ equ26.'14

wnere
AASE
INSJLATId'l R = tank Edius
A = design convective acceleration (g)
MNCRETg This is taken from Reference 26.1.
BASE 5LA8
It is generally accepted thatseismic calculations should be car-
ried out based on the normal maximum tank filling level and not
the very maximum under excursion conditions, (i.e. HHLA
level).

26.13 Seismic isolation

By placing the tank on seismic isolators, it is possible to reduce
the horizontal seismic loadings which act on the tank and its
contents. These isolators do little or nothing about the vertical
component of the seismic loading which is passed to the tank
undiminished.
The arguments for and against the use of seismic isolation in-
volve a mixture of cost and safety considerations which are
briefly reviewed as follows:
For seismic isolation:
. The facility can be constructed on the desired site
. Large local loads on the tank shell due to holding-down
straos or lateral restraint are avoided
. Savings to the inner shell due to thinner shell and thin-
ner/narrower annular olate are Dossible
. Loadings on the foundation, especially the high peripheral
line loads, are reduced
PAO
. Sliding problems are reduced
Against seismic isolation:
. Costs ofthe second base slab are high
. Seismic isolator units are expensive
. Construction programme is extended
. Large horizontal movements may cause problems with the
design of the connected pipework
There are a number ofdifferent types of seismic isolator avail
able, illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 26.31. These in-
clude the conventional steel/rubber sandwich type of isolator
similarto those used to isolate vibrating machinery the conven-
tional steel/rubber sandwich type with an energy absorbing
lead core and the friction pendulum type. The latter two are pro-
prietary designs which are marketed by the companies which
own the various patent rights.
ANCHORAGE
INTO BASE A photograph of a friction pendulum isolator is shown in Figure
SLAB --__\ 2632. fhe relative merits of the different types of isolator is a
complex and contentious area involving such subjecb as:
. Cost
. Efficiency in reducing the horizonbl seismic loadings
. Resistiance to property changes due to ageing
. Virgin cycle problems
. Vertical load bearing ability (dichtes the number required)
lf it is decided that the isolators willnot require reDlacementdur-
ing their service life, the upper and lower base slabs may be
constructed with a small space between them. lf it is decided
Figlre 26.30 A proposed system ofseismic restraint using inclined anchors that the isolators should be capable of being inspected, and if

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 499

26 Seismic design of low temperature tanks

Figure 26.32 Afriction pendulum lsolator

Couiesv af Eanhquake Protecliot Systems /nc

The calculations involved surrounding the influence of a partic-

ular type of isolation system on the design horizontal seismic
design event (i.e. the reduction caused by the isolators to the
site design criteria to provide the tank design criteria) are com-
plex and should be left to specialists with the necessary
expenrse.

26.'14 The design Codes

^____l Much of what the tank design Codes have to say on the subject
of the seismic design of low temperature tanks has been in-
cluded in the relevant Sections eadier in this Chapter.
For LNG storage facilities in particular, a number of the basic
principles, in addition to the definition of the OBE and the SSE
(see Section 26.2) come from NFPA 59 A and these are per-
haps worth repeating as they relate to the tanks:
. The LNG container and its impounding system shall be de-
signedto remain operable during and afreran OBE. The de-
sign shall provide for no loss of containment capabilityofthe
(M.s.)
primary container, and it shall be possible to isolate and
maintain the LNG container during and after the SSE'

:
::

Lead Core
Steel Load Plates
Steel Reinforcing Plates
Internal Rubber Layers

Figure 26.31 Different types ofselsmic isolation units

required, replaced during theirservice life, then the space must

be large enough to allow personnel to enter and room for the
various activities to take place. This will require a gap ot some
2.0 m.

Two of the better known examples of seismic isolation of large

low temperature tanks are to be found in the numerous conven-
tional and membrane type of LNG tanks of 100'000 m3 capacity
constructed at Inchon and Pyeong Taek for KOGAS in South
Korea and the two 65,OOO m3 LNG tanks constructed for DEPA
in Greece. The former used conventional steel/rubber sand-
wich isolators and the latter the friction pendulum type'

The Greekexample is perhapsthe most sophisticated, and cer-

tainly the most expensive example. Each tank required some
216isolation units, each costing around $10,000 each There
is more to be found regarding the design and construction of
this facility in References 26.9 and 26.10. The layout of the a typical LNG tank
Flgure 26.33 Layout of seismic isolatorsfor
seismic isolators is shown in Figure 26.33

5OO STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT


' ihe impounding system shall, as a minimum, be designed
:c withstand an SSE while empty and an OBE whilefull. Af-
:eran OBE oran SSE there shallbe no loss ofcontainment
:apability.
. An LNG contiainer shall be designed for an OBE, and a
stress-limit check shall be madeforthe SSE to ensure com-
cliance with above. OBE and SSE analyses shall include
Jre effect oi liquid pressure on buckling stability. Stresses
ior the OBE shall be in accordance with the rules given in
API 620 and forthe SSE, tension shall not exceed the mate-
rial minimum yield strength, and for compression the critical
buckling stress (this is forthe metallic components, different
rules are Drovided for Dre-stressed and reinforced concrete
oarts).
S"N:
: :-E -rind these rules lie two simple but slightly contradictory con-
=r-
t5a-' . The impounding system is normally empty and must of
course be designed to resist the SSE in this condition. The
SSE may cause the innertank to leak, filling the impounding
system. The aftershocks ofthe originalSSE are assumed to
be at the OBE magnitude and the impounding system must
:f*: resist these whilst full.
. 6'1-95.
The primary containment is designed to continue to operate
as normal during and following an OBE and to maintain its
)5{ liquid containmentfunction during and following an SSE, al-
though this event may cause the primary containment dam-
:g- age which may require its subsequent repair or
reconstruction.
-:.le provisional European code prEN 14620 makes reference
:-- :tr other European codes as would be expected for the seismic
.:E
:esign of low temperature storage ianks. These are ENV
'998-1-1:1996 (Reference 26.11) and ENV 1998-4 :1999 (Ref-
=rence 26.12\
26.15 Gonclusion
The foregoing outlines a calculation method of modest com-
rlexityto justify the design ofa vertical cylindrical metallic liquid
:ontaining inner tank. lt is clearly possible to carry out a much
'nore rigorous and sophisticated analysis of this component.
\othing has been said about the seismic design of the outer
usually pre-stressed concrete) outer tanks or impoundments.
This is again the province ofthose armed with the appropriate
:ools and expertise. The design of roof-mounted equipment
?nnot meaningfully commence until the outer tank designers
26 Seismic design of low temperaturc tanks
have evaluated the influence of the outer tank itself on the de-
sign seismic criteria (usually a subsbntial enhancement).
26.16 References
26.1 Guidelines forthe sebmic design of oil and gas pipeline
systems, Chapter 7 - Seismlc response and design of
liquid storage tanks. Committee on Gas, Liquid fuel life-
lines, American Society of Civil Engineers, November
1984, ISBN 087262428 s5.
26.2 Above Ground Storage larks by Philip E. Myers,
Mccraw Hill, ISBN 007 044272 X.
26.3 Seismlc des/gn of storage tanks, Recommendations of
a Study Group of the New Zealand National Society for
Earthquake Engineering, December 1 986.
26.4 USAEC Regulatory guide 1.60 - Revision 1, December
1973, Design Response Spectra for Seismic Design of
Nuclear Power Plants, the U.S. Atomic Energy Com-
mtsston.
26.5 Se,'smlc Des,gn Rules for Flat Boftom CylindricalLiquid
Storage Tanks, N.J.l.Adams. The International Journal
of Pressure Vessels and Piping, lssue no. 49 (1992) pp
26.6 API Standard 620 - Design and Construction of Large,
Welded, Low-Pressure Storage lanks, Appendix L,
Tenth edition, February 2002.
26.7 Basls of selsmic design provisions for welded steel oil
storage tanks, R.S.Wozniak and W.W.Mitchell.
26.8 Nippon Kokran technical repod Overseas No. 42,
1984.
26.9 Seismiciso/ation of LNG tanks,Bob Long, LNG Journal,
Jan/Feb 1997.
26.10 Seismlc lso/ation of industrial tanks, Victor Zayas and
Stanley Low of Earthquake Protection Systems, pre-
sented to the American Society of Civil Engineers, Pro-
ceedings of the Structures conference, April 1996,
Chicago.
26.11 ENV 1998-1-1: 1996. Eurocode I- Design provisions
for eafthquake resistance of structures - Part 1-1: Gen-
eral rules- Seismic action and generalrequirementsfor
slrucrures.
26.12 ENV 1998-4:1999. Eurocode 8- Design provisions for
earthquake reslsfance of structures - Paft 4: Silos,
tanks and pipelines.
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 501
502 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
27 Miscellaneous storage systems
Miscellaneous storage systems such as gasholders, silos and elevated tanks, although
peripheral to the main thrust of Storage Tanks & Equipmenf, are of interest for a number of
reasons.
Gasholders have a long and interesting history and have been constructed in substantial
capacities for a surprisingly long time.
Silos face a variety of new problems arising from the properties of the products stored and
elevated tanks are very much a part of our landscape.

Contents:
27.1 Gasholders
27.1.1 Wet seal gasholders
27.1.2 Dry seal gasholders
27.2 Silos
27.2.'l Materials of constuction
27.2.2 Silo shapes
27.2.3 Product removal
27.2.4 Silo design
27.2.5 Codes and design guidance
27.3 Elevated tanks
27.4 References

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 503

27 Miscellaneous storage systems

27.1 Gasholders
Gasholders are probably the most visible large tanks, espe-
cially around the UK. Stemming in the main from the days when
most towns ofany size possessed theirown gas works, the spi-
ral-guided wet seal types are still a common site, often withjn
the built up areas of towns. The dry seal types of gasholder are
often associated with industrial plant such as steelworks and
are more often sited in industrial areas, but are highly visible
due to their height.
Although Sforage Tanks & Equipmenf is directed mainly to-
wards liquid storage systems, it is interesting to look at
gasholders which in many instances led the way in the design
and construction of large storage tanks.
Little seemsto have been written about gasholders bycompari-
son with their liquid storing companions. What is available is
somewhat dated, so that the brief descriptions which follow Figure 27.1 Askeich ofan exiernallyJramed wei seal gasholder
may not reflect current practices accurately, for which the au-
thor apolog ises. lt is interesting that in the introduction to Refer-
ence 27.1, the afihor l\,4r R.J.Milbourne observes "At the pres-
ent time (1923), when the attention of the gas industry the
Institution of Gas Engineers, and the Board of Education is be-
ing so wisely directed to the education and technical training of
young men forthe Gas Engineering profession, it is a matterfor
regret that the publications obtainable on Gasholder Design
and Construction are neither numerous nor exhaustive.".
There do not appear to be any Standards or codes of practice
covering the design and construction of gasholders.
There is a document published by the lnstitution of cas Engi-
neers (Reference 27.2) which covers the design of both wet
and dry seal gasholders in a very general manner. The main
thrust of this document seems to be the safe operation and
maintenance ofthese structures. NeveTtheless, it does contain
a lot of useful information, some of which is repeated below
A quite detailed description of the design of spirally-guided
gasholders by M.A.Thompson has also come to light (refer Figure 27.2 Asketch of a spiral-guided wet seal gasholder
ence 27.3), so ifthere is a resurgence ofinterest in this subject, or lifts are supported against lateral loads and guided by a sub-
then we will at least have something to refer to, albeit rather stantialframework. An example is shown schematically in Fig-
dated. ure 27.1. The first is where the external guide framing is equal
Thanks must go to Mr Peter Hutchinson who has also provided to the full height of the top of the top lift when the holder is fully
a lot of what follows. inflated. The second is where the guide framing is shorter al-
lowing the top lift to protrude above itwhen fully inflated, and the
27.1.1 Wet seal gasholders third type having no externalframing at all. This latter type is the
spiral-guided gas holder which is most familiar to us today. The
l\,4ost ofthis Section is abstracted from Reference 27 i .fhis pa-
spiraltype is shown schematically in Figure 27.2 and a photo-
graph of such a holder is shown in Figure 27.3.
per is a compilation of a series of articles which appeared in
1922, written by Mr R.J. lvlilbourne, managing director of C & W The reasons for such large capacities may lie in a combination
Walker Ltd, describing various aspects of the design and con-
struction of a 12.5 million cubic feet capacity gasholders in Syd-
ney, Australia.
Thjs type of gasholders seems to have been made in large ca-
pacities for a long time. In 1880 the world's largest holder was
recorded at 5.5 million cubic feet (155,700 m3). In 1887 two
holders of6.25 million cubicfeet (172,100 ms)were built in Bir-
mingham and in 1888 a holder of 8.5 million cubic feet (249,700
m3) capacity was constructed at East Greenwich. In 1892 a
six-lift holder of 12 million cubic feet (339,800 m3) was built. For
some years this was the world's b;ggest gasholder until it was
overtaken by two in the USA, each of 14 million cubic feet
(396,400 m3) capacity.
Bearing in mind the fact that we currently consider a crude oil
tank big at 100,000 m3 and large LNG tanks are being consid-
ered at 200.000 m3, these are massive structures and one can
only admire the nerve of the designers and erectors of such
holders.
Three types of wet seal gasholders are described. The first two
arethe externally-framed typeswhere the various moving parts Flgure 27.3 A spiral-guided wet sealgasholder

504 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 27 Miscellaneous storage sysfems

g
!H
-7
2,
l6
,2
.,
il
OE.TAILS OF CUF CARRIAGES PLAN Of. ]OP CARR1ACES
OIJ}ER LIFT

: !ure 27.4 Some detail ol ihe 12.5 million ft3 wet seal gasholder

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 505

27 Miscellaneous storage systems

of the economies of scale together with the presumption at the
time that to ensure economical working of the facility, the stor-
age capacity provjded should equal the daily output of the
gas-making plant.
The 12.5 million cubic foot capacity holder described in Refer-
ence 27.1, was ordered in 1913 by the Australian Light Gas
Company, of Sydney, NSW, from Messrs. C & W Walker Ltd,
Nilidland lron Works of Donnington, near Newport, Shropshire,
UK. All ofthe steelwork was fabricated in the Donnington works
with the first shipment leaving in September 1913 and the last in
December 1915.
The excuse for this lengthy fabrication period is attributed to
problems associated with the enlistment of workmen, the diffi-
culties of transport and the prior claims of the N4inistry of Niluni-
tions and the Admiraltyfor the manufacture of munitions of war.
In March '1917, the holder was inflated, tested and put into com-
mission. lt apparently gave every "satisfaction in service". The
fixed lower shell was 300 feet (9'1 .44 m) in diameter, the guide
frame is 188 feet (57.30 m) high and the crown ofthe roof is 202
feet (61.57 m) above the internalwater level. There are four lifls
and some indication ofthe complexity ofthe watersealing sys-
tem and various details can be seen in Figure 27 .4.
The completed holder is shown in Figure 27.5.
The internal gas pressure varied as the holder filled due to the
changing weight supported, so that when:
. the inner lift only is inflated 5.6 ins watergauge
. the inner & second lifts are inflated 7.8 ins water gauge
. the inner, second & third lifts are inflated 9.8 ins watergauge
. allofthe lifts are raised 11 .6 ins watergauge
Distant memories of elderly relatives complaining that "the gas
pressure is down" whilst cooking Sunday lunch, may not only
have been due to the peaking of gas consumption, but also the
decreasing pressure in the system as the local holder was
emptied.
In several ways these gasholders were easier to design than
their liquid containing counterparts:
. The internal pressures were modest as described above
. There are no axial compressive loads applied to the lifts
apart from the self-weight of each lift
. The roof framing is always supported by internal gas pres-
sure when the inner lift is raised or by an internal wooden
framing when it is lowered
The bulk of the vertical shells or lifts are carbon steel of either
0.25" or No. 9 lmperial Standard Gauge (0.144") thickness.
The majority of the roof plating is No. 8 lmperial Standard
Gauge (0.160") thickness.
; :r*.
Figure 27.5 The completed 12.5 million ft3 wei seal gasholder
27,1.2 Dry seal gasholders
Dry seal gasholders are most usually associated with steel-
works where their function is to capture and contain the gases
issuing from the blast furnaces for both economic (these gases
have usefulflammable portions) and the more obvious environ-
mentat reasons.
There are a number of proprietary designs for dry seaL
gasholders which are licensed to a small number of fabricators
and constructors. Amongst these are the M.A.N., Klonne.
Wiggins and Hammond types. Little has been written about th s
type of gasholder over the years.
An exception to this trend was an article in The Gas Joumal.
dated August 1933, by lvlr W. Beswick, who was at that time the
managing director of Ashmore, Benson and Pease Ltd of
Stockton-on-Tees, who were licensed builders of the Kl<inne
type of dry seal gasholders. This article describes a holder of
126' 0" (38.4 m) in diameter and 180' 6" (55.0 m) in heightto the
curb. This was of2.0 million cubic feet (56,600 m3) capacity and
was erected in the UK atYork. A generalelevation ofthis struc-
ture is shown in Fioure 27.6.
Figure 27.6 A generalelevation of a 2.0 m llion ft3 capacity dry sealgasholder
The complex arrangement of guide rollers, dry seals and oi
seals are shown in Figure 27. 7. The stability of the piston was
improved by arranging a concrete weight as low as possible as
shown in Figure 27.8. As in ship design, this gave a centre oi
buoyancy above the centre of gravity. This could also be sized
to suit the desired gas storage pressure.
The shell was a true cylinder, (rather than the polygonal shape
adopted by some other gasholder types), and was of riveted
construction using counter sunk rivets to give a smooth internal
surface. The turret located at the centre of the dome roof con-
tains an electrically-powered liftwhich gives access to the top of
the piston. Such wasthe confidence in the efficiency ofthe seal-
ing arrangements that operators entered this space and wefe
lowered onto the top surface of the piston for inspection and
greasing operations whilst the holder was in service.
A list of gasholders of this type in service at the time of writing
the article is shown in Figurc 27.9. The 6.0 million ft3
(170,000 m3) gasholder for the Syracuse Lighting Company in
the USA is a monster by any standards and perhaps the world's
biggest.
Dry seal gas holders of this type were frequently fitted with an

506 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 27 Miscellaneous storage sysfems

Gs lilhr Codrlv, Dtu!'d

Blbdnk Corir.ry unDu', H.*
lases Minn'.r S{.ir C.lli6, Doeuld
H.!d C.llidr Dodsd
lases Ga w.r' &d Elctric P.kr c.
Lllo .
Drhlbr-h Collia Cm@y, G.lr.ntri!.1.D-

U.ncil Sk.lrortq, hd., Alm Colli.E, G.lrdhEbd

Gs Udt C.b@, Ddhud
5ea Hib.nir CotlLd CirDrtrr, Scnolvan Cotriry,
Eqrld t&rd C..l Colli.ry At@irtioo, H6reo - -
c.*ii.h- ci' Li.hild w.# wcr.r .r . l
Uiiild Bleio Pdd Sd.io, Ud., CiFEla,
JI0- _. Ruhr CrworG, Ld" P@s Colti.r, BdE@Sod..
Iiddvfldld s.clrm A.C. O.ehhrrir, Gr
wdke Ni.i.rlEhliE - - '
D.udh Mcrrui.bd A,G,
IIOLIAND_

razr El+FCn.Eid wdrrq B.rr. . . . .

!db!$ 9d-wur suppir cmFny,ca wdl!, 8i!l

}.rJu.IonlDd@ia'rkl'Kbj$h
l-J:- ?du< Im lDduwia Lrd., xhtu

cg worlrr, B.yo,n.
Gs CoDBrr, Mon@lnr
sosi.d du Gs d.Pff,!, vUdt Glr worta -
soci.la d E.u .r d. rEohin{.. L. M!.!, ca
wor,c, k Mr4
Cir, dq BouLonnn! Gr wqlc, A
- SL Ch.dnd -
Urbntt ud q'qer SUDpD comDlB Glr work'

].bon & C.- AlaerL Hrdhq Al&c ' . -

:igurc 27.7 The sealing arangemenls for a dry seal gasholder Se- ToMid Azi.ndr, Gd Wrlc, Flar.M '
Snoq Lilhdnr Coopuy, sF
Phirrd.lDhh Gd wdkq Rddidt . -
Co.sD6' Pow* Cm@t, xrlh

Figure 27.9 A lisl of'Kl6nne-type" dry seal gasholders instalted up to 1933

:igure 27.8 The installation of concrete on the underside of the piston

external dial, operated by cables, which indicated the level of

'Jre piston, and hence the volume of gas stored. The Kliinne
3l holder illustrated in Figure 27.10 shows such a dial.
The N.4.A.N. gasholder also originated in Germany. This type of
=J holder uses a sealing arrangement using oil or tar which is
stored in tanks on the holder roofand is allowed to run down the
inside of the tank to form a liquid seal around the edge of the
piston. The liquid is contained in a trough sealed to the sides of
3ra the holder wall by a sailcloth membrane held in place by coun-
terweighb. This arrangement is shown in Figure 27.11. From
id this trough the liquid leaks and runs down to the bottom of the
tank where it is collected and pumped back to the tanks on the
Figure 27.10 An externalview of a typical Kldnne holder
t holder roof.
a- coarse granular products and damp or wet products. Typical
The Wiggins gasholder uses an internal piston in combination
materials to be found in silos include flour, wheat, sand, coal,
with a synthetic rubbercoated fabricseal. This is a trulydry sys-
T coke and cement. All possess very different properties which
tem and has been used to store gases as varied as ammonia, have an influence on the manner of their bulk storaoe and the
sulphurdloxide, LD convertergas, ethyleneand dimethyl ether.
coniainers used.
s
F
J 27.2 Silos The bulk handling industry has an extensive historyof failures.
These range from catastrophic collapses to shortfalls jn perfor-
Silos, bins and hoppers are the terms most commonly used for mance. Whilst the former events are infrequent, they attract the
structures whose function is to store particulate solids. The ma- attention of the media. The latter are more common and result
It terials stored rangefrom dryfine powdered products through to in inefficient performancewith its consequentcosts and delavs.

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 507

_)
27 Miscellaneous stonge syslems

Weights !o hold rubbing

Dspth ottar measursd

bydippin9

Steel rubbing

sii
9
m
e)
Figure 27.11 Atypicaltar sealarrangement for a M.A.N. type dry seal b(
a(

27.2.1 Materials of construction Figure 27.'13 A typical fat-bottohed silo T(

Cowiesy of Whessoe ti
The most commonly encountered materials are carbon steel
*
Flat-boftomed silos are not uncommon and relyon internalme- tn
and reinforced concrete. Wood was a widely used material in
the earlydays ofthe storage ofsolids, butwould not be a sensi- chanical handling equipment to ensure efiicient product re-
moval. One such silo is shown in Figure 27.13. This is a 35,000 fo
ble or economic choice these days.
tonne silo built some years ago, in Dubai for the storage of ri
Alumina. m
27.2.2 Silo shapes
F
The mostcommon shape is a vertical cylindrical shell fitted with 27.2.3 Product removal tr
a conical outlet. Rectangular section silos with symmetrical or
d
non-symmetrical, pyramidlike outlets, are also common. The reliable and consistent removal of Droduct ftom silos has
These are fequently supported at a suitable elevation so that bedevilled the solids storage and handling industry for many 2
theycan discharge theircontents into a truckor railcarbygrav- years. The behaviour of particulate solids is complex and the
ity alone. Silos are ofren built in groups, eitherwithin a building vagaries and range of flow possibilities is illustrated by the fol- T
or comprising a single composite structure. lowing possibilities for elevated conical outlet type silos: I
T
Atypicalsilo of the cylindricalshelland conicalbottom is shown No flow. This is when the material being stored remains in
equilibrium under the action of gravity and the internal t(
in Figure 27.'12. This is one of a number of PTA silos made for
d
lCl's Wilton Works. The materialwas stainless steelto ASTM A forces within the material itself. Commonly known as arch-
240 type 321and the silos were 11.5 m in diameter and 17.5 m ing, bridging or doming, it can result from poor design or co- rs
in cylindrical length. They were manufactured in an offshore rig hesion between the particles, often caused by dampness,
yard on one side ofthe RiverTees, transported across the river surface tension or electroshtic effects.
d
by heavy lift floating crane and taken toWilton Works by road on
Coreflow(also known as funnelflow). This is wherethere is s
low loaders.
no flow of that part of the product in contact, or close to the
T
vesselwalls. This means that onlythe materialthe middle of
U
the vessel is discharged so that the full capacity ofthe ves-
Y
sel in not realised.
I
Ratholing or piping. This is an extreme case of core flow t
where only a very smallfraction oi the vessel capacity is uti- !
lised. n
J
Mass flow. This is what is needed for efficient oDeration.
Arching, coring and ratholing are avoided and the whole
volume of the vessel is utilised. (
Erratic flow This is where the flow rate and bulk density of
the discharged product is highly variable. This is common (
with find powder materials. When a fine powderis placed in
a silo, it de-aerates and compresses under the pressure ap-
plicable at the particular location within the silo. When this (
powder tries to flow out of the silo outlet, the reduction in
I
pressure causes the powder to expand leaving voids that
must be filled with gas, and this requires an inflow of air t
through the outlet. This inflow of air obstrucb the outflow of
product and this phenomenon is known as slurping, and re-
duces the outflow to a small fraction of what was dntici-
pated.
Figure 27.12 A typical cylindrical silo with a conicaloutlet
Coulesy of lcl PlcMhessoe Uncontrolled flow. Ofren referred to as flushing or flooding,

508 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 27 Miscellaneous storage sysfems

this occurs with fine particle matedals in core flow situa-

tions. lt is the resultofa sudden instabilitywithin the product
resulting in very rapid and uncontrolled outflow of material.
. Pulsating flow. Often referred to as silo quaking, this is most
,::3: !Ec!q
common in poorly designed mass flow silos. The surface of ,rN.sEN loir&
iartafi |fnxsl
the stored product has regular periods of movement and
rest whilstthe materialcontinues to flowoutofthe silo. This
Eoo *-
--
- crl !02.!6 nu3!u,|'
I ------ ,^riEi ta$|.|!rl
can result in high shock loadings on the shell and support-
nrF Rlrtl/nEDrarfl
ing structures. This is the subject of a paperby Roberb and --
-r-':r- t$orri/,r $:xaEtru{l
Wiche in Reference 27 .4.
. Eccentric flow. Usually found in silos which have off centre
discharge connections. This can give rise to high transient
over pressures and variable material discharge rates.
Silos which do not perform as anticipated, in particular with re-
gard to the rate and uniformity of product outflow offen bearthe *" ""'""t
marks ofthe oDerators' efforts to persuade them to conform to Fisure 27.14 computed w",
expectations, These can be marks on the cone resulting from
beatingsor rodding holes drilled in the coneto overcome block-
"J"i*ffi"J
From Refercnce 27.9, figure ll-3

ages or inadequate flow rates. 27.12, is anothet wide ranging document containing a great
deal of useful intormation regarding steel silos.
To ensure that the outflow rates are suited to the plant produc-
tion or the vehicle loading requirements, it is common to utilise When discussing silo design, it would be unfair not to mention
devices for this purpose. These take a number of forms involv- Professor J.M.Rotter of the Universities of Sydney and Edin-
tE ing air injection, vibration and local modification of the dis- burgh, who over the years has published an enormous volume
ciarge connection. Many propriebry devices and details are of material on this subject.
)c{ found in this area of aclivtty. Reference 22.5 contains descrip-
)cf tions of a number of commonly adopted solutions with com-
27.3 Elevated tanks
ment on their various applications and advantages.
Most elevated tanks are for the storage ofwater and also serve
Flat-bottomed silos require specialised equipment to remove
to maintain the waterpressure in the locality. Some arethe rect-
their contents. This usually takes the form of screw type dis-
chargers, often fitted into suitable recesses in the silo base.
angular Braithwaite types, supported by brick or steel struc-
tures which are afeature ofairfields, factories and occasionally
]:ts
urban settings. The Braithwaite type of tank is rectangular in
Xr_l 27.2.4 Silo design form and made up of factory-fabricated panels, which are
r bolted together. The internal pressure from the contained liquid
b- The design of silos for the storage and handling of particulate is resisted by a system of internal rods stressed in tension.
solids is more difficult than the design of liquid storage tanks.
The cylindrical elevated watertianks, usually supported by rein-
ir The determination of the required properties ofthe stored ma-
forced concrete structures are also common.
la terialsandthe loading applied bythese materialsto the silo un-
>-- derstatic and dynamic conditions are complex. One ofthe ma- In the USA in particular, elevated water toweF made of steel
jor differences between liquid storage ianks and silos is thatthe and supported on either a steelframework orthe more elegant
ts solid product gives rise to longitudinal or axial loadings on the single central column are to be found. These are often made in
vessel shell in addition to the internal pressure loadings. lt is the form of a well-known local product or other interesting
hese loadings which tend to dictate the wall thickness of the
!5 silo.
ne
The early silos wereforthe storage ofwheatand were designed
d using methods derived from the field of soil mechanics. The
s-
work of Janssen (Reference 27.6) dating from 1895, is cited in
Milo S. Ketchum's book, (Reference 27.n as the method of de-
- termining the radialand verticalforces in silowalls (in the chap-
F ter on Steel Grain Elevators). This remained the method of de-
riving these forces until the 1970s when work of Jenike,
Johanson and Carson were published ( References 27.8, 27.9
n
and 2Z 70). These provided more sophisticated methodswhich
: took account of certain additional oressures which occurred
during product movement conditions, especially in the cylindri-
f cal-to-conical jointarea. Atoraround thistime there seemed to
f be an upsurge of interest in silo design and numerous papers
r were published. Atrawlthrough the bibliographies ofthe listed
references will provide the interested student with any amount
6 of reading on the subject. A plot ofthe internal pressures com-
,! puted using various different methods is included as Figure
I 27.14 where the pressure spike at the cylinder/cone junction is
f quite apparent.
t
27.2,5 Codes and design guidance

A useful guide to silo design is found in Reference 27.11. Figure 27.15 The steel "peach" water tower
A second publication, again produced jointly, see Reference cau'lesy ol Chicago Bridge & lron Conpany (CB & l)

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 509

I

-J
27 Miscellaneous stonge systems
Figure 27- 16 "The world" water tower
CowTesy af Chicaga Bidge & lron Conpany (CB & l)
Figure 27,17 An elevated watertoweron a concfete masonry column
Coulesy of Chicago Bidge & lron Conpany (CB & I)
shapes. Many of these water towers in the USA were con-
structed by Chicago Bridge & lron Company, indeed the com-
pany's in house magazine was called The Water Tower. Some
examples are shown in Figures 27.15, 27 .'16 and 27 l7 . fhe
design of such structures for seismic loadings is both interest-
ing and challenging. Any failures would be very public evenb!
The design of steel water tanks in the USA is covered by the
American Water Works Association Code D 100, (Reference
2Z 73). This is an interesting document in that it is not so tied to
the practices ofthe petrochemicalindustry as most ofthe other
liquid storage codes. lt is written in a refreshingly different way
and has its own view of what is appropriate. lt is well worth
spending a bit of time with for those interested in storage tank
510 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT
design. The seismic design section is especially good. There
are companion Standards published by the same organisation
covering factory-coated bolted steel tanks (Reference 27.14),
wire and strand wound circular prestressed concrete water
tank lReference 27. t5) and circular prestressed concrete wa-
ter tanks with circumferential tendons (Reference 27.16\.
27.4 References
27.'l Design and construction of a 12.5 million ft3 gasholder,
R.J. l\.4ilbourne, Managing Director of C. & W. Walker
Ltd, Donnington,Shropshire, first published as a series
ofarticles bythe Gas Journal ('1922) and lateras a com-
pilation by Walter King Ltd (1923).
27.2 Low-pressure gasholders storing lighterthan air gases:
Safety recommendations: IGE/SR/4 Edition 2 Commu-
nication 1624, The lnstitution of Gas Engineers, Lon-
don, June 1996
27.3 Designing spira y-guided gas holders, M.A.Thompson,
reprintedfrom the Gas Times by Hallowsand Slaughter,
Grove Road, Leighton Buzzard, 1 940.
27.4 Bulk 2000 : Bulk materials handling towards the year
2000, International conference sponsored by the Bulk
Materials Handling Committee of the Process Indus-
tries Division of the L Mech.E., October 1991.
27.5 Solving problems in hopper and sl/o sysfems, from a
seminar organised bythe Bulk Materials Handling Com-
mittee of the Process Industries Division of the
l.Mech.E., June 1996.
27.6 Versuche Aber cetreidedruck in Silozellen,
H.A.Janssen, Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher
Ingenieure1895.
27.7 The Design of Walls, Binsand Eleyators, M.S.Ketchum,
Mccraw Hill 1909
27.8 Bin loads - Paft 2: Concepts, A.W. Jenike, J.R.
Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no. 72-lVlH-1
1972.
27.9 - Paft 3: Mass Flow Bins. A.W. Jenike. J.R.
Bin loads
Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no. 72-MH-2
1972.
27 .10 Bin loads * Pad
2: Funnel Flow Bins. A.W. Jenike. J.R.
Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no.72-MH-3
1972.
27.11 The Draft Code of Practice forthe Deslgn ofs,'7og B,ns,
Bunkers and Hoppers, The Institution of Mechanical
Engineers and the British Materials Handling Board.
27.12 Useful lnformation on the Design of Stee/ B/ns and S/-
/os, John R. Buzek, - The American lron and Steel Insti-
tute and the Steel Plate Fabricators Association lnc..
1989.
27.13 ANSI/AV|/WA D 10096: AVIWA Standard for Welded
Slee/ Slorage lanks for Water Storage , AW WA, Denve r
Colorado.
27.14 ANSUAWWA D 103-97: AWWA Standard for Fac-
tory-coated Bolted Steel Tanks for Water Storage.
AWWA, Denver. Colorado.
27.15 ANSI/AWWA D 110:95: AIUWA Standard for Wire and
Strand Wound Circular Prestressed Concrete Water
Ianks, AWWA, Denver. Colorado.
27.'16 ANSUAVVWA Standard for Circular Prestressed Con-
crete Water Tanks with Circumferential Tendons.
AWWA. Denver. Colorado.
IfsB
saE!!
7-11t
28 Glassification guide to
YiF
e*> manufacturers and suppliers
The classification guide summarises ambient and low temperature liquid storage tank,
classifying them according to tank type, maximum diameter or capacity, materials of
*. construction, products stored, materials of construction, containment type etc.
*s
efEs The guide has been categorised in a particular way to try to impose tight boundary limits on
ocn- product types and classifications, with the specific aim of simplifying the choice of supplierfrom
the useis point of view.
rsgs The guide also covers the essential components and ancillary equipment and services
ltal- associated with the industry. Trade names are comprehensively lisled as well.
ttF These sections are preceded bythe names and addresses and contactdetails ofall companies
appearing in the guide. These are listed alphabetically, by country of origin.
6atr The information in Section 28.3 is provided for guidance only. lt is strongly recommended that
l*r direct contact with all companies is made to ensure their details are clarified wherever
necessary-
la Contents:
&,r
i.6- 28.1 lntroduction

ma 28,2 Names and addresses

(tt*
ttE 28.3 Storage tanks
28.4 Ancillary equipment and services
en
ht 28.5 Trade names

.R
{-t

R-
t2

R
L3

It
a
F
F
l-

c
(

I
r

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 511

28 Classification guide to manufactuters and suppliers

28.1 Introduction The storage tanks section (Section 28.3) is preceded by the
names and addresses and contact details of all comoanies ao-
The guide classifies liquid storage tanks into main groups: pearing in the guide.
. Ambient temperature A
Names and addresses Section 28,2
. Low temperature -
The principal ambient liquid storage tank types are then classi-
This Section has been based on a questionnaire sent to manu- :
facturers and suppliers woddwide. Where possiblethe informa-
fied by:
tion supplied has been used. Full company and contact details a
. Vertical cylindrical above ground hnks are given. Companies are listed alphabetically, by country of
. Maximum diameter
origin. i
. l\y'aterials of construction Storage tank types
- Section 28.3.
. Other types of above ground tanks The data presented in this Section is based on the same ques-
tionnaire. Where possible all the information supplied has been
. In or below ground lanks
used. Discussions were held with many companies to ensure
Low temperature Iiquid storage bnk types are classified by: wherever possible, that their activities were correcfly inter-
preted. There will however inevjtably be some overlapping due
. Tank type
to limitations of descriptions and space, and the information
. Capacity given is for guidance only. Where there was doubt in interpret-
. Products stored
ing the data, some of it has been omitted. lt is strongly recom-
mended that direct contact with all companies be made to en-
. Containment type sure their details are clarified wherever necessary E.
. Materials for primary and secondary conbiners Ancillary equipment and services Section 28.4
The guide has been classified in this way to impose tight bound-
-
Also based on the same questionnaire, this Section lists com- s,
ary limits on categories with the specific aim of simplifying the
panies alphabetically underthe relevant productor service and
choice of supplier from the user's point of view.
with their country of origin. Ambient temperaiure tank ancillar-
Although these are not always strictly logical, it should be obvi- ies are listed first, followed by those for lowtemperature tanks.
ousto both userand manufacturer what is meantbya particular
group or ancillary equipmenVservice. Trade names Section 28.5 t
-
The guide also covers the essential ancillary equipment and This Section has been compiled similarly. lt lists companies al-
services usually available for both ambient and low tempera- phabetically under the relevant trade name and with country of
ture tanks. Trade names are comprehensively listed as well. oflqtn.
A
NI
R

E.

:_-

E.

t
ta

a-

Te
F.

512 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 28 Classification guide to nanufacturcrs and supplierc

the
28.2 Names and addresses
3p-

AUSTRALTA (AUS) E-mail: info@egemin.com E-mail: info@flir.be

Web: wwwegemin.com Web: wwwflir.com
Angus Fire Australia
lu- A'1 Janine Street FCX Truflo Rona SA wLs
ia- Scoresby Indust.ial Park Parc Industrial des Hauts Sarts Smederijstraat '16
)rls Scoresby 8-4040 Herctal B-2960 Brecht (St Job)
of Victoria 3179 Belgium Belgium
Australia Tel: 04 240 6886 Tel: 03 633 16 10
Tel: 03 9765 3800 Faxt 04 248 0246 Fax: 03 633 25 12
Fax: 03 9765 3801 E.mail: sales@fcx-truflo-rona.com E-mail: info@wls.be
)s- E-mail: info@angus.com.au Web: wwwfcx{ruflo-rona.com Web: wwwwls.be
en
Web: www.kiddeuk.com
Fernand Desplentere Zeppelin Belgium NV
tre Baillie Tank Equipment Ltd Oostendestraat 329 I\,4unsterenstraat I Genk-Zuid - Zone 7
10b/201 New Sooth Head Road B-8820 Torhout 8-3600 Genk
JE Edgecliff Belgium Belgium
cn New South Wales 2027 Tel: 050 22 06 36 Tel: 0Bg 62 94 00
Australia Fa* 050 22 02 08 Fax: 0Bg 61 18 31
felt 02 9327 5481 E"mail: desplentere@wanadoo.be E-mail: zeppelin.belgium@zeppelin.be
Faxt 02 9327 5488 Web: wwwdesplentere.be Web: wwwzeppelin.com
E-mail: sales@bailiietank.com
Web: wwwbaillietank.com G&G International NV
Molenweg 109 BRAZIL (BRA)
't- Syltone Australia Pty LU B-2830 Willebroek
Syltone do Brasil Ltda
Unit 1, 100 Station Street Belgium
:c Avenue Ricardo Bassol Cezati 1620
Nunawading Tel: 05673 2121
Campinas, SP
Victoria 3131 Fax:056 73 4040
cEP 13050-080
Australia E.mail:sales@geldof.be
Brazil
Tel: 03 9874 2900 Web: www.ggi.be Ieli 015 3269 4247
Faxi 03 9873 2422 Fax: 019 3269 5083
E-mail: melb@syltone.com.au Geldof Metaalconstructie NV
Broelstfaat 20 E.mail: sylbra@syltone.co.bf
Web: wwwsyltone.com Web: www-syltone.com
8-8530 Harelbeke
Belgium
AUSTRTA (A) felt 056 732121 CANADA (CAN)
Fax: 056 73 4040
NBN Elektronik cmbH l\,lix Bros. Tank Services
E-mail: sales@geldof.be
Riesstrasse 146 14707 - 17 Sireet NE
Web: www.ge dof.be
A-8010 Graz Edmonton
Austria Ortmans Inox SA Albe.ta
Tel: 0316 402805 Rue Fernand Houget 13 T5Y 6E2
Fax: 0316 40 25 06 B-4800 Verviers Canada
E-mail: nbn@nbn.at Belgium Tel: 780 471 1386
Web: www.nbn.at Telt OB7 322811 Fa* 780 474 0877
Fax: 087 31 59 98 E.mail: mixtank@connect.ab.ca
Sattler AG E-mail: info@ortmans.be Web: www. mixta n k- cjb. nei
Sattlerctrasse 45 Web: wwwortmans.be
4-8041 Graz Tanksate lnc
Austria Pommee SA 208 3112 -lfth St NE
reli 0316 41O 42A2 3idme Avenue Calgary
Fax: 0316 410 4354 15 Parc Industriel des Hauts-Sarts Albeda
E-mail: r.dietl@sattler-europe.com 8-4040 Herstal r2E 7 J1
Web: www.sattler-europe.com Belgium Canada
Tel: 04 256 90 00 Tel: 403 291 3937
Wolf Systembau cmbH Fax: 04 256 90 09 Fax'. 403 291 5125
Fischerbrlhel 1 E-mail: info@pommee.be E-mail: dualtank@tanksafe_com
A-4644 Scharnstein Web: www.pommee.be Web: wwwtanksafe.com
Aust.ia
Tel: 07615 3000 Recinco Oenso North America lnc
Fax: 07615 300313 Hoogveld 5 90 lronside Crescent
E-mail: email@wolfsystem.at B-9200 Dendermonde Unii 12
Belgium Toronto
Webi www.wolfsystem.at
Telt 052220127 Ontario
Faxt 052 22 61 13 M1X1M3
BELGIUM (B) E-mail: recinco@skynet.be Canada
Egemin NV
Tel: 416 291 3435
VBR Flir Systems AB Fax: 416 2910898
Baarbeek 1 Uitbreidingstraat 60-62
B-2070 Zwindrecht
Web: wwwdensona.com
B-2600 Berchem
Belgium Belgium UAS Canada lnc
relt 03 641 12 12 Tel: 03 287 87 10 2656 Deacon Street
Fax: 03 64'1 '13 13 Fax'. 03 287 87 29 Abbotsford

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 513

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Drayton Tank &

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BYGGWIK (U.K.) LTD

TANK JACKING AND

HEAVY LIFTING

NEW CONSTRUCTION

BASE REPAIR

Emair: info@byeswik.com H
r.r: + 44 {0)1$4 47s244
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 29 Reference lndex
The refercnce jndex conlains a large n umber of key words used wiihin the industry. lt ists the page numbers on which the key
wofds are used. The list ofcontents al the siad ofeach chaDteralso Dfovides a usefutouide.

APt 520 418

Abovsground and in orbelowground stoEge systems 6

234
E
Above ground low temprature bnks 367 E

Acoess arrangements
As{onstructed foundation tolerances 250
365 E
APl650 requirements 25Q
307 E
BS 2654 Equiremenls 251
247 E
prEN 14015 requnernenis 251
Air Eising ot tank roofs 452 E
ASItE 8.96.'l 220
Double-Walled lank 453 t
asMEv t 216
Pre-Shessed concete ouier tank 452 I
13,438
Aluminium alloys 438, 351, 361,442
Austenitic stainless stesl
I
99,434,442
Ambient temphture lanks 't5 I
Automaied welding method6 461
Ancillary equipmenl and nliings 185 I
7,'t00
Design 15
22, 26, 319, 334, 335
Design ol tankrools lixed 113
Axial compression loadings 324
Design oftank roois - floating 153
Erectiorconsid-arations 235 B
249 Base heating sFtems 415
Fabr calion considerations 231 380,466
Layoul ol tank installalions 257 Baseinsulallonrnatrlals centalarea 384
Non-verlical cylindrcal tanks and other iypes 215 Base insu ation free oforganic maleriats 386
Nozle des gn and efiecl ofapplied oading 103
Base insuation materials- periphera area 387
Materia se eclon crileria 219
B asl iurnace sag 387
263
384
245
composit sysloirs . 387

Amedcan P.troleum hstitute (APl) Damp-proof course materia 386

8, 13
Ame can Unifom Building code (UBc) 264 386
American water works Association (AVVWA) 14 Lightweight concrete 387
291,394,507 Poyurelhanefoam 387
425 387
426 380
Inspection and repairof iqu d ammonlastorage systems 433 381
Ammonia storage - what mak* itspecial? 426 381
Elecl.i@l@nducl vty 427 381
426 Deia led design Code Equircments 384
427 BS 7777 requirements 344
Slress Coffosior ccklng (SCC) 427 EEMUA147 requirements 384
426
prEN 14620 384
Ancillary equ ipment for low tsmperature tank6 412
380
39,338
381
aNsr/Awwa 0103-97 214
367,424,461
aPt 12C 7,220
B.low-ground cavems 7
7
1,6
aPr 2000 ' 197,414
Bitumen storage tanks 201
aPt 2210 197
Bitumen.baed paint system 101
aPt 2517 281
181,279
a, 13, 30, 117 , 220, 277 , 295, 302, 314,
Bolted cylindrical hnks 218
338, 34,t, 347, 358, 361, 418 438, 466, 44,t, 490
APt650 8, 19,21, 30,75,90,93, t04, 106,
Bottom and annular d*ign 338
114, 154, 190,206,232, 251, 264, 277 APl620 Appendix O apprcach 341
APt653 252 Liquid containing meta lic lanks 341

542 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 Non LquLd conlaining meiallctanks 341 Cavern storage syslems 311

338 385
APl620 Append x R appDach
338 384,466
L quid @nlaining mela lic lanks
Cenira, crown rinq design calculation 133
Non lqud conlan ng metal clanks 340
charpyv-notch impact testing 22 t,225, 337 , 4X8, 444
341
chicago Bridge & hon Company 13
Llqu d conla n ng metallc tanks
Civil monitoring syslems 424
Non- iqLid contalning metallc tanks 341
column-supported roof s 115
prEN 14620 approach 341
Compression area forfixed roor tanks 80
Bottom boom of the truss 131
API lmitatons lor the length ol the rooi compresslon area 83
Boltom oorner protection systems 362
83
CalcLlating lhe compresslon zone area
Compression zones 81
4,2't6,509
BS and API Code difiernces oi allowab e
Brine-based heating sYsten 416 compressive svess 82
34 toAP a2
Compression zone area Code
British slandards Institution (BsD 13
Compresson zone area lo BS Code 81
220
cosl-effecl ve design 88
BS 150'l aea 8l
Derivation ofthe requned conpresson zone
BS 2454 I
Effecl of rooi slope on cross-sectrona area 81
BS 2654 19,20.27, 90, 114, ',t54, 190, ',|92, 193,
206, 221,222,225,232, 236, 246, 274,277 86

BS 2654 requirementsfor shell nozles 147 Economyoidesign 86

F lsh lype cear-oLt doofs 188 Rationa islng the calcu ation 86
188 Roof compresson area 86

Nozzes 80 mm outslde d ameter and above 1AT Shell compression area 86

Nozles lesslhan 80 mm outside diameler 190 Effeciof nterna presslre 80
BS 449 97,115 Eslab shing lhe compressiof area 83
BS 4741 9, 13,294,428, 450 M nlmuff c!rb ang!e requnemenls 83
BS 5387 9, 't3, 34, 295, 450 Angle sizes for lixed rooilarks 85
BS 5500 216
Cases where minimum curb angLe requ renents
BS 5950 337 85
BS 6072 433 Effect ol inlernal pressure and iank d ameter on
requ red compressDn afea 85
BS 7777 9,30, 294, 298, 300, 302, 334, 344,
345, 347 , 351 , 35A, 446, 490, 416, 444 Pos tiofi.g the centroid ol area 88
BS 8004 466 88
AP Code Appendix F
BS EN 10028 8a
BS EN 10029 232
88
8S4741 295
Praclical cons derations 83
492
Provlding the required compression area a2
E ephanfs loot buck lng 492
For the APlCode a2
236
For lhe BS Code a2
Ereclng the she by lhe lradiliona method 237
342
236
238 AP 620 appDach (Appeidices R and a) 342
BS 7777 appDach
Peaking and banding 238
prEN 14620 approach
Piate m sa ignment 239
238
Concrete raft foundations 42
283
345,459,479
206
291
Concrete wall construction
6,291,394,467
460
460
Calculation olthe design accelerations 489 460
calculations for slabilily and axial compressive toadings 491 460
Carbon manganese steel 220,361 concrele/concrte tanks 309

Carbon sleel contamination 232 Aumenlslorand against 310

19, 25, 35, 48, 6't, 232, 351 cryogen c concrele tanks 309

cathodic protecrion system 243 31,41,62

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPIVENT 543

 364 prEN 14015 222
Construotion and erection of ambient temperature ranks 235 temperatures 221 E

Joints ir wind girders 241 'Vinimum E

APt 650 221
Other forms ot constructon 243 BS 2654 221 E

Anlifting a roof rlo position 243 p|EN 14015 222

I
Co umn-supporled rcois 243 D$isn ofa sing le{ecr floating roof 157
I
I
243 Design of ambied r6mp6rature storagelanks 15
I
Pejabrlcaled roof section 243 Compression area ior nxed rooftanks 80
20 I
236
Fransible roof joinl, or weak roottcshell joint 89
The roof shuclure 241
Semi-buied ianks for the storage oi aviai on fuel 100
Construction oftanks with reinforced condete roofs 459
94
459
36
459
Tanks produced in slain ess steel malerials 99
contenrs measudng syslms 194
26
High accuracy .adar lank gauge 196
'Variable desigr point method 56
F gh accuracy seryo lankgauge 195
43
Wind and vacuum stiffenlng
195
D6sign of fixed roofs for ambient tempeEture tanks 113
Automatic tank gauge 195
Differences behveen lixed and floaling rools
F oal, board and target syslem 195
194 Design of low tmperature tanks 317
Temperalue measuemenl 195 Bottom and annu ar design
Coniingency Design Eanhquake (CDEI 485 prEN 14620 approach u1
cra6k Openins Displacement (COD) tests 438 317
135
132 BS 7777 apprca.h 334
Cryogenic stonge
- history I 317

D 131

485 Diking 476

507
David Taylor Model Basin Fomula 76,329
DIN 't3
Dead-weighl vacuum rcli.f valve 420
't83 DtN 4119 t3
274
Design and construction regulations
Directional combinations 467
Amedcan slandards
243
3

Chicago Bridge Eng neerng Standards 13

Double containm.nt tanks 294, $2,454
13 BS 77TT 294
Company Standards
EN i473 299
EEMUASlardard 13
Euopean slardards I 2A1
Double stringer spiral stairca6e 't99
Euon basic Pcilces 13
olher Eurcpean nallonal Slanda.ds 13 423
13 179
13 507
standards for other prodLcls 13 Ductility ,l88
20 Dye peneirant tssting 247
21 E
Bs code 2654 20
269
Alternal ve lrformalion to be supp ied by ihe purchaser 2A
EEMUA 9,13,294
Inlormafon to be igrced behveen ihe plrchaser EEMUA147 13,336,384
and ihe manuiactur 21
7
Information ro bespecilied bythe purchaser 20
183
Eurcpean Code prEN 14015 -1 2000 21
Elaphant's foot buckllng 492
Annex A (normative) Techn ca agreemenls 21 467
Oesign metal temperature 221 509
Ma{mum temperaiures 222 509
API 650 222 509
BS 2654 222 181

544 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 274 F
EN 10025 225,226
Factory-manufaclured bnks made from
EN 10028 19'226 non-metallic materials 214
EN 10088 99 Fasl t6ck erhylone tank 454
EN 10113 226
EN't0210 226 Wire winding atrangenents 456
EN 13445 216 Fast track liqui<I orygen tank 456
EN 1473 295, 297 , 299,302, 414, 420 456
Engineering Equipment and lvlaterials 415
Users Association (EElllUA) 9,13,294 Fire protoction syslems 200,420
ENV't998 501 421
Deteciion sysiems
Epoxy-based p6inl system 101 240
Erecting theshell by thejacking method 242 200
451
202
Condete wall construcl on 460
R msea loam poureB 241
452
Top loam poure6 241
Tanks w th reiniorced concrete rools 459
421
292,334,426
Dry powder systems 422
292,334, 426, 454, 467 , 507
13
Fne waler systens 421
422
European Code requiremenls for sh.llnoz2les 190
Euf opean Fertiliser lManufacturcrs Association (EFMA) 433 Loca protecl on olvllneEble equ pffenl 422

EUropan Pressure Equrpme urecrve te/ruJrE!) '| 259

Fire.fiqhting 174,240
Amb enl temperalure 13
13
European Standard Committeo TC 265 I 43,206
226 114
European sieel Slandards
115
European tank desig. Codes 19
European Standard prEN 14015-1 : 2000 l9 115

Annexes 10 ihe Slandard 19 115

116
Fixed and noatng roofdesgn 19
t9
19
115
19
278
Primary and secondary w nd g.ders 19
Float type level indicators 278
Rool to sheilcompression zone
Floating roof designs t54
19
154
Temperature rating 19 Prncipal ollhe lloating roof 154
19 Types offloating roof 154
German sioragetank Code DIN 4119 2A 220
2A 36,43,142
2A 239
External f loating roof appurtenances 174 193

1Ta APl650 requ rcments 194

BS 2654 requiremenls 193
R n f re delect on 1Ta
Elropean Code prEN 14015 requiremenls 194
Exlernalfloating rooG 154
2TA
Floating roof design 156
183
Des sn of a sinsle-deck roof 156
241
Types oI erternal noal ng roof 155
384,387
Doube-decklype 155
Formwork low temerature tanks 460
Other types ofloallng rool 155 250
155 253
Concr ele slab fo0ndation 253
Snge deck pontoon type 155 25X
External pipework insulation 395 236
Externally.framed dome roof 140 Foundalron to erances 236

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMENT 545

 236
BS 2654 236 217
prEN 14015 236 Gas stomg. history 6
Foundations for ambietrt temperature ta.ks 250
-
1,504
255 Drysealgashodels 506
250 Wel sea gasholders 504
Foundalions in a horzontalplane 250 142
250 7
Foundations of low temperature tanks 465 Geodesic dome roofs 141,241
Code requnemenls and guidaice 466 GEvity.based systems (GBS) 312
APt620 466 42,254,467
BS 7777 466 175
prEN 14620 467 240
Examples and problem areas 467
H
Handrall construction 198
Fransible roof Joint, of weak roof-to-shorl joint 89,94
234
APl650 Code anchor EqliEments 93
- Hoat Afected Zone {HAZ) 7
Allowable stresses in anchoB u Heat leak calculation for a large LNG tank 400
lMinimum bo t d amelef 93
Heat leak calculations 396
Spacing olanchors Basic calculation methods 396
conflicl ol design inleresls 91 CalculaUon oI lhe hol face temperature 399
"Service' and "Emergency' desigr condilions 91 399
Difference between codes 91 The influence of diffeEnl interstitial gases 396
Examples oilrangible and non+angib e rcoljoinls 91 Thermal 6nduct viiy values 396

Tali desqled Io an opp."tr1g p5sure ofr0 rba' 91 400

Tankdesgnedforanoperatingp.esslreof 7.5mbar 91
Heated storage tanks 1,6,243
Hsavy or viscous products 283
Fomua as exprcssed n APL650 90
30
Addiliona requiremenrs to APl650 90
Historical background lo stobge tanks 3
Formula as expressed in BS 2654 90
History of the design and construction regulations 7
Addit onal requiremenis lo BS 2654 90
American standards
Frangib e rooliointtheory 89
8
Chicago Bridge Engineerrg Standards 13
EE]\4UA 94 13
Cornpany Slandards
89 EEMUASiandard 13
l',4arimum @mpression zone area a lowab e 89 Eubpean Standards I
Other iactors affecting lhe frangible roofconneclon 90 Euon basic PclL@s 13
90 Olher European nat onal Slandards 13

Sizeolwed atthe rooi pare to shel connection 90 13

13
Tank anchorage a means lo lrangibi ily 92
Slandards for other producls 13
Delermining anchof age.equirements 92
Holding-down anohoF 409
EnsLring a frangible roofcon.ection using anchoge 92
26,47,81, 318, 319, 331,334,338
Furtherdes gn check 93
217
Olher anchorage considerat ons 93
284
Worked example 92
241
274
Hydrocarbon pro.luels 242
Friction pandulum isolatoF 500
21, 30, 36, 39, 41, 56, 60
312,379,463 t36.334, 367
21, 18, 220, 252,
Frozen ground sysiems 311
244
Full containment LNG tank
I
Full coniainment sysiems 363,432,479
Full containment hnks 300 tL58
Bottom comer Proieclion syslem 301 226,228
BS TTTT 300 476
EN 1473 300 206
301 400
Fully-pre$u sed LPG storage 292 Inround hodzontal cylindrical storags tanks 217

546 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 368 295
In.ground membrane tanks 294,310 Joinas in wind girders 241
310
K
310
396
310
241
lnspection and tesling the tank 246
48,101
Fixed roof plate tolrt lesllng 247
Floaing roof lesllng 247 L
Floor p ale joint testing 246 Lafge in.ground LNG tanks 462
Hydroslatic tank testing 244 Laser measuring nethods 't96
Radiographic inspectlon 246 Layout of ambienr t.m perature bnk installations 257
246 Above ground tanks 254
BS 2654 246 264

prEN'14015 246 254

LocaUon and ayoul 254
SheLf lo-boltom joint tesiing 247
244 254
Testing ol sheLl nozzLes and aperlures
286 258
Inspection f requoncies
Institute of P.tfoleum llP) 13 254
422 Separal on d slan@s ior grcups ol sma lanks 259
423 Separalion dislances lor large tanks 259
423 separation from olher dangerous subslances 264
422 260
Leve neasurement
Level temperature density {LTD) rneasurcmenl 423 layoul ol refrigeraled liquid gas bnks 469

Pressure measurement 423 Regulaiions governlng LNG storage faciites

Temperalure measuremenl 423 Reguiations govern ng LPG
Insulation mat. als for refrigeraled storage 380 507

lnsulatiod of hear broaks andfiltings 393 285

Heai breaks lor roof conneciions 393 Leak detection and pfevention ofground conbmination 254
Heat breaks iortank botom connections 395 254
Heat breaks tortank sidewallcofnecl ons 394 EENIUA 255
400 Probabil iy oi botlom eakage 255

Base insulalion failure 400 Liqueried Natuhl Gas (LNG) 6, 29'1, 293, 30?, 310,
317.36A,393, 400, 426, 462
409
Liqueried Peholeum Gas (LPG) 7 , 216, 291, 292, 420.473, 426
Exlernal vapoLr sealing 409
467
409
Insulation syslems for tow temperature ianks 377
Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) I
456
Basic design and maleral requirements 379
217
Basic requ rements oi the insLlaiion sysiem 375
495
Design Code f equirements 380
ExlernaL pipework insu ation 395 2al
lnsla lalon cons derations 379 LNG 6,291,426
Insulation ctegones 379 6, 216, 2S3, 303, 308, 412

The inirared camera 400 412, 423, 463. 495

Wealher proleciion syslem 389 Loadinq on the foundations 250
ln-tant pumps and their handling equipment 400, 412, 427 , 432 Loadings in an insulation ringwall 342
LODMAT 222

Pump refiova system Low temperatu re ranks 289

Iniernal f loating roofs 156 Anc llary equipment and littings 411

Types of inlemaL I oal ng rooG 173 Ammon a slorage a sp-"c alcase 425
Double cortainment sysiems 294
Erectior considerallons
173
435
Pontoon and skin roof '173
Ful conla nmenl syslems 300
Internal pipework insulation 395
291
Interna! shuGoff valves 417
Historica background 292
LNG tank at Slaten sland 293
454 Qatar LPG term na 294
242 377

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPIIIENT 547

 Layoui of refrlgerared lquid gas ranks 469 Malerials ior rhe ourer meraLlic ranks of s ng e @ntainmeni
Low lemperalue gases 291 438
lllale al selection cribna 437 Itaximum Considered Earthquake {iilCE) 483
441 57,63,76, 10't, 327
Single contairmeni systems 297 241
Membrane in foundation 42
308 302,463
302

308
BS 7777 302
Comparison ot above ground membranetanks
Storage of induslria gases in liquid lorm 249
and convenlionallanks 306
294
Tank slzjns considerations
DeveLopment history 303
30
EN 1473 302
LOX and LIN 365, 395 Land-based membranesysiem 304
LPG 7 , 216, 291, 426 lnsllation sysiem 306
476
lMeia lic membrane 304
291
Outeriank 306
M The knot 304
507 Lined mined rock cavem iniliative fof tuturc LNG slorage 307
Magnetic Panicla Flaw Detection {MPl) 433 LNG cariiers 303
285 NFPA 59A 342
295 prEN 14620 342
245 lrreial arc wlding 241
234 lrelhane 334
441 lrilf scale 234
234 Mineralwool 390
itaterial groups, 5lUni6 223 Minimum impact test rquifemenb 224
Itaterial quality control 221 Minimum spacing requirements 475
232 Miscellaneous storagesFtems 503

Material selection criteria for ambient tenperatufe Morton 46.80

220 itodulafconstructionandprefabricationtchniques 461
Requiremenis of the tank design Codes 222 Roof frame seclions 461
APl650 requnements 222 Roof plaiforms 461
BS 2654 requimenls 225 Sleelshel plates 461
prEN 14015 lequiremenls 226 Tower slaituays 461

Itaterial seclion critria for low tempeEturetanks 438 Wire wound lype 461

Example of a material selection meihod 450 Mounded storage 217,292

438 lvlouseholes 241

Reqlirements ofAPl 620 438 llulti-strand tendon typs 460

APl620 Appendix Q lllultl-layerinsulationcomponentcalculation 397

l\4ateria s for parts subjected to N

ambienttemperalues
National Board ofFire UndMritere {NFBU) 7
Maierials lor parts subjecled to
owlempetures 442 Natio.al Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 7
486
APl620 Appendix R 438
Ho.izonlal convecUve lrequency 486
Matehalsfof oarls sub ected to ambient lemDeraiures 438
Horizontal impulsive lEquency 447
l,laier]als for parts subjected lo low lenperatures
Veriical banelling irequency 488
Requirements of BS 7777:Part 2 443
489
Malerials lor pa.ts sublecled to ambieniiemperatures 443
NFBU 30 7
lv,laledals ior parts subjected to low tempeEtures 443
42r
Requnements of BS 7777:Pan 4 446 I
Parts subjeci to ambient iemperatures 446 291,421,470
Parts subjected lo iow lempelores 302, 421, 471 , 476
Requ rements of PD 7777:2000 421,500
Requ remeris of prEN 14620 277
Malerials fof parls slbjecl 1o amb ent lemperalures 442
Materials for pads subjecl to low temperatures 444 Nil Ductility lest Temperature {NDTr) 446
lvlaterlals ior primary ard secondary liquid-@ntaining pans 438 351,442,454

548 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 214 Pellini Dfop Weight Test 221,434
30 Penile 317, 387, 391, 393, 396,399,409
312 Personnel add equipnent requirem6nts 244
104 Petrochemical and other industrids 6
Nozzles and nozle design 102,344 Petrolstation forecolntanks 6
Assessment of nozle oadings 106 Pilot-operated pressure reliefvalve 419

APl650 approach 106 Piping loads 103

Plat6 fabrication 232
Determinatior ol a lowab e oads 108
Determ nation oi loads on lhe nozle 106 Pfate mills 233
110 Pfate thiokness tolerances 232
Loadirg on the nozze 30,105 Polyurethane foam (PUF) 306
Meihod of analysis example 108 Polyvinyl ch lorid. foam (PVC) 306
107 Pontoon manholes 183
Nozz e loading exampLe 109 Poslwold Heat-Treatment {PWHT) 234
"Preload" wire winding system 4, 299, 371, 429, 454, 460
She ldefeciion ard roiai on 106 prEN140rs 9, 19,30, 99, 114, 154, 193, 194,207,251,277
o prEN14620 9, 302, 341, 346, 350, 446, 419, 490, 50',1
Pressu re and vacuum .elief valve 206, 277 , 414
OBE
Pressure Equipmenl Regulations I

5
Pressurevesse,s 1,215
Pre-stressed concror.lanks 309, 460, 461
"One foot" method or rule 28, 60
Preshessing bultresses 370
Operating Basis Earthquake (OBE) 2f4,443
Probablo Design Earlhquake (PDE) 445
ODaraton and maintenance of ambient temDerature tanks 275
Product identification 277
2AT
Producl liquid pressuresacting on tank shells 489
Product identlicanon 277
2TT
APt620 490
B3T77T 490
277
prEN 14620 490
Wilh lnternaL i oat ng covers 277
Protessor A. S. Tooth 31 , 43, 56, 63, 'l04, 1'16
Floating rooi lanks 277 Propane 6,291,394
Op.raiion of fixed roof hnks 274 Propylene 291
F xed roof lanks with interna ioaiing coveB 279
R
Hazardous atmospheres 279
279 Radial raiter type cone roof '124

Operation of floaling roofhnks 279 472

Access lo the ioallng rool 279 216

Colecl on sump delais 242 6

Refrigerated liquefied gas storage history 6
Efiecls oi roof type on dra rage 242 -
2AA Refrigeraled stora9e of liquid ammonia 424
2AA a ternative storage system 430
lManaging eg suppots 284 Chemical Induslies Associaion gu dance 431
279 Convenl onal syslems 424
242
279 Inspecllon and ma ntenance 433
242 433
static electricily @nirol 240 Recenl developdents 432
279 Regulations governing LNG storage facilities 476
279 476
Operation ofbnks general 277 EN1473: 1997 rules 479
-
2TT 479
Preveniion oi overfi ing 278 lMin m!m spac ng requiremefts 480
Operational malfunclions 247 Scenaros to be considered 479
206 479
Outer hnk concrete wall and bottom liners 363 Themalradation 479
P 480
234 476
1

Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) 485

STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT 549

 equirements
l4inimurn spacins 479 3,16

Odgin and Development 476 APl620 apprcach (Appendices R aid a) 347

Thermal radiation 47a 347
prEN 14620appmach
Vapourdilution considerations 478 350
392
Regulations goveming LPG storage facilities 470
Exiernal roof nsulation 392
hsltule ofPetroeum rules 471
Internal suspended deck insLrLalion 393
Bunding requnemenls 473
't93
GeneEl 472
APl650 requiremenls 193
LPG pssure siobge (Volume 1, Chapter 2) 472
BS 2654 requiments 193
Reirigeraied LPG stose (Vo ume 2, Chapler3) 473 Eurcpean Code prEN 14015 quiements 193
9orage tank spacing 473 192,441
Vapour tEvel requirements 473 APl650 requlemenls 193
APl2510 473 BS 2654 lquircmefts '192

Pessurised LPG storage 474 ELropean Code prEN 14015 requiremenls 193

Reffigerated storage 475 Roor plaforms ror plmp handling 415

NFPA58 47O
176
Compresslon p ale type sea s '177
Pressudsed LP-Gas siorage 470
177
Relrlgerated LP Gas storage 4TO
Seals incorporating foam dams 177
NFPA5g 471
177
Pressurised LP-Gas storage 471
Liqu d flled fabric sea 176
Refr seraled LP-Gas sioEge 471
176
Reinfofced and prestrcssed concrete component design 367
Resi inl foam-rlled seal '176
General 367
345
Tank bases 367
APl620approach (Appendices R and O) 345
Tank rools 374
345
Tankwals 368
prEN 14620 approach 346
Above groLnd tanks 368
234
Bonom corner delails 372 174
In-groundtanks 372 Roof water drench system 421
Preslressedconcretewal-intemaltendonlype 369 Roof5 wlth no supporting st.ucture 116
Prestressed corcrete wall
- wirc woundlype 371 Co umn-supported oofs 142
Reiniorced conc.ete wal wilh earlh embankment 372 cdumnseeclion 143
Top comerdetais 373 116
Rinfored base slab 468 selisuppodns cone (of membEne oo0 116
Reinrorced concrete 101 Thickness of roof plating 116
Reinfored concrete roofs 345, rt59 117
Refoase Prevention Barier(RPB) 254 116
Resetue capacily relief valve 420
Folded plate lype 118
Rim venb 174
122
Risk Based Inspection (RBl) 433 '122
Rivetted and weld.d structures f 122
45,101,133
122
279
122
'182,232
Roofs wilh supponing strLclures
174
179 Cenlral crown ring 127

180 123

Amoured nexible hose 179 123.128

Aniculaied piping syslem '179 136
DEin design Codes 180 Externallyjmed lype 139
180 Radia frertypo 136

BS Code ' 180 Extemal y{ramed roois 136

180 Design calcu ation ..137
Helicalflexible hose 179 141

Geodesic dome roois 142

550 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 She lslfien ng lor exlerna insLlation oadings
Trussed lrame type 127 Wind and vacuum slfiening

Rool-lo'shell 60mpression zone 82,92,243 AP 620 appendx R approach 3'18

26, 50, 52, 53, 55, 89 319

End (ie lop and boltom) stifferers 330

S
274,477,443
Hoopiension lqud conlaining meialictanks 319
Saie Shutdown Earthquake {SSE)
lntemediale shel stifieneE 329
Saltdomes T
Non'lqu d contain ng tanks 319
Saunde6 andwindenberg 45,101
324
sampte/dip hatch 183 Shelslllening for enernal insr ation loadlngs

sealing syste'ns 279 Wind and vacuLm slffenirg 324

Secondary bottons 362

Secondaryseals 241 Hoop tenson iq! d conlanlng metal c ia.ks
Seismicdesign of ambient temperature tanks 264 Addendumlo Bs 7777on parlialheight hydroslal c lesting 336
AP 650 approach 264 335
Alowabe longitLdna compressive slress 273 Nor Lqu d conlanng metalLlclanks 335
Basc sesmc data 264 Shelstifeningforexle.nalinsllation loadirgs 336
Behav our oflhe product lqud 269 Wind ard vacuum stffening 336
Othefconsideliors arising from seismic oadings 273 337
Overturningmoment 270 Hoop ters on lrquid 6ntaining mela lic lanks 338
Res siance lo overtlrning 271 Nonliquid @ntaining lanks 333
Shel compression 271 Shl stiffening ior external lnsu allon load ngs 338
Anchored lanks 2T2 Wind and vacLum stifien ng 338
Unanchored tanks 271 Shellfiltings 352
Slosh he ghl and lreeboard consideralons 273 192
BS 2654approach 274 APl650 fequ rements 192
lniroducllon 264 BS 2654 reqlnements 192
prEN 14015 approach 274 European Code prEN 14015 192

Seismic design of lowtemperature tanks 441 103

Basic seismic design dala 482 16, 44, 53,60, 334, 336, 336, 328
Behaviour olthe product liquid 485 Shell thickness formula 23,27,3A
Calculation ofihe des gn acceleraions 489 Shellwelding sequence 240
Danprg 485 sherl-roof compression a.eas 3,14
Design Codes 500 80. 89
Ducllily 488 40.342
General 442 l. 5!7
Liquid sloshng 495
Codes ard design guidance 409
Natural lrequencies 446 aa9
Productliquid presslres acting on tankshels 489
tvlale als ot consir!cliof ::?
seismc isolation 499
Tark siding 493 :::
Tankslablily under seism c load ngs 490
zar 291 !31
Single containnent tanks
Seismic Hazard Assessmenl (SHA) 251,442
!'.:
BS TTTT
Seismic isolalion 499
EN 1473 241
seismic loads 2a
251
Seismic zones worldwide 265
Self-supporting 6one roofs 1'16
BS 2654 aa,
Semi-bu.ied lanks forthe storage of aviation fuel 100
prEN 14015 .t1
semi-refrigeratdandfllly.refrigeratedethylenestorage 292
Separation distances forsmalllanks 259 252
S.trlement in seNice 252
Solids storage andh2.. ai 503
Shellbuckling 318 Spacing of welds a..--i ::-,-e-,-s 190
shetldesign 318
AP 650'::, _:-: = 192
APl620AppendixQ approach 331 BS 26ar -.:, _: : 190
=
Axlal compression 334 Eurcr.:_:r:- =: --: . 192
F rs_::e ::: -: :::-
Hoop tenson
- iquid cortaningianks 331 192

Non liquid @ntaining lanks 334 Spherssc'e1- =-rr 216, 302,308

S-:F-r- -+$.r: 4 :QUIPMENT 551

 475 Parliclpaling rcoi and shellplate area 96
Spillage collection systems 96
283 97
457 Seciion size tof the secondary wind girder 95
457 Shellwird girder ca cuLalion 95
459
Shell-lGroof compression zone 95
Spihlly-9uid6d gasholders 504
wrd loading to APl650 99
417
Tank anchorage 6ystens 348
274, 477,443
Tank and bund drainage 283
220, 232, 304, 351,361
234
Staircases and slaiMays 234, 365
Tank bottom annular pate analysis 49
242
Tank capacity 317
Earihing and bonding 283
245
Precautons lo minirnise or avoid staiiccharges 282
248
Steel Tank lnstitute (STl) 7
Tank cool-down anangements 417
105, 109
421
Storage ol f lammable liquids 260
231
Storagesysteds and conhinment categories 295
234
Storage lank dab sheol 22
Stain ess steel naleria s 232
Stomge t nks
- delinition
Surfa@ protectior iof plates and secllons 234
Stnp and bolt ancho.age 93
Tank appurtenar@s 234
100

pN 14620approach 360
244
Requiremenis ofAPl 620 355
Surface proteotion fof plates and sections 234
APl620 Appendix R 358
360
APl620AppendixQ 358
prEN 14620 approach 362
APl620 secUon 5 355
Requ rcments oJAPl620 361
Design of heat breaks 358
Requ remenis oi BS 7777 361
180 ReqLirements of BS 7777 358
Innerlank and olterliquid @ntaining lank
Connecting pipework bendeen innef and
Tankaccess 198 oulerlank @nnect ons 359
Horizontal p adorms 199 Outer @niainer moLntings 358
Rada slancase 198 36
sp Elsla rcase 198
American Code requnernenls 39
Vertlladde6 199
Annular plates >12.5 mm thick
Tankanchorage 350
F oorairangementlor ianks requiring optmum drainage
BS 7777 requirehents ?51
F oors lormed from lap welded plates only 40
p|EN 14620 app@ach 352
Requiremenls ol API 620 Appendix Q 351
Ldpppd loor pates. oraniJldrpa,a' 12.5 rm ifi.k 40

tanks
Liquid conlaining
Shel tofloorplatewelds considebtion
351
for speciic maleria s 4A
Nor-Lquid @ntainng tanks 351
Tank foors wh ch requne specia @nsideralion
Requnenrenls ol API 620 Appendix R 350
Brtish Code rcquirenrenls 36
Liqlid conlaning metalictanks 350
Tanks above 12.5 m diamelef 37
TankanchoEge furthef considerations 94
Tanks up to and includng 12.5 m diameler 36
Anchorage attachmenl 94
Env ronmenial @nsideralions 42
Spacifg ofanchors 94
Floor p aie arngements 36
Wind loading and internalseryice pessurc 94
424
Worked example 94
246, 433
Anchorage ca cu alion 97
Tank ja6king {or jack buildins) 454
Check for iranqib lity 99
454
Comp eiion oiiank design 95
Welding and inspeclior 454
Design oflhe anchoge 98 454
Alax mum urstifiened height otlhe shell 95 284
Ovefturning momenl due io wind action only 9T Permii-lo-work syslems 244
Overturning moment due io wind acton while in sewice 97 Work on equipment n operation 244

552 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPI\,IENT

 244 USAEC Regulatory Guide 485

147
493 246
Vacuum bor testing method
495 24,206
496 306
Tank stability under seismic loadings 490 19,56
"variable design point" method
196 5T
Botlom shel course
197 63
Conparison of the thickness resulls
197 lcllaion
Delaibd "vadable des gn point method 63
196 56
Method deveLopmeni
Prcssurc and vacuum (P &V)valves 197 60
Tanks produced in slainless steel materials 99 Shel siifiening gnde6 76
-wind
Technigd mmbEne 304 Comparison behveen Brilish and American
241 secondary wind girder requnmerts 78

242 Primary wind g rders lo APl650 76

242 secondary wind gkdeE to APl650 76
26 60

Alowab e compressNe srress 35 Ventilation - maintenance 285

Axial skess in the shell 31 v.nting of ambient tanks 205
Actual compress ve sress 34 Deslgn code rcqu rements 206

Allowable compressive slresses for she I colrses 34 APt 2000 209

Axialstress due io wnd loading on ihe shel 34 lr.4eans oi veniing 212

Pressure limitaUons 212
Dervallon and assessmeni oI dialstress ln
a cylindrielshel 31
Re iel valve nstalaiion 212
BS 2654 2T Venting requiremenls 209
Alowab e slee stresses 29 206
Ex@ption to"one iool' rnethod 2a BS 2654 206

l,laximu.n afd minimum operating tempeEtures 30 prEN 14015 2AT

Maximum and mlnimum shl thickness 29 Venling eqlirements 207

Praclical appl calion ofihickness iormu a ,a 206

Pressure in lhe roofvapouf space 30 206
206
Princjpalfaclorsdeterminngshellthickness 2a
212
Specilicgvily or relative densLtyolthe slored producl 30 Rliefvalve equiPment
414
Tank shelldesign ilustration 31
26
Design ofthe lank shel 26
131
Failure along the length oflhe cylinder 27
very Larye Crude cariers {VLCCS) 6
Fa lure around the crcumlerence ofihe cyinder 26
243
Thermal insulation 363,463
Timber 361

Top boom of the truss 130 Waltand base liners 461

Towns gas 1 388

389
Toric materiats 245 Design Code requiremenls
Insulal on for the wals ofsingle-wa ed meiallic tanks 388
Type I steel 444,444
Loose fil insllation systens 388
Type flsteel 444,444
Rigid lnsulaton lorlhe wals oidoub e-walled lanks 388
Typ. fll steel 444,444
Wa i nsulaiion nater a s 389
Type lV steel 444,444
389
Type V steel 444,444
Type Vl steel 444 Loose li I nsulallon 391
390
u Olher plasiic loam matera s 389
UL 142 7
Perlile loose lil nsulaUon systems 390
Umbrella type dome roof '123
389
PoLyurelhane loam
UndeMrite6 Labohtories Inc (UL) T
389
Unifomly Dist buted Loads (U.D.L.s) 129
Reslienlbankel 391
United Kingdom Pressure Equipment Regulations
Water cooling systems 203
Unrestrained shell deflection and rotation at
nozle centreline 109 Specialcase Floating rooflanks 203
thE -
STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPII4ENT 553
 Tank cooling methods 203 Equivlent shell method 45
Fixed and lraileFmountod water cannons 204 Numbor of gideB rcquted 45
Water spy and detuge sprinktr systems 203 worked example 46
Vertical bending of the shell

4a
Weld edge preparalion 233
Wells Wde Plat6 (wWP) tests 29, 221, $4, $O Ronon and stress analysis 4A
507
Shell-to-bottom connection
Wind and vacuum stiffonlng ambisnt temperature bnt(s 43
- lvind and vacuum stiftuning
51 low temperature lanks - 324, 334, 336, 338
Ch@sing BS or APt shelt thickness design methods 53 239
51 Saiety measurcs against wind damage 240
Shelldesign slresses 51 Wlndenburg and Tdlling 329
Shell plate lhicknesses 53 wlnd girder *ctions
Use of shell design fomuiae 53 318
Worked examples 56 30
P mary wind gideE 43 Wire wound .oncrele lank walls 372
Wlre wound concrele waGr tanks 1
43
Rfining the dsign technique 43 z
Secondary wind sidels 45 57,63,328

554 STOMGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

 Acknowledgements
The publishers acknowledge ihe help and assistance ofthe following organisaiions in supplying dala,
photogEphs, illusttations and where apprcp ate, permissionto reproduce matefialfrom their own publications.

Advant ca
Alibert Buckhorn UK Ltd
Amadeus Pss Ltd
Anderson Greenwood
Angus Fie
Antuerp Gas Termina NV
API (Amedcan Pelrcleum Inslitute)
BSI
Cell U Foam CoQoralion
CEN (Eumpan Commifiee for Slandad zalion)
chi@so B dse& lrcn Company(CB&l)
DEPA S,A.
DOT (US Depadmeni of Transportalion)
Eadhquake Proleclion Syslems Inc
EEMUA
EFIVA
Enagas
Endrcss+Hausr Systems & GauginS Ltd
Energy (formedy the Institute ofPetrcLeum)
'nstiluie tci Plc
lnslitute of Petroleum
lntemalional Code Council (lCC)
JFE Engineering Corpoiion
LNG JoumEl
lM W Kellogg Lid
IMB Engineering Se ices Lid
McTay
Molhsrwel Conlrol Syslems Lld
N FPA (NaUonal Fire Poleclion Association)
Nikkiso Cryo ELrrop
Philips Pelrcleum Company
Pilt-Des Molnes lnc
Pittsburgh Corning Corpoalion
Prsload lnc
Recinco NV
Roya Aronautca Soc ely
Roya Vopak

Taylor Woodrow Construciion

The Mot Otrce
Ty6 Va ves & Conlrols
Universal Shipbuilding Corporation
Whessoe
Woodside Petoleum Ltd

Aspeclal acknowldgement to Protussor A. S. Tooth

Bob Gamer is greaily indebted to the late PrcfessofAlwyn Tooth,
Prcfessor of Mechan ical Engineering, at the lJnive|siiyof Srathclyde, Glasgoq
lor his huge contribulion to ihe undersbnding ofthe theory of siorage lank design.
Much ofthe explanation to the backgrcund ofthe theory included in
the ambient tank Section of this book is taken from work produced bv Professof Toolh.

STORAGE TANKS & EOUIPMEI{T 556

 lndex to advertisers
AConsult xviii
Allibed Buckhom Uk Ltd 527
Bayham Ltd xxvi
Braby Ltd
Brimar Plastics Ltd
Bureau Veritas
ByggwikUK Ltd x)o(t,5zl
Cookson & Zinn (PTL) Ltd
CPV Ltd xxviii
Drayton Tank & Accesso es Lld 527
Ebara Intemalional Corporction
Emco Wheaton GmbH
Fod Vale Engineedng Ltd XXII
Franklin Hodge lndustries Inside Back Cover
H[,1T Rubbaglas Ltd XViii
HSB Inspection Quality xvi
Lloyd's Regisler
I\,1W Kellogg Ltd xxviii
IvlB Engineedng Services Ltd viii
MC Inieg Ltd XXXi
I\,,1cTay Inside Ffont Cover
I\,lixing Solulions Ltd xxiv
I\,lotherwell Control Systems Ld
Nikkiso Cryo Europe xiv
Nomanby Induslries LH
Prccolor Saies Ltd

Seetru Ltd
Sinclair Slainless Fab cations Ltcl
SN Technigaz
Sui Generis Intemational Ltd
xxviii
Taylor Woodrow Construction
TesTex NDT Ltd 527
Tmctebel Gas Engineering GmbH vi

Outside Back Cover

556 STORAGE TANKS & EQUIPMENT

secriona ste assembd r,ru d sr
storaqe o. po1ar.

he srrts Fr.m 10m:lo nxcessof5000m'

L quia a ! reclangu ar v ualy aiy shape .pproved lo
54m heisht Frcm lomrto nexcessot5000ml

. Fast to nsra hydrauicFck n

, Vduarly ma ntenan. lree - memb.ane ined-water

separared ircm rank sh
. Lonqrfe neersLPclype a 15yearmnmum iferue
. ntrnatonalapprova s for pola

r:', Franklin Hodge

 LNG
ETHYLENE
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PROCESS

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ioning solulions for
the hydrocarbon and petro chemical industries.

Currentty bujlding the UK's first modern LNG

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