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Contents:
15.1 lntroduction
15.2 The API 650 _approach
'15.2.'1 The basic seismic data
-\
l''r-Tt
Libreville 0 2A
Gatubia
Banjul 0 2A
Ghana Tanzania
Dar es Salaam 2A
CuiDea Zanzibtl 2A
Bissau t Togo
Conaky 0 I
Ivory Coasl Tunisia
Turis
Abidjan
Kenys
0
Ugada
t3
Nairobi 2A rial|Ipal! 2A
Lsotho ' Uppervolta
2A OuSado!gou 0
Uberia z,j,ir.
I Brkavu 3
Libya Ki$hasa 0
Tripoli 2A tubumbashi 2A
Wielirs AFB 2A 7ar$ia
Malagisy Rcpublh Lukasa ZA
Thna!arive 0 Zimbrbwe
Hardrc (srlisbury) 3
Blantyre ASTA
Lilongw Afghribran
Zonba 3 &bd
B!rmt N.P3l
Mandalay 3 K'btnandu
RangooD 3 otlla!
2A
China
B6ijirg \ Pddsran
Chctrgdu '3 ftlth.bad I
' Guangzhou 2A Ksncni
Nenjing 2A hiorc 2A
.{
aiogdto 3
ShaoShi Qatrr
SbenB|{t|t Doha 0
'tbiwm Srudi Anbia
Atl Al Balh I
Tihrva Dhr$r I
2A Jiild.! 2A
xisrggang 2A Khnis Mwl|arf I
Riysdh 0
cypro6
Nicosr:a Sing.poi!
India
All I
Bor|bry 3 Soulh Ydncn
Calqna 2A Adr[ Cily 3
Madr3l I Sri btrk.
Ncw Dclhi Colodbo 0
Indorcsh Syri.
4 Aloppo 3
Bendung
Jakrna 4 Dimrsrs 3
Medatr Thailand
Sursbrya BrIgko* I
ChiuB irri 2A
lmn
Songlllla 0
Islbiar I
Shiraz
Tabriz Tn!ftcy
2A
Tehmn
2A
I'!q lsnir 4
aaghdad Isi'rbul
Bisra 1
Kal"nluJsel 3
lsrael Unild Arab En ntes
llaifa Abu Dhabi 0
3 Dubai 0
l
Ho Chi Minh (Saigor) 0
Fukuoka 3 YDetr Aran Republic
Ilrzi(e AFB l Sanal
Mis8v,,a AIB 3
AT'I,ANTIC OCEAN AREA
Naha, Okinewa
ft*a/Kobe
Sapporo 3 Atl
Tokyo 4 Bcrtnudt
3 AI I
CARTBBEAN SEA
hlruna Islsods
Jord!tr AI 1
3 Cubr
Korca AI
Kimhrc 7 Domiricar nepublic
KwanAi! I Sanlo DoninSo 3
I Frcndr Wbsl lndis
0 Ma iniquc
KuNeil Grensda
Kuwiii I Sli
Geolgcs 3
Czecb06lovekia Russia
Blalislava 2A 0
Prague 1 St. Pelrlsbulg 0
Spoin
Copenh"gcn I Barcelora 2L
Fnlard Bilbao 2A
Heliloti I Madrid 0
Rott 2A
Seville 2A
Bordca$r 2L
Lyon I
Malseille 3 Colebo{g
Nic! 3 Stoclhols I
II
Brasilia
0 sic
not, i'l all cases, reflcct local ordtlances or cunent ifc in-
0
0 rffhen an authority having jlrisdiction requir-! seisoic dasign
0
Recife 0 forc.s tlal lre higler tha! wolld be indicsted by the above zorcs,
Fio {bJanciro 0 lhe local rcquircments shall govem. When an aulhority havingir-
Salvador 0 risdiction requires seisrfc desjgn forces lha! arc lower lhar
Sao Paulo I wduld b. indjcated by the abovE z$es, and these farces have
Chilt bcer developd with cotsider8tiotr of regjooat tectoiics ard urF
Sa iago 4 to-dale geologic and seismologic fufomation, th6local rcquir-
0.753
^.T equ 15.3
1,0
I
w"tw, _
{
* o.u
I --r-
s 0.4
X I
* o.2
Figurc '15.7 lt4odel ol the impuls've and conveclive componenls 1.O 4.0 7.0
DIH
Figure 15.9 Etrective masses
Frcn API 650, Appendix E,ligurc E-2
Ta Short
Tank diameier (m) 42 OA 52.00
Liquld n I height (m) 2A A7 18.83
Fiqure 1510 A comoarison belween the rmoulsve and convective masses fo'
a 40 000m3 tank of iiifferenr orooorlions
t?471
coshl 11 l- 1.0
Figure Model of the im pulsive and convective componenls, with the
l 5. S
x, nn lDHl
H -'"
self-weights ofthe tank shelland roof added equ 15.8
367 /3.6?r
quency will be subject to accelerations which are close to the
-
D,',H lDiH'
maximum values shown.
where:
The convective component is that part of the liquid in the upper
part ofthe iank which is free to form waves or to slosh. This part Wr = weight of the impulsive liquid component
of the liquid has a much longer natural response time than the W2 = weight ofthe convective liquid component
impulsive portion and is usually to be found in the 5 sec to 10
sec range, again depending upon the tank size. Reference Wr = total weight of the tank liquid contents
again to Figure 15.5 shows that this portion of the liquid will be Xr
subjected to much lower accelerations.
= height from the tank bottom to the centroid of
the impulsive liquid
The way in which the tank contents are modelled is shown in Xz = height from the tank bottom to the centroid oJ
Figure 15.7. The impulsive component is rigidly linked to the the convective liquid
tank wallswhilstthe convective component is attached by weak
springs. The complete model including the self-weighb of the H = maximum liquid filling height
tank shell and roof is shown in Figure 15.8. Note: As long as the units used are consistent, then these for-
mulae work in both Sl and US customary unib.
The proportion of the product liquid which falls into the impul-
sive and the convective portions is a function ofthe tank shape, lf the tank is tall (i.e. D/H less than 1 .333), then it is suggested
and the calculation methods are different for short tanks with that W1 and X1 are modified to:
DiH greater than 1.333, (the majority of tanks fall into this re-
gion) and for tall tanks with D/H less than 1.333. IL=r.o o.zra9 equ 15.9
WTH
API 650 Appendix E ignores tall tanks and gives the effective
masses of the two components and the respective heights to
their centres of gravity in graphicalform, shown in Figures 15.9
!HH=o.soo o.os+ I equ 15.10
and 15.10.
To see howthis works out in practice for a short tank (the major-
The equations forming the basis ofthese graphs for short tanks ity of the larger ambient tanks fall into the short category) the
are: example ofa tank of40,000 m3 has been adopted. Two different
tank proportions have been chosen and the values of W1, W2,
tanh 0.866 9 Hj and H2 calculated.
vvr
- H equ 15.5 The results are shown in Figure 15.11. Clearly the taller tank
& 0.866q shows a higher proportion of its contents to be impulsive than
the shorter tank where a higher proportion is convective.
& D 3 67
equ 15.6 15.2.3 The overturning moment
w.= o.zgo H,unnlIDH' I F
1.0
15.2.4 Resistance to overturning
0.8
X., andXrby Xr. These new moment arms are calculated from In Sl units:
0.866
q wL = 196GHD equ'15.18
+=0.,,1,,., ...[ tanh 0.866n 9 ,,]] equ 15.12 Where:
H is in N/m
For tall tanks (i.e. D/H tess than 1.333): to ts In mm
= weight of the tank shell and that portion of the stress, see Section 15.2.6), then the tank is structurally
tank roof supported by the tank shell in N/m or
lb/ft of shell circumference
unstable. Note that .:
121
is the calculated longitudinal shellcom-
pressive stress in US customary units, as is F,, i.e. lb/in2.
Wnen rr,y'[o'?(w, + w.)] is tess than 0.785, there in no uplift of
In this case the API Code makes the following suggestions:
the tank shell and consequently the compressive loading in the
shell is distributed in a linear fashion across the tank diameter . Increase the thickness of the bottom plate under the shell.
as in simpie bending. In this instance the neutralaxis ofthe tank This will increase the liquid holding down efrort.
remains in a central position.
. Increase the shell thickness. The way in which the calcula-
Thus tions are carried out is that the lower shell thickness arising
. 1.273M
equ'15.19
from the basic hydrostatic conditions is checked to see if it is
'D' stable. lf it needs to be increased in thickness to meet the
two criteria given above, then all ofthe upper shell courses
where: should be increased in thickness by the same proportion,
unless a more sophisticated analysis is carried out to deter-
b = maximum longitudinal compressive force at
mine the actual compressive stress at the bottom of each
the bottom of the tank shell in N/m or lb/ft of
shell course in turn.
shell circumference
w.)]
. Change the proportions ofthe tank to increase the diameter
wnen ([o'?(w, + ls greater than 0.785 but less than or
and reduce the liquid filling height.
equal to 1.5:
. Anchor the tank in accordance with Section 15.2.5.2.
b+ wL
b can be calculated from the term the value ofwhich is 15.2.5.2 Anchored tanks
wt+wL
found from Figure E-5 (Figure 15.12) using the calculated Anchoring the tank shell causes the tank's neutral axis to re-
. .. ,lf , ._l main at the central oosition and as for the first of the unan-
varue or rv/ ^t ( wr + wL r
LU l. chored tank cases described above, the maximum longitudinal
The bottom of the tank is lifted for a part of the circumference compressive force is given by:
and a liquid holding down effort is created. The neutral axis of
the tank is moved progressively away from the tank centreline D=wr +1.273M
D2
and the shell compression is concentrated in a decreasing por-
tion of the shell circumference. The explanation for this mecha- When tanks are anchored, it is clear that no liquid holding down
nism and the description ofthe derivation of the equations used can be utilised to reduce the uplifting loads as it requires the
is best left to the paper by Wozniak and Mitchell (Reference shell to lift to mobilise the term wL.
15.6).
The anchorage system shall be designed to provide the follow-
When the value oflvy'fo'(w, + w.)] is greater than 1 .5 but less ing minimum uplift resistance in N/m or lb/ft of shell circumfer-
than or equal to 1.57 then b can be calculated from the follow- ence:
ing: 1.273M
't.490
* w, equ15.21
D+WL _ equ 15.20
D'
r -ro 5
l. 0.637M plus any uplift, again in either N/m or lb/ft of shell circumfer-
ence, due to internal pressure. Uplifr due to wind loadings on
t DP(', . vv,)]
the tank shell and roof do not need to be considered in combi-
nation with seismic loadings.
When MlD'7(wr w.)l is greater than 1.57 or *n"n .,!, is
Anchorage is normally by means of bolts or straps. The points
greater than F" (the allowable longitudinal compressive shell of attachment of the anchors to the tank shell must be made
with due consideration to the local stress concentrations
caused. This part of the tank shell is already highly stressed in
hoop tension and local vertical bending. An acceptable design
procedure is given in Reference15.13.
The design of the anchorage should consider the following:
. The strength of the attachments to the tank shell shall be
greaterthan the specified minimum yield ofthe anchors so
t that the anchors will yield before the athchments fail.
{ . The spacing of the anchors around the tank shell shall not
exceed 3.0 m exceptthatfortanks of less than 15 m in diam-
eter the spacing shall not exceed 1.8 m.
. Anchor bolts shall have a minimum diameter of 25 mm, ex-
cluding any corrosion allowance.
. The maximum allowable stresses shall be:
0.8 1.0 1.2 1,1 1.6
For the anchors an allowable tensile stress equal to 0.8
M lID"(wt+ |9L)l
times the minimum specified yield stress (this is 0.60
Not6: This ligure may b used 10 compL.te b when M / {d( pr + kJl
is gGal6r than 0.785 bd bs rhan or 6qB1 lo 1 .5 (se E.5.1 ). times 1.33)
Figure 15.12 Compressive fofce b For other parts, 1.33 times the "normal" allowable
From API 650, Appendix E, figure E-5 stresses taken from section 3.10.3 of the Code.
The maximum allowabledesign stress in the shellatthe through the numerous papers which are listed in References
anchor atiachment shall not exceed 170 N/lpa (25.000 15.16 and 15.16.
lbiinr) with no increase atlowed for seismic loading.
The classical buckling strength ofa perfect cylinder is given by:
. The embedment of the anchor into the foundation shall be
of sufficient strength to develop the specified yield strength s =0.6r
R
equ 15.26
of the anchor.
. The purchaser shall specify any corrosion allowance to be
The value of given by equation 15.22 above (which represents
most storage tanks of normal proportions) is one third of that
applied to the anchors. The uncorroded anchors shall be
given by equation 15.26.
used to determine the design loads forthe attachments and
the embedments.
15.2.7 Slosh height and freeboard considerations
. When specified by the purchaser, the anchors shall be de-
signed to allow for thermal expansion of the shell arising
API 650 Appendix E does not provide any specific rules for liq-
from temperatures greater than 90 'C (200 'F).
uid sloshing. lt does give a general warning that "the purchaser
shallspecify anyfreeboard desired to minimise or prevent over-
15.2.6 Allowable longitudinal compressive stress flow and damage to the roofand upper shellthat may be caused
by sloshing of the liquid contents". lt seems curious to place this
The maximum longitudinal compressivestress in the tankshell responsibility on the tank purchaser. The tank designer is, or
($ in US customary units or . in St units) shall not exceed
should be in a much better place to make decisions relating to
12t ^b ^.
1000t the freeboard to be allowed for seismic sloshing in any
the maximum allowable compressive stress Fu which is calcu- particular circumstances.
lated from the equations given below These equations take Forfixed rooftanks it is usualto arrange a freeboard sufficient
account of the reduction in the compressive buckling stress to prevent the liquid sloshing wave plus any associated run up
caused by deviations from the perfect cylindrical shape due to
of product liquid up the tank shell from impacting upon the tank
the fabrication and erection processes and the stabiljsing ef- roof itself. Refererce 75.75does indicate means of calculating
fects of internal pressure due to the product liquid. pressures on the underside of the tank roof olates in cases
It must be borne in mind that the worst case seismic
desions are where insufficient freeboard has been allowed. This document
all based on a tank filled to the maximum operatingfill h;ight. A is, to the author's mind, a quite excellent publication and essen-
good presentation of the influences of these vaiables is qiven tial reading for those interested in the seismic design of storage
in Reference 15.14. NKS.
In US customary units: For floating roof tanks it is usual to allow sufflcient freeboard to
ensure that the roof seals remain within the heioht of the tank
WhenGHD,,
--" is greater than or equal to '106. shell. The presence of the floating roof is not;onsidered to
modify or inhibit the sloshing behaviour of the product liqujd.
1061 For fixed roof tanks with intefnal floating roofs, it is usual to al-
,D equ 15.22 low sufficient freeboard to ensure that the internal roof and the
tank roof, or its supporting structure, do not come into direct
laHn2
conlact.
When + is less than 106:
To enable these decisions to be made, it is clear that the heioht
1n6r
F"=r_+600JGH equ 15.23
of the sloshing wave must be calculated for any particular t;k
geometry and site location. ln the absence of any means to
make this calculation in API 650, it is not uncommon practice to
In Sl units; borrow the following formula for the height of the first sloshing
mode from Appendix L of API 620:
wnenGHD,.
- rs greater than or equal to 44:
I
\Drl"ll
t2
_.D83t -
d = 1.124ztc.rzrann fa.rzl
L
equ15.27
equ 15.24
where:
cHn2
When :+ is tess than 44: d = height ofthe sloshing wave in feet. lt is recom-
mended that an allowance for liquid run uD the
R?T tank shell of 1 foot is added to this height
Fa =ffi+7.5JcH equ 15.25
15.2,8 Other considerations arising from seismic
However in all cases Fa shall not exceed 0.5 Fb/
loadings
where:
Fv = minimum specified yield strength ofthe bottom There are a number of other areas of tank desiqn for seismic
shell course in the appropriate units (Mpa, loadings which occasionally arise for ambient tanks. These are
N/mm2 or lb/in2) briefly described below Some ofthese are revisited in Chapter
26 (Seismic design of low temperature storage tanks) where
t = thickness ofthe bottom shell thickness exclud- seismic design is considered in more detail.
ing any corrosion allowance.
. The columns ofcolumn supported roof type tanks must be
The buckling of vertical cylindrical shells has been the subject designed to resist the lateralforces imposed on them by the
of a great deal of theoretical and test work over the vears. contained product liquid during the design seismic event.
Those interested in studying this subject in more detail could do The work of Wozniak and Mitchell (Reference 15 6) gives a
worse than to look atthe work of Wozniak and Rotter. orto oick suitable and well-tried procedure for this.
. lt is sometimes necessary to calculate the local pressures for the actual specific gravity of the stored liquid which could
imposed on parts of the tank shell and bottom during the well be 0.8 or lower, whilst performing the seismic calculations
seismic design event. This could be for detailed design of for the same tank using the higher value of 1.00.
internal fittings or for an assessment of the applied hoop
stresses on the complete tank shell. Chapter 26 provides
means of performing these calculations. 15.5 References
. In extreme seismic events, there may be a tendencyfor the 15.1 Oil Storage Tanks, Alaska EaLthquake of 1964, The
tank to slide off its foundation. This is an interesting subject, Prince William Sound Alaska Eafthquake of 1964, vol
about which there are differing views held by those knowl- ume ll-A, US department of Commerce, Coast and
Geodetic Survey, 1 967, J.E.Rinnie.
edgeable within the industry This is again considered in de-
tail in Chapter 26. 15.2 Behaviour of Liquid Storage Tanks, The Great Alaska
Eafthquake of 1964, R.D.Hanson, Engineering, Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, Washington, 1973.
15.3 The BS 2654 approach
15.3 Damage of Storage Tanks, Engineering Features ofthe
Appendix G of BS 2654 admits in its introductory note to being San Fernando Eafthquake, February gth, 1971,
based on Appendix E ofAPl 650. "Based on" is something ofan PC.Jennings, Earthquake Engineering Research Lab-
understatement. What is presented is Appendix E ofAPl 650 in oratory Report 71-02 Cal. Tech. June 1971.
metric units!
15.4 The Lima Eafthquake of October 3rd, 1975. Damage
There are a number of minor changes: distributlon, R.Huisid, A.F.Espinosa and J.de las Casas,
. In line with the philosophy of BS 2654 in designing all tanks Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol-
for the maximum anticipated product specific gravity, all ume 67, no. 5, pp 1441-1472, October 1977.
seismic calculations are based on an assumed product 15.5 Nuclear Reactors and Eafthquakes, by Lockheed Air-
gravity of 1.00. craft Corporation and Holmes and Narver lnc.,Chapter
o 6 and Appendix E ERDA, TID 7024 August 1963.
In place of the UBC zone coefficients which at one time
were only available for mainland USAand a few other loca- 1 5.6 Basisof Deslgn Provisions for Welded Steel Oil Storage
tions, the laterallorce coefficients are based on the ratio of Ianks, by R.S.Wozniakand W.W..Mitchell, presented at
the horizontal acceleration to gravity. This seems quite dan- the Session on Advances in Storage Tank Design, API
gerous as the Code gives little guidance as to exactly what Refining,43rd midyear meeting, Toronto, May 1978.
this acceleration should be. Should it for example be the 15.7 API STANDARD 650: Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Stor-
peak ground acceleration (PGA) which is the acceleration age, The American Petroleum Institute, Tenth Edition,
at time zero, or the acceleration appropriate to the natural November 1998 plus Addendum 1, March 2000.
frequency of the impulsive portion of the tank contents?
These are ouite different numbers and there is often confu- 15.8 API STANDARD 620: Design and Construction of
sion as to what should be used. API 650 and the UBC used
Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage lanks, The
American Petroleum Institute. Tenth Edition, Februarv
together represent a coherent design system and there is
2002.
less room for confusion and error. The more recentversions
of the UBC provide guidance for zone coefiicients for many 15.9 BS 2654:1989: British Standard for the Manufacture of
locations worldwide and it may be considered wise to make verlical steel welded non-refrigerated storage tanks
reference to this data. with butt-welded shells for the petroleum industry, BSI
LOnOOn.
. The Code introduces the concept of the Operating Basis
Earthquake (OBE) and the Safe Shutdown Earthquake 15.10 Above Ground Storage larks, Philip E.lvlyers,
(SSE). For the OBE it suggests design seismic loads with a N,4ccraw-Hill, ISBN 0 07 044272 X.
'10% probability of being exceeded in the structure's life- 15.11 2000 Uniforn Building Code, the International Confer-
time. ln this event the allowable stresses should not be ex- ence of Building Officials, Whittier, California, ISBN
ceeded. Forthe SSE it suggests a seismic design load with 1 884590 94 2.
a 1% probability of being exceeded in the structure's life-
time. In this event the ultimate strength should not be ex-
15.12 Earthquake Pressures on Fluid Containers, by
G.W.Housner, A Report on Research Conducted under
ceeded. This all seems a little loose. The lifetime of the
Contract with the Office of Naval Research, California
structure is controversial and the means of determining and
Institute of Technology, Pasedena, Earthquake Re-
applying the allowable stresses is not made very clear search Laboratory August 1954.
15.13 AlSl E-1, Volume ll, Patl Vll, Anchor bolt chairs.
15.4 The prEN 14015 approach
15.14 Royal Aeronautical Society Structural Data Sheet, No
The new Euronorm for ambient tanks (Reference 15.17\ is cut 04.01.01, (latet published by the Engineering Services
rently in draft form. lt is anticipated that the industry comments Data Unit).
will be incorporated into this document during 2004.
15.15 Seismic desbn of storage tanks, Recommendations of
Annex G of this document is entitled Recomrrendations for a Study Group of the New Zealand National Society for
seismic provisions for storage tanks. Earthquake Engineering, December 1 986.
It is almost identical to the Aooendix G of BS 2654. 15.'16 Guide linesforthe seismic design ofoitand gas pipeline
As for BS 2654 the requirement is for a specific gravity of the sysferng Committee on gas, liquid fuel lifelines, ASCE
tank contents to be taken as 1.00 for the seismic calculations. November 1984, ISBN O 87 262424 5.
This may well be an oversight as one of the differences be- 15.17 prEN 14015 - 1:2000, specification for the design and
tween this document and BS 2654 is that the requirement for a manufacture of site built veftical, cylindrical, flat-bot-
minimum product liquid specific gravity of 1 .00 to be used in all tomed, above ground, welded metallictanksforthe stor-
cases for the tank shell design has been removed. lt would age of liquids at ambienttemperatures and above - Parl
seem inconsistent to design the tank shell course thicknesses 1 : Steel tanks.
16.1 Tank type safety and environmental reasons. There is a preference for
floating roof over fixed roof tanks as the size of the tank in-
The type and nature ofthe product to be stored are the most im-
creases, as the vapour pressure of the stored product in-
portant criteria in selecting the type oftank to use i.e. fixed roof,
creases and when the flash point is below the storage
floating roof or fixed roof with an internal floating cover
temperature.
For hydrocarbon liquids, two lnstitute of petroleum oublica-
The roofconsists of an arrangement of buoyancy pontoons and
tions, Refererces 16.1 and 16.2 and NFPA 30, Reference
floats on the stored product. lt is sealed against the shell ofthe
76.3, use systems of classification based on the closed flash
tank by a specially designed seal arrangement, (see Chapter 6,
point of the individual products to determine appropriate re-
Section 6.5.3). The roof is provided with support legs which can
quirements. These classificatjon systems are different and it is
be adjusted to hold it in either of two positions. The upper posj-
important to define which applies when considering, for exam-
tion should be high enough to allow access for tank cleaning
ple, a Class l, ll or lll product.
and maintenance personnel and equipment. The loweroperat-
ing position should keep the roofjust above the inlet and outlet
16.1.1 Fixed roof tanks nozzles, the drain lines, heatingcoils, side entry mixers and any
other accessories located near the tank bottom.
Fixed roof tanks are generally used in refineries and storage
The tank shell must be provided with an adequate earthing sys-
terminals where the product stored does not readilV vaporise at
the ambient or stored temperature conditions. Thus ihey are tem and the roof and all fittings, such as the rolling access lad-
used for Class lll and unclassified products, commonlv for der must be electrically bonded to the shell as a protection
Class ll (1) and rarely for Class I and ll (2). The size of theiank
against lightning and static electricity. Also a internal fittings
and the flash point of the product will atso influence the choice
such as gauge floats, cables and mixers must be earthed to
prevent the accumulation of static electricitv as djscussed in
of tank. These tanks are operated with a vapour space above
the liquid. Section '16.6 and Chapter 6, Section 6.5.2.1 .
roof tanks. the tanks. When product is pumped into a tank which may have
a flammable atmosphere, a residence time of at least 30 min_
. Contact of the stored product with air should be avoided. utes should be allowed after the pumping has stopped before
Venting of these tanks is provided by means of large openings manually dipping or sampling.
around the periphery of the roof and a centre open vent. The Splash filling of hydrocarbons may result in the production of a
peripheral openings are fitted with weather cowls and bird flammable atmosphere (vapour or mist) inside the tank. To
screens with a mesh not lessthan 6mm square. The large ven! minimise the risk ofelectrical discharge, the filling velocity in the
ing area so provided assists in reducing the vapour concentra_ pipeline should be restricted to 1 m/sec. (even with a dry prod_
tion in the space between the fixed roofand the internalfloatinq uct) until the outlet of the fill line in the tank is covered to a mini_
cover to below the lower flammabitity limit. mum depth of 0.5 m for fixed roof tanks or until any floating roof
or internal cover is floating when the rate mav be increased.
16.1,2 Floating roof tanks The maximum rate, which is governed by the fiiction losses in
the pipework, is in the region of 7 m/sec.
Floating roof tanks are generally used for Class I and Class ll Electrostatic charges can be generated when a svnthetic taoe
products to minimise product loss due to evaporation and for or cord (which may be used during dipping or sampling) is al-
lowed to run rapidlythrough an operator's gloved hand. In view 16.3.2.5 Mixing of products
ofthis, only naturalfibre tapes and cords should be used. Tanks Sudden mixing of products ofdifferent vapour pressures at dif-
should only be manually dipped while receiving product if the ferent temperatures can cause the rapid development of
product is of high conductivity i.e.above 50 picosiemens/metre vapour, or foaming in the tank. This can occur when:
(ps/m). Forfurther information regarding static electricity, refer
to Section 16.6. . Stratified layers ofthese products are disturbed bythe use
of a heating coil of the breakdown of an emulsion.
16.3.2 Prevention of overlilling e When hot product is added to a tank containing a high
vapour pressure prooucl.
16.3.2.1 Procedures . When a high vapour pressure product enters a hot tank.
Clear formal written procedures should be established for the 16.3.2.6 sloos tanks
receipt of product into a tank installation. These will vary in ac- Heating coils in operation in slops tanks should always be com-
cordance with the method of receipt employed i.e. cross coun- pletely covered by the product. (Refer to Section 16.7.) Addi-
try pipeline, marine, rail or road. These will also depend upon tionally, water should be regularly drained from slops tanks.
the quantities and grades of productto be delivered, the rates of
delivery the numbers and capacities of the tanks to which deliv- Where product is discharged into a slops tank from a process
eries are to be made, and the method of controlling the opera- vessel under gas pressure, precautions should be taken to en-
tion ofthe inlet valves to the tanks. The procedures for change- surethat, in an emergency, gas cannotbe released tothe atmo-
over oftank and product grade, in addition to avoiding the risk of sphere in large quantities via the tank.
overfilling, should ensure segregation of grades and avoid risk 16.3.2.7 Rundown temperatures
of contamination. Rundown temperatures should be controlled to ensure that
1 6.3.2.2 Communication products are delivered to tanks in a condition which will not
cause a hazard due to the development of vapour or a
There should be an efficient system of communication estab- froth-over. In the case offloating rooftanks and flxed rooftanks
lished between all personnel concerned in the operations, in or- with internal floating covers, a check should be made to con-
der that the procedures referred to above are properly carried firm that the roof seal can withstand the rundown temperature.
out, and so that immediate action can be taken in the event of
an emergency.
16.3.2.3 Tank gauging and sampling
16.4 The operation of fixed roof tanks
There are not many moving parts on a fixed rooftank butthe fof
A reference depth should be clearly marked near dip hatches
lowing items should be periodically checked for serviceability :
which are used for gauging.
. Pressure and vacuum valves
Dip hatchesfor manualgauging oftanks storing Class lor llpe-
troleum products should be opened as infrequently as possible, The weight pallets should be examined for corrosion and
consistentwith obtaining tank gaugings for control of inventory that they move freely within the valve. For spring loaded
and tank filling. valves the action of the spring should be checked.
Dip hatches should be properly closed when not in use lfatank Check that the mesh screen is clean and not blocked with
is fitted with more than one dip hatch, only one should be debris.
opened at a time. . Free vents
lManual gauging should not be carried out when atmospheric Check that the mesh screen is clean and not blocked with
conditions are liable to cause static or other hazard to person- debris.
nel engaged in operations, e.g. an electric storm, hail, flying . Flame arrestors
sand.
Check that the tube bank is clear and ensure that there are
No manual gauging or sampling should take place while tank no blocked passages.
filling operations are proceeding, or for 30 minutes afier
stopprng. . DiP hatches
lf any object is accidentally dropped into a tank it should be re- Check that the hinge and the screwdown closure (when flt-
ported immediately. ted) operate freely.
Check that the seal (when fitted) is not damaged.
Floating roof tanks should be gauged from a gauging well, the
hatch of which is at the top ofthe access stairway, thus avoiding . Emergency vents
the necessity of descending on to the roof. Check that the cover opens easily and that the seal and the
Automatic gauging equipment should be checked against man- seating is not damaged.
ual dips at periodic intervals. . Float type level indicators
16.3.2.4 Internal floating covers Check via the roof inspection cover thatthe float guide wires
Increasing emphasis is being placed on reducing evaporation are intact and that there are no kinks in the gauge operating
losses byinstalling internal floating covers forlight hydrocarbon tape.
products stored in fixed roof tanks. Polyurethane (which is of Check that the gauge tape is operating correctly by actuat-
low conductivity) is often included as the principal material of ing the float "lift and drop" mechanism on the gauge head
construction for some types of covers. lt is essential in these
Check that the gauge reading window is not misted over
cases that all metal attachments fitted to the cover are electri-
cally-bonded to the tank shell by a flexible bond to avoid the Check for corrosion or damage to the tape pipework'
possibility of a discharge from the cover to the earthed tank sheaves and housings.
shell. To prevent the build up of a charge on the polyurethane . Foam boxes
cove( the resistance to earth at any point on the cover should
not exceed 103 ohms. Check for corrosion and ensure that the bursting disc is in-
tact. ter any outage for repairs. The compartments should be c_-i
Additionally for these tanks, the internal cover (of the contact
16.5.3 Tilting roof
type) when in the top position, should be visually inspected for
leaks across its surface from a suitable manhole or inspection
lftilting ofthe floating roof is noted, it may indicate one or more
hatch in the fixed roof.
flooded pontoons. Perform a visual check and if flooding is
Also it should be ensured that the anti-static cables and/or found,landing ofthe roofmust be donewith greatcare, and the
shunts on the seal are intact. leakage drained ofi before landing.
In day-to-day operations the lowering ofthe floating cover on to Problems with the rolling ladder could be another cause of the
its supports should be avoided. lfthis does become necessary root tilting.
then the filling rate should be reduced until the cover has
Another cause of a tilting roof, particularly at low levels near the
refloated.
landing position, may be the result of accumulations of waxy
deposits on the tank bottom. These sludges may build into sev-
16.4.2 Tank corrosion eral peaks and could cause damage to the roof if landed. lf ma-
terials are stored, which could give rise to such deposits, regu-
The tank itself should be checked for corrosion especially at the lar checks, should be made to determine the extent and
joint between the shell and floor and the floor outstand beyond disposition of deposits. The roof support leg sleeves are often
the shell. Also the roof-to-shelljoint is another vulnerable area. used as access points to dip for such deposits.
Bracketed connections to the shell and roof and access stair-
case connections also attract corrosion.
16.5.4 Mixers
Thermally insulated tanks should receive special attention and
sections ofthe cladding and insulation should be removed peri- Side entrymixers can cause severe vibrations in a floating roof.
odically to allow inspection of the underlying steel especially at As a general rule, operators should avoid the use of mixers if
discontinuities in the cladding i.e joints between cladding the roof is within 4 m of the roof lever.
sheets, roof-to-shell joints, closures at wind girders, closures
around nozzles and manholes and atthe base ofthe tank. lnsu-
16.5.5 Access to the floating roof
lation should ideally be stopped short of the floor plating by at
least 200 mm to prevent moisture being drawn up into the
insulation material by wick action. Open top tanks normally have a means ofaccessto the floating
roof for a variety of purposes. The rolling ladder, with level ad-
justing treads or simple rungs is the most usual means of ac-
1 6.4.3 Hazardous atmospheres cess. These may be affected by high winds and need to be
checked periodically. Alternatively, noaccess may be provided,
Access to the roofofa tank should be restdcted ifa toxic risk ex- except by a short, fixed ladder for use when the roof is in its
ists (e.9. HrS, benzene), in which strict safety prccautions ap- highest position. Tanks without rolling ladders present a prob-
propriate to the hazard, including the use of breathing appara- lem when the roof is out of service for maintenance. A special
tus, should be adopted and warning notices posted at the through-deck access way can sometimes solve this problem.
access points to the tank.
Rolling ladders with self-levelling treads require the tread
mechanisms to be lubricated occasionally. The wheels should
16.5 The operation of floating roof tanks of course be seen to properly engage in the tracks and any
signs of wear on the flanges or track edges may point to offset
Floating roofs should be examined frequenfly to ensure that
loads or alignment problems, Track and ladder length are
they are functioning effectively. lnadequate drainage of rainwa-
matched to maximum and minimum roof height. Any attemptto
ter, malfunctioning of roof ladders, sludge accumulation, ice
alter levels, say by reducing the roof support legs length, may
formation, snow or perforated pontoons, can all result in can!
cause the ladder to jam if it is too near the vertical.
ing ofthe roof. This can lead to jamming orsinking ofthe roof,
with the possible generation of sparks. Where no rolling ladder isfitted, there may be a full height verti-
cal ladder extending through a well in the floating roof. ln such
Operational and maintenance procedures should cover these
potential hazards. Instructions set out in the following Sections cases a fabric seal is usually the best that can be done to re-
duce vapour losses at this source. Check the condition of the
will assist in the operation of these orocedures.
fabric and renew as required.
usually have a low operating position and a high maintenance shells with anti-corrosion coatings however means that an al-
position and it is imperative that the leg and vent actuator ternative method has to be used. This is more difficult than it
lengths must be checked for a match, for protection to be as- seems for open top tanks due to wind action affecting any ca-
sured. bling system such as is commonplace with internal decks lf
shell contiact at the seal is not possible, cabled systems can be
The capacity of the vent valves is high, often around 10'000 bbl arranged to partly follow the rolling ladder, taking precautions
per hour; but it maybewiseto check specific capacities against
against snagging on the projections offered by roof legs etc.
current pumping rates, especially when any change of use is
planned. Check the condition and contact of rim seal shunts. Bend into
contact if required. The pitching of rim seal shunts is typically 3
A few roofs may not be fitted with emergency deck valves as m; but sometimes less, bY request.
above, but carry P & V vents instead. Here the question of ca-
pacity is even more pertinent and maintenance must be
assureo.
16.5,9 Foam dams
The only other venting requirement likelyto be found on a float- Since fire hazards tend to be concentrated in the rim area'
ing roofconcernsthe rim ventfor mechanicalseals This vent is fire-fighting measures are similarly concentrated here. To re-
to guard against an unusual circumsiance; but one, which can duce the amount offire-fighting foam and consequently speed
happen. lf a large quantity of air or gas enters the tank, say dur- the extinction, it ls customary to limit the spread of foam by use
ing pigging, the valve prevents the metalshoeplates from being of afoam dam, as discussed in Chapter7' Section 7.10 Thisis
pushed against the shell, jamming the roof by pressure. lt has simply a barrier, usually of steel running circumferentially at
happened! Only mechanical seals need such a protective de- around one metre from the tank shell and traditionally 12" high
vice.Thereshould beonevalveonsmalltanks, perhapstwoon (300 mm). lt should be noted that there is a case for extending
larger tanks. ihe h"ight of the foam dam, to allow submergence of the tip of
any secondary sealfitted, by 50 to 75 mm. The foam may be de-
16.5.7 Managing leg suPports livered to the rim zone from overhead, via fixed foam pourers or
foam cannons from an external source
There are many different lengths of roof support on any glven It is also oossible to use an on-deck foam soufce, which will
floating roof. This is becausethe floor may have been coned up generate foam on a signal and deliver it to nozzles located be-
or down at the time of designing. The object however is to ob- tween the primary and secondary seals. This system obviously
tain a level deck (or the desired slope in some cases) at two has a limited capacity; howeverit has the advantages ofspeedy
possible levels operating (low) and maintenance (high). The
- response and lowwastage since it is delivered to the seat of the
iegsare simplypinned in one orotherposition (roughly760 mm
proDlem.
difference)
Foam dams, which are integralwith the rim seal assembly, are
lf support legs are set in the maintenance position when the available and these are generally of a height compatible with a
roof is in service, the consequence may be that the roof lands secondary sealing system.
more frequently than is desirable and vapour conservation is
sacrificed. optimum operation will be achieved with the legs in Whatever the foam dam in use, there will be mouseholes for
the operating position, except during tank maintenance lt is im- drainage at the bottom. These tend to fillwith debris and should
portant therefore to remember to check that the bleeder deck be clejned out as required. lf not keptclear, rainwatercan build
vent is in the corresponding pin position. up behind the foam dam, leading to paint breakdown, corrosion
and damage, particularly to the seal mounting zone.
Remember also that the support legs are not designed to carry
the roof plus a water or product load Pontoons should be
checked before landing to ensure that they are dry
16.5.10 Floating roof seals
Specifically look at: . Sagging may indicate the envelope has been penetralec
Mechanical seals have a polymer fabric joining the sheet and liquid has saturated the foam fllling. Complete repiac-
metal shoeplate to the floating roof rim. This material has to be ment may be required.
slack to permit roof movement and therefore it tends to collect . Look after any weathershields. They can damage the seal if
water, corrosion products, wax etc in the loop. lf allowed to ac- allowed to deteriorate.
cumulate, the weight of debris can pull the shoeplate off the
wall, allowing vapour loss. Danger: With all liquid and foam filled seals think very carefully
before doing any hot work on the tank or floating roof. lt is
. With the passage of time, the rubber may deteriorate. Look very easy to forget even after cleaning and gas freeing that
fot cnzing. The joints should be checked for tightness. a large quantity of kerosene or vapour-impregnated foam
Take action as necessary may be prcsent in the tank. To avoid the risk of accidenial
. Examine the top ofthe metal shoeplates. lfcorrosion is evi- fire, these seals should removed before commencing any
dent, the lower shoe may be corroded. Insert a piece of hot work.
wood behind the plate and look down, next to the shell. Warning: Take care when changing the product stored in a
. The mechanical seal will not be tight against the shell at all tank, that the seal materials are compatible with the new
points; but if a location is noted where a large gap occurs, it product. Be especially wary of high aromatic liquids.
may indicate a problem with a pantograph hanger. This
Secondary seals will be mainly of the compression plate type.
would be unusual however.
Really there is very little to go wrong with then. There have of
. Aweathershield is a series ofoverlapped metal plates cov- course been a number of situations where compression plates
ering the primary seal at an angle of about 50 degrees. As have turned down where there is a large increase in rim gap.
the name implies, it sheds off some ofthe rainwaterand cor- e.g. at an outwards bulge in the tank shell. This problem is now
rosion products, protecting the primary seal. This will im- recognised and can be safeguarded.
prove seal life, regardless of the primary seal type.
. Do not be concerned if the secondarysealtip is not making
. A secondary seal does all that a weathershield does and contact with the shell over the entire circumference. Major
more. There are significant savings in vapour and the pri- gaps should not occur; but secondary seals act by interfer-
mary seal well protected. lndeed, in the EU, tanks in motor ing with the wind action and small gaps do not negate the
spirit service are legally obliged to be fitted with both pri- benefits.
mary and secondary seals.
. Look out for any signs of loosening of the rim attachments
Liquid-filled seals have a polymer bag containing a fluid, nor- and correct aS necessary
mally kerosene. These primary seals are usually found in ser-
vice with volatile products, such as gasoline, naphtha etc. The . Seal tip wear is unlikely to be found.
filling fluid may be contained within a separate tube or be held in . EU legislation requires that secondary seals be fitted to
the scuff band itself. These seals should have weathershields
floating roofs with motor spirit contents; but says nothing
or seconoary seats.
about operating the roof at a maximum level which retains
. Checkthe scuffband, which rubs againstthe shell, lookfor the secondary seal within the tank shell top. Routinely tak-
signs of deterioration. crazing etc. ing the secondary seal above the tank top is not recom-
mended. lfthis is the case, it is not performing its function.
. Check that the bag is containing fluid. lt should be pushing
against the shell. lf the bag is limp, it has lost its fluid the . Ensure that electrostatic grounding strips are in good condi-
stored liquid will be visible. In such a case, something has tion and contacting the shell. If not contacting, bend until
punctured the bag or it has deteriorated structurally. Loose contact is renewed.
bolts can be trapped against the shell; but by far the most
Double seals are much the same as the secondary seals just
frequent destroyer of liquid-filled seals is the neglected
described. The lower, primary seal is visible ifa piece ofwood is
weathershield, which was put there to protect the seal. The
inserted behind the secondary seal.
reason is that the weathershields are allowed to deteriorate
to such an extent that they can be broken off when the roof 16.5.10.2 Vapour loss
is at a high level in windy conditions. The broken piece fre-
quently falls into the rim space where it grinds away at the API 2517 gives guidance on vapour losses from the roof leg
rubber band until a puncture occurs and the fluid is lost. sleeves and the slotted guidepole etc. Support leg losses are
Weathershields must be kept in working order. individually small; however there are many of them and the po-
tential losses look significant afterthe major step offitting a sec-
. To recover a punctured seal bag, provided the polymer is ondary seal has been taken. Leg covering socks are available
not breaking down, obviously first remove the cause of the to deal with leg losses and are fitted during routine mainte-
puncture then replace the existing punctured tube, or if no nance.
tube was fitted originally fit a tube in the envelope. This al-
lows the repair to be made without removing the roof guide Slotted guide poles lose unexpectedly high amounts ofvapour
pole (this can be a problem with some liquidjilled seals, and a number of solutions are available. However, because of
which are made as continuous rings). Refill with the filling ihe need to allow free movement of the roof around the guide
pole and not to interfere with any internal liquid level floats, the
fluid. lt may be necessary to repair the scuff band if the hof
ang is extensive.
shrouding of the guide pole presents a number of difficult prob-
lems.
Foam-filled seals may suffer scuffing against the tank shell,
especially where the material may be creased. Creasing is Geodesic dome roofs presentan opportunityto resolve many
however inevitable since seals have to be made to allow for ofthe problems associated with open top floating roofs. The all
varying rim gaps (usually plus or minus 100 mm). aluminium roof can be fitted to existing open tanks with a mini-
mum of site disruption. lsolated from the elements, the floaiing
. Lookforworn, ortorn, envelope material. Dependingon the roof will no longer present painting problems, the seal losses
envelope material, patching may be possible, with a local will reduce by up to 90% and water ingress to the productwilt be
wrap-around to protect the patch. eliminated.
16.5.11 Effects of roof type on drainage Faults noted with these drains include decks flooding after a
prolonged spell of dry weather. The pans may dry out and the
The single deck, pontoon roof has a single layer of plating at its essential leg ofwaterseal lost. The same result can occurfor a
centre and this plating will be below the normal liquid level ofthe different reason; corrosion may perforate the water pan, allow-
stored product when the roof is afloat. For any type of articu- ing the product to flood onto the decK.
lated pipe or hose attached to a sump in a roof of this type the lf syphon drains are fitted, be aware oftheir limitations and per-
natural consequence of a leak or rupture in the conduit will be haps consider using stainless steel units. At any rate at least
that product will enter the conduit and flood the deck plating ensure they are primed with water after any extended dry
(particularly if the shell outlet valve is closed). Obviously, this is speIs.
undesirable and as a consequence, the upper end of the drain-
Syphon drains should be drained of water and plugged when
age conduit in pontoon roofsumps must be fitted with a suitable
the product temperature is belowfreezing, see Chapter 6, Sec-
non-return valve. Check this valve occasionally to see that it is
tion 6.5.8.
functioning. The sump top screen should be kept clear of de-
bns. Rapid product movement could sweep out the waterseal and a
cover is often fitted to prevent this.
Double deck roofs have the drainage sump located below the
upper deck, but above the product liquid level, and therefore
they do not require having non-return valves fitted in the sump. 16.5.14 Roof drain plug
When primary roof drains are closed in winter, measures
Pontoon type floating roofs carry a drain plug, nearthe roof cen-
should be taken to prevent the freezing of rainwater.
tre. This should be removed when the roofis outofservice. Any
articulated roof drain which may be present will operate at its
16.5.12 Overflow drains minimum capacity when the roof is at low level. Opening the
drain plug ensures that the roof legs will be protected against
Double deck floating roofs can permit waterto enter the stored damage by excessive water load whilethe roofis standing on its
product ifthe roof primary drainage system is not effective or is suooorts.
not opened to remove rainwater before the water level on the
Rememberto replace the plug before re-filling commences. At-
roof exceeds the small upstand on the roofand spills down into
taching a prominent streamer will trigger this action.
the product. These overflow drains are incorporated on double
decks which have not been designed to carry the full design
condition waterload. 1 6.6 Static electricity
The generation ofstatic electricity is a surface phenomenon as-
16.5.13 Collection sump details sociated with the contact and separation of dissimilar surfaces.
With hydrocarbon products, the degree of charge, generation
Before rainwater is disposed of from the roof, it has to be col and decay is also a function of the type and concentration of
lected at one or more points on the roof. Mainly the locus is the certain trace compounds such as asphaltenes, oxidation prod-
roofcentre. At this point there should be a sump, extending be- ucts, naphthenic and sulphonic acids.
lowthe deck plating leveland with a screening device and cover
The unit of conductivity normally used is picosiemens/metre,
to exclude large solids. Large roofs may have more than one
(ps/m). The siemens was formally known as the mho.
sump.
Hydrocarbon distillates with a low conductivity in the range of
Pontoon type roofs bytheir nature are flexible, and are intended
0.1 to 10 ps/m are strong electrostatic accumulators. Residues
to be so. This has consequential effects on drainage, on paint
and crudeoils have a much higher conductivity in the range 10"
condition and indeed on the life ofthe roof. Care must be taken
to 105 ps/m and any electrostatic charge generated is rapidly
in the construction ofthese roofs to ensure the centre deck is as
dissipated. Distilled water has a conductivity of about 103 pS i
flat and even as possible; however despite balanced welding
m. Unless otherwise stated the hydrocarbon products referred
techniques etc, inevitably such decks will be distorted to some
to in this Section will be of the first group, i.e. those of low con-
degree and ponding will occur. Where distortion is severe,
ponding tends to take place regularlyatthe same lowspots and ductivity which are capable of accumulating electrostatic
paint condition will deteriorate at these locations. Some roofs charge.
are fitted with under-deck stiffening rings in an attempt to con- The relaxation time ofa hydrocarbon product is that taken for its
trol deck distortion; though this is often not successful. Drain- charge to relax to 1ie of its original value and is inversely pro-
age to the central sump of pontoon type roofs is not perfect and portionalto its conductivity. For the above mentioned hydrocar-
some ponding is to be expected. bon distillates the relaxation time would be in the ranqe 180 to
1.8 seconds.
Efforts to overcome ponding have been made. Auxiliary piping
has been connected from low spots to the central sump. This The generation of static electricity in itself does not present a
has to be done carefully however, since it could lead to hard hazard unless an electricfield is produced in a flammable atmo-
spots where roof flexibility is impaired, rendering the roof un- sphere and that field can be discharged resulting in a spark of
able to cope with say tank floor settlement on landing of the sufflcient energy to cause ignition. The amount of energy re-
roof. The interconnecting piping could also present problems. quired depends upon the composition of the flammable
atmosphere.
Double deck roofs do not sufferfrom this problem to any degree
since their structure allows one or more oositive slopes to facili- For further information on this subject, see Reference 16.5,
tate drainage to central collection sumps. which is to be superseded by a new Standard, see Reference
76.6. Another most useful exposition on electrostatics is given
Syphon drains have to be correctly designed and maintained.
in Reference 16.7.
Their operation must be controlled thoughtfully, with a proper
understanding oftheir design and limitations. Changes of prod-
uct, from say gasoline storage to a high density liquid, or one 16.6.1 Precautions to minimise or avoid static
which could be affected adversely by water, e.g. MTBE, could charges
have consequences which must be considered in advance if
syphon drains are present. To minimise the build up of static charges when filling a tank
-t.
16 Operction of ambient temperature tanks
normal gravity drainage. In this case the area within the bund been removed and cannot be accidentally reintroduced.
should be isolated from any outside drainage system by an ex-
ternally-sited valve, kept closed unless the bund area is being Care should be taken to ensure that contractors and subcon-
drained of water under controlled conditions. tractors are also covered bythe permit or authorisation system.
Alternatively, the bund may be drained by means of a manu-
ally-controlled pump, or by a syphon drain, which passes over 16.9.2 Notice of issue of a permit
the top ofthe bund wall, and is primed by means ofa small man-
ually-controlled pump.
When repairs or alterations necessitate the dismanfling on site
Water from tank bunds should pass through a oil interceptor of important items of equipment, such as valves, pumps or
system before passing to any outside drainage system or wa- pipelines, or entry into tanks or vessels, specific notice should
tercourse. Provision may be made for a valved by-pass round be conveyed to all concerned and due acknowledgement
the interceptor, which would allow controlled flow ofuncontami- recetved.
nated water in exceptional storm conditions orforthe release of
fire-fighting water.
16.9.3 Working in tanks
16.9 Tank maintenance Hot work or other hazardous work should not commence inside
Health and safety law requires that plant and equipment is a tank or vessel which has stored petroleum until it has been
maintained in a safe condition. Storage tanks and all associ- emptied, isolated, cleaned and gas-freed. Also, it should not
ated equipment, including walls and fences, should be properly commence until it is confirmed that there is no oxygen defi-
maintained. Only personnel who are suitably qualified and ciency and the local areas have been cleaned so that there will
authorised, and who fully understand the hazards, should carry be no emission of product vapour on application of heat.
out inspection and maintenance.
lf repair work involving hot work from the inside of the tank is
It is good practice to list the component parts of the installation
necessary on welded seams or plates ofabove ground vertical
on a preventive maintenance schedule, containing details of tanks, holes should be carefully drilled, under cold work condi-
the scope and frequency of planned inspection and mainte-
tions and gas tests should be carried out. This will ensure that
nance work. Attention should also be paid to periodic inspection product or gas is not trapped between the tank plates and tank
of electrical equipment and operation of isolation valves. There
surround or foundation, before the hot work is allowed to
should be regular inspection and cleaning of interceptors, proceed.
bunds, vents, slop tanks, loading and unloading facilities, and
any buildings where flammable vapour may be present.
Fire-fighting equipment should be regularly maintained and, 16.9.4 Work on equipment in operation
where appropriate, tested.
A competent person should carry out examination of tanks, Repairs or alterations to plant and equipment in operation
pipe work and fittings. This could be a specialist inspection en- should not be permitted except for non-hazardous cold work
gineer employed by an insurance company or an employee carried out under carefully controlled conditions, e.g. repairs or
with the appropriate qualifications and experience. A written alterations to floating suctions, pressure and vacuum vents,
scheme of examination should be agreed between the user and float gauges, etc. Repairs or alterations should not be under-
the competent person, to include the scope and frequency of taken when tanks or vessels are being filled or emptied.
thorough examination. Intervals between internal examinations
should bedetermined usinga risk assessment approach based
on tank service, maintenance history and known corrosion 16.10 Personnel and equipment require-
rates. Intermediate external examinations should also be car-
ried out on above ground tanks. Records should be kept of all
ments
examinations, tests, modifications and major maintenance. Persons who are to carry outwork of maintenance or construc-
Schemes ofexamination should be in writing and should be re- tion in installations or depots, which are in operation, or which
viewed regularly. Hoses normally need to be examined and are storing petroleum products, should be fully acquainted with
pressure-tested at least annually, and visually inspected on all relevant safety regulations.
every day they are used.
Work of inspection, maintenance or extensions should
1 6.9.1 Permit-to-work systems be-planned and progressed by experienced and responsible
staff, who should ensure that all persons engaged in the work
observe all relevant precautions.
Many accidents have occurred while storage installations were
being maintained, modified or demolished. The main cause is When maintenance or extensions are being undertaken, con-
the introduction ofa source of ignition, such as a cutting torch or tractors'or casual labour is frequently employed. These per-
an unprotected light, to pieces of equipment where flammable sons may not befamiliarwith the normal precautions adopted in
vapours remarn. premises storing petroleum, and the necessary precautions to
It is essential that any work carried out on equipment, which be taken should be confirmed before commencement of the
may contain a flammable liquid, or vapour is covered by a per- work. When such labour is employed there should be strict su-
mit-work or similar system of authorisation. Permit procedures pervision to ensure that all relevant precautions are observed.
are described fully in Reference 16.10.
When mobile equipment, which is to be used for carrying out
A typical permit will specify: work of maintenance or extensions, is temporarily stationed in a
. the area to which the permit applies. hazardous area, it should be ofsuch construction that it is not li-
able to be a source of ignition and to cause a fire.
. the work to be done and the method to be used.
Contractors' equipment should not be allowed to be brought
. the time limjt on the permit.
into use without written authority of the installation or depot
. the precautions to ensure that allflammable materials have manager or his authorized representative.
16.11.3 Gas-ff,eeing
16.12 Tank cleaning
The gas-freeing of a tank, which has contained volatile hvdro- Cleaning oftanks which are not completely gas free should be
carbons, has two main ourposes: carried out only under the direct supervision of a comDetent
1) to eliminate conditions which might lead to a fire or explo- person. Such tanks should be kept as well ventjlated as possi-
ston. ble and all personnel entering should be equipped with suitable
2) to eliminate possible toxic ef{ects and asphyxiation of per- breathing apparatus and protective clothing appropriate to the
sonnel entering the tank. nature of the product and condition of the bnk.
In all cases appropriate tests should be carried out and work These factors will also determine the time for which personnel
progressed under the direct supervision of a competent per- may be permitted to remain inside, but it is recommended that
son. Gas-freeing and cleaning of tanks are interrelated and no in no case should this exceed 1.5 hours with a half-hour break
work of either gas-freeing or cleaning should start without an before re-entry The time in the tank must not exceed the safe
overall plan. limit for the breathing apparatus being used. While work is in
progress there should be a competent person stationed outside
Precautions must be taken to protect personnelfrom asphyxia-
the tank to ensure that rescue can be undertaken ifnecessary
tion and the effects oftoxic materials. After removalofthe prod-
uct, the tank must be isolated and then ventilated. ln the cleaning of floating roof tanks, it is important to ensure
that pockets of flammable material are not trapDed in the tubu-
Naturalventilation is slow and purging oflarge tanks bythe use lar roof support legs owing to blockage ofdrain holes by scale or
of steam is not practicable because of the large condensing
sruoge.
surface afforded by the tank shell and hence the difficulty of
raising the temperature in the tank space sufficienfly forthe ef- For Class lll petroleum tanks, special precautions are not nec-
fective removal of vapour. Furthermore, with steaminq there is essary provided that they are suitably isolated and adequately
also a risk of static accumulation on anv insulated co;ductors ventilated during cleaning operations, and that personnelwear
that may be in the tank. suitable protective clothing. However, ifhotwork is to be under-
taken, appropriate precautions should be observed.
Ventilation by an air or flameproof electric motor-driven fan or
an air or steam-operated eductor sited at a suitable manhole is During subsequentwork, tanks, which have been cleaned and
recommended for reducing the vapour concentration within a declared free of gas, should be checked frequenfly (not less
tank to a low figure relatively quickly (see R eference 16.11). All than twice daily) by an accurately calibrated combustible gas
equipment used for the venting of a tank must be correcfly indicator. Effective ventilation should be maintained throuqhout
bonded and earthed. the tank whilst work is in progress.
During the gas-freeing of a tank which has contained volatile 16.12.1 Tanks which contain, or have contained leaded
products, escaping flammable vapours may cause a hazatd- products
ous atmosphere outside the tank. In still atmosDheric condi- Tanks, which have at any time contained leaded products, re_
tions these vapours may travel beyond the limits of the usual quire special precautions. and the recommendations of the
safety distances. For this reason, rapid dispersal of vapour is manufacturers ofthe lead compound regarding procedure and
desirable. safety regulations should be rigidly ooserved.
With ventilation by an air orflameproof electric motor, combus- The accumulation ofrust, scaleand sludgefrom a cleaning op-
tible gas indicator tests show that its atmosphere contains a eration should be handled only in a wet state both in the tank
minimum of hydrocarbon vapour but, in any case, below25% of and after removal. Disposal should be in accordance with the
the lower flammable limit. The tank may then be entered for in- recommendations of the manufacturers of the lead comoound.
IIISPECT('{ FREQUETCY
6ROUP sEivtcE EXIERIIAL EXTERIIAI NTEN A!
@rDmofls ROUNilE o.t lhd vlrull O.ldl.d vl3u.l
VISUAL lmludlnE ulh&nlc Inclrdhg ulraaoruc
lhiclmaar thhtt|..
lmootFl .to! .nd ?ool bolb|n |rd.irI
CULATE OOIE fre bdor'
E c a
Sbpr, cdfldte or agEssslv
cn6fi-rcab, ias !vdr. bfi6 3 I
(not iolernaly p|oldd)
Crud Ol 5 7 8 8 10
Fid oil, gr dl t !o oil,
dlld ol. ..u.8 ra(b. lnrl 3 5 a to 12 1A m
oa rF|l.alE|tr*a chcnhal!,
alrimrn lhuil
Jsl Al fiilly i{.maly l0 't0 15 t5 5 I
!|eded)
Liolt prodocb. t.osim.
gsolkE, c..d(.d rtdllh.., 5 7 t0 12
lrbdod $/atar (nol i srEly
7 'loleded)
Haled and i|3{latad LrJG, 3 3 6
l'loi!: Ext mal UT maaclr+
me.|b or ysrorrd b.do ol
.h.x d et aalscad locdbta
rourd rool d6rlot!6.y.
Climat cod63:
A ' Wann ..d humid, o.g rqical rnd subtlphsl.lel8
g= Temotalo dlmale wftn fquenl taln and |Nlnd
C ' Watrn and &v. e-s. d6n kEalixls
Commenta'
Th insDdbn freauencies indicated above ar for guidan@ only. After eadl detailed
extomal or intemql ingpedioo, tho Tenk Inlegrity Aeeeesor (nA) should detennlrE lhe
date for the nxi hspedion. This datr should ensure hat the rsjeclion limit EtatEd
ekewt|elt in thb publicalion arc nol sxceedd.
lf lhe insDec{ion resultts indk:ale a more pid deteriofation due to corosion or settement,
other sinilar tanks may need to be inspeded earliet. On the other hand, if the inspeclion
rssults arg tavourabl. an extension of the lr6peclion InteNal may be conBldered'
and preferably either by means ofincineration under controlled Reference should be made to the two principal Codes which
conditions or by chemical treatment. deal with this subject and are given in References 16.12 and
16.13
Care should be taken to avoid:
Both Codes give clear advice and recommendations for the in-
. skin contiact with products containing lead alkyls. spection and maintenance of storage tanks and guidance on
the frequency for inspections is also given. Figure 16.2 gives
. inhalation of vapour from products containing lead alkyls.
details of inspection frequencies in EEMUA publication 159.
. ingestion through contactofhands and finger nails with lead
sruoge.
Any tank which contains or has contained leaded products, in-
cluding leaded slops, should have notices permanently fixed
adjacent to all manholes reading:
.THIS
TANK CONTAINS OR HAS CONTAINED LEADED
PRODUCT. IT MUST NOT BE ENTERED WITHOUT
COMPLYING WITH THE PRESCRIBED REGULATIONS'
This notice should only be removed when the appropriate de-
contamination procedures, as required by the lead alkyl manu-
facturers, have been implemented.
Total segregation of leaded slops is also recommended
16.16 References
16.1 Refining Safety Code Paft 3,lnstitute of petroleum.
1 6.14 Operational malfunctions 16.3 Flammable and Combustible Liqui?s Code. National
Fire Protection Association. NFpA 30.
Figures 16.3 to 16,6 demonstrate whatcan happen when a tank
is mistreated. 16.4 Sfandard System for the ldentification of Hazards of
Material for Emergency Response, National Fire pro-
Figure 16.3 showsthe result ofan explosion inside a tank due to tection Association, NFPA 704.
hot work being performed on the tankwithoutthe correct safetv
precautions being observed. 16.5 Code of Practice on the Control of Undesirabte Static
Electricity, The British Standards Institution, BS 5958.
Severe corrosion of the roof plates, found after the cladding and
thermal insulation was removed from the roof of a tank. is 16.6 Code of Practice on the Control of tJndesirable Static
shown in Figure 16.4. Electricv The British Standards Institution No. pD
cLC/TR 50404.
Figure 16.5 shows the result of a severe over-Dressurisation.
the roof-to-shell joint has ruptured and a roofstructure bracket
'16.7 The lnternational Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Ter-
has punctured the shell. m/nals, (ISGOTT), www.seamanship.co.uk.
The result ofan internalvacuum condition, is illustrated in Fig- 16.8 Bitumen Safety Code, Institute of petroleum
ure 16.6. This 29 m diameter tank was beinq steam cleaned. 16.9 The Highly Flammabte Liquidsand Liquefied petroleum
The operatives had covered up the roof vendto keep the heat casses Regu/ations 7922, HSE booklet HS(G) 51.
in the tank and when they left the tank for a tea-break, thev '16.10 Guidance on permit-to-work systems in the petroleum
closed the shell manhole again, to keep the heat in the tank,
- rndustry, HSE Books 1997, |SBN 07.1 761281 3.
Of course, during the tea-break, the iank atmosDhere cooled
down, the residualsteam condensed and the resultino vacuum
16.11 Marketing Safety Code, Patt 2, lnstituteof petroleum.
sucked the tank in! 16.12 Users guide to the lnspection, Maintenance and Relair
of Aboueground Veftical Cylindricat Sfee/ Slorage
Ianks, The Engineering Equipment and Nlaterials U!-
16.15 Further guidance ers Association (EEMUA), No. 159: 2003.
The following publications provide useful guidance on iank op- 16.13 Tank lnspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruc-
eralton. flons, API 653 3rd Edition, December 2O0l .
This chapter ranges widely overthe subject ofthe storage of industriargases in riquid fonn. The
gases stored in this way are risted and the significant properties described. pressurised
systems for the storage of these gases which can be liquefied bv the imposition of oressure
alone are described and their advantages, disadvantages and'economics are discusseo.
Semi-refrigerated storage is an intermediate means of itoring certain types of gases failing
between fully pressurised ambient temperature systems and fu[y refrigeriied storige at orius-t
above atmospheric pressure. Lasfly the most popular system of fuliy refrigerated'storag'e is
described.
The history ofthe development of lowtemperature storage systems is interesting. ltcombinesa
tangled web of factors and incidents involving the increasing understanding of the low
temperature behaviour of various metals, increasing demands for improved safdty of storage
facilities, the developments in the design codes and otherregulatory requirements, the reaction
to various accidents and incidents and, particurarry for LNG and to a re;ser extent for LpG and
ethylene, a dramatic increase in the overall capacity of terminals and the corresponding
increase in unit tank capacities. The various factors influencing the capacities oftanks leads to a
brjef review of what is currently common practice.
The development ofthe design codes, especia[y in Europe, has red to the cateqorisation of row
temperature storage lanks into single, double and full containment. The devel6pment of these
categories emanated from increasing awareness of safety considerations both ior the terminal
sites themselves and forthe surrounding areas. These three main categories relate to above
ground vedical cyiindrical storage tanks. The various codes provide quite specific
definitions of
what is.required for each category. The membrane type oftank which was developed in France
0y technrglz and which has its origjns in the marine transport of products such as LNG is
described. This type of tank is applicable to above ground and in_ground storage systems.
spherical designs of tanks for rand-based, fu||y-refrigerated storage of products such as LNG
have been proposed for many years but have not tet been utiriied d;spite the attraction of
tactory-based construction and transport to the job site in one piece. These arso have their
te_chnicalroots again in the marine transport of LNG. A smafl numberof rowtemperature tanks
ofabove ground, vertical cylindricalform have been constructed with both inner and outertanks
constructed from prestressed concrete. These designs were developed by the preload
Company in the USA,(now.kading as Cryocrete lnc.). Th;se use a nu mbei of interesting design
teatures, which are described.
ln-ground ljquefied gas storage systems divide themselves into two groups. The first group is
the vertical,cylindricartanks, usuafly incorporating a membrane typiof riner, a rigid iniuraiion
system and a concrete caisson wall are expensive, when compared with their a-bove ground
equivalents, but in certain circumstances provide attractive advantages in that their incieased
perceived safety arrows croser tank spacing, which in turn makes bet'ier
use of the area of rand
available This is especiarry important for areas where expensive recraimed rand in or crose to
urban areas is involved. This type of tank is usuafly confined to the storage of LNG at marine
terminals.
The second type of in-ground storage ls the cavern type. unlined caverns are constructed in
rock at depths where the static waterpressure from a carefully controlled ground watersystem
slightlyexceedsthe pressure required to maintain the stored p;oduct (usuaiiy LpG) in riquid form
at ambient pressure. A number of novel liquid gas storage systems involving floaiing
or gravity
based structures most usually directed at LNG are alsodescribed.
Contents:
17.1 The low temperature gases
17.2 General
17.3 Historical background
17.4 Tank sizing considerations
17,5 Storage systems and containment categories
17.6 Single containment systems
17.7 Double containment systems
17.8 Full containment systems
17.9 Membrane tanks
17.9. 1 Development history
'17.9.2 Detailed description of land-based
membrane system
pressure of around 15 bar is required) more expensive. A typi- ucts has ended. In certain quarters spherjcal vessels for the
cal LPG storage facility using spherical vessels is shown in Fig- storage of modest volumes of LPG are still being constructed.
ure 17.3. Spherical pressure vessels commonly used forthese However increased safety standards togetherwith the memory
products began to become problematic at around 5000 m3 ca- of some spectacular and very public accidents make this form
pacity. A spherical vessel for this capacity would be some 22 m of storage unpopular and in many instances a prohibited prac-
in diameter and for propane seryice would have a shell thick- Itce.
ness of around 50 mm. This is an expensive construction and To accommodate the requirement for the storage of modest
clearly other storage systems were required. quantities ofthese products, an alternative arranoement known
Figure 17.3 Atypical fully-pressu sed LPG storage facility Figure 17.5 An example ofa semi-refrigerated and fully-refrigeraled ethylene
slorage
as "mounded storage" was developed. This consists essen- Courtesy of whessoe
tially of horizontal pressure vessels installed on a bed of sand
and backfllled with sand. An example ofsuch a facility ls shown
in Figure 17.4. This system seems to meet with approval from 1 7.3 Historical background
even the most safety conscious operators.
The first thoughts regarding the liquefaction and transport of
gases go some way back in time. In 1915 Godfrey Cabot pro-
posed the shipment of LNG by means of river barges. In 1937
SirAlfred Egerton proposed thatthe British gas industry which
was at that time based on the carbonisation ofcoal, should ex-
tract a fraction ofthe methane contentfrom the coal gas, liquefy
it and store itforsubsequent evaporation for peak shaving pur-
ooses.
The facility at Cleveland, ohio, was the first LNG peak shaving
plant ever built. It was constructed to provide an economical
and reliable energy source during the winter months for the lo-
cal industry Much of this local industry was related to World
War ll munitions manufacture. The LNG storage part ofthe fa-
Figurc 17.4 l,lounded storage
cility consisted of one vertical cylindrical tank of 4,100 m3 ca-
Coutlesv of Whessoe
pacity and three 2,000 m3 sphericaltanks and had been in ser-
A further development, most usually applied to the storage of vice for some four years with no apparentoperating problems.
propane, is "cavern storage". In this system a series of unlined
horizontial tunnels or caverns are constructed at a depth which The tanks had been filled to their full capacity in readiness for
depends to some extent on the level of the local water table the iorthcoming winter when, on the afternoon of October 20'i
The principle of the system is that the vapour pressure of the 1944, the cylindricaltank suddenlyfailed releasing all of its con-
propane is slightly over balanced bythe ground water pressure. tents into the nearby streets and sewers of Cleveland. The re-
Hence no propane leaks out ofthe system and modest quanti- sultant gas cloud ignited immediately and a fire ensued which
ties of water leak into the caverns. This water is continuously engulfed the nearby tanks, residences and commercial estab-
pumped out and used to prime a series of header pipes which lishments. After about 20 minutes, with the initial fire having
ensure the continuous and constant ground water pressure. nearly died down, the spherical tank closest to the cylind cal
This system is again the subject of later Chapters. tank toppled over and released its contents. The 2,000m3 of
LNG immediately evaporated and ignited. In all 130 people
Products such as ethane and ethylene cannot be maintained in were killed and 225 injured. The area directly involved was
liquid form bythe application ofpressure alone, but can be suc- about 2 square kilometres of which an area ofaround 120 hect-
cessfully subjected to a combination of pressure and low tem- ares was completely devasbted.
Derature. There are some examples of this form ofstorage but
Although sabotage was first suspected, a thorough investiga-
in generalthese products are stored in fully refrigerated form.
tion showed that the accident was due to the low temperature
An example ofethylene stored in both the fully refrigerated form
embrittlement of the 3.5% nickel steel inner tank shell. 3.5%
and the semi-refrigerated form is shown in Figure 17.5. The
nickel steel is now known to be susceptible to brittle fracture at
semi refrigerated storage is in the spherical vessel which is
LNG temperatures (around -160 "C). In addition the tianks were
double walled, i.e. an aluminium alloy sphere suspended within
an outercarbon steelsphere. This solution posed some serious
situated close to a heavily used railroad and a bomb body
stamping plant. ltwas considered that excessivevibration ema-
design and construction problems.
nating from the railroad engines and the stamping plant proba-
The remaining products (LNG oxygen, nitrogen and argon) are blyaccelerated the crack propagation from some smalloriginal
always stored as liquids in the fully refrigerated form. defect in the innertank shell. The outercarbon steeltankwould
have cracked on contact with the emerging LNG
The accident was aggravated by the lack of adequate diking of the technical advances and served as a model for the LNG
around the tanks, the ability of the LNG to enter the local sew- imporuexDort terminals to follow.
age system and the proximity ofthe plant to nearby residential
Two further significant accidents played their part in determin-
areas. The reason for the second release of liquid from the
ing the nature of future low lemperature storage facilities.
spherical vessel was found to be due to the fact that the sup-
porting legs of the sphere were not fitted with fire protection. The first was the explosion in the LNG tank for Texas Eastern at
The prolonged exposure to the fire weakened the legs of the Staten lsland in the IJSA. This tank was of a novel design. The
sphere to the pointwhen they buckled causing it to topple over. new design evolved from original work carried out in 1958 and
1959. A new research and test programme was implemented
This event cast a blight overthe storage of bulk refrigerated liq- between 1960 and 1966. A test tank of 6.1 m in diameter and
uids and of LNG in particular, until '1958 when the bulk storage 8.5 m in height was constructed and successfully tested. Most
of LNG was re-examined as a part of the beginning of the LNG tanks up to that time were of the single containment type
world's LNG trade. Over the intervening years a great deal of with aluminium alloy or 9% nickel steel inner tanks within a
research work was carried out on the low temperature behav- perlite insulated carbon steelouter tank. The Staten lsland tank
iour of various metals and the lessons of this sad event gave had a aluminised mylar layer in contact with the product liquid,
rase to serious considerations ofplant layout, fire protection and
supported by polyurethane foam thermal insulation which was
other safety related sub.iecb. in turn supported by a thick concrete wall mounded with gravel
The next step in the development ofthe LNG storywas the pio- and earth. The details are shown in Figure 17.6.
neering scheme to transport gas in liquid form from Lake The tank, which entered service in March 1970 and which was
Charles, Louisiana, USA, to Canvey lsland in the United King- also for storing LNG from Algeria, was found to be suffering
dom. A liquefaction plant built for an eadier barge transport in- from leakage of LNG through the mylar liner into the supporting
vestigation wasiaken to Lake Charleswherea 2000tonne LNG PUF, concrete wall and the supporting earth beam. Despite
tank was constructed. An ex-liberty ship, The Normafti, was this, the tank remained in service until January 1972. It was
procured, converted into an LNG carrier of 5000m3 capacity then decommissioned and there followed a protracted
and renamed The Methane Pioneer. Al Canvey lsland two gas-purging period. The tank was under repair when the acci-
1000 tonne capacity perlite insulated aluminjum alloy LNG dent happened. lt is thoughtthat residual heavy ends (propane)
tanks were constructed. On 20th February 1959 The Methane had accumulated behind the liner either within the PUF or be-
Ploneerdelivered a cargo of 2020 tonnes of LNG to Canvey ls- hind the concrete wall and that some of this liquid suddenly
land after a voyage from Lake Charles of22 days and 18 hours made its way back into the tank and was ignited by various
duration. non-explosion proof tools being used for the repair work. The
As Dennis Rooke, whowas a crew member on that originalvoy- explosion caused the concrete roof to fall killing the 40 men
age and who rose to become Chairman of British Gas, re- working insidethetank. This event brought to a haltalldevelop-
marked, "thus was the LNG industry born". The Methane pio-
neerwas to make a further seven voyages carrying a technical
team between Lake Charles and Canvey lsland, and a great
deal of data and experience was gained which was pivotal to
the further development of this industry This part of the history
is described in considerable detail in Refe rences 17.1 and 17.2.
ments using this form of liquid containment and this is still the There are a few mounded LPG storage facilities with total ca-
case looay. pacities ranging up to 20,000 m3 (involving a numberofsmaller
Secondly an accident occurred at the Qatar Lpc terminal. On pressure vessels) and some spherical vessels with individual
the 3 April 1977 an explosion and subsequent fire totally de- capacities up to 4,000-5,000 m3, but these are comparatively
stroyed the $43 million plant for the processing and storage of unusual. Fully refrigerated storage tanks for these products
liquefied propane, butane and pentane at Umm Said in Qatar. come into their own (depending upon local circumstances)
Seven people were killed and 13 injured. Apart from an emo- around 5000 m3 and become increasinglythe onlyviable option
tive report entilled "Frozen Fire" (Reference /23), litfle has as the volume to be stored increases. The maximum size of re-
been published about this event, which is strange given the tre- frigerated tank for these products is established by a combina-
mendous effect that it had on the future development of low tion of the following:
temperature storage systems. The protracted legal process The maximum lower shell course thickness Dermitted bv
which followed the accident also did little to help identifl/ the the design Codes
central cause for the failure, only that a sudden and cata-
strophic failure of the shell of the propane tank occurred which Seismic design considerations
in turn led to the failure of the other tanks on the site.
The relative economics of larger storage units
Amongst the main suspects were:
- Operating flexibility consideration (i.e. two smaller tanks
BS 4741:1971(Reference 17.4) The British Standard for may be preferred to a single larger tank for reasons con-
the storage of liquids down to -50'C, which was in place at nected with malfunction or majntenance etc.)
that time. This Standard included a new and complex
method of material selection together wjth a partial rather Safety considerations
than full height hydrostatic test requirement. Local and international regulations
Incorrect operation possibly involving over filling or over Current practice suggests that 80,000 m3 is large for an LPG
pressurising of the iank.
tank with 50,000 m3 being a more usual size. For ammonia
- Poor fabrication and inspection Standards 60,000 m3 is a big tank with 30,000 m3 being a more normal
chotce.
- Sabotage
For the gases which cannot be maintained in liquid form by the
Despite the failure to isolate the prime cause of the failure, a application of pressure alone, the field divides into three
numberof major operating companies led by Shell (References groups:
17.5 and 17.6) began to give further thought to designs which
would reduce the possibility of brittle fracture and reduce the - Oxygen, nitrogen and argon
consequences ofa failure if it did occur. The earth berm remote
from the Qatar propane tank had singularly failed to serve its - Ethane and ethylene
purpose ofcontaining the spilled liquid following the failure. The _ LNG
Gas Research Institute sponsored a programme of research
into materials better able to resist initiation or propagation of Oxygen, nitrogen and argon are not required by industry and
brittle failure. other users in the same quantities as the other liquefied gas
products. An air separation plant will commonly have refriger-
Much of this work was presented at the Brugges Conference ated tanks with capacities of 500-2,000 m3 for liquid oxygen
(Reference 17.7) in 1984 and at the TWI Seminar in Newcastle (LOX) and liquid nitrogen (LlN) storage and smallerfor argon if
(Reference ?7.8) in 1986. BS 4741 was amended shortly afrer it is involved. Atthe consumer end ofthe supplychain, factory-
the Qatar accident to enhance the fracture toughness require- manufactured vertical cylindrical double-walled and vacuum-
ments of the steel materials and to institute a full heioht hvdro- insulated vessels of a few hundred cubic metres are commonlv
static test for the tanks. installed.
The desire of the industry to move away from single contain- For ethane and ethylene a big tank would be 50,000 m3 with
ment systems towards double and full containment was ham- 20,000-30,000 m3 being a more common size.
pered by the lack of a suitable Standard. The existing American
and European Standards were all based of the philosophy of LNG is in a class of its own when tank capacity is concerned.
single containment for both LPG and the colder products such Because of the volumes of LNG traded around the world and
as LNG. Consequentlythe Engineering Equipment and Materi- the size of carriers involved, (several currently being con-
als Users Association (EEMUA) in London was approached to structed of around 145,000m3 capacity), the trend has been to
form a committee to consider rules for the full range of coniain- build biggerand bigger storage tanks. The unitstorage costper
ment options and in 1986 oublished EEMUA Publication 147 m3 of LNG tends to decrease as the tank capacity increases
(Reference tZ9). After a suitable period of time this document and this is illustrated by Figure 17.7, the resultofa studyforsin-
was passed to the British Standards Institution, BSl, who in gle and full containment type tanks. The basis of this compari-
1993 published BS 777711993 (Reference 77.70). This is more son is given in Reference 17.11.
fully discussed in Section 17.5. Currently, the biggest above ground free-standing LNG tank is
in Senboku in Japan. This is of 180,000m3 capacity and is de-
scribed in detail in Reference 17.12. In-ground membrane type
17.4 T ank sizing considerations
tanks have also been constructed at 200,000m3 in Korea and
Forthe gaseswhich can be maintained in liquid form bythe im- Japan and one of these at the Ohgishima LNG Terminal of To-
position of pressure alone, the maximum size of refrigerated kyo Gas in Yokohama is the subject oI Reference 17.13. A
tank is established by a combination of the following: smaller number of large above ground tanks tend to make
The practicalities of pressure vessel design better use of the available site area when compared with a
larger number of smaller tanks. Comparisons using the tank
The relative costs of pressure versus iiquefied storage spacing rules from NFPA 59A willfeature elsewhere in Storage
Tanks & Equipment, to makethis point. Factors influencing the
Safety considerations
maximum size of the free standing, above ground type of LNG
Local and international regulations tanks are:
r.60 down to -50 "C and 8S5387 (Reference tZt5) for products
l zO
down to -196 "C in the UK.
These Codes only consjdered single containment systems.
E There were no Codes or regulatory guides which provided a
framework for the design of other containment systems. The
formation of the EEMUA committee, largely at the instigation of
Shelland chaired byJohn deWitof Shell, was aimed at provid-
9 0.60
ing a document which filled this void.
P o.qo
ln 1986 the EEMUA recommendations were published and at
lastthe industryhad some rulesforthe design and construction
0.20 ofotherforms ofconiainment. As has been mentioned earlier.
the EEMUA recommendations were passed to BSI after a suif
0.00
able period of time during which the opinions ofthe industry re-
50 rm 150 2@ 250
garding the suitability of the document were sought and found
Capacity x 1000 cuM to be generally favourable. BSI converted the EEMUA recom-
mendations into BS 7777, a Code which closely followed the
Fjgure 17.7 Unitstorage cosl per m3 of LNG
spirit of the EEMUA document.
- The maximum inner tank lower shell plate thickness oer- The definitions of the various categories of containment sys-
mitted by the design Codes tems for conventional vertical cylindrical tanks are given below
and are those developed by EENIUAand repeated in BS 7777.
Foundation considerations EN1473 (Reference tZ 76) also made an attemptto define the
Seismic design considerations various storage systems and followed the spirit ofthe EEMUA
definitions but added definitions for systems not considered by
- Economic considerations EEMUA. i.e. membrane and concrete/concrete tanks.
- Operating flexibility constrainb The early designs of double and full containment systems for
both LPG and LNG considered a sudden or unzipping failure of
The reference list of LNG tanks designed and constructed by the inner liquid containing tank. The loadings on the inner sur-
Whessoe, given in Figure 17.8 clearly shows the changes of faces of the outer iank were considerable and were evaluated
tank capacity with the passage of time. lt is also interesting as it as a result of test work caried out by N.J. Cuperus, again of
shows the changes in the materials used and in the storage Shell (Reference 17.1n. fhe apprcximately six-fold increase
containment categories adopted. This subject is further dis- in the static liquid pressures caused by the sudden failure ofthe
cussed in Sections 17.6, 17 .7 and 17 .8. primary container was an onerous design condition and as a re-
sult, the early full containment tanks had outertanks which con-
sisted of reinforced concrete walls whjch were supported by an
17.5 Storage systems and containment external earthen embankment. This arranqement is illustrated
categories in Figure 17.9.
This Section relates to vertical cylindrical tanks of the conven- Whjlst this system provided admirable protection for the tank
tionaltype (i-e. those with a metallic self-supporting innertank). arising from external incidents such as missiles and fire scenar-
As has been described earlier, the Qatar incident gave the in- ios, it was expensive. lt required a Iarge site area to accommo-
dustry cause to reconsider its practices regarding the use of date the slope of the embankment and gave rise to complica-
tions with the base heatjng system which had to be extended to
single containment systems for the storage of lowtemperature
products. The design Codes in force at the time ofthis incident cover the tank walls as well as the bnk base.
we re AP | 620 (Refe rence 1 7 .1 4) (Append ix R for prod ucts with Research and testing programmes coordinated as descrjbed
storage temperatures down to -60 oF and Appendix e for prod- earlier by the Gas Research Institute were undertaken to look at
ucts down to -260 oF) in the USA, and 854741 for products the abilities ofvarious steels in their prevention offracture initia-
OUIER EflELL
col{cRtE UAU|D
lr{B)
OUTLEI
1 2390 ALUMNIJM CARAONSTEE! N N SINGIE
Sne boundary
Fullconlalnmsnl lank
Full conlanrnenl l.nl
Figure 17.10 Postfailure fire scenarios for single, double and fullcontainment Fgure 17.11 Postfailure vapour dispersion scenarios for single. double and
ianks fullcontainmenl tanks
not result in a poolfife. Atworsta relief valve tailpipefire could partment of Transport (DOT) and the European Committee for
be considered. Fire scenarios of this type have a considerable Standardisation (CEN). These will be discussed in some detail
influence on other equipment on the site (for example neigh- in later Sections of Sforage Tanks & Equipment.
bouri-ng storage tanks, vaporising equipment etc.) and on the
layout ofthe site itselfto ensure that risks from fire exposure to
people and property outside the site boundaries is kept to a 17.6 Single containment systems
minimum. The deflnition taken from BS 7777 is
Aseparate but related subject which plays a part in safety and Single containment tank
plant layoutdiscussions, is vapour dilution. lt is clearly sensible Eithera singletank or a tank comprising an innertiank and
to arrange for the mixture of product vapour and air which an outer container designed and constructed so that only
crosses the site boundary to be at a concentration below the the inneriank is required to meet the low temperature duc-
lower flammable limit of the parlicular mixture. In this way the tility requirements for storage of the product.
vapour cloud can not be ignited as it passes across the site
The outer contiainer (if any) of a single containment stor-
boundary into the uncontrolled area outside. The influences age tank is primarilyfor the retention and protection of in-
thatthe differenttypes of containment have on this matter are il- sulation and to constrain the vapour purge gas pressure,
lustrated in Figure 17.11. but is not designed to contain refrigerated liquid in the
These topics are the subject of various regulatory documents event of leakage from the inner tank.
and Codes from such bodies as The Institute of Petroleum (lP), Asingle containment tank is normally surrounded by a low
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), The US De- bund wall (see below) to conhin any leakage.
Figure 17.12 is a reproduction offigure 1, taken from BS 7777.
The parallel deflnition from EN 1473 (Refe rence 17 -21), whichit
should be remembered is only relevant to the storage ofLNG is:
Single containment tank
Asingle primary container and generally an outer shell de-
signed and constructed so that only the primary container
is required to meet the low temperature ductility require-
ments for storage of the product.
The outer shell (if any) of a single containment storage
tank is primarily for the retention and protection of insula-
tion and to contain the purge gas pressure, but is not de-
signed to contain refrigerated liquid in the eventofleakage
from the primary container.
An above ground single containment tank shall be sur-
rounded by a bund wall to conbin any leakage.
d)
Figure 1 7.1 2 A single containment lank Figure 17.13 A single coniainmeni tank
Frcm 857777, figure 1 From EN 1473,figure Hl
- Blast loadings
Provisions required to protect single containment tanks from
these loadings such as active flre protection, increased tank
spacing, structural modification and enhanced pressure relief
valve system capacity must be taken into accountwhen consid-
ering the overall costs of single containment systems.
The most commonly accepted rules concerning the capacity,
height and distance of bunding systems are given in NFPA 59
(Reference 17.24) for LPG and NFPA 59A (Refere nce 17.25)
for LNG storage systems.
Figure 17.15 shows the bund heighvdistance relationship from
References 17.24 and 7225. This criteria is also usually fol-
lowed for double and full coniainment svstems as described in
Figu 17.14 Typical single coniainment LNG tanks Sections 17.7 and 17.8.
Courtesy of Pift4es Moines, lnc
Figure 17.1 3 is a reproduction of figure H l taken from EN 1473. 17.7 Double containment systems
It is clearthatthe two documents are in close aqreement on this The definition taken from BS 7777 is
matter.
Double containment tank
Figure 17.14 shows typical single conbinment LNG tanks.
Adouble coniainmenttank is designed and constructed so
It isinteresting that EN 1473 makes ita mandatory requirement that both the inner self-supporting primary container and
for all categories of containment that there shall be no penetra- the secondary container are capable of independenfly
tions ofthe primary and secondary (where provided) container containing the refrigerated liquid stored. To minimise the
walls or bottoms. This makes the use of in-tank DumDs a man- poolof escaping liquid, the outertank orwall is located at a
datory requirement for these tanks. distance not exceeding 6m from the inner tank.
The American storage tank design Codes have never tried to The inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid under nor-
define the containment categories in the same way as the Brit- mal operating conditions. The outer tank or wall is in-
ish or European Codes. API 620 in both its low temperature tended to contain the refrigerated liquid product leakage
Appendices R and Q deals with what are essentially single con-
tainment systems. The rules from the API Code are commonly
used to design the metallic components ofstorage tanks which
fall into other containment categories
Similarlythe American Codeswhich coverthe land-based stor-
ageand handling of LPG and LNG do not consider containment
in the same way.
Single containment storage systems are the cheapest from of
storage for refrigerated liquids. In addition to the potentially di-
sastrous consequences of a failure of the primary liquid con-
tainment, they are also vulnerableto damage from a numberof
other loadings including:
Nob$
.oirEnslon Xshal oqlal o. qcd h qlmof drnensloo yplrg trg
eqtvalnt tFad In LNG ol lh prcsg|r h dr6 y{or space abovg
tho fouH.
ea@l: Whdl tl' holgfn ot tto.{k or htrDltrtV wrtt b aqrftl to,
or gleeler lha4 tl?e fir&nrm frqdd btol, X nay ltsw arv r&E
. ohpnsion X b hs dshnco ft!.n f|e hnsr wall ot fio contalnr b t|g
do6t froe ol he dko or lnpoundk|g wall
. otrcrFbn l.b t|e &tmco tom tls mdlnnm teld lsvl h he
conhlnsr b th6 lop ot thg dlka oa lrpoundrg vrarl.
from the inner iank, but it is not intended to contain any The primary container coniains the reftilecated lilil l'}-
vapour resulting from product leakagefrom the innertank. der normal operating conditions. The seconday cs>
tainer is intended to contain any leakage of the
Figure '17.16 is a reproduction offigure 2 taken from BS 7777.
refrigerated liquid, but it is not intended to contain y
The'parallel definition from EN 1473 (LNG only) is; vapour resulting from this leakage.
Double containment tank Note: Examples of double containmenttanks are given in fig-
ure H3.
Adouble containmenttiank is designed and constructed so
that both the inner self-supporting primary coniainer and Note: Figure H3 does not imply that the secondary containr
the secondary container are capable of independently is necessarily as high as the primary conbiner.
containing the refrigerated liquid stored. To minimise the Figure 17.17 is a reproduction offigure H3 taken from EN 1473-
poolofescaping liquid, the secondarycontainer should be
located at a distance not exceeding 6m from the primary Again it is clear that the two documents are in close accord on
conGtrner. this matter. lt is interesting that the Codes have decided that
the point where single containment becomes double contain-
mentwhen the remote bund wall moves towards the liquid con-
tainer and becomes taller in accordance with the NFPA59 and
59A rules, is reached when the spacing between the bund and
liquid containing tank is 6m. This seems a sensible choice and
the tank shown in Figure 17.18, which is one of a series of
50,000 m3 capacity LNG ianks builtfor British Gasas partofthe
UK peak shaving system, uses 6 m for this spacing. Figure
17.19 shows two LPG tanks with prestressed concrete outer
tanks. The spacing between the steeland concretetanks is less
that 6 m in this case.
The design of the bund wall, which for the single containment
types oftanks was a low structure made from earth, reinforced
earth or reinforced concrete, has now become a more demand-
ing task. As has been mentioned in Reference 77.5, it is now
not usualto require the bundwallto be designed forthe sudden
failureofthe liquid container. Despite this, the gradualiilling of
the bund resulting from a slow leakfrom the innertankwhich is
considered fullto capacity at the time ofthe incident is still a de-
(r8ulatd) manding criteria.
Some bund walls are of metallic construction. The majority of
bund walls are of prestressed concrete. The "Preload" exter-
liq'rd nally wire-wound type of wallwas a popular choice for this mm-
ponent for many years. The circumferential prestressing was
applied to the concrete wall by an externalwinding of a single
strand whilstthe vertical prestressing was applied by macalloy
bars cast into the wall. Figure 17.20 shows the wire winding in
progress for such a wall.
The alternative arrangement for bund walls uses embedded
tendons for the circumferential prestressing. lt is not usual to
apply a vapour linerto the innersurfaces ofthis concretewallso
that in the event ofthe inner tank failure, the permeability of the
Figure 17.17 Double containment tank
concrete wall would allow small volumes of product vapour to
From EN 1473, tlgue H3
escape. This is not viewed as posing a problem. The construc-
tion of thejoint between the base slab (usually reinforced con-
Figuro 17.18 A 50.000 m3 capacity double conbinment type LNG tank for Brit-
isi cas at the lsleof Grain Figure 17.'19 Two 50,000 m'double containment tank for LPG
Courtesy of Advantica Courtesv of Antwen Gas Terminal Nv
crete) and the bund wall has been the subject of debate and
controve rsy for a numberofyears. The prime contenders being
the siiding, pinned and fixed joints. This is the subject of more
deiailed comment in Chapter 18.
The space between the bund walland the liquid containing tank
(Figure 17.1 7) or the insulation protection outer tiank can either
be lefr open to the atmosphere or be closed off by the applica-
tion ofsome type ofweathersealing roof. The open topped wall
alternative must be fiUed with a suitable means ofremoving the
rainwater or the flre water which could accumulate in this
interspace and which could cause problems of corrosion or
floatiation. This water removal system should not prejudice the
ability of the outerwallto perform its product liquid containment
duties in the event of an inner tank leak or failure.
Consequentlythe tank illustrated in Figure 17.18 had a system
which mllected the interspace rainwater into a substiantial
sump and pumped it out over the 19m high bund wallto a suit-
able external drain. The closed top alternative must be fitted Figure 17.21b Full containment lype tank
with a suitable wealherproof and long lasting roof whilst still
having provision for removal of any water accumulation in the better value for money, i.e- better containment at the same
interspace. This solution has been used most frequenflyfor liq- once.
uid ammonia storage and the problems associated with the
provision of a suitable roof are discussed in Chapter 21.
17.8 Full containment systems
lf double contiainment systems are to be used forthe storage of
producb whosevapour is heavierthan air at ambient tempera- The definition taken from BS 7777 is:
tures (i.e. LPG), careful consideration must be given to the Full containment tank
monitoring of the space between the tank and the outerwallfor
A double tank designed and constructed so that both the
the potentially dangerous accumulatons of product vapoul:
innertank and the outertank are capable of independenfly
Double containment systems are quite unusual these days. containingthe refrigeratedliquidstored. Theoutertankof
This may wellbe due to the relative costs ofdouble vs full con- wall should be 1m to 2m dishnce from the inner iank.
tainment systems. lf the two tanks shown in Figure 17.21 are
The inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid under nor-
comDareo:
mal operating conditions. The outer roof is supported by
- The inner 9% nickel steel tanks are the same the outer tank. The outer tank is intended to be caDable
both of coniaining the reffigerated liquid and of conholled
- The insulation systems are the same venting ofthe vapour resulting from product leakage after
a credible event.
The concrete walls are similar
Examples of fufl containment tanks are given in Figure ,17.22,
- The base slabs/base heating are similar
which is a reproduction of flgure 3frcmBS 7777.
- The outershell in 17.21a is deleted
The parallel definition taken from EN 1473 is:
- The wall and base liner in 17.21b is added
Full containment tank
- The in-tank pumping system/fittings/pipework are similar A tank designed and constructed so that both self-sup-
porting primarycontiainerand the secondarycontainerare
- The roof/suspended decks are similar
capable of independentlycontaining the refrigerated liguid
The overall result is that both solutions willcost aboutthe same stored and forone ofthem its vapour Thesecondarycon-
and iake similartimes to construct. Consequently itwould seem tainer can be lm to 2m distiance from the Drimarv con-
the obvious choice to choose the full containment oDtion as tainer.
Membrane
Clyogenic conqete 2)
Figure'17.25 Examples of membrane tanks
Sphedcal r)
From EN 1473, figure H5
Ingtomd 2) 3)
brane tanks as a separate category and gives the following
Scensaio to be conddercd
definition:
r) ln ctse of collrpse of rh t r* pdnEry contaimr, fue pool
size conspon& to dre lrnpounding area. "Amembranetank should be designed and constructed so
2)In crs of cotlqe of the tank rcot, the 6re pool size that the primary container, constituted by a membrane, is
concsponds to the secondsy c
taintr capable of containing both the liquefied gas and its vapour
3)
No colap6e lB considerd for thee tank b?es. under normal operating conditions and the concrete sec-
ondary container, which supports the primary contiainer,
Figure 17.24 Exposufe figures and failure scenariosfor differcntlypes of should be capable of containing all the liquefied gas stored
in the primary container and of controlled venting of the
From EN 1473. tables 1 and 5 vapour resulting from product leakage ofthe innertank. The
vapour of the primary container is coniained by a steel roof
liner, which forms with the membrane an integral gas tight
17.9 Membrane tanks containment. The action of the liquefied gas acting on the
primary container (the metal membrane) is transferred di-
The membrane solution for low temperature liquid storage is rectly to the pre-stressed concrete secondary container
widelyused in the fields of marine transport, above ground land through the load bearing insulation.'
based systems and in-ground land based systems. lt also has
Examples of membrane tanks from EN 1473, figure H5 are
excellent prospects ofapplications in floating storage and grav-
shown in Figure 17.25.
ity based storage systems, a number of which are being ac-
tively considered at this time. The Japanese RPIS Code considers membrane typetanks but
is only applicable within Japan.
A further potent'al area of application is in below ground lined
mined rock caverns. A pilot scheme is currently underway in The forthcoming Eurocode on low temperature tanks (prEN
South Korea and this is described;n Section 17.9.5. 14620) which will replace BS 7777 has also chosen to recog-
nise membrane tanks and provides detailed rules forthe design
The essential difference between the membrane system and and construction of such tanks.
the conventional systems for liquid storage lie in the separation It is interesting just how similar the developments of the marine
of the structural support function for the product liquid and the transport (i.e. liquid gas carriers) and the land based storage
liquid tightness function. This separation and how it is achieved systems are. In gas carrier design there are two main
is discussed in 17.9.3 below. The relative merits ofthe conven- philosophies:
tional and the membrane systems are discussed in '17.9.5
below The use of rigid tanks supported within the structure ofthe ship.
Spheres of the Moss Rosenburg type or prismatic tanks such
lvlembrane tanks forabove ground use are notwithin the scope as those designed and manufactured by lHl. A tanker of the
of codes such as API 620 ot BS 7777. NFPA 59A includes spherical liquid contiainertype is illustrated in Figure 17.26. The
membrane containers in its definition section but provides little protrusion ofthe spherical tanks through the deck of the ship is
more information on the subject. EN 1473 recognises mem- clear to see. The spherical tanks require support at or close to
tural support for the liquid could cleady not be supplied by the
flexible membrane itself, but came from the structure ofthe ship
itself by way of the load bearing insulation system. This insula-
tion was in the form of panels consisting of two layers of ply-
wood sandwiching a layer of a suitable insulation material. The
initial patents for this liquid storage system were filed in 1964.
The first move to adopt the membrane system for land based
storage systems was taken by SN Technigaz in the early '1970s
with two above ground liquid ethylene tanks of relatively modest
capacity being completed in France in 1972. Technigaz contin-
Figute 17.27 A carrier oflhe membrane tank type ued to develop its system and completed two 120,000 m3
Courtesy of Universal Shipbuilding Corporation above ground LNG tanks for Gaz de France at Montoir de
Bretagne in 1980 and ten 100,000 m3 above ground LNG tanks
their equator and are relatively inefficient in making use of the
at Pyeong Taek in South Korea from 1986 to 1998.
available space within the ship's hull.
The use of membrane technology supported bythe structure of The move from marine to land-based storage systems for the
the ship. This solution is much more efficient in terms of space Invartype of membrane did not come about and the reasons for
utilisation. The liquid containing tanks can be tailored to the this failure to move into whatwould seem to be attractive alter-
shape of the ship's hull. The distribution of loads from the tanks native markets is something ofa mystery There appears to be
to the (usually double hulled) ship's structure is more efficient no technical reason whythis transition was not made. Perhaps
than is the case for spherical or prismatic rigid tanks. Atanker of it comes down to no one being interested in pursuing the mat-
the membrane type is illustrated in Figurc 17 .27 . ter The French Code for lowtemperature above or semi-buried
These two philosophies are very much reflected in the land tanks (Reference 77.26) clearly suggests that the Invar mem-
based storage systems where the conventional self supported brane system is suitable for this purpose and indeed provides
tanks and the membrane solutions compete for territory Usu- specific rules and requirements for the design and construction
ally both are confined to the vertical cylindrical form for struc- of this type of membrane. The Technigaz membrane system
tural reasons. The ability ofthe membrane system to take other was the subject of a number of improvements around 1990.
shapes will bring possible advantages in the floating and GBS These improvements addressed amongst other things various
areas of future activity. concerns of its customers and costs of the system. These are
described in Section 17.9.3.
17.9.1 Development history
The next move in the historical develooment of the membrane
system was its adoption for use in in-ground storage tanks.
The early work on membrane systems was directed towards
Again the system chosen was the Technigaz membrane. The
marine gas carriers, and in particular to LNG carriers. The first
technologywas licensed to various Japanese and Korean com-
liquid gas carriers had self supporting tanks and it was consid- panies. One of the Japanese licensees (NKK) has completed
ered that this did not represent an ootimal solution in terms oJ
20 in-ground membrane tanks up to the end of2002. Other Jap-
space utilisation.
anese companies (l\y'H1, lH I and KHI) have developed their own
Starting from a Norwegian patent, the French company SN membrane systems for land-based in,ground use.
Technigaz developed a stainless steel membrane system. This
membrane had two sets ofcorrugations running at right angles Currently the biggest LNG tanks in the world are of the
to one another. These corrugations acted like bellows allowing in-ground membrane type at Negishi and Ohgishima terminals
the membrane to accept the thermal contraction stresses, in Japan. In-ground membrane tanks are described in more
which would cause tensile failure in a flat membrane. The struc- detail in Section 17.12.
F
--l
During service the insulation space behind the membrane is The roofinsulation is glassfibre laid on and supported by a sus-
filledwith nitrogen gas. This insulation space is constantly mon- pended deck of either the flat plate type or the corrugated sheet
itored for the lifetime of the tank for traces of the stored product and structural section type.
vaoourwhichwould indicate a leak in the membrane liner. In the
For a 100,000m3 LNG tank, a typical design heat leak for a
event that such an indication were found, the nitrogen flow rate, membrane type tank intended for an import terminal would be
which in normal operation is very low, would be increased to between 0.08% and 0.1% ofthe full tank contents per day. For
sweep the insulation space to attempt to ensure that the gas an exportterminal heat leaks ofbetvveen 0.05% and 0.08% are
concentration is maintained below30% oJthe lowerflammable possible.
limit for the oroduct in question.
As is the case for the membrane itself various other improve-
17.9.2.2 The insulation system
ments have been made to the system:
Forthe tank base and the tank wallthe basic insulation materi-
als are either polyvinyl chloride foam (PVC) or polyurethane . The vaDour barrieron the innersurface ofthe concrete tank
foam (PUF). The densities of the materials used vary depend- was improved in its crack bridging abilities bythe addition of
ing upon the liquid and vapour loading in the different parts of a glass cloth layerand in its applicability by an improvement
the tank. For PVC foam densities of between 65 and 90 kg/mJ in formulation.
are typical whilst for PUF densities of between 65 and . The insulation panelsize hasbeen increased in linewiththe
'120 kg/m3 are used. This insulation is supplied to the site in fac-
increase in the membrane sheet size. The standard wall
tory made panels with the insulating material sandwiched be- panel is now 2020 mm x 1340 mm instead of 1930 mm x
tween layers of plywood. The liquid side face plywood is gener- 540 mm.
ally 12 mm thick and the concrete side may be of the same
thickness or thinner (typically I mm). A typical wall insulation . The ability of the membrane system to resist the effects of
panel would be 1930 mm x 540 mm. The thickness of the insu- liquid leakage better into the insulation space have been
lation componentwould depend on the service and the required made. The possibility of through thickness cracking at the
heat leak, but a typicalvalues using PVC foam for LNG service base ofthe ore-stressed concrete wallwhere built in bottom
would be 210 mm to 350 mm depending on the heat leak re- corners are used has been discussed in Section 17.8. To
ouirements. avoid the harmful effects of the low product temperatures
on the inner surface of the concrete tank, the insulation of
The wall insulation panels are attached to the inner surface of
the base and lower 5 m of the wall is modified. A liquid-tight
the concrete by two means. Firstly 10 mm stainless steel studs
material is provided on the insulation paneljoints and on the
are fitted into the concrete priortothe panelerection. There are
inner plywood face. This liquid{ight barrier is very much
usuallytvvo studs per panel. Secondly a bonding mastic is used.
equivalent in function to the secondary bottom and the
The holes where the studs penetrate the panels are filled with
lowershell protection used for the free standing types offull
plugs of PUF The gaps between the adjacent panels are filled
containment tanks described above.
with PUF or compressed glass wool. To ensure that the con-
crete wall is resistant to the ingress of moisture from the atmo- 17.9.2.3 The outer tank
sphere, the internalsurface is coated with a suitable primerand The outer tank base slab is constructed of reinforced concrete,
moisture barrier prior to the hydrostatic test. Atypical arrange- most usually ground-based, but occasionally elevated on piles
ment ofthe wallinsulation erection sequence is shown in Figure or stub piles. The ground-based alternative would incorporate
17 .34. base heating ofthe electrical or other types. The outertankwall
is ofthe post tensioned type and the joint between the walland
the base slab is of the fixed or encastre type. The vertical
pre-stress is applied by tendons in U-shaped ducts. The hori-
zontal pre-stress is applied by tendons in ducts within the wall
running between a number (usually four) of stressing but-
tresses. Traditionaltyconcretes ofthe 40 - 50 MPa compressive
strength grades are used.
The roof is most usuallyofthe reinforced concrete type. Asteel
sheeting supported by a structural framework is erected at the
fulltank height, or on the tank base slab and airor mechanically
lifted into place. With the assistance ofinternal air pressure, this
supports the newly placed concrete (either in one or two pours)
until it becomes self-supporting.
lmprovements have been made in this area too. These are
mainly in the use of stronger concretes giving in addition to in-
creased strength, advantages in improved permeability and
faster curing times.
One of the membrane tanks at the Pyeong Taek LNG terminal,
is shown in Figure 17.36, with an outer bund, which would now
be considered redundant.
Figure 17.36 Membrane tank with redundant bund at the Peyong Taek LNG
Cowlesy of SN Technigaz
Figure '17.37 A view inside the test tank
ln 1950, the Linde division of the Union Carbide Corporation The base insulation in the central area ofthe tank bottom is usu-
began an investigation into the possible use of pre-stressed ally PVC foam. Under the inner wall the insulation consists of
concrete for the storage of lowtemperature liquids such as liq- prefabricated blocks made from plywood and balsa wood,
uid oxygen. By January 1951 test reports were available which which are subsequently sealed into a fibreglass shell. These
showed thatthe thermaland mechanical properties of wire rein- blocks are designed for the compressive loads arising from
forced concrete improved down to -196 'C. self-weight and seismic conditions.
Based on this data, Preload Inc., a company who specialised in To allowthe innertank to contract radially durlng cooldown and
pre-stressed concrete structures, desi gned and constructed for to accommodate shear loadings from seismic events, shear
Linde, a double-walled tank of 2,650 m3 capacity, for the stor- keys are fitted to the underside of the annular plate and to the
age of liquid oxygen. This tank remained in service until 1985 topside ofthe secondary bottom. This arrangement is shown in
when it was decommissioned and demolished. ln the late Figure 17.43.
'1960s the American Gas Association initiated a test The insulation between the two walls is site-exoanded Derlite. A
programme. This work was conducted jointly by the Institute of conventional steel plate and section roof is provided which
Gas Technology and the Portland CementAssociation and was could form the outer roof in its own right, or provides the sup-
reported in Reference 77.30. porting formwork for a reinforced concrete roof. The inner roof
Esso Research and Engineering produced technical specifica- is a suspended deck of one ofthe usual designs, which willsup-
tionsiortwo40,000 m3 double wallconcrete LNG tanksfor GAz port the glass fibre insulation. The outer wall has a carbon steel
Natural (now Enagas). These tanks were constructed at the vapour barrier which is installed close to the outer face and
LNG import terminal in Barcelona and went into service in compressed vertically by the vertical internal pre-stressing ten-
1968. These tanks have been in continuous successful service dons and circumferentially by the wire winding.
since that date. ln 1981 a similarLNG tank of80.000 m3caoac- This arrangement is protected from the weather and other ex-
itywas constructed on the same site and has given similarly un- temalevents bya shotcrete layer. The slidingjoint between the
troubled service. outerwblland the base.slab precludes the need for the bottom
In 1974 the Philadelphia Gas Works in the USAcommissioned corner thermal protection measures required to control the
two peakshaving LNG ianks each of92,500 m3 capacity. These shear stresses in the case of a built in corner detail described
too have been in uninterrupted trouble-free service. Figure above.
17.42 shows these tanks during construction. Despite the un- The annularand bottom plates are made from g% nickelsteel.
toms well below the local grade levels, in the former case by
around one half of the shell height and in the latter case by al-
PRESTR:SSED COXCREI most the full shell height. In both cases the reason behind this
unusual and very expensive departure from normal practice
was because of planning restrictions on the elevations of the
tank profiles. Consequently what was constructed were con-
ventional full containment 9% nickel steel/pre-stressed con-
crete above ground tanks located in a purpose-built pit. The ad-
ditional containment and protection provided by the pit was a
bonus and not the maln objective of the exercise. This type of
tank is frequently described as the "in pit" type. Aphoto ofthe "in
pit" tanks at Revithoussa is shown in Figure 17.44.
. The space required for the wire winding machine means . Reclaimed or very expensive land requiring optimisation of
that a wide interspace is required if simulianeous construc- effective use of the area available
tion of the tvvo tanks is to be achieved, otherwise the inner . Abnormally high safety standards perhaps due to conges-
tank must be built and pre-stressed before the outertank is tion, adjacent industrial plant or high risk locations such as
constructed. This clearly has programme implications. Dort areas
. Concerns relating to the ability of the shear keys to with- . Highly seismic areas
stand high seismic loadings
Apart from the changes to the membrane thickness and the
. Concerns relating to the time required to decommission the size and spacing ofthe corrugations, the metiallic membrane is
tank for internal insoection, should this be needed. as described in Section 17.9-
The civil engineering works associated with this design are in-
17.12 In-ground tanks teresting and to the mind of the author quite remarkable. These
The three categories of in-ground tanks described in this Sec- tanks are frequently built in areas of reclaimed land where soil
tion are what could be described as "true" in-ground systems. conditions are poor and ground water table levels are at or
There are a few examples of tanks, which at first glance would close to grade.
seem to be candidates for this category, buton closerexamina- To constructthe tank it is necessaryto de-waterthe area. To ac-
tion prove not to be suitable. complish this, a slurry wall is built of a thickness (some 1.2 m)
The LNG storage tanks at both the Zeebrugge and the sufficientto resistthe external pressures from the ground water
Revithoussa import terminals are constructed with their bot- and to a depth where competent rock is to be found (up to 100
m). When this slurry wall is completed, the excavation work can
commence and a reinforced concrete wall is built from the top
down on the innerface ofthe slurry wall. This can be up to 2.0 m
in thickness for a large tank. The base slab of reinforced con-
crete must be of sufficient strength and thickness to resjst the Fig!re 17.46 A simplifed sectlon through a cavefn
ground water pressure and can be up to 7.0 m in thickness.
Within this inner wall and base, the conventional insulation Pipework connections into the caverns are via vertical tunnels
panel and metallic membrane is installed.
carrying liquid inlet, liquid outlet using deep-well or submerged
pumps, water removal pumps and the necessary instrumenta-
To avoid the problems associated with soilfreezing, this type of
tank will require heating for both the base slab and the cylindri- tion. Asimplified section through such a cavern is shown in Fig-
calwall. The roof will be of the plate and section type and rnay ure 17.46.
be sub-sequentially covered with reinforced concrete. lt is The advantages of cavern storage over conventional above
usual to employ a suspended ceiling supporting glass flbfe in- ground tanks from a safety point of view are self-evident. Fur-
sulation in these tanks, although recent developments have in- ther advantages come from the area of land used. lt is possible
volved the elimination ofthe suspended ceiling and the attach- to locate caverns beneath othet surface plant and in some cir-
ment of the roof insulation directly to the underside of the roof cumstances, beneath the sea for a large part of the system.
structure itself. A section through a typical tank of this type is
shown in Figure 17.45.
'17.12.3 Frczen grou nd systems
Reference 77.37 provides guidance for the design and con-
struction of such tanks, applicable in Japan. The development ofthe frozen ground tank was an effort to pro-
vide cheap and safe storage for low temperature liquids. Sadly
17.12.2 Cavern storage systems itwas not a great success. There is only one iank ofthis type still
in service. This is locaied in Algeria at the Arzew liquefaction
and export site.
The storage of LPG in unlined mined rock caverns has been
available for a number ofyears. The LPG is stored in liquid form These tanks bear some similarities to ihe in-ground membrane
at a pressure appropriate to the temperature of the rock at the type in that they consist of a vertical cylindrical excavation with
depth of the cavern. The pressure from the local groundwater the roof at local grade level. To enable the excavation to take
exceeds the pressure of the stored LPG such that water leaks place, the ground is frozen to allow the walls of the excavation
into the cavern rather than LPG leaking out. This water collects to be self-supporting. This is done by drilling a series of holes in
in a sump in the bottom ofthe cavern and is pumped out and fed a circle to the full depth of the excavation. lnto these holes dou-
into a water curtain arrangement which maintains the ground ble concentric pipes are inserted into which liquid nitrogen or re-
water pressure at a constant level in the area of the caverns. lt frigerated brine is circulated to freeze a vertical cylinder of
is clearly necessary to have suitable rock for mining of the cav- ground. This circulation must be maintained untilthe tanks are
erns at a suitable depth appropriate to the product pressure. commissioned. There is no lining or thermal insulation pro-
Thus propane would be stored in caverns located at a greater vided. Based on small-scale tests, the assumption was that the
depth than would be necessary for the storage of bubne. frozen ground would give sufficient liquid tightness and supply
the required thermal insulation. At the local grade level a rein-
Cavern storage systems depend upon the appropriate subsoil forced concrete ring wall was provided around the top of the ex-
conditions being available at the chosen location. lt is more cavation.
common to find the necessary conditions at greater depths and
aS a consequence Some facilities store propane in cavernS and At Arzew the 38,000 m3 LNG tank had a carbon steel roof
butane in above ground conventional tanks. framework which was not plated over in the conventjonal man-
ner and supported an aluminium suspended ceiling. This ceil-
The caverns themselves are of a constant cross-seciion, the ing in turn supported the thermal insulation and a series of con-
size of which is dependent upon the local rock characteristics, crete weights whose function was to counterbalance the
and are often ofconsiderable length (some 100s of metres). lt is internal pressure. This tank is described in a paper given at
common to have a series of parallel caverns with total storage LNG 4 in 1974 (Reference 17.32) and is said to have been in
capacities well in excess of 200.000 m3. seryice for some B years at that time and to have taken two
years to construct, which makes the date ofthe originalconcept Temperatures down to -50 'C, British Standards lnstitu-
and design around 1964. The four 50,000 m3 LN G tanks of this tion, London, (Now superseded by BS 7777:1993).
type built at Canvey lsland were similar except that the roof 17.5 Cryogenic Storage Facilities for LNG and NGL, N.J.
framework was plated over Cuperus (Shell), 1oth World Petroleum Congress, Bu-
The failure of these tanks to perform in a satisfactory manner charest 1979.
was due to a number of problem areas: 17.6 Developmentsin Cryogenic Storage lanks,6th Interna-
. Thefrozen soilwas notastighta barriertothe liquid andthe tional Conference on LNG, Kyoto, 1980.
vapour as had been anticipated. 17 .7 Transport and Storage of LNG and LPG, Royal Flemish
. The soil fissured and cracked allowing the area of frozen Society of Engineers' International Conference, Brugge
soil to extend much further from the tanks than was antici- May 1984.
pated. This was a particular problem at Canvey lsland 17.8 Fracture Safe Deslgrs for Large Storage lanks, The
where the region of frozen soil threatened to pass beyond Welding Institute International Symposium, Newcas-
the site boundary tle-upon-Tyne, April 1986.
. Frost heave gave rise to significant ground movements 17.9 EEMUA Publication No. 147, Recommendations forthe
making the connection between the frozen soil and the con- Design and Construction of Refrigerated Liquefied Gas
crete ring beam and between the ring beam and the roof Storage Tanks, Engineering Equipment and Materials
structure difficult to seal against vapour escape. Users Association. London. 1986.
. The frozen ground did not provide the thermal insulation 17.10 BS 7777 : 1993 Flat Bottomed Veftical Storage Tanks
that had been hoped for, resulting in a higher than antici- for Low Temperature Servlce, British Standards Institu-
pated heat in leak with the consequent practical and eco- tion, London.
nomic Problems. 17.11 Bigger and Cheaper LNG lanks, Bob Long, LNG 12
The tanks at Canvey lsland were decommissioned. This was Perth, Australia, May 1988.
no easy task. The integrity of the excavation had to be main- 17.12 Development of above ground Storage Tank Designs in
tained. and heat had to be supplied to warm upthe bynowvast Japan, HitoshiHiose - Toyo Kanetsu K.K, LNG Journal
volume of frozen soil. Safety had to be maintained in the face of November/December 1998.
LNG and in particular the warmerfractions leaking from the soil
over a large area. The filling in of these pits with warm purged 17.13 Construction of an underground Storage Tank,
Yanagiya and Ogawa - Kaiima Corporation, LNG Jour-
sand is an interesting tale in its own right.
nal November/December 1999.
17.14 API 620 Tenth edition February 2002, Design and con-
17.13 Novel systems struction of large, welded, low-pressure storage tanks,
There have been a number of novel systems proposed which American Petroleum Institute
have a large element of low temperature liquid storage, usually '17.15 BS 5387 : 1976 Veftical cylindrical welded storage tanks
for use with LNG. for low-temperature Service: double walltanks for tem'
Many of these schemes are aimed at LNG import terminals and peratures down to -196 'C, British Standards lnstitution.
involve floating or gravity-based systems (GBS). The advan- 17.16 BS EN 1473: 1997 lnsta ation of equipmentfor lique'
tage ofthese over conventional land-based terminals is that the fied naturalgas -design of On-shore instal/aflons, Euro-
owner is freed from the need to find a suitably protected and pean Committee for Standardisation and British
deep harbour close to the market for the product being im- Standards Institution.
ported. This is often a major stumbling block for a terminal pro-
ject. 17.17 Developments in cryogenic storage fanks, N J.
Cuperus - SIPM, LNG 6 Session ll, paper 13, Kyoto'
There are also advantagesto be had from moving the construc- Aoril 1980.
tion from the job site, as is the case with conventional terminals,
to a ship or offshore rig yard where productivity rates may be 17.18 Dynamic load attenuation for double wal/ tarks, R A
higher.
Vater - Pittsburgh-Des-Moines Corporation, Gastech
84. Amsterdam. November 1984.
It had been hoped to describe some of these interesting
17.19 Experimental dynamic compaction of perlite insulation,
schemes in some detail, but at this moment in time, the owners
T. Kauos - CBI Industries Inc., Gastech 84, Amsterdam,
and designers of the various schemes are concerned with the
November 1984.
confidentiality of their proposals and have not given their per-
mission to discuss the details and merits. 17.20 tntroduction of the EEMUA recommendations for the
design & construction of liquefied gas storage tanks,
Atrawl through the proceedings of the LNG and Gastech con- John de Wit - SIPM, Chairman EEMUA Tank Commit-
ferences and the LNG Journals will reveal outlines of some of tee, Chairman BSI Tank Committee, API/BSI Confer-
these schemes and hopefully in the near future some facilities ence, San Diego, May 1986.
will be constructed and the technical dehils published
17 .21 LNG storage tanks : Developments & key elements, C.
B. van Liere - SIPM, LNG owners' seminar, Session lV :
17.14 References 1988.
17.1 J.A.Ward and R.S.HildreW LNG 1 Chicago 1968. 17.22 Developments in the standardisation of single, double
and fult containment tanks for the storage of refrigerated
17 .2 LNG tndustry-A retrospecfive, Sir Dennis Rooke, LNG liquef,ed gases, D. Dickie - Motherwell Bridge Projects
9. Nice 1989. Ltd, R. Long - Whessoe Pfojects Ltd, Gas Engineering &
17.3 Frozen Fire - Where willit happen next?, Friends of the l\.4anagement, Vol 24, September 1989.
earth, San Francisco, 1979, ISBN 0-913890-30-8. 17 .23 Cryogenic storage of liquefied gases (Pafts 1' 2 & 3)'
17.4 BS 4741 : 1971 VerticalCylindicalWelded SteelTanks Fritz Papmahl - Noell LGA, Hydrocarbon Asia, April,
for Low Temperature Service: Single Wa Tanks for Mav. June 1996.
17 .24 NFPA 59, Utility LP-Gas Plant Code, 2001 Edition, Na- PGenoud (SN Technigaz) and N.Ketchell, R.G.A.Rob-
tional Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachu- inson (AEA Technology), LNG 12, Perth, May 1998.
setts.
17.25 NFPA 59A, Standard for the production, sforage & 17.29 Spherical skitt suppofted tanks for onshore LNG stor-
handling of liquefied natural gas (LNG), 2001 Edition, age, lEinstabland (Selmer), E.H.Hektoen (Kvaerner
Nationalfire ProtectionAssociation, Quincy, l\4assachu- Brug), R.Schrader, (l\.4oss Rosenburg Verft), LNG 7 Ja-
sefis. karta May 1983.
17.26 French LT tank Code above-ground or semi-buried 17.30 Preslressed concrete at cryogenic temperatures,
tanks for low pressure liquefied gases, guidelines for Eighth Congress of the Federation lnternational de la
design and construction, Association technique de Precontrainte, London 1 978.
I'industrie du gaz en France (AGT), Publication date un-
known. 17.31 Recommended practice for LNG in-ground storage,
Japanese Gas Association, First published March
17 .27 Comparative SafetyAssessment of Large LNG Storage
1979.
Ianks, R.Giribone (Bureau Veritas) and J.Claude (SN
Technigaz), LNG 11, Birmingham, July 1995. 17.32 Huit ans d'activite d'un stockage souterrain de GNL,
17.28 Quantifaction and Comparison ofthe Risks ofLNG Stor- A.Benadi Chef du Service Camel Algeria, LNG 4, Al-
age Concepts- Membrane and Full Containment, giers Juin 1974.
Contents:
18.1 General
18.2 Tank capacity
18.3 Shell design
18.3.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
18.3.1.1 Hoop tension
- liquid containing tanks
18.3.1.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
18.3.1.3 Axial comoression
18.3.1.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.1.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18.3.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach
18.3.2.1 Hoop tension liquid containing tanks
-
18.3.2.2 NonJiquid containing tanks
18.3.2.3 Axial compression
18.3.2.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.2.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
'18.3.3 The BS 7777 aooroach
18.3.3.'l Hoop tension liquid containing tanks
1
-
8.3.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks
18.3.3.3 Axial compression
18.3.3.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.3.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18.3.3,6 Addendum to BS 7777 on partial height hydrostatic testing
18.3.4 The prEN 14620 approach
18.3.4.1 Hoop tension liquid containing metallic tanks
1
-
8.3.4.2 NonJiquid containing tanks
18.3.4.3 Wind and vacuum stiffening
18.3.4.4 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18,4 Bottom and annular design
18.4.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
18.4.'1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
18.4.'1.2 Nonliquid containing metallictanks
'18.4.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach
18.4.2.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
'l 8.4.2.2 Nonliquid containing metallic
tanks
'18.4.3 The BS 7777 aDDroach
18.4.3.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
1 8.4.3.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
18.4.4 The prEN '14620 approach
The design of low temperature tanks has evolved from the de- . Seigmic design criteria dictating tank proportions and slosh
sign of tanks for ambient temperature service. In many areas height.
the design methods are the same or very similar to the ambient . Site space constraints.
practices. In these cases reference will be made to the earlier
Chapters concerning the origins ofthe design methods and the . The tank contractor's views on the most economical tank
derivations of the formulae used for ambient tanks. Where the aspect ratio.
low temperature practice differs from the ambient design . The performance limitations of the chosen in-tank pump (if
methods, this will be described in ful useo).
There are a number of different codes covering the design of . The elevation ofthe suction outlet connection (if used).
low temperature tanks in force around the world. The following
documents will be considered: . Operational considerations concerning pumping rates and
required response time intervals related to the various level
. API 620 Appendix R (for products down to -60 'F) alarms.
. API 620 Appendix Q (for products down to -260'F) In order to help in sorting out this multifaceted problem, it is of-
. B57777 (fot products down to -196'C) ten helpful to produce a sketch illustrating the various signifi-
cant liquid levels. Such a sketch for the inner tank of a full con-
r prEN 14620 (for products down to -165 "C) tainment LNG tank is illustrated in Figure 18.1.
There are Codes from other European countries (DlN and When the tank diameter is chosen, it is necessary to make al-
AFNOR for example) but for reasons of simplicity and because lowances for the thermal contraction of the liquid containing
these documents will shortly be replaced by the new European tank. For metallic tanks the data provided in Figure 18.2 should
Code, they have not been discussed in dehil here. prove helpful.
There are also Codes which are no longer curreni, but have For double-walled tanks, the diameter and height of the outer
been important in the development process which has given tank will be based on the chosen dimensions of the inner tank
rise to the existing regulatory documents. BS 4741, BS 5387 and consideration of the following:
and EEN/UA 147 allfall into this category and will be mentioned
where appropriate. . The interspace width required. This willin turn be related to:
l
,"1
. Basic components. Basic comoonents are those that con- suggested that the Table 3-2 footnote 2 rules are fol-
tain the vaporised liquefied gas from the stored refrigerated lowed, i.e. the lesser of 30% of the specified minimum
gas but primarily operate at atmospheric temperature be- ultimate tensile strength or 60% of the specified mini-
cause of insulation system design and natural ambient mum yield point using the 0.92 quality factor where ap-
propflate.
heating. These components shall comply with the basic
rules ofthis Standard (API 620). Examples ofsuch compo- 6. The allowabletest stress limits can be taken from Ta-
nents are the outer wall and roof of double wall tanks and ble Q-3 or be based on the lesser of 85% ofthe speci-
roof components above an internally insulated suspended fied minimum yield skength or 55% of the minimum
decl(. specified tensile strength of the material.
l\.4uchof the distinction between the various types of compo- The design point is at the bottom edge ofthe course under con-
nents is concerned with the material selection and the impact sideration and not 0.3m (or one foot) abovethis levelas permit-
iest requirements. This subject is covered in detail in Chapter ted by BS 2654, API 650, BS 7777 and the new EN.
22. The minimum thickness requirements are as usuala function of
18.3.1.1 Hoop tension liquid containing metallic tanks the tank diameter and are reproduced in Figure 18.5.
-
The following applies to liquid containing tanks, i.e. sin- The radiographic inspection requirements given in paragraph
gle-walled tanks, the inner tank of double-walled tanks where R.7.6.1 for '! 00% radiography of all shell plate joints where the
the outer tank is non-liquid containing and the inner and outer actual operating stress across the welded joint is greater than
tanks of double-walled tanks where both the inner and outer 0.1 times the specifled minimum tensile strength of the plate
tanks are designed to contain the product liquid. material (i.e. all vertical seams of liquid containing tanks),
means that a joint factor of unity allowed by Table 5-2 ofAPl 620
The basic formulae used are derived in the same way as has (Figure 18.6) will always be applied.
been described in Chapter 4, Section 4.7 for ambient tanks. lt is
convenient to express them in the same form. Hence in metric Forthe inner shells ofdouble-walled tanks, the addition ofa cor-
units they become: rosion allowance is quite unusual. The combination of the low
temperature and products which are benign from a corrosion
alnararin^
^.ea. Doint of view make the inclusion of additional metal unneces-
D sary. Ammonia tanks where stress corrosion cracking is a
to =
ZUDO
lgSwoHo + Po l+ ca equ 18.1
proven hazard are a possible exception. The addition of mate-
nt - rial to the minimum calculated thickness to allow for future
ct Test case: dressing out of surface cracking may be seen as money well
spent. This is discussed further in Chapter 20.
L
Il
' =20sr 196*,
1,
'
11, * o, 1 equ 18.2
For single-walled tanks or the outer shells of double-walled
tanks the addition of a corrosion allowance to cater for the pos-
where: sibility of external corrosion is not unusual. Un-insulated outer
to to = shell thickness due to operating case (mm) shells are particularly vulnerable atthe shell-to-bottom junction
where rain water rnay pond and in the vicinity of external shell
to tj = shellthickness due to test case (mm)
stiffeners. Good housekeeping in terms of regular external in-
D = tank diameter (m) spection and the maintenance of protective paint systems is
Ho self evidently a sensible precaution.
''l-
= height from the bottom of the course under
consideration to the highesi product liquid level 18.3.1.2 Non-liquid containing tanks
k- (m)
)e
Paragraph R.5.3.2 allows single lap-welded or single-sided
Hr = height from the bottom of the course under butt-welded shells wherethe thicknessdoes notexceed %" and
)e consideration to the highest test water level double-sided buttwelds not having complete penetration orfu-
3r (m) lnote 1] sion, at any thickness for tanks not in contact with the vaporised
S,
wo = maximum anticipated SG of product liquid but liquefied gas. Clearlythe single-sided lap and butt welds should
not less than 0.577 (equivalent to 36 lb/ff) be made from the outside surface for reasons ofcorrosion pre-
)- vention. Such tanks having fixed inner roofs are quite unusual
te wt = SG of test water [note 2] these days. Paragraph R.5.3.1 requires a minimum shellthick-
s.
't-
po = maximum vapour pressure above the product ness of %6" in this case. This is appropriate for very small tanks,
liquid (mbar) lnote 3] but may lead to axial stability problems as the tank size in-
)-
3.
pi = test pressure (mbar) lnote 4]
creases. lt would seem wise to apply the methods described in
Section 18.3.1.3 to ensure that a safe structure is specified.
rd ca = corrosion allowance (mbar)
Where the tank shell is in contact with the vaoorised liouefied
al
e
So = allowable stress for the operating case gas, Paragraph R.5.3.3 requiresthe rules ofthe body (i.e. sec-
(N/mm'z) [note 5] tion 5) ofthe Code to be used. This means that the shell must be
q = allowable stress in the test case (Nmm'?) checked for hoop tension caused by vapour pressure and pos-
sibly any internal pressure due the loose fill insulation. The for-
lnote 6l
e mulae given in Section 18.3.1.1 can be used and the allowable
d Notes: 1. The maximum test water level is required by Para- stresses shown in Figure 18.3. The minimum thickness re-
e
graph R.8.3.3 of the Appendix to be equal to the maxi- quirements are again as Figure 18.5.
mum product liquid level.
t
.S
Bear in mind that for outer tanks the level of radiography is no
2. Usually 1 .000 but in unusual cases could be sea wa- longerdictated by Appendix R and can be such as to require the
is ter with an SG of up to 1.025. use of a joint factor of less than unity. The relationship between
0 3. In the case of open-topped inner tanks this is zero. joint factor and level of inspection is shown Figure 18.6.
d
)f 4. Required by Paragraph R.8.4.1 to be 1.25 x po. 'l 8.3.1.3 Axial compression
)- 5. Allowable operating stress limits illustrated in Figure The behaviour of thin cylinders whilst subject to compressive
18.3 or in Figure 18.4. For non-APl listed materials it is loadings is an interesting subject in its own right. Agreat deal of
Platcs
PtF
ctrnlcS!
API Spoc5LB @,m0 35m l&0@
ASTr,l A138 60000 35,000 .18,000
ASTM A 106 B @,00 35,000 r&0m
ASTM A 106 c 70,m0 40,0m 21,0@
ASTM A 333 l 55J00 30,m 16,5m
ASTI{ A 333 3 65.0m 35,000 19J00
ASTM A 333 6
ASTM A 524 I @,&0 t5,000 t8,m0
ASTM A 521 tl 55,000 30.m r6.500
Elccric-Fusion
Wcklcd
ASTM A I34 A 281 Cr"dc C 4,5and9 55.0@ 30,0m r2.lm
ASTM A I]4 A 285 Gradc C 5and9 55.000 30.000 r1.200
ASTM A I39 9 60.@0 35.000 14.,fi)
ASTM A 67I cA55 9 55.m0 rc.(m t:r.200
ASTM A 67I cc60 9 60.m,J :12.0m | 4.400
Figure 18.3 Maximum allowable stress values for simple tension - page 1
Notcs:
l. All pcnircnt rnodifcrtioos rtd limiradoru of rpocifioti,os tlquild by 42. tlFugh 4,6 shdl bc complicd with.
2. Erc.p( for drcac 'rscs wlrt! ldditiond fdors or litlittrias rc |pplid 16 indicdld by trfcrcnclr io Notcs 4, 6, l0 |nd 12, rhc .llowsblc
t!tl3ilc![!3s \|.lu(r gitttr in lhi! trblc for matlrid3 o{trr tllln boltiog rtcl l[c tlE lcasrr of (.) 30% of rhc rpccificd ninhum ulrimlc acnrilc
stslngth f6 thc msr.{ial or O) 60& of $c spccifi.d minimultr yicld
loiol
3._Ercspt whctr . joiot cfficic{tcy &crot is alrcady lrdc$d in 0|c.pccifcd allowlbh sallr vsluc. r' idicatcd by thE lrfctlnccs ro Nolc lO, or
{llcrr d|c vrlur ofrvdcEdfncd in racord'r|c with 5.5.33. i! lcss rhln rlrc .pplicsblc joinr cffciqrcy giv.n in'ibblc 5.2 (ud 0rcnforc cficcb
r grtx.r.duclion in rllowrblc rfrts th.n seuld lhc F&& rfficicrrctfldq, ifrpplicd), rhc ipccifica *ts rnluas for wtds in rslslon
shrll bc multipllt by dlc rpplicrbk joinr cfficicrry lrctor, E, gircn in Trblc 5.21
'in
4. Swss valucs for strucrurtl qudity stc.ls inch& ! quality frdor ofo.92.
5. Platcs.M pip. shrll not bc rsrd in $iqkncss grcarcr thln l/. in.
6. St.q(r valucs arc limir.d ro rhosc for srccl thal hrs.n lltin|at. rcnrilc snrngth of only 55.000 lbf/in.l.
7. lrss than or cqual ro 2ll2 in. thickncss.
8, Lrss than o. cqllll to I l/2 in. $ickncss,
9. Stcsr valucs for fusbn-s'cldld pipc includc a wcldcd-joifl cf,icicncy fsdor of O.m (rcc 5,23.3). Only strrighr"srrm pipc shall hc oscdi thc
usc of spiral.scam pifrc is prohibicd.
10. Strc$ vllucr for cr"slings irrlude a qualiry f|cror of0.80.
ll. Sc( 5.6.6
f2.Affowahlcsttd$shascdonSectionvllloftltcASMEBoifu..1PtI.tturryrrrclCrrdcInullinhcdhythc.atioof0rdc\rfnstrc\\tiKr(rrsn!
rlandld rnd Secraon Vl | | ot rhc ASME (i'dc. niJrnlctv 0 lt!{).ti
this
: !ure 18.3 lvaximum allowable stress values for simpte tension - page 2
-..m APl620, table 5-1
UN 8@ ro@
d)6l-T4 rodlt
PlFinS |nd lbbht
A33f,Gndc t l00nm 75,m
A 33l,Grdc 8 t00,m ?5,0$
DT. l04c
A 312" C,t!d. TP, 75s 1!@ nfi 2?.m
?0,m 25p00 r&7x) zlj00
A 3la GndcaP,BF 304Lc
Forging:
A5n lmpm 75,000
A 182, C,rad! F,'IYpc 3& ?5,000 30,000 22,fi 2?O00
A 182, &r& F, lYF 304L 65,000 25,0@ 18,750 22fi
B ZT,Aloy 3003-Hl12 1,1,000 5,000 3,750 4J00
B 247, Aloy 5083-Hl 12 Modd 3qm 16,000 12,0m t4,400
Bolting.
B 2l l, Alloy 606l-T6 42,m 35!O lojm
A 320 (sfi..io+arddtcd cn& 88, BgC, B8M
.od B81)
s3h'.f,r r25,m lm,od) 30,m0
>%-1in. lt5.m 80,(m 26tro
>l-l[4i& 105,@0 65,000 2r,m0
> lt/4 - lrzir. r00,@0 50,(m 16.000
Nob8:
rThc alloq[blc rEErsls for thcsc tDfirdrb rtr bssad oo thc lowcr yiald
rnd Ensilc lErhgth of thc wEld firral or baJc mct l, s3 drl.F
ldncd by Q.6.1, .rd *l. d!6ign rulcs in Q.3J2. Thr Einimum mc.surcd tcoiilc s@o8lh rhalt be 95,m0 lbf n.2 and mhimum mcr-
lu|ld yickt ilrryth shdt bc 52,500 lbflir2. The maximrm p.rnidcd vrluca !o bc uscd fo. dcr.rminin8 rhc illow.btc ar.ss arc
100,0m bffurz. for r.nsilc slr.ngor rnd 5&OOO lbflin.z for yicld itrrnglh,
DBascd oo tha yicb and Gtt$iL atEnglh of lhc wrld nEtrl, rs dctlnnind by Q.6.1. Thc oinimum rncssu.cd r.arsile rtcng$ shall be
95.0@ Fi nrd dr odnirun mc-aru.ld yi.ld rltngrh shall bc 52J00 lbf/rn.l.
qior u/clding pipint or tubing. a joi .ffici.rra of 0.80 shall bc spplicd lo tlrc .llorJablc suts.s for longiMind Fir{s in accordancc
with 5.23.3.
(rnE
dcaignalion Mod rcquitts thar lhc maiimum tmsilc and yicld srcngrh ard lhc rnioirnum clong.rion of lhc marcrial conform |o rhc
li.ntu of B 209, Alloy 50814.
gThcs. allowablc $rc$ vrluer arc for ma(crials ihickness up ro end irKkrding | -5 ir. hr rhicknBr ovcr L5 in.. atlow$lc srrcrs vrh|!\ arc
lo k eit blistEd pcr Q..1..r.1 usiog ASTM dara of lcnsilc (ul(matc) and yic'd srftngrh Jor rhcsc Crad!:t.
tNor ro bc rrscd fo. op.ning rqinforccmcnr whcn uI!{ with A:151. A jsl. nnd A 64i.
Maxim0m
Joiflt
Basic Efficiency
Joid Radiographcd (%: sce
Typc of Joinl Limirations Emcicncy (%) (Sce Notc I ) Notc 2)
me nunPin$. auainca
other mcans appov.d by lhe porchascr,lhar roofs abovc liquid lcvcl. Full (sce 100
;ed willobtain th. quality ofd.positcd trcld melal Nore 3)
by on thc insid and oubid. wcld surfaccs lftar
nic agrces with $c rcquircmcnls of PaDgraph
Roofs abovc liquid lev.l,
0te
UW-15 in Scction VIII of thc ASME C.rd.: 7o spo,
't0
x/clds using mctal backing sldps Uat rcmain 85
Full (!cc
)ne in plec! arc crcltrdcd. 100
Nor! 3)
Singl.-wddcd boujoint with backing srrip or Longitudinal or nEridional cilclrmlcrcmr or lati ?5 Spot 75
ive couiwlcnt o{hcr than thosc includd !bo\,L tudinali)i s bctwcar plater not rnorr than I r/4 FUU (r.c 85
in.lhick nozzlc attachmcnr *EtdiDg without Notc 3)
3X- thiclnass limitatioo.
of
ive Roofs abow liquid lcvcl. ?0 "_-.
JPwr 70
L Full(sc! ;i
Nor4 3)
Singlc-c,cldcd bun joint witfi out Nozzla 4tachfircnt wcLfing. 10 70
)n- backing rt ip,
lo. Dolble full-fillct lapjoint (scc LnShudinal or tn ridionrljoinls &d.quivak 70 70
No& 4). (sc. Notc 5) cirflrnfcdlial or ladEdind iobts
he
*twcco ptatcs nor rnorc ard 3,/8 h hickj;inrs of
ng this tyFshall not 6c uscd for longibdintl or
ed mcridionaljoints Ihat {rc p(ovisioru of5.12.2
icqui.c to bc butt-r,6ldcd
he
OtlEr citcurnfcfiotial oa latildinal ioints
bct*Ecn platcs not morr thro 5/8 in-thiclc 6s 65
ler Singlc full-fllct lapjoint (scc Nolc 4). lr$giMinal or m.ridionelilints ltld ci.cumfcr- 35 35
cflial or lariurdi&ljoiots bctwan phtas rbl
ed
norc drao ,8 in lhickFinB of this tyF sh.ll nor
ell bc nscd for lodgiudinal or Dcridiood joinrs tlui
'n. thc Fovisions of 5.12, rcquir wh.r! rhc rhirutc{
ne plalcjoincd cxc.Eds r/4 irl"
Sioglc flu-filkt lrp joints for hcrd-ro-noz.lc For 8n*hlnanl ofhadJ convx to pcssurc nol 35
JOmts morc lhsD 5/8 in rcquid lhickncss, o{ y wirh use
n- of lh. fillc{ wcld on rh! i$idc of tlF 0o2dc.
Nozztc-anachndt fi llct w.lds AlrchrEnt wclding for nozzlcs and thch rcin- (lscludcd in
L forccmcnts, thc sftngh
factors io
n- 3.16.8.3)
re Plt g rrcldr (scc 5.245) Attachmcnt wclding for nozzlc rdnfo.t mcnB 80 - 80
(scc Notc 6).
e-
te
| . Scc 5.26 ard ?. | 5 for d.mimdofl rcodrcnrcnts.
2. Rc8rtdla$ of any vducs givcn in ftis colunul. thc cfiicicncy for htrwcldcdjoinls bcrwcco plar.s wilh surhc.s of dorbtc cunarur. thar have a com-
1- pfli$vc iE-css acro6.r llrc jolnl lrom a ncgativc taluc of P. or otlEr cxtcmal l@dinr nrav bc rakc$ as unitvl such comorcssirc vrass shalt nol rcccd
tn 700 lbfto r, Fot 3ll othrt ltpwcldcd joint!. tllc joid cmcicrrcy facror musr bc appliid o rrr atlr,rattc coriprcssira sriss. \,.
Thc cflicrcncy for furl.
pcn tmllon D|rn'wclddt romtr. khich arc in comprccsion adDrs !h. cntirc thickEss of rhc conE rcd plar.s. may bc t in as unit v
I All ruin butl.wcldcd joints t scc 5.26.1.2) dbll bc complcrcly radiogr.phcd as sFcifi.d in ?. 1 5.1 fid .ozzlc and ninforccmcnr hchmcnt wckl.
$arr bc c,(amrncd by rh magftdc.paniclc mcrhod rr srfciftd in ?.15.2.
'nE
4. Thictocss hmrrarions dr not appty ro llat borlomr supfDncd unifomty ona fo
dation.
te J Fo. thc poro$s affh lable.3 circumfcrcn[al or laritudii.l ioins shallb. considercd suhiccr ro rhe samc rcouir.nEnrs and limiullionl !s arc k,n.
a-
gitudtnolor m$idionalroint\ shcn $rch a circumt rcorial or lainudinaljoinr is locarcd(ar sttuncal. lori slhcricalor Lllips{ndrl .hrltL n I'r o
ofc. slrlic. of doublc curvlrur. lbr ar fc iuncrion hctwcrn l Looicat o; dishcd rmf &v thrron';a irnd c.rlindricai sidcw l s. t|s ;tnsidcnd in j. .1 [ ( r
ld Itt it r rimilariuncruru at citbLr cnd of I i;nsiion sccrioo or rducc. ls sh(sn in Figuft 5.9
6''.|'.d0icDnc!l]tctGis|towt|ir|i||c|wd|ds!ndph'!lwt|dsi'.n(i|lC)t|p
it.
nt
In
flgt re :l
i
0.6 .f...:.::::
',ii- i-l
l
ili'i 'ny'R\
.E\TI
_; *::
0.5
- -'r' 'ir:i. ,?0-: : .
j::-:
l-* ;
't0
04 :,-i .rl '::
.'|': f.:
l:i :
ii
K
':
.:,;ll; i, tt l,i
l:+Ili-: ': ttt
0'3
: , l.T:i-- t-i i ;. ':i I i+ ii- ,.
l.<-
r;t. rli I.jil:r:
:i l i.-r !r i. I
i !i_
Figurc 2
A=M.an lln.
I, B= Ltdltt for E0 Pol cnl
Efecttoe\ t.rdtt of
C, C=ll|nltr lor .ll t.tultr
0.10
04.01.01-NorE.
EXTERNAL PRESSURE
ie. E\: ) <o.
B'rcklinS mey occur uDder- ex_
t ma,l Dresaure aloDe at rower
oressurei tban indicated bY tlis
bata Sheet io tle long wavelength
mode covred bY Data sbeet
04.09.01. Tberefole in external
oressufe ca!c6 the strD8tb -ol tle
ivlinder rhould elao b cneckeo
o0l \riitrr Date Sheet 0l 09 ol'
Daceitbet 1963
t00 R
t
axial pressure - page 1
Llnstiffened circular cylinders under combined
Figure 18.7 Buckling stress coefflclents for tirn-walled
Sheet no 04 01 41
From Royal Aeronautical Society Structunl Data
quired for the stairway, then the opening shall have the same
Tank shell minimum section modulus as the stiffener itself This is de-
scribed further in ChaPter 4.
The stiffening ring itself can be a structural section or be fabri-
cated from plate. ln this case the joint between web and flange
may be an intermittent weld on alternate sides'
One rathole of minimum radius0.75" shallbe provided ateach
ioint between stiffener sections and at each point where the
itiffener crosses vertical shelljoints This detailis shown in Fig-
ure 18.9.
All fillet welds shall consist of a minimum of two passes The
ends of the fillet welds shall be 2" fromtheedgeof therathole
as illustrated, and these welds shall be deposited by starting 2"
from the rat hole and welding away from the rat hole An accept-
able alternative to stopping the fillet welds 2" short of the rat
hole is to weld continuously through the rat hole from one side
of the stiffener to the opposite side All craters in the flllet weld-
ing shall be filled bY back welding.
Anv ioints between sections of stiffener shall be made such that
area or the shellto be included in the wind siirr- tne minimum required moment of inertia of the combined
5i9ru"13"tJ[:,33""F"tins shell/stiffener shall be maintained
wind stiffener is given by the following equatron: Welded joints between adjacent sections of stifiener shall be
equ 18.7 made with full thickness complete penetration butt welds The I
Z = O.O0O1D'H,
use of backing strips is permitted.
18.3.1.5 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
i
where: I
For double-walled tanks where the thermal insulation system I
Z = minimum section modutus of the stitfener (in3) consists of a loose fill material (usually perlite) in association
and the Participating shell I
with a resilient blanket (usually glass fibre)' the insulation sys- I
The participating shellwhich may be included in the calculation tem imposes an external pressure on the outerface ofthe inner
of the sectlon modulus on the stiffener' both above and below tank. fhis mechanism is described further in Chapter'19 The
the point of attiachment is given by: external pressure is at its maximum value when the tank is
pe-
equ 18.8 emDtv and warmed up to ambient temperature following a
to = 1 .a7[Dt1', r.iod in lo* t".p"tutuie service The evaluation of the
magni-
tude of the insulation component of the loading is also dis-
where: iuiied in Chapter 19. ln the case of inner tanks with fixed roofs'
lp = length of the participating shell (in) (see Figure the insulation loading can be increased by the mostpessimistic
18.8) combinations of interspace pressure and inner ianl( vacuum'
The Code does not give any guidance for the design of a suit-
Where tanks arefitted with spiralstairways and thewind stiffen-
able shell stiffening system.
ing is to be fitted to the outside of the tank shell, stiffeners ex-
tending up to 6" from the outer surface of the shell plate with Adesiqn methodology which has wide acceptance in the indus-
(Refer-
stairwiys of at least 24" nominal width are permitted wlthout try is b:ased on the work of L.P Zick of Chicago Bridge
eice 78.2). This work has been republished with minor modifi-
modification. For stiffeners which are widerthan 6", a minimum
lf the cations in a publication by the American lron and Steel lnstitute
unobstructedwidth of stain/ayof 18" mustbe maintained
the stiffener is re- most recentiy revisedin 1gg2 (Reference 18 3) and it upon this
stiffener is of such a width that an opening in
.ne :.: :re following is based. This document gives design meth- half of the distance from the centre of the stiff-
te- - : -:'or three d;fferent types ofvessels and loadings. lt is Type C ener to the centre of the next stiffener on the
- :'r is most appropriate for storage tanks ("Storage Tanks of other side (or to the top or bottom of the shell)
(in). This is the part of the shell supported by
9n- -:'ie Diameter Subject to Radial Loads Only, ot Small Vacu-
, -: Wherc the Axial Load is Negligible"). the stiffener and this is illustrated in Figure
rge
18. 10
--. external load applied bythe insulation system on a vertical
rch
:. -dricaltankhas been shown by experimental and theoreti- D = tank diameter (in)
:: :iudies to be nearly uniform overthe tank height. This has t
lne
.::. assumed in this design procedure. = thickness ofthe thinnest (i.e. top) shell course
(in)
-: :3count for the fact that real tank shells are constructed from
-he : ::ries of courses, usually of different thicknesses, and the E = Young's modulus ofthe tank shell material
(lb/in2) usually taken as 29.0E06 for steel
oe -ry in Reference 78.3 is based on a shell of constant thick-
-::s. materials and 10.6E06 for aluminium alloys
it is first necessary to construct a shell of constant thick-
|2" -:-is equivalent to the real shell. This is for convenience based = factor of safety with respect to predicted failure
)pt- : - :re minimum shell thickness used in the real shell and is suggested minimum value = 2.0
-
: - -structed as in Section 18.3.1.4 by repeating the calculation
rae :':quivalent course width on a course-by-course basis using
p = external pressure (lb/in2)
)ro- :: -ation 18.6. p = Poisson's ratio - for steels 0.30
This formula is valid for values of L" greater than O.916i.
iat
equ 18.9 For tanks of conventional proportions, it is most unusual for
)ed
_:fe: shell stiffeners to be this close together.
be -1. = total height of equivalent tank shell (in) The number of stiffeners required to stabilise the shell is given
-he by:
.termediate shell stiffeners
-^: David Taylor lvlodel Basin Formula is used to decide upon N.,n =t 1 equ 18.11
.-
= citching of the stiffeners on the tank shell.
This is taken from
em : ,vork of Windenburg and Trilling (Refe rence 18.4), some of (rounded up to the nearest whole number)
ron , - ch is based on test work carried out on behalf of the US Navy
ys- :: 'ar back as 1929. Note: usualto arrange for shellstiffeners to be a minimum
lt is
ner
--? fofmula is: distance above or below the circumferential shell
-he
seams (measured on the real shell). This can be the
minimum spacing permitted by the tank design Codes
2.42 E (t Df f
ce- !, <D 0.45 + _4 | equ 18.10
or a greater distance to suitthe method oftank erection.
lni- Fp(l-u')''' l It is next necessary to calculate the number ofwaves into which
the stiffening ring will buckle, which is taken as the same num-
)fs, ber of waves into which the complete unstiffened shell will
,
_ere:
stic buckle:
Tt, L, half of the distance from the centre of the stiff-
uit- ener to the centre of the next stiffener on one Nz - -:: > 100 equ 18.12
side (or to the top or bottom of the shell) plus H lt^..
Di] D
US-
where:
iift-
ute N = number of waves rounded up to the nearest
nts whole number - Note that the maximum per-
mitted value is 10
H = total height ofthe real shell (in)
t", = average shell thickness (in)
Next is the calculation for the required moment of inertia of the
stiffener and the participating area of the shell:
' FPL'DI
equ 18.13
' sE(N'z-1)
where:
l" = moment of inertia of the shell stiffener and the
participating area of the tank shell (in4)
L" = actual or real height ofthe tank shell associ-
ated with the particular stiffener (in)
The participating area ofthe shell is the lesser ofl .1t"vbi (equal
to the participating shell width on either side of the stiffener of
t-i
078-/r aiven in eouation 18.15).
\2 -
: :Lr 18.10 The podion of the lank shell supported by a stiffener (1") This is computed by reversing the move from the real shell to
Diametor 72m
Height 35m
Fillheight 34m
Product LNG
sG 0,48
Course Width (m) Thickness (mm) Equivatent ht (m) Realheight (m) .quivalnt height (m)
course) (cumulativ)
(per (clmulative)
1-bottom 3.5 35.4 0.134 35.000 13-913
2 3.5 31.7 0.177 31.500 ',t3779
3 3.5 2a-1 0.235 28.000 13.602
4 3.5 24.5 0.336 24.500 13.364
5 3"5 20.8 0.507 2',1.o00 't3.o27
6 3.5 17.2 0.815 17.500 12,521
7 3.5 ',13.6 1.465 14.000 11JO6
8 3.5 9.9 3.241 10.500 10.241
I 3.5 9.6 3.500 7.000 7.000
'lGtop 3.5 9.6 3.500 3.500 3 500
Figure I 8.1 1 Example of transition from the equlvalent to the real shell
A" = composite area ofthe stiffener and the partici- Top 9lo x 305 x 76 x8 mm
pating shell (in'?). The participating shell width '| 152x9
' to be included on either side of the stiffener it-
159xe
mm
c{T
FpHD3
equ 18.16
wnere:
H = total actualtank height (in) Figlre 18.12 A tpical shell stiffenlng arrangement
outer tanks.
API Appendix Q divides the component parts of the tank into
two categories:
Primary components. lt is worth quoting paragraph e. i.4.1 in
full as there is frequently some confusion in this area:
"ln general, primary components include those components
that may be stressed to a significant level, those whose failure
would permit leakage ofthe liquid being stored, those exposed
Eileclive area wilhoul annular stilfener to a refrigerated temperature between -60'F and -27O.F, and
those that are subject to thermal shock. The primary compo-
nents shall include, but will not be limited to, the following parts
of a single wall tank or of the inner tank in a double wall tank:
shell plates, bottom plates, roof plates, knuckle plates, com-
pression rings, shell stiffeners, manwaysand nozzles including
reinforcement, shell anchors, pipe, tubing, forgings and bolt-
ing".
Note: When roof plates, knuckle plates, compression rings,
lzr"lL"l manways and nozzles including reinforcement are pri-
marily subjected to atmospheric temperature they are
Effective area with annut& sliffening
reclassifi ed as secondary componenb.
-te maximum value for L" is usually taken lrcm Reference Q.8.1.3 states: "The maximum fill shall not produce a stress
in any part of the tank greater than 85% (may be gO% for
stainless steel oraluminium materials) of the specified min j-
mum yield strength of the material or 55% of the speciflec
18.3.2 The API 620 Appendix e approach minimum tensile strength of the material.
What this boils down to is:
is has been described in Section 19.3.1, when this Standard
r.as written it only considered single containment tanks for the - The minimum test water fill level is given by:
::orage of products at temperatures down to -270.F. This is
Hr = 1.25Howo equ 18. i 6
-ade clear in the scope in Paragraph e.1.1 of the Code. The
considered are a single-walled insulated tank (most un- - The shell th ickness will normally be governed by the
=nks ope-
-sual these days) ora double-walled tank consistinq of an inner ating condition but a check must be made to ensure tia:
:nk for storing the refrigerated liquid and an outer tank enclos- the stress limits given in Q.8.1.3 are not exceeded.
-g an insulation space around the innertank. This outer tank is
-ot designed to contain the product liquid. There are occasions when the test water level is reouirec
to be higher than that given by equation 18.18. These c:-
,','ith the passage of time and the increasingly frequent appear- cumstances could be associated with local requlations o.
:''rce of double and full containment tanks, the rules of this AD- customer preference. So a test water height up to H co.t o
::ndrx have also been used to design liquid containing metaliic be required, and in this case the shell thickness wiil proba-
Tank diohela
Height of fork shell
Fill height -op'.olir'g
Fill heighi -last 2O.& |n
- P.oduct S
Test wster 56
Operuting pre3sure - fixed rrof tonk only ntdrg
Tesi pr6s|tFe - fixed roof tonks only mborg
lrlinimun thickie9s li i: 9,600 hn
corrosion ollowonce 6,a=[ffilrnn
Weld nefol properties - Ullimole Tensile Sif engih uts.--ZEiE-ru/rnrn'
Yild Sirng{h yS
= 399.91 t{,hm,
Density of steel p= 8O0O.0O k9lm3
The colculofion of the shell fhiclap$ cohat fron API 620 | 3.10.3.2.
where;
Hd = Height of liquid hld under oPer{tlng codifions oi level being conslde.ed (n)
Hr = Heighl of liquid head under ta# conditio[' dt level being contidered (|n)
td = DesiEn thickrs of 3hell (nm)
fd + cq : Dedgn thicknesg + corrosion ollowonce (mm)
ir: Tert thlckness of shell (nu'n)
l" = selccted shell thickness (nm)
Figure 18.14 Example calculatlon showing how the test water heighl influenced the shsll thickness - page t
sxnl"k"'-llllr1ssl E
Tonl dion
Height of
Fillheight -
ter
tdr* lheil
opcmthg
r'ffi*
Fill height
Produci SG
Tesr wdter Sg
- tcst
w
w
34.00 rh
n llle co,qulqii$ of the rhell thick'|ess cones fron Apf 620 I 3,f0,3.2.
T"
t= +aa where Tr: ldtitlrdinql unit force (clrrunferdiol unit fofcs)
S*E g, = mxinw$ ollowoble strEis for simple terlsiolt
E 3 efficiency of joinf
Hd = Heigl* of llqrdd hsad under olerlting corditig.s af level bing congidersd (ttl)
Hr = Height of liquld hend qldef lert conditjons at levcl bsing considerd (n)
td = Design thickness of shell (nrn)
td + ca. Detign thicknS + corrociqn dbwree (nUn)
tr : Terf thicknssr of shell ftnn)
tr : s.lecrd shell thickne6s (mn)
l|r1 Ernple calculation showing how the test water height Influencd the shell lhlckness- page 2
Nominal Cylindcr Diamctcr(f() Nominal Plate Thickncsr (in.l non-liquid containing tanks, the rules from section 5.4 of the
Slainlcss s{.cl ed nickel stael
Code are used as described in Section 18.3.'1 .3. For aluminium
<60 r/rr, alloysthe allowable compressive stress shallbe reduced bythe
l4O ttl ratio of the modulus of compressive elasticity to 29,000 (note
dO-
> 140-220 5tt6
US customary units of lb/inz) for values of [- c) less than
>22O r/s
Aluminum 0.0175 and by the ratio of the minimum yield strJgth of the alu-
<20 ft -c)
3h6
miniumalloyto30,000forvaluesof ' _' equaltoorgreater
2O-Im ttt
> 120-2m 5h6 than 0.0175.
>M l/s
18.3.2.4 Wind and vacuum stiffening
- Ethane 34.21 lblft3 (i.e. an SG = 0.546) In eouation 18.10 a value of u of 0.33 should be substituted and
in equations 18.14 and 18.17 the allowable compressive stress
- Ethylene 35.50 lb/ft3 (i.e. an SG = 0.569)
of 5483 lb/in'? (based on 15,000 lb/in'z times the ratio of the
. Values for the allowable stress for the design condition (So) Young's modulii of aluminium alloy to steel) should be used.
and the allowable stress for the test condition (Sr) for com-
monly used ASTM materials are given in Table Q-3 (Figure 18.3.3 The BS 7777 approach
18.4). The values ofSo given in this Table for plate materi-
als are based on the lesser of: As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, BS 7777 is based
(a) one third of the specified minimum ultimate tensile on the work of the EEMUAcommittee and its recommendations
strength of the material or contained in the EEMUA 147 publication. EEMUAand its pre-
decessor, OCMA, worked for several years to pfoduce a set of
(b) hi,/o thirds oJ the specified minimum yield strength [75%
recommendations which included double and full containment
in the cases of stainless steel, aluminium alloys and nickel
tanks which were increasingly being required by clients inter-
alloys - which does not include 9% and 5% nickel steelsl. ested in increased safety for storage facilities for the various
The values of S, are derived as stated above. low temperature gasses.
For materials where the strength of the weld metal under- BS 7777 does not use the primary secondary and basic cate-
matches the strength of the plate material such as 9% gories forthe component parts ofthe storage tanks, rather pre-
nickel steel, footnote a of the Table allows a range of weld ferring to place the various parts of the structures in the cold
metal propertieson whichthe allowable stresses foroperat- (i.e. design temperature based on the temperature ofthe stored
ing and test conditions can be based. Paragraph Q.6.1 pro- liquid)and warm (i.e. design temperatures based on minimum
vides means of determining the weld metal strengths. ambient temperatures) categories.
. The minimum shell plate thicknesses are given in Figure In Part 3 of this Standard, rules are provided for the design of
interesting to note that the values given for stain-
18.1 5. lt is concrete parts of low temperature tianks.
less steels and nickel steels are different from those given
18.3.3.1 Hoop tension liquid containing metallictanks
for aluminium alloys. They are also different from the val- -
ues given forAPl 620 Appendix R tanks (see Figure 18.5). The basic design formulae are:
It is interesting to note that the properties ofthe parent plate or Operating case:
weld metal, upon which the allowable stresses are to be based,
t^- D l98w^rH^-0.3t-o^I equ 18.19
are determined at room temperature. The actual properties at " ,)nQ ( ' ") 'ca
the design temperature will be higher, and in some cases con-
siderably higher, than the room temperature properties. Thus in Test case;
operation an additional factor of safety exisb.
D -i,
18.3.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks ' =20s, {gew,
t.
'
o.gt*0, } equ 18.20
)f the lhn} dismeter , Mlnlmum shell thlctness Carbon manganese lU'IS,2.35 or YS/L5
n ium steels
,ythe D <30 8 Improved toughness ltns/2.35 or YS/1.5
caxbon marganese
(note 30<D<50 l0
l,ow nickel steels UTS/2.35 or
than 50 s, I
% Ps/1.5
10.2
NOm. This thickness may inciude any corrosion allowanc I % nickel steel I tlTS/2.35 oi
) alu- provided that the shell is shown by calculation to b safe in % Ps/1.5
th corroded condition and in accordanc wjth the 10.2
requirement of 7.2.i1.3. Austenitic stainless IUTS/2.5 or I % PS/1.5
-'ater
: gure 18.16 IVinimum shell plate thickness
Figurc 18.18 Determination ofthe maximum allowable stress desgn
"on BS 7777 : Paft 2, table 12 Fron BS 7777 : Part2,table 11
ano Material type l,hximum shell thickness'/ Nornnrl cont lrs dLmeter Noblnal shU thrchr)
ed in D
lype I 30 mm
)ndtx
. For t?es II and III 25 rnm ,<10 5
fillet t?es lV and V 30 mm2) l0=D<30 6
1}?e vl 25 nm 30<r<60 8
gs 'r When material thicknesses are required in excess of thes
60<r<75 l0
values, additional requirements to maintain the same level of 12.5
-ibed
safety are lo b ageed between purchaser and manufacturer
', The rquirenenl to. minimm nomiMl thicknss is neded
ilfer- see footnore to tabte 2. for onshuction pu.pces, and nay include any colruDn
'z)
/aote auowe.e, prdidd that the shell b shom by cdculariotr ro
: lJre be sfe in the cormded condition and to b in accordance
re to 18.17 l\,4aximum shell plate lhickness with ?.1.4.2 and ?.1.43.
: .n BS 7777 : Paft2, table 4
Figure 18.19 Conlainer nominal shell plate thickness
tano height shall be the level achieved when the full inner tank
Fron BS 7777 : Pad 2. tabl-e I
:IESS contents are released into the outer tank.
i the parent plate, the weld metal properties used in the determina-
-1ese formulae applyto tanks ofthe single, double and full con-
-.d. .rment categories. tion of the allowable stresses shall be demonstrated to have
= been achieved by the use of a strain-gauged, cross joint tensile
--e design point taken as being 0.3m above the bottom edge
is test which is defined in the Standard.
:':re course under consideration.
18.3.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks
tseo r.y additional height to accommodate seismic sloshing need Only steel tanks are considered.
:ions -:: be included in the product design level (Ho).
The shell plates shall be checked for internal pressures using
--e minimum thickness requirements are given in Figure the following formula:
et of ' a 16. These minimum thicknesses are not the same as those
nent -i:Jired for non-liquid containing tanks. The footnote makes it ,PD
rter-
ious
: =ar that the minimum thickness can include the corrosion al- " =--+ca
t^
20s
equ 18.21
:,,, ance providing the shell is thick enough for the internal pres-
Where the variables are as defined in Section 18.3.'1 .1 withthe
i --e according to equations 18. 19 and 18.20. Corrosion allow-
exception of:
: -:es are not commonly applied to low temperature tanks as
-=-i already been mentioned. p = internal pressure as a combination of internal
cotd --. gas pressure and insulation pressure (mbar)
r'naximum shell plate thicknesses for the various materials
)red
num
:'= jiven in Figure 18.17. lt is interesting to see that this Table S = design stress being the lesser of 260 or two
=
,:s a let out in Footnote 1) for circumstances where the sheil thirds of the material minimum vield strenoth
:::e thicknesses exceed the values given in the Table. This (N/mm2)
nof I
" : - normally be in the form of additional or more onerous BS 7777 does not permit the use of lap-welded outertanks.
- -:-cy V-notch impact testing which would be agreed between
(s :-= : Jrchaser and the manufacturer. Footnote 2) states that for It is most unlikely that equation 18.21 will dictate the shell
service and double or full containment categodes, "ordi- thickness.
-'.3
-= r' 9% nickel steel (type lV) should be replaced by "im-
The minjmum shell plate thickness shall be taken from Fig-
: -: ..d- 9% nickel steel (type V) or by austenitic stainless steel ure 18.19. Again the footnote allows the inclusion oJthe cor-
-.:e Vl)when the shellthickness is between 30mm and 40mm. rosion allowance.
1.19
-- = 3 jlowable stresses for the operating case are given in Fig- The maximum shell plate thickness shall not exceed 35 mm.
--- - 3.18 subject to a maximum value of 260 N/mm2. 18.3.3.3 Axial compression
-- -. s the
same maximum as is imposed by BS 2654 for ambi- The thickness of the shells of non-liquid containing tanks are
J.20 :- - :: rks. lt is there for similar reasons of avoiding problems of
usually less than is the case for liquid containing tanks. For this
:;--::Jfal instability and excessive anchor rotations of con- reason it is necessary to check the stability of the shell under
-?::=: pipework (despite the fact that the Code seeks to dis-
the influence of axial compressive loadings. The basic equation
: : - -=3e the use of shell pipework connections).
to determine the allowable compressive stress is given by:
--: : owable stresses for the test case are 85% of the mini- / t,^\
---_, eld or proofstrength ofthe parent plate orthe weld metal S^ = 12.s ]j--ilc equ18.22
rbe "- :-ever is the lower) subject to a maximum value of 340
rnd-
where:
drs- --: - :.nate tensile stress (UTS), proof stress (PS) and the
: : ::-,ess (YS) are all to be determined at ambient tempera- S" = allowable compressive stress (N/mm2)
R --= ,i nere the weld metal under matches the strenoth of the t = shell plate thickness at the point under consid-
c Irnpact ia$ing shqld be cdi.d on o erh llaie 10 demoBtnre rhe lequirEd inlac{ }lue. th addition, rsir8 ar a nequenc}, of
one r6t ol uE spimN per40 toM6 ba!.I shoutd be cMied @t 10 dnoNFate t20J.i rhe rmDer*urc spei6ed. tte de6niiion
of plab aid tEtch re giren in DN 10026.
d Relerere should be nEde to md A ol BS ??7-2.
'For horimt veld5 in 9 96 Ni srels, lne wel<l mLl rEquifthent ned or y be 60 J at 196rc.
NU-ductility tldsition
aemler.tu.lor tFo
'c 'c 'c
Butare -10 -45
hopane,{Propylene -50 90
Ethane,/Ethylene -105 - 145 -140
Met]'ane (ING) -165 N/Ab 196 c
'This temp@t@ od the eiated NDTT 6 b @d for mtenal *lection Drovided tlar rhe spe.i6ed dsiSF rempmt@ js not
more rhd 5'C colder thd tlis assMed
b 'Elft.
T6tirg below -196 rc is coNidered unpEcricd
. Two nonrak 6drs at eertain a NDTT ol ar lea* z0l
qc
d4 Filh CAT = ND1T + 400 rc 16l, 16l, giv6 a minimM
-196.C
CAT of -16l'C. W'rih the boilin8 point of ING belng o!1y0.6'C lower (-161.6'C), ed the coBMtim olOe CAT NDTT + 40"c
=
relntio4 lllie !5 cNiderEd a $6c!ent requiremoi io sp4iry @ck resl
: . --: 18.22 Required n |ductility lfansition lemperatures and r.inimum tesi temperaiures for no brcak resutts
-: : -:s the design stress arising from the product loading. 30<D< 60 8
60<o
I:j The prEN 14620 approach
10
NOTES
1) f" ls minimum ull mate tensile slrenglh in N/mm'?and t s minimurn yield strength Ln N/mm:
2) For iow nckeland 9 o/o Nistees fyisequalto0.2%otprcolslress
1.36 d > 1.57 c! < 1.57 1.06 o.> 1.42 s < 1.42
1.10 1.7210 1.11 1.57|d.
'fr is the partialfactor for actrons; lM is the factor for material shongth;
f" is ultimate tensile strength of steel; fyis lhe yleld strength of the steol
Figure 18.25 Partial load and mater al factors for types l, ll, lll and lv steel
Fron ptEN 460-2 : 2403, table 5
1
storage tanks for products stored at between -5 'C and -165'C the same as are given for liquid containing tanks in Figure
It was envisaged that the Standard would have its scope ex- '18.16. The maximum thicknesses are as stated above.
tended to cover products down to -196'C by the addition ofan 18.3.4.3 wind and vacuum stiffening
Appendix or extra part similar to BS 7777 : Part 4. Sadly, this
The method of calculating the number and size of shell stiffen-
looks unlikely to happen, due largely to a lack of interest from
that part of the industry dealing with the storage of liquid
ing is exactly the same as is given in BS 7777 (see Section
18.3.3.4) which is in turn taken originally from BS 2654.
oxygen, nitrogen and argon.
18.3.4.4 Shell stiffening for external insulation loadings
18.3.4.'l Hoop tension - liquid containing metallic tanks
The only guidance is a reference to a calculation method given
The formulae used for calculating the thickness ofthe tank shell
in a Japanese Gas Association document (Reference 18.11)
underoperating and test conditions are exactlythe same as are
This leaves the choice of method to the designer and the above
given in BS 7777 (equations 18.19 and 18.20). The minimum
reference or the method described in Section 18.3.1.5 would
thickness requirements which apply to primary and secondary
seem sensible candidates.
liquid containers are slightly different to those in BS 7777 and
are given in Figure 18.23. The maximum shell plate thick-
nesses are as follows: 18.4 Bottom and annular design
Types l, ll and lll steels 40 mm The Code rules for bottom plates of metallictanks are quite sim-
Type lV steel 50 mm ple and straightfoMard. The plate thickness and the means of
joining are specified. The Codes do not give guidance regard-
Type V steel no limit given
ing the plate layoutsto be adopted. This is lefttothe contractors
A let out clause, similar to that included in BS 7777 is added al- who have their own particular favourite plating arrangements
lowing these thickness limits to be exceeded when additional based on experience and suitability to fit in with the erection
materialtesting is carried outto demonstratethat the same lev- methods and, at the end ofthe day, to provide a flat bottom. The
els of resistance to brittle fracture have been achieved finished profile oftank bottoms can be flat, coned up to the tank
centre or coned down to the tank centre. This latter arrange-
For the allowable stress design, the allowable stresses are sim-
ment is often associated with a tank centre bottom outlet con-
ilar to those given in BS 7777 and are shown in Figure 18 24.
nection.
Note: There has been considerable debate about this and it
, would be wise to consult the "real" EN Code when it is Annular plates and theirjunction with the lowestshell plate is an
published. area in a liquid containing metallictank where a complex stress
situation is found. Yielding and shakedown are known to hap-
The partial load and material factors for the limit state design pen during the hydrostatic test. A great deal of research has
method are given in Figure 18.25. been carried out in determining and predicting stresses in this
All vertical and horizontal welds must be butt welds with full component. This work has been reduced to a slmple set of rules
penetration and fusion. The distance between verticaljoints in which experience has shown provide a satisfactory service his-
adjacent courses must not be less than 300 mm. lt would seem tory if followed by bnk designers.
preferable to use a larger spacing of say one third of a plate
length here to avoid possible distortion problems 18.4.1 The API 620 Appendix R approach
18.3.4.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
'18.4.1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
The axial stability criteria are exactly the same as are used in
BS 7777 (equation 18.22). The minimum shell thicknesses are Bottom plates for liquid containing tanks shall be a minimum
I t9,000
Not r:
rr! |hicb.!..3 trd vldda (r. Q3.4.1) ln dd! ribL |1! h.sdoo tE foudrlin FlvidiiS rttnlfodn r4porltrd.r dE fu wt&hof dE tlmu-
Ir pL!c. Udc!. rb. fotndd.o b F!0.d, comF.r.4 pdq{rdy ! lIt ind& of r.onc$rc dIttw.ll, r.dlaEn stll p.ldlce.ttdiddd
,ftr!.r h dlc.na!||' ptrte. fhc &lcbr.s ofdE.!outr. bo.roo phr.r |l.cat t.t
..d tlE tiichEt d6c tur thcll oo|!|c Thc ftinimum
thbhs!.: fo. uuhl hotbll9t|l!. es! (bivldb$.d dt |ftdguc otclo lifc of lomcJd.s fordunimo Lrt .
rThc r!!$ rhdt tccrtsrLr.d llliig tE fo(n'rh t(r6D) x (rfC)yr, vrtrc! D c mminrl di.rn r.r ofd'c trlh In f},t= m|Iitnutn filittg lEi8ltt
ot &. r.d fo(d!rlg[, h & C = dc!i8! rpc.ift Snviry; rd r
= dclEr 6icbr.ss of0r f.|r rlEll c6oric,.rdodint co'ltltion dhvmcc, h ir
Not 3:
Th. rhicte$i ..d {i.trh3 (i.! Q-1.4. | ) in ihis rltlc s b$.do. In. fond.rio. Fovidin! ! milom ,ut,Pon !.d.r !h. flll {idtn of d!
unltd pl!|!. Untc$ rr|. fd,idrk t i3 p.qc.ty @p.cr.d. ptnidldry n |h. i i& of | cNErc dnlwdl. t { 6n will Fdle .ddi_
riond .uc.s i. tn. |![st . ot r.. ft. 6i.tFi, of rtrc |Nl! borron pl.r6 ftcd .or .rc..!t rlE tlricttB of dE 6r$ ih.ll cdre TrE
ni.iMo lhicrEi* td hnuhr borrom da6 *c &.iwd b$cd on . Otiguc .yct. lif. of 1000 .y.l* for tllminuo ldts.
Ith. $6r rhrll t oldl!&d urang fi. adltt l(2 64t) , (rO)l ,' whsc D; mhintl diamrd of ltE tet in ft tr = mriBuh lill'tr8
, h.igh ol $. |.nt rq dc.i8n. in fr a; = d.iign ipc.itic Irrvry: .nd r= d*itn rhktn.$ ol IIE liBr .hrll .@Ge. .rclldin! co(osid tlk'w
!rec. h in
Figure 18.3'l Minimum thicknoss for the annular bottom plate : aluminium tanks
Ftun API 620, table +48
te an- Backing strips %" (3.2 mm) thick shall be used, or the welds
io De
shall be made from both sides. These butt welds shall have
SSUTE
complete fusion through the thickness of the plate and extend
inwards at least 24" (6'10 mm) from the tank sidewall.
which
For larger tanks of this type, it is often considered convenientto
it a butt-welded annular plaie.
often
18.4.2 The API 620 Appendix Q approach
K Ce-
Dy In- '18.4.2.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
3ined
es of 3ottom plates for liquid containing tanks constructed from 5%
rickel, 9% nickelor stainless steels shall have a minimum thick- ,''.z:z
rcon- .ess of %6" (4.8 mm). Curiously this part of the Code does not
Section Z-Z
specify a minimum thickness for aluminium alloys.
Figure 18.33 Typ cal sketch of plale joint under shett ptates for tanks of con
Jnless otherwise specified, the bottom plates shall be tainer withoui ann!lar plates
rll be ap-welded together. The lap welds shall consist of a minimum Frcm BS 7777 : Part2, figurc 3
rf two passes (for materials excepting aluminium alloy).
-hree plate laps shall not be closer than 12,,(305 mm) from Bottom plates shall be lap or butt-welded together
rnph- :ach other or from butt welds of the annular plates. Lap welds shall consist of at least two passes. Lap joints shall
shell 3utt-welded annular plates are mandatory and shall fulfil the have a minimum lap of 5 times the bottom plate thickness.
24" (610 mm) inside of shell to any lap-welded joint and the 2,' The use of butlwelded annular plates is mandatory
'' /a 50mm) outstand requirements gjven in Section 18.4.1.1, un- The minimum width (i.e. the total width from the outer edge to
oe0. :ss a greater width is required by the following: the inner edge beneath the bottom plating) shall be 650mm.
:cr steels:
The minimum thjckness ofthe annular plates is given in Figure
390tr 18.32.
t_. - as given in equation 18.23.
GG Butt welds in bottom of annular plates may be welded from both
:tr1.
aluminium alloys: sides or from one side using backing strips.
The joint betur'een the lowest shell plate and the annular plate
equ 18.24 rnay be double fillet- or full penetration welded. For double fillet
welding, each weld shall be of at least two passes and be of a
--e minimum thicknesses of annular plates shaJl be as Figure leg length equal to the annular plate thickness. The inter weld
-
a.30 for steels and Figure 18.31 for atuminium alloys. pressure test is recommended but not made mandatory For
l-:t welds in annular plates shall not be closer than 12" the full peneiration option, a warning about possible annular
plate distortion is included.
mm) to any vertical shell weld.
: -:5
--e joint between the annular plate and the lowest shell course 18.4.3.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks
. :ermitted to be double fillelwelded or of the full penetration The minimum thickness of bottom plates shall be 6 mm.
-.:e as described in Section 18.3.1.1. For the double fil
The bottom plates shall be lap-welded with a minimum lap of b
::-,velded option the same interweld pressu re test is required.
times the thickness of the plate. The minimum length of a
' 3.4.2.2 Non-liquid containing metallic tanks straight sketch (i.e. a cut to fit part plate) shall be 500 mm. This
-- e outertank bottom shall have a minimum nominal thickness avoids the use of very small plates.
-':._. (4 8 mm). The minimum distance bet\,veen three Dlate laDS shall be
-. :bove, the Code does not insist on a ring of butGwelded an- 300 mm.
- plates and fillefwelded plating to the periphery is permi! Tanks, where the bottom shell course is greater than .lO mm,
.::- ?. Again for large tanks, the use of butt-welded annular plates shall have a rjng of butt-welded annular plates with a minimum
': ,en iound to be convenient. (total) width of 500 mm and a thickness of 8 mm. For the
' :-e outer tank bottom is exposed to the vaporised gas as is butt-welded radialjoint a backing strip of minimum thickness 5
- : -it usually the case, the fillet welds must have a minimum of mm shall be used. The minimum bottom olate laD onto the an-
nular plates shall be 60 mm.
Tanks, wherethe bottom shellcourse is notgreaterthan 10 mm
'3.4.3 The BS 7777 approach may have a ring of annular plates or be constructed with
lap-welded bottom plates to the perimeter. Where this option is
': .1.3.1 Liquid containing metaltic tanks chosen, the deiails shall be as Figure 18.33.
--: .J'rinimum nominal thickness of bottom plates shall be The attachment between the bottom edge of the lower shell
plate and the bottom plate or annular plate shall be fillet-welded
continuouslyfrom both sides ofthe shell plate. The leg ,ength of
the fillet weld shall be equal to the thickness of the shell plate,
the bottom plate or the annular plate, whichever is the least.
The lesser of 8 mm or tl
IO 18.4.4 The prEN 14620 approach
12.5
This draft Code only allows steel bottoms with annular plates.
. imlm tt^tchnF"s o. anlLtar
32 1,/ir ptare The rules are the same for the primary liquid containe( the sec-
' :- :: i7 /7 : Pan 2, hble 10 ondary liquid container and tanks for vapour containment onlv
t
t6r (rnar)-/
PENM|SSIBLE
{OT PERI'ISSELE
I Wl|.! $in3 0. .lr.m.t dxrt Fnb. (rh. @f Dtrc udd dE..qFsrio. b& $ rho*n n Cr.||it !t l. rlE
Frrcn ..r .hdld .dridlr or o* of cruki.f ro .{rq4 rlE dn,dF .f ,rrnfr ,. llE &.r .t rtE fi|Lt ktd
I D'mnnoi A i. hr.ik h .id rlrrtd .ot .rc..d diftBd ,{
I '
Sc T.bk 5.2 td linir.ttoc cm.min8 kE.rb wlEc vres rypc, .t ql<td pr.k nr! b. u,..t.
wnere: The knuckle type is quite unusual these days. The fabrication
costs ofthe hot-pressed knuckle plates, the needforveryaccu-
H = maximum design liquid level (m) rate fit up in thefield, the difiiculties otjoining the radial ioof sup-
port members to the shell and the lack ofany significanfmate-
p = design product specific gravity
rialsaving tended to push the industrytowards the plate type of
The remaining requiremenb are as stated above forBS 7777. desion.
= corresponding width of the participating side- lf Q is in iact positive, then the allowable tensile stress is based
wall (in) on the allowable tensile stress from Table 5-'1 and thejointfac-
tor from Table 5-2.
= thickness of the roof plate at and near to the
roof to sidewall junction including any corrc The requirement that the composite centroid of the compres-
sion allowance (in) sion area provided shall not lie above or below the horizontal
line through thejoint between the participating shell and roof ar-
L = corresponding thjckness of the sidewall at and
eas by more that 1.5 times the average thickness of the two
near to the same junction (in)
members joining at the corner is made. This is for reasons of
R2 = roof spherical radius or Rc /cos cr (in) limiting the secondary stresses as described in Chapter 4.
a = sidewall radius (in) There are a number ofother requirements forthe compression
area details which are outlined briefly:
Tr = meridional (radial) unit force in the roof plating
= 0.5PsR, (lb/in) . The horizontal projection of the compression area shall
have a width in the radial direction of not less than 0.015
T2 = correspondinglatitudinal(circumferential)unit
times the horizontal radius of the tank shell. This onlv aD-
force in the roof plating = PqRs (lb/in)
plies if Q is negative indicating compression. which is the
Tz. = circumferential force in the sidewall (lb/in) majority of cases.
ct = angle between the slope of the roof and a ver- . Where the minimum sidewall and roof plate thicknesses do
tical line (see Figure 18.35) not provide the area required by equation 18.28, then the
additional area shall be provided by (a) locally thickening
gn = total circumferential force acting on the com-
the sidewall plate, the roof plate or both to comply with the
nk pression area (lb)
ne requirements or (b) adding an angle, a rectangular bar or a
= net area exclusive of corrosion allowances re horizontally disposed ring girder at the juncture of the side-
quired for the compression area (in2) wall to roof plates or (c) using a combination of these.
r) = maximum allowable stress for simple tensjon . The horizontal projection of the added angle, bar or ring
as given by Figure 18.3 (lbiinr) girder shall not be less than 0.015 times the horizontal ra-
dius ofthe tank shell. However, when the added area is less
= efficiency of meridional joints in the compres-
than one half of the required total, this width requirement
sion area in the event that Q should have a
positive value (see Figure '18.6) may be disregarded ifthe horizontal projection ofthe partici-
pating roof area is equal to or greater than 0.015 times the
on = design vapour pressure (lb/in2) shell radius; or when the angle, bar or ring girder js located
on the outside ofthe tank, the sum of the horizontal projec-
)u- - s almost always negative and in this case the design com- tion of and the horizontal width of the added material is
rp- :'=ssive stress of 15,000 lb/in2 is used for steeltanks. ln the un-
te- . : . case that an aluminium alloy tank requires a compression equal to or greater than 0.015 times the horizontal radius of
of : -:: a compressive stress of 15,000lb/in, factored bythe rela- the tank.
: ,: values of the materials would be appropriate. . The projecting part of the roof compression area, an added
=
in Figure '18.36.
t-f
Where a thickened shell compression area plate is to be
welded to the thinner minimum thickness shell plate, then
the joint shall be as indicated in Figure 18.37.
f*f-
\ |
The Code is notexplicitin its requiremenb for the maximum
thickness of compression area.parts. A thickness of 2Z "
would not seem unreasonabb as long as the material se-
lection requiremenb are met.
t-t
l-\ /
The requirements of BS 7777 for compression areas are based
on those of BS 2654which are described in Chapter3, Section
3.7. Theformula for the minimum area required and the deriva-
. The minimum size of fillet welds between the various com- Forthe plate type ofcompression area, the rules are exactly as
pression area componenb shall not be less than indicated given for BS 7777 and described above.
c lities.
fer-
rch The roof sheeting may be supported by, but not joined to the Backing stnp butt weld uslng rafter JF = 0 75
( _-lr---;
-->r
in,)
supporting framework. ln this case the possibilities for joining
:he sheets are topside lap welding, double-sided lap welding
and butt welding with or without backing straps. For this unat-
*1f--
r --1
:ached sheeting case, the roof sheeting alone must resist the
-rg- rternal tank pressures.
-he roofsheeting may bejoined to and act compositelywith the Slrapped flletweld JF = 0 65
i54 :upporting framework. ln this case it is usual to use the roof
Ine :upport structure as backing straps for the welding of the roof
not sheets. Whilst in practice the roof framework may contribute to
rnd :1e tanks ability to resist internal pressures, its influence in this
i. -espect is usually ignored in the calculations.
:cr tanks with reinforced concrete roofs, the roofsheeting and
:s supporting framework act as erection shuttering. During ser- Figufe 18.39 Various poss bililies for joining roof plates
. ce the roof sheeting is exposed to the full tank design pres-
sJre (which with current designs may be as high as 300 mbar) Tr = tSr.E equ 18.32
:Jt the structural resistance to this loading is the task of the re-
^'orced concrete. The design basis for the roofsheeting is now Then:
:ased on the internal and external loadinos which will occur PR
:Jring the construction process. equ 18.33
2S'F
:1er the roof has been erected in its final position, and this may
- olve air raising, jacking or piece small erection at the fulltank
,i where:
-:ight, it will be subjected to loads during the placing ofthe rein-
':.cing and the subsequent placing of the concrete. lt is the
t = calculated roof plate thickness excluding any
corrosion allowance (in)
: acing ofthe wet concrete which usually gives rise to the worst
:ading case. For a large LNG tank the concrete roof will be R" = R] = 6615p1r"rical radius (in)
-.:me 450 mm thick. lf this thickness of wet concrete were The remaining variables are as defined above.
: 3ced on the roof. lt would represent a loading of around 11.0
'\1m2. The minimum thickness ofthe roof plating (exclusive ofany cor-
rosion allowance) is 216" (4.8 mm).
-- s is significantly more than the usual roof loading of around
' 2 KN/m2,and it would require a substantial roof framework As for the tank shell, the allowable stresses are shown in Figure
'18.3 and the joint factors shown in Figure 18.6.
=-C thickened roof sheeting to support this loading unaided.
::f this reason, it is usual to seal the tank envelope and apply The various possibilities for joining the tank roof plates are
:- nternalair pressure to balance the wet concrete loadingsfor shown in Figure 18.39.
:-: period of concrete placement and curing.
::. the full450 mm ofconcrete were placed in a single pour, a
if
18.6.2 The BS 7777 approach
:: ancing pressure ofaround 110 mbarwould be required and
. :ie roof were poured BS 7777 allows both cone and dome shaped roofs.
in two equal thickness pours, then this
: : a ncing pressure would be arou nd 55 mbar. These pressures It imposes the following shape requiremenb:
:-:1 become the design pressures for the tank roof plating.
Cone roofs shall have a slope of 1:5.
18.6.1 The API 620 approach (Appendices R and Q) Dome roofs shall have a spherical radius of between 0.8 and
1.5 times the tank diameter.
:-:'n the body of the Standard, equation (7) from Paragraph The design requirements are very similar to those given in BS
: ' 1.2.5 gives the following for dome roofs: 2654 for ambient tanks.
I For internal pressures for conical roofs:
equ 18.31
. oR.
equ 18.34
tu-n
For internal pressures for domed roofs: . Local loadings from fittings and other similar roof-mounted
. PR, equipment
' 2os4
equ'18.35
. Differential pressure loadings on the suspended deck (iffit-
For external pressures for both cone and dome roofs where no ted)
supporting structure is present: . Wind loadings
| 1nP t"-
:rs . Seismic loadings
= 40R.1
L'tFl I equ 18.36
. Blast loadings
The self-weight of a suspended deck (if fitted) The externallyframed versions ofthe two arrangements de-
scribed above with the roof sheeting being attached to the
External roof loadings (i.e. snow live etc) underside of the framework.
lnternal tank negative pressure loadings (i.e. the design A geodesic arrangement similarto that used for some ofthe
vacuum) proprietary roof designs for retrofitting to ambient tanks as
Fillcl wcl.li wh.rc load h pcrFndiculd to tr 12,6m ?0% l.nsion valuc ftDm Tablc 5- I
lcnglh of ecu on tlE s.ction 0lough thc thrcar
(se 5. | 6J3. il.m b)
e are filbl eddt wl|cr! lold i! F.rllcl to 0E l.rg$ of 9,0m 50% tctrrion ulrc ftom Tabt 5' I
(o oe w!14 oo dE s.dion 0uooeh ttlc tlm6t (s
5,15,&3. icm b)
lom-
Pbg wclds or clor vclds, on ctr@rivc fayirS-suF | 1,700 65% t nsion !a!u. froh Tablc 5- |
fr.t lrci of *cld (s.. 5.24.5 md Tlblc 5-2)
Burt sdA! on Lrst ('oss-r.ctional arca, in or at 14,400 80% tcnsion valuc frcm T.blc 5" I
dsc of wcld (s. 5.16.8.3, illh a)
Bc.ring
ace-
r this Pins od !|nt.d bohs in rlocd or drillcd hoLs u,ffi 1.33 xt nsion vatuc fron TabL 5- I
t .d qplicd !o hoh .r oou one sidc of lllc mcm,
)lIed lrad disEibltsl uodoEnly,.pproximarcly, lcross 30,000 1,67 x Ensibn wloc frcm T6b'c 5- l
thi.kEss of ih. m.mbcr corctcd
)oint t !d +plicd io bolt at only orc sid. of ihc mcm- 16,0m 0,{B xt Bion vallc fred TlbL J-|
t rd dittibut d uaifo.nly, alproxioatcly, acru! 20,0m LI x &.sion wlu. iion Tablc 5' I
thickn*of th. m.mbd connct d
oaF
l. Thc v$irblcs io lhc comFEssirc $r.rs .qu|tioN e
d.6n d $ follows:
, = onb..c.d l4gth of thc 6luma in in.i . con spoding hat r.dius ot
= &ddrion ol rhc colurn in ioi r = OickrEsr of rhc rlbule column,
in ic: /= unity (lO) for v.lo6 of /R c$sl to of gElt r hr! O0l5ty
=(2,.j)Ilm,ltr)l l2<2/])llm)/r)ll ftr tih.s of rA lcss rlun 0.15.
:
2. Thc vdiab,er in lhc bcnding strcs .qulrions src dcfincd 5s folld.s: , uruuppo.Ed t..8rh of !h. m.Dbcr; fd . cerjlcvd b.m nor iu lty
shy.d at ns outcr cnd agaiist Fe.lador o. rctadon, / stEil bc rrkln ss rwic. ri. tcn$h of ll)c @opE$ion ndg., in in.; d = dcprh ot ihc
n nb.r, in i.,r , = widnh oa irs @nprc$ion flegq in b.i I = thickBs of ils conpcssion fleg., in io.
/ork e
l. Thc vuiablcs in thc shc&ing stE* cquarions .kfincd as follNs: I = cl@ dii.irc. b.rw.
wb Adgc! in in.: I = urkrncrj of dE w.b.
I
T
il
It
ll
tl
Figure 1 8.41 A tank anchorage system penelrcting both the secondary bottom plate and the outer concrete tank liner
sgcloit E-E
. EfiEC]EOI CASI
136x di Cnfln ffnNCE
18.7.3 The prEN 14620 approach the penetration of the secondary bottom as mentioned above,
the design process was made more complex by the fact that
This provides little in the way of design rules or guidance. Ref- this tank was built by the spiraljacking system. This means that
erence is made to ENV '1993-1-1, the applicable Eurocode for the shell seams between adjacent courses are not horizontal,
the design ofsteel stucturcs (Reference 18.12). butfollowa spiralpath. This in turn meansthatthe length ofthe
holding-down straps vary to avoid the strap shell attachments
falling on this seam.
18.8 Tank anchorage
It is interesting to note the use ofthe tube set into the concrete
The designs ofthe anchorage systems for single-walled metal- base slab to artificially lower the lower fixed point and the re-
lic tanks and for the inner and outer walls of double-walled me- quirement for accurate erection presetting in the radial direc-
tallictanks are based on the methods described earlierforam- tion. The former allowed strains due to differential thermal
bient temperature tanks in Slorage Tanks & Equipment. movements in the vertical direction to be accommodated, and
The task is made more difficult by the following: the lattertook account ofthe thermal horizontal displacement of
point B where the strap passed through and is attached to the
. The tank design pressures, and consequently the uplift secondary bottom.
forces are greater
The various codes give allowable tensile stresses for tank an-
. The liquid-coniaining tank shells are subject to thermal chors under the differing loading regimes. The actual load in
movements which must be accommodated in the design anchors where a thermal movement is involved is a combina-
. The anchors for the inner tanks of double-walled tanks will tion of tension (due to the uplift actions) and bending (due to
have to penetrate the outer tank envelope thermal movements). As has been mentioned already, the use
of an anchor where the proportions are deliberately chosen to
The total design loading on the tank anchorage is made up of
have a low stiffness in the radial direction minimises the bend-
combinations of the following loadings: ing component of the stress, leaving more available effective
. Self-weight of the metallic tank parts (in the corroded, i.e. strength for the pure tension component. This generally pro-
the lightest condition) vides a more efficient solution for the design of the strap itself
and limits the bending loads transferred to the tank shell. There
. Self-weightof the participating insulation when appropriate
is however a limit to this freedom to adjust the stiffener strap
. The internal pressure proportions based on a sensible strap width and minimum
. thickness. Strap widths up to say,200 mm, would seem a
Wind induced uplift
sensible maximum unless special circumstances dictate
. Seismically induced uplift (it is usual not to have to consider otherwise.
wind and seismic evenb occurring simultaneously)
Sorting out the various loading components and load cases for
The form ofanchorage chosen is again based on ambienttank tank anchors is a tedious business and is an area of design
practices. The boltand chairis less frequently used for low tem- well-suited tothe use ofbespoke computer programs or spread
perature tanks and the welded-strap type is generally pre- sheets.
ferred. This is for two reasons. The flexibility of a thin strap
means that loads caused by thermal movements of the tank 18.8.1 The requirements of API 620 Appendix R
can be more readily accommodated. Alsothe attachmenttothe
tank shell ofthe conventional bolt chair gives rise to higher mo- 18.8.1.1 Liquid containing metallic tanks
ments in the tank shell than does the strap attachment. This is
important in an area ofthe tank shell already being subjected to For single-wall tanks, or for the inner shell of a double-walled
high hoop and vertical bending loads. tank, the following requiremenb apply:
It is usual to consider the liquid-containing tanksto be emptyat . The anchorage shall accommodate movement ofthe tank
the time that the uplifting loads are applied, with the exception wall and bottom caused by thermal changes.
of the seismic load case described below . Stainless steel should be considered for tank anchors, or
Open-topped inner tanks are only subject to uplift loadings aris- provision should be made for corrosion wherecarbon steels
ing from seismic loadings. ln this case it is usualto resist the up- are used. lvlaterials for tank anchorage shall meet the re-
lift by mobilising a part of the contained product liquid to assist quirements given for primary materials (see Chapter 22).
the tank self-weight to hold the tank down. This is described in . When the too shell course is the minimum thickness as
more detail in Chapter 26. given in Figure 18.5 and the top corner arrangement is as
There are however situations where the mobilising of the con-
tained liquid cannot be used, or where it is impractical. These
could be wherethe seismic upliftcomponent is simplytoo big to So rca of AllowlbL Tdrsion
be resisted _by self-weight and liquid hold-down. This could in Uplift Prcrsurc SEarC (psi)
turn be in situations where the site geometry does not allowthe Tanl dcsign Fcssurc Allowablc dcsign ircss. S,,
necessary adjustments to the tank proportions to enable ade- {scc Tablc J- I )
quate liquid hold-down to be made. ln these cases hold-
Tank &sign prcsrurc plus Smalle' of 1.33 t,or 80% or
ing-down anchors must be provided which attach to the inner wrnd or $hquakc lhc spcificd minimum yicld
liquid-containing shell and must penetrate the outer metallic
shell, or the liner of the concrete outer shell, and on occasions Tank tcst prcssurc
the secondary bottom as well. These penetrations must not al- Smallcr of l.:11t,or 80% of
rh sp.cilid tninimurn yicld
low leakage of the product vapour during service. Bearing in
mind the various thermal movements to which these compo-
nents are subjected, and the high anchorage loadings in the
I'Thc rlksab[ Ini nMnocrsc.
strap, this is a complex design pfoblem. tcnsion srrc\{ d]".t! irnrn{d xl ttE
t(rn or trnsr|t strc\s cr dt rhc rn.hor
An example of such an arrangement is shown in Figure 18.41 .
This particular case is about as difficult as innertank anchorage Figure 18.42 Allowable tension stresses for uplift pressure conditions
systems get. In addition to the design problems associated with From API 620, table ,7
above, Figure 18.34 details a-e, h and l, the minimum anchorage tom. This is most unusual for these tvoes of tanks and will not
rct that shall be designed for normal loads ("normal loads" means be considered further.
ns that the upward loadings less the downward loadings with no
The tank anchorage shall be designed based on the following:
zontat, additional factors applied). In this case the allowable
r ofthe stresses for carbon steels, shown in Figure 18.42. For alu- . The design stresses shall be in accordance with Figures
rments minium alloys and stainless steels the following shallapply: 18.3 and 18.42.
- The maximum allowable tensile stresses for design . When corrosion is specified fortheanchors, thickness shall
ncrete loadings combined with wind or earthquake loadings be added to the anchors and the attachments. lf bolts are
tne re- shall not exceed 90% of the minimum soecified vield used for anchors, the nominal diameter shall be not less
0rrec- strength for the material. than 1 in plus a corrosion allowance of %" on the bolt diame-
'rermal
For the test condition where the tank is filled with water ter
o, ano
nentof to the maximum product design level and an over pres- Attachments of anchors to the shell shall be designed using
to the sure of 1.25 times the design pressure is applied (where good engineering practices. This means giving appropriate af
applicable), the tensile stress shall not exceed 90% of tention to the minimising ofany moments and stress concentra-
the minimum specified yield strength of the material or tions aDDlied to the tank shell.
nk an- 55% of the minimum specified tensile strength of the
oad in As above, the counterbalancing structure shall be designed to
material.
nbrna- resist the uplift based on 1.25 times the internal design pres-
0ue to Allowable tensile stresses shall be taken from Fioure sure plus any wind load on the shell and roof. lf seismic loads
're use 18.4. are specified, uplifr shall be calculated using the internal design
pressure plus the seismic loads. Wind and seismic loads need
sen to r When the top shell course is thickened as in Figure 18.34
bend- not be combined.
details f and g, or where a knuckle is used, the anchorage
'ective shall be designed for three times the internal design pres-
y pro- sure. The allowable stress for this loading is 90% ofthe min- 18.8.2 The requirements of API 620 Appendix Q
) itself lmum specifled yield strength ofthe anchorage material. As
There an alternative, the purchaser may specify a combination of 18.8.2.1 Liquid containing tanks
strap normalanchorage and emergency venting (it is usualto fol-
rimum The requirements are very similar to those spelt out in Section
ow this latter course of action, the addition of emergency
)em a 18.8.'1.1. A couple of extra cond;tions are imposed:
venting systems being generally considered a cheaper op-
ictate tion than the consequences of increased anchorage loads . Allowabletensile stresses shallbe taken from Figure '18.5.
and the foundation provisions that will occur).
. 9a/"or Sok nickel steels, stainless steel oraluminium alloy
es for -'./ ng decided on the anchor loads to be appljed, it is clearly may be used for anchorage and carbon steel may be used
lesign -::essary to provide means of resisting these loads. The Code when a corrosion allowance is provided and the tempera-
pread
., es thefollowing guidancefortankfoundations to resist uplift: ture regime is suitable for this material. Aluminium alloy an-
. For tanks with an internal design pressure less than 1 lb/in2, chorage shall not be embedded in reinforced concrete
rhe uplift shall be taken as the smaller of the maximum uplift unless it is suitably protected against corrosion.
t
calculated in the following conditions: 18.8.2.2 Nonliquid containing tanks
The internal design pressure times 1.5, plus the design The requirements of Section 18.8.1.2 apply.
wind load on the shell and roof.
valled
The internal design pressure plus 0.25 lb/in2 plus the 18.8.3 The BS 7777 requirements
design wind load on the shell and roof.
) tanK
. BS 7777 does not differentiate between the requirements for
For tanks with an internal design pressure of 1 lb/in2 and
the design of anchors for inner and outer tanks. Although laid
trver, ihe uplift shall be calculated considering 1.25 times
rs, or out in a different wayfrom APl620, the actual requirements are
ileets
ine internal design pressure plus the design wind load on
essentially very similar.
:ne shell and the roof.
re re-
. The design loadings are set out as follows:
22). ,Vhere the anchorage is designed for the three times the
:esign pressure as described above, the foundation shall . Inner tank service loads The uplift produced by roof de-
is as
:e designed to resist the uplift that results from three times sign vapour pressure with seismic loads, counteracted by
:'re design pressure with the tank full to the design liquid the effective weight of the shell, roof, roofstructure, roofin-
:veJ. sulation and any permanently atbched insulation.
:: - 3 r\i of the above it is permissible to utilise friction between . Inner tank test loads The uplift produced by roof test
-: soil and the vertical face of the ringwall (if used) and all of vapour pressure counteracted by the effective weightofthe
-: :ffective liquid weight. shell and roof structure.
-- .
= Code
does not make it clearjust what constjtutes the effec- Outertankservice loads The upliftproduced bythe annu-
:quid weight. The author's view is that this should be calcu- lar space design pressure with either the wind uplift and
:-=: n the same way as WL in the seismic design case, (see overturning, or, the seismic loads (but not acting simulta-
, - =r:ef 26). neously), counteracted by the effective weight of the shelt,
' : 3.1.2 NonJiquid containing metallic tanks roof, roofstructure, any associated structure attached to the
:: ' :'rese non-liquid containing tanks the requirements of sec- roof or shell and any permanently athched insulation.
: - a of the Code apply. . Outer tank test loads The uplift produced by the annular
-- ,i 3 rlows tanks with cou nterbalance j.e. where a counterbal-
(
space test pressure, plus 60% of the wind uplift and over-
:-: -g structure such as a ring wallor a slab type foundation as- turning, counteracted by the effective weight of the shell,
: ,.:-. :ne tank self-weight in resisting the uplift) and tanks with- roof, roofstructure and anyassociated structure attached to
:cunterbalancing weights. In this latter case, no anchors the roof or shell.
: -:
:': :'ovided and the uplift loads are resisted by a stiffened bot- The allowable stresses are given by:
. Service case: not to exceed 50% of the (minimum sDeci- be limited, to avoid failures of the anchoraqe due to ice for-
fied) yield shength of the material of construction. mation or water condensation.
. Test case: not to exceed 85% of the yield strength of the . A corrosion allowance of 1 mm should be aoolied to all sur-
material of construction. faces of anchorage parts.
Various other items of advice are offered in a fairly haphazard . Any initialtension in the anchorage members resulting from
fashion and these are listed as follows: bolting loads or loads due to transient or long term thermal
. The internal and external tanks or containers (the BS 7777 movements, should be considered in the anchor loadings.
terminology for non-liquid containing tanks) shall be re- . No initial tension should be applied to the anchorage. lt
garded as independent structures where neither contrib- should only become effective when an uplift force develops
utes to the other in resisting uplif in the shell of the tank or container.
. Asuspended deck shall be considered as an integral part of . Steps should be taken before the tank goes into service to
the outer tank. ensure that anchorage bolts cannot work loose or become
. Where insulation of the loose fill type is used, it shall not ineffective over a long period.
contribute to the resistance to uplift of either tank. . Any anchor bar, bolt or strap shall have a minimum cross
. Wind uplift and overturning loadings shall be based on BS sectional area of 500 mm2.
CP 3 : Chapter V : Paft2: 1972 (Reference 18.13). . Anchorage points should be spaced at a minimum of 1 m
. Anchorages shall not be attached directly to shells or bot- and at a maximum of 3 m and should, as far as possible, be
tom plates, but shall be attached to pads or brackets (lt is spaced evenly around the circumference of the tank.
unclear if this means that anchors can be attached to bot- When reading through these requirements, it should be borne
tom plates, which is considered undesirable). in mind that the language is used in a specific way as required
. The design temperature for anchorage and anchorage at- by BS 0 (The British Standard for Producing British Standards).
tachments shall be either the design metal temperature of Hence "shall" indicates a mandatory requirement whereas
the tank of container, or a temperature agreed between the
"should" and "may" indicate a recommendation of good
purchaser and the designer. praclce.
. Where the top shell course is thickened to provide addi- 18.8.4 The prEN 14620 approach
tional compression area, the anchorage should be de-
signed for 3 times the design vapour pressure. The The guidance given for tank anchorage is essentiallythe same
allowable stress for this loading may be increased to 90% of
as is included in BS 7777.
the minimum specified yield strength ofthe anchorage ma-
terial. The Code then goes on to explain the thinking behind Stress limits for tension are given as:
this requirement, which is helpful. The reason for this is that, Normal operation 0.50 f"
with a thickened top shell course, the anchorage is under-
designed relative to the shell-to-roof connection. Designing Test 0.85 fy
the anchorage for 3 times the design pressure load, en- oBE 0.67 fv
sures that the anchorage (strength) is in I'ne with the roof-
to-shell connection (strength) in the event of an extreme ssE 1 .00 fv
over-pressure. This ensures that the weakest point in an The point is made that shell attachments shall be designed for a
over-pressure situation is not the bottom{o-shell junction. load corresponding to the full yield capacity of the un-corroded
. anchor bolts or straps.
Where the top course of the shell is thickened, but normal
anchorage is retained, the use ofemergency pressure relief
valves should be considered. 18.9 Tank fittings
. lnsulation firmly attached to the inner or outer tank may be This Section deals with fittings which penetrate both the liquid
regarded as resisting uplift on either tank. Insulation is not containing and the non-liquid containing tanks. Other items of
normally applied until after tank testing. equipment which are some times included under thls heading
. Anchorage design should allow for adjustment due to set- such as in tank pumps, stilling wells, fill columns, etc. are dis-
tlement during commissioning. lt is common to attach uur-ru rIv,,dP(v, zv.
welded-strap type anchors to the tank shell pads during the As is the case for ambient tanks, there are a variety of types of
hydrotest of liquid containing tanks to avoid the need for ad- fittings for low temperature tanks. Roof fittings are the most
justment, which is inconvenient to incorporate into the de- common, being used for liquid, vapour, instruments and ser-
sign. vices. Shellfittings, mainlyfor liquid outlet connections, are less
. All anchorages should be embedded into the tank founda- common. Fittings penetrating the tank bottoms are uncommon
tion. these days and are confined to liquid outlet connections.
Thertulins!alon Vapourfl4
For shell connections which Denstrate both tho inner and the
outer walls, a similar probtem exlsb. This is usually overcome
by the use of bellows or pipe work running in the interspace.
Some typical arrangerrents are shown in Figure 18.46.
Tenk bottom connections are unusual but not unknown. Some
pass straight down through the base insulation andlhe support-
ing base slab, and som6 turn through a aight angle and run out
through the base insulalion, which may be thick enough to ac-
commodate tho liquid ouflet line, or may require to be locally
thickened to avoid localchilling of the outertank bottom where
this is not provided in a lowtemperature steel. Some altemative
Figuro 1.45 Typlcal roof frttng arangements for tanks with fixed inner and
Nowadays, for the relatively rare case, where the tank is pro-
vided with fixed innerand outer roofs, the need to cater for the
differential thermal movemenb between the tianks is an added
difficulty. Some arrangemenb which have been used in the
past are illustrated in Figure 18.45- Figure 18.47 Typicaltank bofiom @nnction arangements
and the
aqckng srrp, il used, may be ren eed anf wtding
ercome
rspace.
Some
r.
upport-
run out
h to ac-
locally
rwhere
rnative
Ptml g Plmr n
: _: 1 8.48 Acceptable
;- types of nozzles and olher conneclions - page I
: -- lPl 620, figure 5-o
:-=-gements are shown in Figure 18.47. 18.9.1.1 General requirements of API 620 section 5
These requirements cover the maximum sizes of nozzles
'3.9.1 The requirements of Apl 620 which do not require any additional reinforcing, reinforcing of
nozzles which do require additional reinforcinq material to be
supplied. the details of suitable nozzle and reiriforcing plate at-
--: : ready mentioned, tank fittings can penetrate the roofs, tachments to the tank shell, stress relieving requirements and a
:-: s orfloors ofboth innerand outertanks. Forthe innertank number ofother points. These rules are applicable to nozzles in
:;- -ection the fitting is desjgned to either Appendix R or
e de- non-liquid containing tanks and form the basis ofthe desion of
:i -: rg on the temperature of the product liquid. For metallic nozzles for liquid containing tanks.
:- : containing outer tanks the fittings are similarly designed
.: ::cendix R or Q. For metallic non-liquid containing tanks the Single openings in tanks whjch do not requjre reinforcement
--:-ls are designed to the API basic section of the Code (i.e. other than that inherently available within the provided nozzle
neck and the tank wall thicknesses are:
-:-- cn 5).
-- . 3" pipe size welded into bnk walls of %,, thickness or less
> situation is made more complex by the two Appendices
:,: -cwing" parts of section 5 and then imposing modifications . 2" pipe size welded into tank walls of thickness qreaterthan
: '-:se rules. What follows is an attempt to simplify and sum- %.
-:- se these rules. For those involved in the detailed desion of
=
-. "tt,ngs. it is probably necessary to read the full text oi the . Threaded connections where the opening in the tank wall is
not greater than 2" pipe size
"-:JS sections to ensure a full and accurate understandino of
-: : erhora of deiailed requirements and advice providedl The minimum area or reinforcement required is based on the
Paisl P Plnel q
100% replacement of area rule. The basic formula is: It must lie within a distance measured circumferentially or
vertically along the tank shell from the axis ofthe opening of
,\ = (d + 2c)(t c)E' equ 18 37
the greater of:
where: Adistance equalto the diameter opening after corrosion
ot
= area of reinforcement to be provided (in'?)
A distance equal to the radius of the opening plus the
d = the clear inside dimension across the opening
thickness of the nozzle wall plus the thickness of the
l
(usually considered as perpendicular to the di-
tank wall, all in the corroded condition
:
rection of principal applied stress) (in)
It must lie within a radial distance measured along the fitting :
c = corrosion allowance for the part in question (in) itself from the inner or outer surface of the tank wall of the
E' = joint factor for the part of the tank wall inques- lesser of:
tion
- Adistance equal to 2.5 times the thickness of the tan k
The reinforcement shall be provided in the tank wall, an added wall less corrosion allowance or
reinforcing plate or in the nozzle body within the limits outlined
below. The tankwallmay be arbitrarily thickened to make avail-
- Adistance equalto 2.5 times the thickness ofthe nozzle
wall less its corrosion allowance plus the thickness of
able more reinforcing area. any additional reinforcement inside the tank wall if avail-
The limitations on the effective reinforcing area are: able less its corrosion allowance(s)
NOTES:
,- : nornmal thickners of the irnl wall, in in., length of projcctior of d|! nozzle watl byond
including cormsion allowEnce, rhc imide face of dle iant wall.)
r. = loninal ninimum thickness of rhe nozzle neck, ,4 = a r"luc not lcss than ojrnnF
in in.in., includina @rrosion allowance,
t5 = a value nor less than o.7rnnn,
r, = nominal rhickress of rhe rcinlorcing pa4 ir in.,
includirg co.rosion allowanc if thc pad is t, = norninal h.rd tlliclmcls, h in.
er(posed io coFosion,
bya filler weld or Foove weld. 2. Erpos.d cdgs sh(M as rudcd hay b. 6nish.d by lighl Eind-
ing b ar tast r 14 in- 6dius or chdf.Ed ar 45 degRs ro ar lcan a
ly or liletal in the tankwall in excess of the thickness required forthe ness at any welded joint, in inches, is greater lhan
rg of $uctural requirements for 100% joint effciency may be mn- (D+50y120.
sltered as available reinforcing material if the fitting is located
s|on ertirely within the plate material (i.e. does not pass through a where:
rlded seam). This is useful for roof penetrations.
f b not usualto fitting nominal diameter (in)
the cany out site stress relief of storage tanks fol-
bvting erection for reasons to dowith the size, weightand need
the For fittings less that 20" diameter, D shall be taken as 20f.
b.localsupport during the operation. There are however local
sfress relieving requirements to minimise local residual stress This requirementfor stress relief is not applicable to tank com-
ttng concentrations. The necessity to carry out such operations, pression areas where the thicknesses of plates used fequenty
the Gually in the fabricator's works, afrer the fiftings have been exceed these thicknesses. This is fonunate as the sib s-tress
relded into the tank shellplate, are based on the shelland noz- relief of a completed compression area wouh be impradical
ank Ae body thicknesses. Hence stress relief is required when: and the restriction imposed on the designerof timiting the plate
. Tank sections which have a wall thickness greater than thicknesses to 1.25" or 1.5" would in effecd limit the maximum
1.25" (this can be increasedto 1.5,,forcertain matedals pro- design pressures for large bnks.
2)e
iof viding a minimum preheat temperature of 200.F has been
maintained during the welding process). Figure 5-8 from section 5 ofAPl620 provides guidance regard-
ail- ing acceptable details for welded nozzles and other @nnec-
. Welded attachmenb and nozzle bodies where the thick- tions. These are shown in Figure 18.48.
18.9.1.2 The particular requirements ofAPl620 Appendix R tailed design of these items, but this is limited and it is not un-
Appendix R contains a number of detailed additional require- usualfor additional guidance to be soughtfrom pressure vessel
codes such as ASI\.4EVlll (Reference 18.74) or a similar Code.
ments relating to the types of connections which are permitted
in primaryand secondary components, the stress reliefrequire-
This area of design is tedious and repetitive. Well-designed
ments and aspects concerning spacing and inspection. computer programs or spreadsheeb are a boon forthis type of
worK.
At fear of repetition, the number of detiailed requirements in this
area makes it necessary that the designer studies the rules 18.9.2 The requirements ol 85 7777
carefully and is hopefully experienced in this type ofwork. The
main Doints raised are:
BS 7777 seeks to separate the area of tank fitting design into
. All openings in primary components shall have complete the following categories:
penetration and fusion. Acceptable details are shown in Fig- . The design ofoutercontainer (i.e. non-liquid containing me-
ure 18.43 details a,b,c,g,h,m and o.
tallic ianks) mountings
. In primarycomponents, shop stress-relief of the welded as- . The design of inner tank and liquid containing outer metallic
sembly is requires unless: tank mountings
- The stress in the plate is less than 10% ofthe minimum . The design of connections between the openings in inner
tensile stress ofthe plate materialand the opening rein- and outer ianks
forced for this low stress
The detailed reouirements and recommendations are summa-
The impact requirements for the plate and the welding rised in the following Sections.
fulfil the requirements for primary componenb and the
1 8.9.2.1 Outer container mountings
thickness ofthe shell plate is less than %" for any diame-
The rules follow almost exactly the ambient tank practices laid
ter of connection or less than 1 .25" for connections that
out in BS 2654 described in Chapter 3.
have a diameter of less than 12". The thickness of the
nozzle neck without stress relief shall be limited to ln brief. the main Doints are:
(D+50)/120 as above. . No reinforcing required for nozzles oflessthan 80mm diam-
. The opening is reinforced with a forging as shown in Figure eter
18.48 details o-1 to o-4 . Reinforcing to be 75% of the removed area
. The butt weld around the periphery of a thickened insert . Reinforcing to be provided either
plate or the fillet weld around a reinforcing plate shall be at
By a thickened shell insert plate
least the greater of 10 times the shell thickness or 12" from
any butt-welded seams, except where the completed pe- By a thickened nozzle body
ripheryweld has been stress-relieved. In this case the spac-
By an added reinforcing plate
ing shall be at least 6" from any vertical seam and 3" from
any circumferential seam subject in both cases to a mini- . As an alternative the thickened nozzle barrel protruding on
mum of 3 times the shell thickness. These rules shall also both sides ofthe tank wall such that the j factor does not ex-
apply to the shell-to-bottom joint. lt is allowable to extend ceed 2.0 in accordance with the calculation method given
the thickened insert plate or the rejnforcing plate to the There are some minor modiflcations to the oermitted weld ioint
shell-to-bottom joint and not require stress reliefof the weld details.
to the bottom or annular Dlate.
18.9.2.2 Inner tank and outer liquid containing tank mount-
. All welds in opening connections that have not been com- Ings
pletely radiographed shall be inspected by magnetic parti-
The rules again follow the BS 2654 practices for shell connec-
cle (MPl) or liquid penetrant (LPl) inspection methods. This
tions. Table 13 (Figure 18.49) makes slightly different require-
shall include nozzle and manhole neck welds and neck to
ments for the minimum nozzle body thicknesses.
flange welds. The root pass and each additional %" of de-
posited weld mebl shall be similarly inspected. The Code makes a number of comments and recommenda-
tions (i.e. non-mandatory requirements), some of which are
. Butt welds around the periphery of thickened insert plates worth repeating in full:
shall be completely radiographed
. All pipe connections should preferably be made via the roof
It is interesting to see that this section of the Code (and the of the tank. This is based on the philosophy that the risk of
equivalent section of Appendix Q) allows the use of slip on serious leakage from the inner tank is thereby reduced to a
flanges with the agreement of the purchaser. minimum. In this way, the possibility of surroundings being
18.9.1.3 The particular requirements of API 620 flooded by leaking product, with the risk of fire and explo-
Appendix Q sions, is minimised.
The detailed requirements of Appendix Q are essentially the
Minimtrm manhole dd
same as for ADoendix R. Stress relief of stainless steel or alu- nozzlc body thicknes
minium alloys is not required. For 5% and 9% nickel steels,
stress relief is a function ofsurface strain and as such can usu-
ally be avoided.
d"< 50 5.0
50 <d^< 70 5.0
18.9.1.4 The design of heat breaks 70<dn<100 6.0
A has been mentioned, many tank fittings have heat breaks as- 100<dn<200 8.0
sociated with them. These heat breaks are frequently sub- 200<4=300 10.0
jected to high axial and bending loads from the attached 300 < d- t2.5
pipework and associated fittings, particularly in the largersizes
of connections and where seismic loadings are involved. The Figure 18.49 Manhole and nozzle body thickness
Code does give some guidance which can be used for the de- From BS 7777 : Paft 2, table 13
i not un- . Where side or bottom entry is specified, the design should
e vessel take account of nozzle leakage, and its consequences, Pqtked ,,ih insulonon
rr Code. from the following causes:
esrgned
; type of - Differentialmovement
- Thermal stress
- Stressintensification
Pipe loads
ign lnto
- Difiiculty of inspection/maintenance
- The pipe should always be full of product in service. . Connections shall have a detailed design. (Meaning that
each connection shall be fully designed in its own ight and
- A high standard of construction and inspection is sDeci- not be a tepeat or copy of an eadier similar connection.)
fied. (lt is advised that the nozzle assembly is prefabri-
cated into the thickened bottom plate and subiect to . A heat break shall be fitted to connections between inner
inspection and testing prior to laying on the base insula- and outer tanks. (ln this case the detailed design ofthe heat
tion). break could follow the requirements of BS 5500. (Refer-
ence 18.15).
- The unsupported area underthe nozzle is keptto a mini-
.
mum and the surrounding insulation is designed for the Connections between openings in the inner and outer tank
higher load imposed on it. (lt should also be capable of shells shall be designed to accommodate the differential
withstanding damage at the edges of the hole). movement between the shells. (lt is importiant to consider
not only the longitudinal thermal differential movemenG,
- The space surrounding the nozzle and pipe is filled with but also the translation caused by thermal contraction and
a suitable insulating material. the rotations caused by product loadings.)
sensible advice.
. A flat plate system stiffened by circumferential mem.
bers The flat deck is usually of lapped and fillet-welded con-
struction. The inner part of the deck is stiffened by
18.9.3 The prEN 14620 approach circumferential flats attached to the upDer surface of the
deck and serving as the attachment points for the hangers.
For membrane tanks all liquid inlet and outlet connections are The outer edge of the deck has a more substantial periph-
to be routed via the tank roof. For othertanks connections to the eral stiffener fitted.
primary container and other parts of the secondary container
The hangers are usually of steel cable or rod material se-
are discouraged but reluctantly allowed. In cases where bottom
lected to be suitable for the loading and temperature. lt is
(and possibly lower shell, the wording is unclear in its intention)
not unusual for the hangers to be made from two different
inlets and outlets are used, either a remote operated internal
shutoff valve must be installed or the bottom (and shell?) con-
nection shall be designed as part of the primary container with
the first valve being a remote operated type which must be
welded to the bottom (or shell?) connection.
The guidance provided is similar to that in BS 7777 and refer-
ence is made to the appropriate sections ofthe prEN on ambi-
ent tanks in Chapter 3.
tI
stage. Atypicaldeck ofthis type is shown in Figure 18.53. into the Droduct
The design shallallow product vapourto breath through the
Individual deck panels supporled at their corners by
deck to limit anydifferential pressures to less than 2.4 mbar.
suspended plates Atypicalanangement using plywood in
Suitable vents shall be provided which allow this breathing
shown in Figure 18.54. This is an economical and easily
t
and prevent cold vapour impingement on and chilling ofthe
erected system. One unforeseen disadvantage with the use
roof structure. Such a vent in shown in Figure 18.55.
of plywood is its water contdnt. lt is normally delivered wilh
some 10% moisture by weight. This has been the cause of Fittings which pass through the roof space above the deck
difiiculties in obtaining a suiiably low dew point during the and which could cause cooling of the vapour above the
tank purging phase. deck shall be suitiably insulated
18.10.3 The prEN 14620 approach . The inspection regime must be similar to that of the inner q
tank bottom with of course the exception of the hvdrostatic d
This Code has little to sayon the subject ofsuspended deck de- test. al
sign apart from requiring the roofand its supporting structure
-
to be designed for the minimum design temperature, to be de- I-
signed forthe failure of any one hanger and to have ventilation 18.12 Bottom corner protection systems
openings such thatthe pressure difierence across the deckwill Again, like the secondary bottom, this is a comparatively new -rd
not exceed the weight of the supported roof insulation. phenomenon in the design of low temperature tanks. API 620 e
and BS 7777 have nothing to say about this part ofthe storage
tank system.
T
18.11 Secondary bottoms !I
The function of this component is to avoid the unsustainable ff
Secondary bottoms are a comparatively recent addition to the stresses which can occur in the bottom corner of concrete outer
list of component parts of low temperature storage tanks. For tanks ofthe fixed or encastr6 design. The fixed bottom corner, -'I
full containment LNG tanks with concrete outer tanks, second-
ary bottoms are now more or less much a standard part. For
as opposed to the pinned and sliding designs, which are dis- F
cussed in Section 18.16.4, is currently the most commonly
other types oftanks for other products, they are an occasional used detail for this part of the concrete outer tank.
'I
requrrement. f
The function ofthe secondarybottom isto protectthetank base
In theinnertank leak or failure case where the product liquid is [r
contained by the concrete outer tank, a situation is created
slab, either of the on-ground or elevated types, from damage where the bottom slab is warm (protected by the base insula- -
caused by an inner tank bottom leak. A leak in the inner tank tion) and the outer wall is cold. This gives dse to shear stresses
bottom will make its way through the sandwich of liquid perme- at the wall-to-base junction which cannot be easily designed
able materials which together make up the tank base insulation for. Without some modification in this region, there exists a sig-
and locallycoolthe base slab, which is usually madefrom rein- nificant possibility of through-cracking ofthe concrete walland
forced concrete. This local cooling can cause through{hick- leakage ofthe product liquidto the environment. This is particu-
ness cracking and consequent liquid leakage either to the larly the case for LNG tanks. Their large size and low design
ground or to atmosphere depending on the type of base slab temperature exacerbate the oroblems.
adopted. There is also a possibility that damage to the base
heating system and anotherpossible route ofliquid leakage via For LPG tanks, the less onerous design temperatures often
the heating element conduits may occur. makes this problem manageable without resort to bottom cor-
ner insulation. To make this bottom corner designable, thermal
The secondary bottom concept came about in orderto prevent insulation is applied to the lower portion of the outer wall for a
the possibility of liquid leakage to the local environment. The
metallic form of this member consists of another tank bottom
located either within or above the base insulation sandwich.
The construction details ofthis secondary bottom are similar to
the inner tank bottom, i.e. a lap-welded membl-ane of minimum q
thickness. There is a possibility that the thickness could be less
than the Code minimum requirements of %6" or 5 mm, but the
most commonly used material (9% nickel steel) is not currently
commercially available at thicknesses less than 5 mm.
There are possibilities of secondary bottom systems using
non-metallic materials and one manufacturer, has developed a
proprietary design using polyurethane foam in conjunctionwith
a glass reinforced plastic covering which has been used in a
number of low temperature tanks. The most common system is
however the metallic secondary bottom.
The secondary bottom is usually used in conjunction with a bot-
tom corner protection system which is the subject of the next
\1
secnon. Figure 18.56 A 36% nickel / 64% iron alloy bottom corner protection arrange-
API 620 and BS 7777 have nothing to say regarding secondary
bottoms.
The design and practical requirements include:
. The thermal contraction must be considered, particularly
where the bottom is attiached to.a bottom corner system
which may provide a peripheral constraint. The bottom
which is embedded within the base insulation willclearly not
contract as much as a bottom which is located on too ofthe
base insulation.
. Differential thermal movement between the various materi-
als must be free to occur without restraint.
. Local cooling of the embedded type of secondary bottom
from some intermediate temoerature in normal service to
the product liquid temperature in the leakage situation must
be accommodated.
. Constructing thin bottoms to tight local flatness tolerances
is difficult. Provision for practical undulations must be de-
Figure 18.57 The installalion ofa 36% nlckel/ 64% iron alloy bottom corner
signed into the system. arangement
the inner -erght which is usually between 3 and 5 m, although there are outer tank wall for a limited distance, or to the full tank height.
drosktic :esigns wherethis insulation is applied for the full height of the
The metallic solution has divided itself into two different ap-
:,-ier tank wall. This insulation prevents the lower portion of the
proaches. The essential design problem for this component is
:,-:er wall from cooling to the product temperature in this acci-
the conflicting need for the liner material to thermally contract
-iElrt situation. ltchangesthe stress regime inthe bottom corner
ems and at the same time to be able to sustain the head of leaked
tea from one of almost total shear stress to one which is a product liquid. Without the structural support of the insulation
r'ely new - xture of shear and bending, and is more readily accommo-
material, the liner on the inside of the wallwill have to resist the
APt 620 in the design process.
=:ed full product head. For a large LNG tank this could result in a 9%
storage -: ensure that this insulation performs its purpose, it is impor- nickel steel liner of some 25 mm in thickness. This is both ex-
E:: that it is protected from the leaked product liquid in the pensive and causes design difficulties at the point where this
tainable r:erspace. This liquid may be at the full equilibdum level and liner is attached to the tank wall due to the large local forces to
)teouter l-E static head will tend to force liquid into the insulation and be accommodated.
r corner, -:- Jer it ineffective unless suiiable steps are taken to avoid this One solution to this problem is to use a protective liner made
are dts- :,:ssibility.
from the 36% nickel / 64% iron alloy which is marketed under
mmonly -=ditionallythere have been two approaches to the solution of trade names such as Invar or Pernifer. This alloy has a coeffi-
: s problem. The non-metallic solution involves
the type of ap- cient of thermal contraction over a wide range oftemperatures
liquid is :r:ach to the secondary bottom described in Section 18.11, which is close to zero. Consequently the thermal contraction
created r'h is continued around the corner and uo the inside of the problems largelydisappear. This is illustrated in Figure 18.56.
r insula-
The gap at the point where the alloy bottom protection liner
tresses meets the outer edge of the secondary bottom is deliberately
)signed
created to allow the secondary bottom to contract and pull the
s a srg-
liner into contact with the outer edge ofthe base insulation ring
valland
walland obtain the necessary structural support. This detailhas
particu-
been supplied for the LNG tanks installed in Greece and Trini-
design
dad. The alloy is expensive at some 4 to 5 times the rate/tonne
as 9% nickel steel. lt is available at thicknesses which are con-
s often siderably less (down to 0.7 mm) than the minimum available
)m cor- thickness of 9% nickel steel (around 5 mm), so this offsets the
nermal basic difference in the material costs. The alloy is easily fabri-
rll for a cated and welded providing the correct equipment and proce-
dures are adopted. A photograph of such a liner during installa-
tion as shown in Figure 18.57. The liner thickness in this case
was 1 .2 mm.
:l= The second approach is to use a 9% nickel steel in the configu-
18.58 A 9% nickel sleel boltom comer protection arrangemenl
raiion shown in Figure 18.58. This does not incorporate the ver-
tical leg at the outside of the base insulation of the previous so-
lution. The liner is constructed from steel of 5 mm to 12 mm
thickness and usually incorporates a swept corner. The accom-
modation of the conflicting needs of thermal contraction and
structural support is achieved by the flexibility of the liner. The
validation ofthis design requires some sophisticated finite ele-
ment analysis togetherwith the use ofsignificantly higher allow-
able stresses than are used in the other metallic component
Darts of the tank.
Guidance is usually taken from the various pressure vessel
codes regarding the allowable stresses. A photograph of a liner
of this type during installation is shown in Figure 18.59. The ap-
parent step atthe top ofthe sweptcorner is because the insula-
tion has not yet been applied to that part of the wall prior to
erecting the wall portion of the mebllic liner itself.
The thermal insulation used on the inside ofthe concrete wall is
usually constructed from cellular glass. This is most usually at-
tached to the wall carbon steel liner with a suitable adhesive
and of a thickness around 100 mm. The welding of the liner, be
it of either material, is carried out from one side by necessity
and cellular glass is tolerant of the high local heat inputs in-
volved.
For full containment tanks, which currenfly constitute the major_ entlyfall from the damaged or defective pipe work and fittings
ity of LNG tanks, the requirement of ,,the largest flow from iny into the troughs for collection and disposal. A photograph of
single line that could be pumped into the impounding area witir such a system is shown in Figure 18.63.
the containerwithdrawalpump(s) considered to be d;livering at
the full rated capacity" has been the subject of much coniro- At the other end of this scale there is the view that the leakino
versy and different jnterpretations over recent years. liquid will be projected as far as the leak scenario and the liouid
pressure will allow in the most unfavourable foreseen circum_
Does for example, the liquid inlet from an unloading tanker, stances. In this case a large part ofthe tank roof, or indeed the
where rates of up to 12,000 m3/hr are common, form the basis whole tank roofwillform the collection system. Such a system is
ofthe 10 minute spill? lf this is to be collected and controlled. illustrated in Figure '18.64.
then this is an onerous design problem. The confusion may
stem from the fact that the US codes generally do not conslder
full containment and the rules consequenfly do not fit this type
ofstorage tank. This is something which it is understood wilibe
addressed by the appropriate committee in the near future.
It is generally considered that the source of leaks at tank roof
level is the pipe work and fittings such as valves. Flanged joints
are obviously suspect in this regard and allwelded systems are
to be preferred.
The consequences of a liquid spill are obviously related to the
tank roof material. A roofconstructed of a non-low temDerature
steel is clearly more susceptible to damage than one made
from reinforced concrete. Steps can and have been taken to aD_
ply local thermal insulation to protect the materials which would
otherwise be damaged by conhct with the cold liquid.
Perceptions as to what constitutes a sensible spillage collec-
tion system vary widely. At the minimalist end of the scale the
simple stainless steel troughs following the route of the roof-
mounted liquid containing pipe work is a cheap option which re_
lies for its success on the view that the leaking liquid will obedi- Figure 18.63 Atypical minimalist lrough type roofspi age co ection system
Thh]ghtolthep|inihswllhi.lh6
sp a9 6rca are sovefted by rhe
nuities which gave rise to the need for a 2.5 m thick heavily rein-
forced pit bottom. This is shown in Figures 18.68 and 18.69
::i
18.'17.3 Tank walls
*l
18"17.3.1 Above ground tanks
Concrete walls of above ground low temperature tanks fall into
a number of categories, each of which is described briefly
The design of these walls is complex, having numerous me-
chanical and thermal load cases. Reference to Harry Turner
and Professor Bruggeling's books (References 18.17 and
78.78)would be a good place to start for those intent upon mas-
tering this area of expertise. Both books are now rather dated
so it will be necessary to study some more recent publications
as well.
Figure 18.67 The pit base arrangementfor an in-ground LNG tank
One basic input to the design process is to decide what the in-
Caulesy af LNG Journal
ternal liquid loading will be for the various types of concrete
Figure 18.68 A section through the Revithoussa lsland LNG tank base
Couiesy of Whessoe
)fa work was carried out with an empty interspace between the two
ne-
walls. The amplification factor of six is an onerous design condi-
tion and thought was given to ihe possible ameliorating effects
tral
ofthe perlite and glass fibre insulation which is normallv present
td- in the interspace. especially for targe LNG and tiquid eihylene
tanks. (This work is reported in References 18.23 and 18.24.\
The conclusion ofthese theoretical and test studies was that an
lral amplification factor of six is valid for an empty interspace, but
)se the presence ofthe insulation will reduce this factor to between
two and three.
ect The development of metallic materials less susceptible to sud-
le- den brittle failure and better understanding of the mechanisms
rnd involved in such failures together with means of predicting leak
rnd before failure scenarios, meant that sudden failure became no
es- longer a design requirement. This was firsi voiced in EEN/IUA
Jfe : ;!re 149 where the sudden failure of the metallic inner tank was not
18 69 The Revllhoussa LNG tank base stab during construction
:he a design requirement for the outer tank, unless specificallv re-
tse :.tnesy of Whessoe quested by the client.
\G :3nks. The innertanks ofthe double concrete type will require to Particularly for LNG tanks, where double or full containment
'en :e designed for the product liquid loading. lt is unusualforthese
'ed systems together with large unit tank sizes were the norm, this
=nks be subjected to a hydrosta c test as is always the case
to resulted is significant cost savings. lt is currenfly normal prac-
'lr steel tanks. For the outer walls of double or full containment tice to design the outer concrete tank for a non-dvnamic liouid
:anks, the liquid loading to be considered depends on the type loading. This presumes a gradual filling of the out;r rank Lo the
rse 'inner tank failure that is envisaged. In the early days of full equilibrium liquid level, frequently specified in terms of a time to
to- rcntainment tanks where the spectre ofthe eatar accident and fill or as the physical dimensions of the design leak.
rof :Jdden unzipping tank failure was paramount, the overridinq
jes gn condition was the toading resulting from such a lailure. An extreme case of outer tank wall design Jor exceptional load-
lit- ings are the 144,000 m3 LNG tanks built for Distrioas at Staten
-'re first work to determine what this loadinq should
'in- ..
be came lsland. New York. Because of their tocation, lhe t;ks were re-
) J'r'r experimental work carned out by Cup;rus for the Shell
quired to be capable ofabsorbing the horizontal loadings from a
lompany. These are reported in Reference 18.22.
fully-laden Boeing 747 lJavelling at 2OO knots without damaqe
lJperus built scale models of double-walled tanks where the to the liqlrid conta;ni19 i11er tank. This was ach,eved by a wi I
- ner tank wall could be unzipped vertically
for its full height. He constructed from a combination of prestressed and mass con-
:^en measured the resulting pressure profile on the inner sur_ crete to a total thickness of around 3 m as shown in Fiqure
'?ce of the outer tank wall. In simple terms, the peak pressures 1B.70.
-easured were around six times the hydrostatic pressure. This
Prestressed concrete wall internal tendon type
te-
-
This type of construction is the rnost commonly adopted for the
rer outef concrete walls of full containment stofaqe svstems_ The
nd teloons fo. tl-e 1or zonrar prest.ess ng io. peiha[s rrore co.-
is- 'ectly post-tensioning ) o' the talk wal, a.e LSudl y of t1e .nLlt
ed strand type running in ducts close to the mjddle ofthe walland
IS anchored at stressing buttresses equally spaced around ihe
outside of ihe wall. Figure 18.71 shows a typicat buttress.
n- There are usually four such buttresses. These accommodate
;1-a the anchorages which anchor the individual strands and pro-
vide suitable details for the attachment ofthe prestressing jacks
ll!01! !!q!q!g- 1 which impart the required tension to the strands. Followino the
stressing ofthe tendons. they can be grouted (i.e. of the bo;ded
type) or remain non-bonded. These days the popular choice is
the bonded type. This has the advantage that the failure of a
j6 strand or anchorage does not have the same detrimental ef_
fects as jn the non-bonded type where the total orestressino
load of that strand is lost. the grout feeding the load from th;
failed strand into the adjacent strands. lt is important that the
grouting system adopted is proved to be satisfactory, i.e. that
the grout reaches all parts of the tendon within the duct and
bonds to it in a satisfactory fashion.
It is a commonly adopted practice to carrv out a full_scale orout
test on site to demonstrate thar the maierials and instaltition
procedures are suitable. This will jnvolve the sectioninq of the
test ducvtendon sample to demonstrate Lhat the desiqners
aims have been achieved under site conditions. For a larae
LNG tank d is common to use medium-sized tendons from rhe
commercially manufactured range available. These would tvDj_
cally use 19 strands of 0.6 drameter wire jn each duct. iire
ducts in this case would be 100 mm in diameter and most usu_
ally made from a corrugated piastic or steel of suitable robust_
. t-re ness to survive the site conditions and handling. Larger ten_
18.70 Details of the LNG tanks at Staten tstand. New york
dons are commercially available, but their use is restricted by
t
-th
r
r
Figwe 1A.72 A typical multi-strand prestressing tendon and anchofage u
nificant commercial and programme advantages to the con-
-
tractorwho can produce a design avoiding the need for vertical
prestress.
Where access permits, the vertical tendons can be prestressed
from the bottom end, i.e. where an elevated base slab design
has been adopted. An example ofa tendon being stressed from
the bottom end is shown in Figure 18.73. When an on ground
base is adopted, this is not possible and either single tendons
fitted with a blind anchor at the bottom end as shown in Figure
18.74 are used, or the 'U'shaped tendon is used. In both cases
the prestressing must be carried out from the top corner of the
tank.
It is usualfor the thickness of walls ofthis type to be ofthe order
of 600 mm. There is a practical minimum thickness required to
accommodate the circumferential and vertical tendons and to
provide cover for the reinforcing steel needed for local crack
control. lncreasing concrete thickness means more reinforcing
steel, but may provide increasing blast and missile protection.
Clearly there is a construction cost versus the quality of acci-
dent condition protection argumenvquestion which is common
in this area of design and construction.
t
''I
Figure 18.71 Prestressing buttresses for a full containmeni type LNG lank
doubtless be resolved in the near future. Clearly there are sig- Figure 18.73 Vertical prestressing from beneath the elevated base slab I
Ctrrunlrntjol prest.est
V..indl dnd.i..!0feretidt
p.*tres3 rorpl.ted b.fde
\
\rall .ointorsent i5 pfovided -
0tuuf,terentiol pr$hett
vertkol pRrh.*
Ilaxinrun nlrm$l ..(u6 rn wall l,alle shers and hiru la.ge mon.nls
arv,y from lh{:.ioinl-s. rt level when
'cnd effects from ver'li.rl t.n.l,Ds
,rc hrklv srnollcd oul
it(n,usl f.r N of lonshucti.n PFdi.lnn otslrc$cs is un.dlxnr
LlEe rrnnents rn(l slrea':
!.{r1r.sse(l {rll! ne.essitrt,. lhe lsc ol
(dnu)us presllBse{l basr 1d s!*itrl
rhennal Uote.rnnr ar tlF l(,inl nrtry be
inlri'(\rccd to rc(lu( rLl(litioral srrlsses
duc to llrcmd niranrg
Figute 18.80 Summary of the advantages and disadvanlages of lojnls in ihe wal-to-base lunct on
Fron BS 7777 : Pan 3. bble 4
and downward vertical loadings 18.3 Steel plate Engineering Data - Volume ll- Paft lll- Ex-
ternal pressures on cylinders. Published by The Ameri-
. Radial thermal loadings can lron and Steel Institute in cooperation with the Steel
. Abnormal loadings such as blast, fire or seismic Plate Fabricators Association Inc., Washington DC
1992.
To this list should be added:
18.4 Collapse by lnstability of Thin Cylindrical Shells under
. Intefnal pressure loadings External Pressure, Dwight F. Windenberg and Charles
. Trilling, ASME proceedings Vol 56 No 11, November
Constructionloadings
1934.
The top corner is usually of the fixed type where a reinforced
concrete roof is used. This is clearly a congested area with
18.5 Table 8.5.1 ofthe American lnstitute of Steel Construc-
tion - Manualof Steel Construction (Allowable slress de-
plenty of both vertical and circumferential stressing members
slgn), Ninth Edition, 1989, ISBN 1 56424 000 2.
and reinforcing to be accommodated. Where a steel roof is to
be connected to a concrete wall, BS 7777 suggests the use of a 18.6 PD 7777 : 2000, Alternative steel selection and its effect
sho( vertical steel shell section. The thinking being that this el- on design and testing of tanks to BS ZZZZ, The British
ement will allow flexibility to accommodate ihe various differen- Standards Institution, London
tial movements between roof and wall. There are a number of 18.7 ASTM E208: Standard method for conducting drop-
cases where this cylindrical steel element has not been in- weight test to determine nil-ductility tnnsition tempera-
cluded. ture of ferritic steel : 1995.
18-8 prEN 14620 : March 2003- Design and manufacture of
18.17.6 Tank roofs site built, veftical, cylindrical, flat bottomed steel tanks
forthe storage of refrigerated, liquefied gases with oper-
It is usualfor concrete roofs io be constructed from reinforced ating temperatures between -5 'C and -165 "C: Pafts 1
concrete. A finished thickness of 300 mm to 500 mm is usual to 5 : CEN.
with reinforcing mats close to the upper and lower surfaces. A
steel roof framework supporting the roof sheeting is usually uti-
18.9 85 449 : Paft 2 : 1969, The use of structural steel in
building ,fhe British Standards Institution, London.
lised to act as forrnwork for the construction of the concrete
roof. As mentioned in Section '18.6, it is possible to utilise the 18.10 BS 5950 i Pad 1 : 1990, Structural use of steelwork in
structurally redundant roofframe and sheeting to replace some building Part 1:Code of practice for design in simple and
of the reinforcing steel. continuous construction: hot rolled sectiors, The British
Standards Institution, London.
The main design criteria for the tank roof are the internal pres-
sure, the self-weig ht of the roof platforms and any missile load- 18.11 Recommended practice for LNG above ground stor-
ings. For the LNG tank at Revithoussa lsland in Greece, two age:1981, fhe Japanese Gas Association
missile loadings were specified. The first was a soft missile,
which was a helicopter from the local army-training base, and
18.12 ENV 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures -
Paft 1-1 General rules and rules for buildings.
thesecondwasa hardmissilefiredatthetankwithmaliciousin-
tent. Both were defined in terms of their rnass, velocity, angle of 18.13 BS CP 3 i Chapter V: Paft 2 : 1972 Code of basic data
approach and area of application. forthe design of buildings- Chapter v Loading- Paft 2
Wind loads, The British Standards Institution, London.
18.14 ASME Section Vlll Divisions 1 and 2, rules for construc-
18.18 References tion of pressure vesseis, ASME, New York 2002.
18.1 Stability of API Standard Tank She/is, R.V.McGrath, 18.15 PD 550A :2000 specification for unfired fusion welded
Proceedings of the American Petroleum Institute, Sec- pressure vesse/s, BSI London, ISBN 0580 33080 X.
tion lll, Refining APl, New York, 1963, Volume 43 pp
458-469. 18.16 Steei Deslgn Manual, Unlted States Steel Corporation,
Section 8.2.2.
1a.2 The design of lanks fo Reslsl External Prcssures,
L.PZick, Document no. 7'1l33508 dated ay 1971, Pte-
N,4 18.17 Concrete and Cryogenics,F.H.f utner, AViewpoint pub-
sented to the British Standards lnstitution Technical lication, The Cement and Concrete Association, ISBN
Committee PE/12. o 7210 1124 1.
18.18 Prestressed co ncrete for the storage of liquefied gases, 18.22 Developments in cryogenic storage tanks, N.J.
Professor Dr lr. A.S.eBruggeling, AViewpoiht publica- Cuperus, Shell Intemationale Petroleum, Maabshappij
tion, The Cement and Concrete Association, ISBN 0 8.V., The Hague, LNG 6 Conference.
7210 1187 X.
1Al9 ACI 318, Ameican Concrete lnstitate Building Code 18.22 Damping effect of pedite/fibreglass insulation on outer
Requiremenb for Reinforced Conctete 1999. tank dynamic loads in double-walled cryogenic tanks,
A.S.Adorjan, bo(on Production Research, Houston;
18.20 BS 8110: Patt 1 : 1985, Structuraluse of concrete Code
D.B. CraMord, M.WKellogg, Houston; S.E.Handman,
of practice for design and consttuction,fhe British S'tan- M.W.Kellogg, Houston; LNG 7 Conference.
dards Institution, London.
18-21 Construction of an underground storage tank, Kenji 18.24 Dynamic load attenuation for double wall tanks, R.A.
Yanagiya and Tomoyuki Ogawa, Kajima Corporation, Vater, Pitbburgh des Moines Corporation, Pittsburgh
Japan LNG Journal, Nov/Dec 1999. Gastech 1984 Conference.
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Contents:
19.1 General
19.1. 1 Basic requiremenb of the insulation system
1 9.1.2 Insulation categories
1 9.1.3 Installation considerations
19.1.4 Basic design and material requirements
19.1.5 Design Code requirements
19.2 Base insulation
'19.2.1 General
19.2.2 The central area
19.2.3 The peripheral area
19.2.4 Design methods
19-2.4.1 lnner arca
19-2.4.2 Periohe'al arca
'19.2.5 Detailed design Code requirements
19.2.5.1 EEMUA reouirements
19-2.5.2 BS 7777 rcouirements
19.2.5.3 Draft of new Euronorm DrEN '14620
'19.2.6 Base insulation materials central area
19.2.6.1 Cellular glass
-
19.2.6.2 PVC foam
1 9.2.6.3 Polyurethane foam
1 9.2.6.4 Lightweight concrete
19-2.6.5 Composite systems
19.2.6.6 Blast furnace slag
19.2.7 Base insulation materials peripheral area
-
19.3 Wall insulation
19.3.1 General
'19.3.2 General reouirements
19.3.2.1 Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic tanks
19.3.2.2 Rigid insulation for the walls of double-walled tanks
'19.3.2.3 Loose till insulation systems
19.3.3 Design Code requirements
19.3.4 Wall insulation materials
19.3.4. 1 Polyurethane foam
'19.3.4.2 PVC foam
19.3.4.3 Other Dlastic foam materials
19.3.4.4 Cellular glass
19.3.4.5 Mineralwool
19.3.4.6 Perlite loose fill insulation systems
19.4 Roof insulation
19.4.1 General
'19.4.2 Externai roof insulation
'19.4.3 Internal suspended deck insulation
19.5.1 General
'19.5.2 Heat breaks for roof connections
19.5.3 Heat breaks for tank sidewall connections
19.5.4 Heat breaks for tank bottom connections
19.6 Internal pipework insulation
19.7 External pipework insulation
19.8 Heat leak calculations
19.8.1 Basic calculation methods
1 9.8.2 Thermal conductivity values
19.12 References
. Roof insulation The materials shall be suitable for the anticipated operating
and accident condition temperatures.
1 9.1.3 Installation considerations
The insulation system must not give rise to corrosion ofthe
steel or other tank components. Some insulation materials
-^ere are various installation related considerations which are
can give rise to acidic conditions when subjected to water
::ecific to particular insulation systems and materials. In addi- penetration.
: :n there are some points which are relevant to the installation
:'insulation in general and these should be considered in all The insulation system, where exposed to the atmosphere,
must resist the ingress of moisture. For cold insulation sys-
. Installation within a closed space requires careful attention tems, the most harmful "aggressor" is the continuous ten-
to the following: dency forwatervapourto invade the insulation and make its
way to the cold face. For many insulation materials, small
Ventilation. l\y'anyof the materials used are problematic changes on moisture content can bring about major
when used in confined spaces. For example many ad- changes in their thermal properties.
hesives, sealants and mastics give off harmful toxjc
and/or inflammable vapours. Problems arlsing from any envisaged fire scenario.
- Certain works such as the sanding offoamed insulation Problems arising from installation difficulties.
materials can produce fine particles which are suscepti-
ble to flash fires. Considerations caused by commissioning and decommis-
sioning requirements.
The provision of adequate access for personnel and
materials. l\y'echanical damage by humans and birds.
Cellular slass
19.1.5 Design Code requirements as the loadings from the tank and its contents are trans_
ferred to the foundation.
Traditionally, the tank design Codes had litfle to say on the sub_
ject of thermal insulation. The American Codes siill adoDt
this
. Thermal insulation ofthe base of the storage tank. The sys_
approach, whilstthe British and European Codes have devoted tem chosen should limit the heat leak into the tank. Drevent
more space to this subject with each new document issued. the formation of ice on the underside of elevated base slabs
BS 7777 has a section on thermal insulation in part 3. Table 2, and prevent ice lens formation for on ground type founda_
Figure 19.1, provides a useful list of commonly used insulation tlonS.
materials and identifies for which component of the tank these
materials are normally utilised. The forthcoming Eurocode, Despite these modest aims, it is interesting just how few materi_
(prEN 14620), on low temperature storage will have a full sec- als are available with the appropriate combination of lonq term
tion devoted to tank insulation and will dealwith the subject in compressive strength. suitably low thermal conductiviW, the
considerably more detail. lt makes the important point th;t that ability to sustain the low temperatures and at an appropriate
thermal insulation system for low temperature tanks differs cost. This limitation of choice has not been helped bv the es_
from ambient temperature tanks where it is considered a pe_ sentially conservative nature of the liquid storage industry and
ripheral component. For low temperature tanks the thermal in_ the unwillingness of its participants to be ,,guinea pigs" foi new
sulation is an essential part of the overall storage arrangement, systems and materials.
such that without a correcfly designed, installed and maintained
The base insulation for storage tanks divides into two areas.
insulation system the storage tank will not operate correc v
These are the central area and the peripheralarea. These are
There are also numerous Codes which deal with the production
described in Sections 19.2.2 and '19.2.3.
and testing of individual insulation materials. This is a specialist
area into which the authors of Slorage Ia nks & Equipmenthave
chosen not to venture. 19.2.2 The central area
The specific requirements ofthe tank Codes to the desiqn ofthe
various pa rts of the tank insulation systems are discuss6d in the For a single-walled tank it is quite clearwhatthe centralarea of
sections which follow the base insulation comprises. For cedain double-walled tanks.
especially those with the base insulation placed beneath the
outer tank bottom, there is also an area of the base insulation
19.2 Base insulation beneath the interspace between the two tank shells as illus_
trated in Figure 19.2. This part of the base insulation is sub_ :'
19.2.1 ceneral jected to loadings which are similar to those applied to the cen_ ;
tral area, particularly in the post leakage scenario. To avoid
Although generally self-evident, it is worth repeating that the over complication, only the central area of a single_walled tank
base insulation systems for low temperature tanks perform two is considered. This is subject to the following loadings:
basic duties:
. . A uniformly distributed load arising from the product liquid
Structural support for the low temperature tank. The materi_
head and in certain circumstances, the product vaDour
als should have suitable long term load-bearing prope(ies pressure.
to ensure that the tank is supported throughout its intended
service life and is not subject to unacceptable setflements . A uniformly distributed load arising from the watertest head
resulting from uneven compression of the base insulation and in certain circumstances, the air test pressure.
;er - The various combinations ofthe two horizontal components As is the case for the inner area of the base insulation, consid-
trm and the one vertical component of the loadings to be con- eration must be given to the shear strength of the materials or
lhe sidered are described in Chapter 26 . A not uncommonly composite system where seismic loadings are involved.
aIe used rule for this combination is:
es-
100%Fx +/- 30%Fy +l- 31o/a Fz ol
and
tew 3Q'/oFx +l- 1004/oFy +l- 3ookFz ol
30%FX +l 30%f!/ +l- 100okFz
;as. On occasions the 30% comoonent is increased to 40%.
. Shear loadings resulting from horizontal loadings from wind
or earthquake.
. Point loads arising from internal fittings which rest directly
on the tank bottom, such as stilling wells, inlank pump
wells, fill columns etc.
rof
ks. 19.2.3 The peripheral area
ihe
ion -ihe
peripheral area for a single-walled tank is clearly that part
!rs-
rf the base insulation which is beneath the tank shell. For dou-
!le-walled tanks there may be two areas of the base insulation
3n-
,'/hich are loaded in a similar fashion, i.e. the part beneath the
od rner shell and the part beneath the outer shell.
lnk
-hese areas are subjected to line loadings from the various
shells which are made up of combinations of the following:
JO
li.rr
. Self-weightof the tank shelland attached parts including in- Loading on section A - A
i
I 2M
&rf!n.h.ll.drs tl *n r,t
I
rirr
5|'.{ }! bsrhn rtld
I
V.rtlcd A!.d'.tbn (oE|, q,
I ldlc.l ,^cd...it.|| (sse, o,
20.
I
loJ
I
to,3
I
I
C'Fg0Lcorir.t!c{, &t
I
qaqBnlc @irar" czo roi
P.llt..iasbr0di9/# ll.O
Fdif en6.r!t00olg,/# a5
Lrrii!oorwr.8t9/# 5p
?!,lit.c.isd. rck/ii 3A
FoiBrd HJt6o0 rl
P..i'9lu}fgia{P lt
f..indqrt|.llzoo t2
(t cda&fid. .snr. ! L'bad ?Fd. Foi9brH3t000 rO
0l) c.r$rorjtdrt|qrfi h.iiurdong.idt|* Pl'liL 4r.rri. sftldi3 q,
Pqlli.!olEvt700rq/n3
ftidi*F .'d C.hF-tw Snqdb ll|{F. c.E!t! 60ltlgir3
.aO
a2
20n
t0,3
Fd.lit @i.Er.000tq/il
Ntlt|!.!Er|! 6a0k/ri3
t{ot: I r .idlls anptdtt/t rtrr.. l6.ors.d. h.. b.ar iEdtfird h o..odo*, $?h BS!ll0.
olE 55E
L!r. l,rtt Srnr srn'
i) fi@dffn long dqrdiw tcB. b
OBEI a0?.4o tnyi c4Esr. Rdc40 ll?,5 /ktt 607
'diml 559 | 64.40 tfvn C.tt. 6!.d C2O 322.! t.6a 2,?9
Pa.rlt dstt. Sq{r' 3 Q2.t tJZ l.Bt
- D varid d@t rarld or d! at =*!!4.J3-
txD =
OBE |
95E r
3,t6 ri^Vh
5.27 $Vft
lalit &'tcti.6o0l9/o3 !o2a.t o.'o
Figure 19.4 Examplo ofa calculation ofthe loadings in an insuladon ringwall- pag6 t
Courtesy of Whessoe
Th" lin" Ioods frcm the 3h.llonto fh" innsr tank ringben ar colorlard bdowr
-
ft loqds on rhe inncr bdle insuhiion dre cdbukdcd below;
i) Op.roting loods
o_t65
Op.ratirq pr.6slrc : o.o29
lnsu htion, scrc.d, Plqte eic : o.oo5
TOTAL 0.200 N/nm'z =
4.00
t
iD -os
O236 N/nrrf
0.036 N/nrrn?
Insuhtion, Scn .d, Platc ctc : O0O6 N/nnz
rornl@uz^nr os: 2.87
19.2.5 Detailed design Code requirements An appendix is provided which gives the basis of the Iimit state
design methodsforthe twocategories of materials. This is very
19.2.5.1 EEMUA 147 requirements complex and may have to be simplified before it is let loose on
the industry.
The EEMUA recommendations, first published in 1986. were
the first to include specific requirements for safety factors to be
used for the mechanical design of insulation systems. These 19.2.6 Base insulation materials * central area
were, not surprisingly, confined to the base insulation and
aimed largely at cellular glass materials, at that time and almost 19.2.6.1 Cellular glass
certainly stillto this day, the most popular choice for this compo- Cellular glass is formed when powdered glass is heated to-
nent. The requirements state: gether with other carefully selected chemicals which ernit
"lnsulants placed beneath a tank bottom shall be able to gases at the appropriate point in the manufacturing process to
withstand the loads imposed upon them. For service and create a glass foam. The foam material is cooled down carefully
test conditions, the safety factor for cellular glass should be resulting in a series of near spherical small glass cells contain-
at least 3.0 based on the average compressive strength ing an insulating gas. The material is 100% closed cell. verv
properties of the grade selected, or 2.5 based on the mini- stable at ambient and low temperatures and with zero perme-
mum compressive strength guaranteed. Other materials ability. lt can be made in various grades to have a range of dif-
should be viewed in the same manner, and it is preferable to fering thermal conductivities, densities and compressive
use mrntmum guaranteed properties rather than average strengths.
values."
As discussed, cellular glass is the most commonly used mate-
19-2.5.2 BS 7777 requirements rial for the bases of low temperature tanks. The manufacturing
BS 7777 was first published in1993 and was based upon the process is complex and must be subjected to a high level of
earlier EEMUA 147 recommendations. ln the case of the quality control if the end product is to have consistent proper-
quoted factors of safety for base insulation it has adopted ties. Pittsburgh Corning Corporation (PC) was the first to de-
slightly different values. The Code states: vote the necessary resources in terms of research and devel-
opment into the understanding of the material properties and
"lnsulation material located beneaih a tank bottom should
influence on these properties of the manufacturing process.
be able to withstand the load imposed upon it. The allow-
Thus for many years this company was, quite righfly, the almost
able compressive stress for service and test conditions for
exclusive source of cellular glass blocks for tank bases and its
cellular glass should be either 0.33 times the guaranteed
products were a specific requirement of many tank specifica-
average compressive strength or 0.5 times the guaranteed
min jmum strength ofthe grade selected, whichever is less."
tions and invitations to tender
plastic foams such as polyurethane foam (PUF) and potyvi- HLB 1000 140 0.6s
HLB 1200
nyl chloride (PVC) foams. 145 1.20 0.32
HLB 14OO
Forthe brittle materials methods are given to allowthe nominal
compressive strength to be determined by test. For allowable HLB 16(x) 165
fie
ry Thermal conduouvlty (lf l|nlq
)n
7.
t>
/
z
lrit
b
ly ./.,
r} '/a
ry .,'/
n ./
F.
19
6
r-
*
d EeFqECSSq'P
s- Ttnperdrre (.Celsius,
sa
ts Erre 1 9.6 Thermal conductivity vs temprature p'ot for the HLB gmdes of FoamglasrD
a-
Thermal co.duclivity. highest single value 0.368 (0.0s1) 0.382 (0.053) 0.396 (0.0ss) 0.410 (0.057)
Btu-idhr-fl."F @ 75'F (W/m.oK @ rooc)
10i
-//
r
I
I
I
v
.d
7
'{ l
-tThemalconduciivity
I
I vercus remporature
929 (Brirish units)
---r-------r--- r T
STFIAIN %
: ff '"n"":'#::; l::,"..,.,".
4 Aare, ho cappins
Coutlesy of Cell-U-Faam Caeoration glass tank bases, but suffers from a number of disadvan-
tages. To ensure that the cells on the lowerside ofthe upper
company which was a part of ACS Industries in the USAand blocks are correctly filled with the bitumen, to make certain
trading underthe name ofCell-U-Foam made serious and suc- of the correct load transmission, is difficult to achieve and
cessful efforts to break into this area. They have now become impossible to check in a non-destructive manner A great
established as suitable suppliers of these materials by most, if deal ofthe success ofthis method deoends on the skills of
not all ofthe world's tank specification writers and builders and the installation operatives and their supervision. Another
produce a range offour enhanced compressive strength mate- disadvantage ofthis method is that hot melt bitumen is car-
rials marketed as Ultra-CUF in grades from 116 to 203. The ba- cinogenic and its use, particularly in confined spaces which
sic physical data and low temperature thermal conductivity may occur in partially constructed double-walled tanks, is
curves are shown in Figures 19.7 and'19.8. increasingly unacceptable.
It should be mentioned here that cellular glass is an unusual
material. Without venturing too deeply into this subject which . Damp-proof course material. These are proprietary ma-
again could be the subject of a book in its own right, a few words terials, made for the building industry to be used as damp-
of explanation should be given. proof courses between bricks or other building blocks. The
types most suitable for this purpose are usually about 3 mm
The intrinsic compressive strength of cellular glass materials is thick consisting of a bitumen-impregnated hessian type of
quite high. The problem is in developing this strength (i.e. in
felt. Providing that they are used correctly and consider-
getting the load ffom the tank bottom intothe insulation material
ation is given to points such as: carefully butting the edges
and out again into the foundation). The manufacturing process
of adjacent rolls with no overlapping, the temperature
for cellular glass ensures that the finished surface is irregular dependancies of the hardness/soft ness of the material and
when examined in close up, consisting ofcutthrough part cells. the capping of the roll ends to prevent edge damage on
When two blocks are placed together, the actual area ofcontact transit and handling, then this method provides a satisfac-
is a minute proportion of the total area ofthe blocks, consisting tory solution without some of the disadvantages associated
in the main of glass cell walls crossing each other on the two with the hot melt bitumen method.
faces at various angles. When any load is applied to this system
local breakdown occurs atthese highlystressed contact points. . A base insulation free of organic materials, which it is
This is clearly not a satisfactory situation. To enable a higher occasionally necessary to construct, (for example, for use
proportion of the intrinsic strength of the material to be devel- beneath liquid oxygen tanks). The materials discussed
oped, it is necessary to interpose other materials between the above are clearly not acceptable in this case and substi-
blocks. tutes must be found. One commonly adopted solution in
these circumstances is to use an inorganic powdersuch as
This effect is clearly indicated in Figure 19.9 which compares
Kieselguhr powder. This is applied dry and it is clearly eas-
the compressive strength of cellular glass (in this instance
Foamglas@ from Pittsburgh Corning Corporation)with no inter-
iertofillthe uopercellsofthe lowerblocksthan it is to fillthe
underside of the upper blocks. Despite this practical diffi-
leaving and with different interleaving materials. These materi-
culty, the method has been used successfully for many
als must be capable of better distributing the load into the cut
years. lt is perhaps fortunate that despite the relatively high
cells of the surfaces of the adjacent blocks. lvlaterials com-
specific gravity of liquid oxygen, the product is normally
monly used for this purpose are:
stored in smaller tanks than the other lowtemDerature liouid
. Hot melt bitumen. This material is applied in liquid form, gases and consequentlythe loadings on the base insulation
being dispensed onto the surface of the lower blocks whilst are lower Hence a lower load transfer is not so important in
the upper blocks are placed into the liquid bitumen. This is this case. Another solution to this particular problem is to
probablythe mostcommonly used method oflaying cellular use a glass fibre interleaving material.
- ensure that the compressive strength data provided by the ment. The lightaggregate concretesare usuallybespoke mate-
-3terial manufacturers are on the same basis and that inter- rials and are consequently expensive to produce. Their use is
:aving effects are equalised, the test methods are specified in more normal in the more highly-loaded peripheral areas of the
::nsiderable detail in various ASTM. Euronorm and ISO stan- base insulation. Air entrained concrete materials are produced
:3rds. on a much larger scale for the building industry and are mar-
>'!rilarly the measurement oi the thermal conductivity of the keted under such trade names as Thermalite@, UltraLiterM and
-aterial, particularly when measured at low temperatures, is SiporexrM. These do not have the same thermal efficiency as
: .|cult and should only be undertaken by laboratories and test the materials described above, but are cheaper Clearlyan eco-
- lL.rses with the specialised knowledge, experience and equip- nomic assessment is reouired here.
-ent. 19.2.6.5 Composite systems
:.:turning to Reference 79.7, there is an interesting chapter on A system using a combination of perlite concrete tubes and free
:^e cellular glass base insulation of the Ambergate LNG tank. perlite has been used on a number of occasions. The perlite
- ris tank was designed and constructed in 1969 for the East concrete tubes are laid on end in contact with the adjacent
! dlands Gas Board at Ambergate, Derbyshire in the United tubes and the spaces filled with free site-expanded perlite parti-
r. igdom, as a strategic inland storage facility and extension of cles. The perlite concrete tubes provide the compressive
:-e Canvey lsland LNG importterminal. The subsequent devel- strength whilst the thermal efficiency comes from the perlite.
: lment ofthe North Sea gas flelds made this facility redundant Some suitable capping for this system is required before the in-
:rd it was decommissioned and dismantled by British Gas in ner tank bottom is laid. This system is illustrated in Figure
'986. 19.10.
-re British Gas Engineering Research Station at Killingworth 19.2.6-6 Blast furnace slag
.1as given a budget to use this tank as a research tool and car-
- ed out a number
Afew tanks have been built on bases consisting of blast furnace
of tests, eventually leading to the collapse of slag. When suitably graded, dried and compacted this material
:-e inner tank under internal vacuum loading. These tests were has a suitable compressive strength and thermal properties in
':ported at LNG I (Reference 19.2).lt is interesting to specu-
the same region as the lightweight concretes. The advantage is
:ie if this opportunity to use a full-scale test piece would be the almost free raw material.
::(en and funded today. As a part ofthis investigation, samples
:'the cellular glass base insulation material were taken and
:ent to the laboratories at Liege University in Belgium. The ma- 19.2.7 Base insulation materials - peripheral area
::rial was Foamglas@ S3S grade (which has subsequently
:een replaced by one of the HLB range of grades). The impor- The higher loadings experienced by the peripheral areas of the
:ant properties of thermal conductivity and compressive base insulation means that frequently the materiais described
in the preceding Section are unsuitable by virtue of their limited
-r:rength were measured and found to be unchanged by the 17
, ?ars in low temperature service. compressive strength and need to be replacedwith otherstron-
ger materials, or be used in different combinations.
19.2.6.2 PVC foam
:VC foam is now Using the 45 degree load-spreading rules described in Section
agenerally acceptable material for base insu- 19.2.4.2, the compressive loading decreases as the point in
allon. lt has a history of being used successfully for membrane question moves downwards from the point of contact of the
:., pe tanks in the prefabricated insulation panels and beneath
shell line load. 1t is important to maintain the best possible ther-
:everal concrete/concrete type LNG tanks. lt is now being pro- mal efliciency whilst catering for the compressive loadings with
-oted for use with the more usual types of low temperature
:3nks. lt claims certain advantages over cellular glass:
. The material is supplied in larger sized sheets, up to 2.4m x
'1.2m. This will reduce handling and installation costs and
also installation times.
. No interleaving materials are required again reducing in-
stallation costs and time scales.
. The materialis considered to have bettertolerance of expo-
sure to moisture during installation.
. The material is more elastic (conversely less britfle) than
cellular glass and thus perhaps better able to resist damage
resulting from seismic loadings and locally imposed vibra-
tions. There is some history of cellular glass bases being
damaged by nearby pile-driving activity and proximity to ro-
tating machinery
{t the end of the day the choice of material will probably be
3ased on economic considerations.
19.2.6.3 Polyurethane foam
rhis material has a considerable history of use in membrane
:)/pe tanks. Most of what is mentioned in Section 19.2.6.2 is
again relevant here.
1 9.2.6.4 Lightweight concrete
there are a number of lightweight concrete materials available.
These obtain their light weight and consequent low thermal
:onductivity either by the use of lightweightaggregates such as
,erlite, Lytag or blast furnace slag, or by the addition of a foam-
Figure 19.10 View ofcomposite perttte concreie tube/toose periite base insula
ng agent to the concrete mix which provides ajr or gas entrain-
accepiable factors of safety required bythe design Codes. This quently concentrated at the tank wall to water fall like pro-
is necessaryto minimise the overall heat leakfor reasons ofop- portions
erating costs, and to reduce the problems associated with base
heating systems where large differences in the heat flux be-
. The insulation and its vaDour barrier/weathercover must be
suitably attached to the tank shellorbe freesianding in their
tween the central area and the periphery can prove complex or
own right.
expensive to design for. Commonly used solutions to this prob-
lem are: . The system must cater for the worst stresses caused by
. thermal and mechanical changes in the tank shape.
The use ofa composite system using layers ofcellularglass
of different grades, frequently capped with reinforced con- . The system must caterforany loadings caused by external
crete with suitable low temperature properties to allow for ice build up.
the high loading occurring immediately beneath the tank
shell.
. Depending on local circumstances and fire protection sys-
tems, the insulation system must have the necessary resis-
. Similarv the use of layers of different grades of foamed tance to anticiDated heat flux levels.
PVC or polyurethane foam, again frequently capped with
reinforced concrete.
. Suitable resistance to loadings caused by fire water im-
pingement.
. The use of purpose-designed and factory-manufactured 19.3.2.2 Rigid insulation for the walls of double-walled
blocks incorporating layers of reinforced concrete and dif- tanks
fering densities of perlite concrete. The design and manu-
facture of such blocks should be entrusted to comoanies Applied to the outer surface of the outer wall
with the necessary experience and expertise in this area. The requirements ofSection 19.3.2.1 apply in this case.
. The use of purpose-designed and factory-manufactured Applied to the inner surface of the outer wall
blocks using wood. Balsa and pine have been used in this
The attraction of this method of providing the wall insulation is
way. The compressive strength and thermal conductivity of
that the outerwallitself provides the vapour barrier and weather
wood materials are very dependenton the orientation ofthe
cover In normal operation the outerwall is at ambient tempera-
grain with respect to the direction of loading. Again the de-
ture. A number of new considerations need to be taken into ac-
sign and manufacture of such blocks should be lefr to suif
count:
ably expert and experienced suppliers.
. The vapourtightness ofthe insulation system during normal
operation when the insulation is exposed to the product
19.3 Wall insulation vapour(i.e. an open-topped suspended decktype oftank).
19.3.1 General
. The liquid tightness of the insulation system in the event of
inner tank leakage or failure.
Wall insulation systems for low temperature tanks falls into . The chemical resistance ofthe various components ofthe
three calegories: insulation system to contact with the product vapour or liq-
uto.
. Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic tanks fixed
to the outer surface of the tank shell. . The abilityto gas free and decommission the tankwithin the
prescribed period.
. Rigid insulation systems for the walls of double-walled
tanks. For metallic outertanks this can be fixed to the outer Applied to the outer surface of the inner wall
or the inner surfaces of the outer wall. There are a few ex- This is quite an unusual arrangement. In this instance the fol-
amoleswherethe insulation is attached to the outersurface lowing considerations must be hken into account:
of the innerwall. Fortankswith Dre-stressed concrete outer
tanks this insulation is most usually attiached to the inside of
. The inner tank leak case will result in the comolete loss of
the insulation system. This will result in a very high heat
the outertank. Again there are a few exampleswhere the in-
leak, theevolution of largevolumes of productvapourwhich
sulation is attached to the ouler surface of the inner wall.
must be handled safely by the relief valve system to avoid
e Loose fill insulation systems for installation between the the possibility of outer tank damage due to over pressuris-
steel or pre-stressed concrete outer tank and the steel and ation, and the possibility of substantial ice build-up on the
less commonly pre-stressed concrete inner tank, outer tank shell, possibly giving rise to structural stability
proDrems.
1 9.3.2 General requirements . Careful detail design at the junction between the wall and
roof insulation.
19.3.2.1 Insulation for the walls of single-walled metallic
tanks . lfthe insulation materialchosen is permeable, provisions to
orevent convection within the insulation itself.
In addition to having suitable long term thermal properties, the
systems used in this category must give due consideration to 19.3.2.3 Loose fill insulation systems
the following: This usually means a system using pedite and someform ofre-
. The provision of a suitable vapour barrier with the ability
silient blanket.
over the design life of the system to prevent the ingress of Conceming the perlite loose fill insulation material, allowance
atmospheric moisture into the insulation material driven by must be made for the following poinb:
the thermal gradient.
. Settlement of the perlite during service. This is usually pro-
. The vapour barrier must also act as a weather barrierto pre- vided for bythe provision of a suitable hopper volume in the
vent the ingress of rain water and to sustain wind loadings. top corner ofthe tank above the product liquid level and by
Storage tanks are tall structures, frequently constructed in the use of vibration equipment during the initial installation
exposed coastal areas where weather conditions are ex- ofthe material. The sizing ofthe hoppervolume is a function
tremely onerous. Rain falling on a large tank roof is fre- ofthe geometry and service ofthe tank in addition to the ex-
shear stresses at the junction of the wall and the base resukirE
from the innertank leakdesign scenario. This is particularlythe
case with the fixed orencastr6 bottom cornerdesign. The insl-]-
lation layer is applied to the bottom of the interspace and to rne
lower part of the tank wall, normally to an elevation of 3m to Sm
from the base slab.
A typical arrangement for a large LNG tank is shown in Figure
19.13. Most pre-stressed concrete tanks have a metallic liner
on their inner wall and base surfaces. The cellular glass must
be suitably attached to this liner and protected from the product
liquid in the inner tank overfill or leakage design case. The case
where the full inner tank contents are contained by the outer
tank is the most onerous for the designer The most frequenfly
used metallic barrier employed for this purpose is faced with rne
following two interesting and conflicting requiremenb:
. To be of an economic thickness, the protective layer must
rely on mechanical support from the underlying thermal in-
2 FOAMGLASo@llu|3rgless
sulation material to resist the hoop stresses which the ful
4 PITTCOTEo 404 (irspecitied) leaked product head will impose.
5 PCo FABRIC 79P {rf specilied)
. The temperature change brought about by coniact with the
product liquid willcausethe protective layerthe contract in-
wards and loose contact with the supporting insulation
The various ways of solving this apparent conundrum is dis-
cussed elsewhere in Sforage Tanks & Equipment.
Non-metallic solutions to this problematic area will require vali-
dation by suitable test work.
One of the attractions of the use of cellular glass materials in
this area is its ability to resist the heat generated by installation
welding activities.
19.3.4.5 Mineralwoo
For externally-applied wall insulation there are a few cases
where mineralwool products have been used. This system will
require even more careful attention to the weather cover/
vapour seal, as mineral wool has a low intrinsic resistance to
I Tankwall the flow of air with in itself. For this reason the orevention of con-
2 Tank root
? FOAMGLAS@cetlutarglass vection loopsbeingsetupwithinthe mineralwoolinsulationwill
4 PC9AA ADHFSIVE
also have to be considered.
5 Resilienl insulaiing matenal
6 PITTSEAL@,144 sealei
19.3.4.6 Perlite loose fill insulation systems
7 PITTCOTEO 404 + PC@ FABRIC 79P
3 mnTTFICKCARBON
STEEL LiNER
9% Ni ]NNER TANK EOTTOIl
CRYOGENIC CONCTE]E
250 rim THICK 1 X75 mm THICK
50 mm SCREED FOAMGLAS (ILB 8OO)
5 mm 9% Ni SECONDARY BOTTOM
SAND
50 mm SCREED
l00mmSCREED
Over the years furthertest work has been carried out and Brit-
ish Gas (of whom El\,lGB was formerly a part) continued its in-
terest in the subject and allowed some of its 50,000m3 LNG
Outer tanks to be fitted with pressure and blanket thickness measur-
wall 'Perlite ing equipment. Thus a full-scale test facility, withoutthe uncer-
iainties brought about by specimen end effects, which were al-
waysa problemwith the box tests, was made available. Mostof
the data collected was analysed by the late Dr lan Leadley of
Blanket Whessoe.
The relationship between the perlite, the resilient blanket and
the resultant pressures on the inner tank is complex and in-
volves a bewildering numberofvariables. Amongst these are:
. The physical dimensions ofthe hnks and the interspace
. The product and ambient temperatures
. The materials of the inner and of the outertanks
. The density ofthe perlite
The thickness of the resilient blanket
The compressive properties of the resilient blanket
The angle of internal friction of the perlite (this varies with
time)
The coefficient offriction at the various interfaces
The number of full and partial thermal and liquid filling cy-
cles for the inner tank
. The numberof pressure cycles for the outertank (applies to
- inlorspace filled wih Pedite steel outer ianks only)
All of the tank designers have their own ways of solving this
'"1"'.1*:"*o" \ complex problem. These are usually closely guarded secrets.
The whole subject is shrouded in uncertainty because ofthe dif-
ficulties with the perlite/blankevpressure relationship, the large
factors of safety used in the stiffenersize and pitch calculations
and the small number of lowtemperature tanks which are sub-
jected to the full loading cycle and then decommissioned and
examined.
Cold - inn6r tank conlracts
19.4 Roof insulation
Innr tank warms up and oxpands
19.4.1 General
The most commonly found forms of roof insulation fall into two
categones:
. For single-walled metallic tanks the insulation system is at-
tached to the external surfaces of the roof sheeting.
. For some single-skinned tanks and for the majority of dou-
Pe ite / bl.nket intBrface remains in same position as c) ,bove
ble-walled tanks, the insulalion system is supported on a
Ohis gives maximim exlamal prossure on inner tank)
suspended deck supported from the tank roof framework
and located within the tank.
rit- :r density glass fibre rather than polyurethane foam. The monia where the supply of suitable in{ank pumps is problem-
in- l r, eather cover/vapour barrierwill no longer be required. These atic. This is discussed in Chapter 21. Oxygen and nitrogen
!G ::vings may well offset the cost of providing the suspended tanks traditionally have side wallor bottom connections rather
iJ r- :eck and its supports and the longevity ofthe system is almost than in-tank pumps. Tanks which predated the general move
el ::rtain to be jmproved. away from single containment to the higher containment cate-
gories were also often fitted with side wall or bottom connec-
:o; 19.4.3 Internal suspended deck insulation tions, mainly for liquid import and export.
o'
The function of the fittings heat breaks are:
-.e most commonly used insulation materials for this purpose
i:c :-e low density glass fibre ofthe type often found in domestic at-
. To prevent excessive local heat gain
li
It'- : : :s or lofts, (usually around 0.75k9/m3 in density), mineralwool, . To provide a mechanical load transfer mechanism between
:
=!ain at the lower end of the range of densities available, and the attached pipework and the tank roof, wall of bottom
:dite. The pedite is most usually site-expanded and installed . To protect Darts of the tank which are constructed from ma-
:.3se or in bags. For suspended deck insulation, the following
terials which are not suitable for contact with the orod uct Iio-
::nsiderations must be taken into account:
uid design temperature
. Steps should be taken to prevent the roof insulation from . To avoid condensation orlocalice build uD around thefittino
contaminating the product liquid. For plate type suspended
decks this is only a problem around the periphery of the
deckand atfittings penetrations. A simple fabric shroud will 19.5.2 Heat breaks for roof connections
normally suffice. Fordecks constructed from structural sec-
iions and troughed sheeting where there are gaps between Figure 19.17 shows a typical roof heat break arrangementfor a
the sheets, this is more ofa problem and frequently requires lull containment LNG tank. Roof fittings for product liquid or
a layerofsuitable material between the deck and the insula- vapour can become quite large. The in-tank pump columns for
tion to covef such gaps. A commonly used material for this a typical LNG export terminal tank may well be up to 42" in di-
purpose is a glass reinforced paper. Perlite in particular is a
problem. lt has a tendency to flow through small gaps, and
for an apparently delicate material, can cause problems
with abrasion of the moving parts of certain downstream
process equipment, for example pumps.
. Where fibrous materials are used for deck insulation and
perlite for the wall insulation, the fabric shroud or the perlite
retaining wall must prevent the perlite from getting onto the
deck in addition to its other duty of retaining a sufficient hop-
per volume of perlite above the interspace.
. Steps must be taken to prevent the deck insulation from be-
ing "rearranged" by vapour movements above the deck or
from getting into the product via the deck vents.
. Steps should be taken to ensure that the final, installed deck
insulation thickness is what has been specified and used in
the thermal insulation calculations. A commonly used de-
vice is to put adhesive tape markers on the suspended deck
supporting rods or wires to indicate the required finished
thickness. By this means any settlement during installation
0ecomes oDVtous.
. For tanks where there is a possibility of condensation of the
product liquid on the underside ofthe outer roof (a problem
for butane tanks where the ambient temperature can occa-
sionally be lower than the storage temperature, and in ar-
eas ofthe world subject to very low temperatures, a similar
problem for propane tanks), provision must be made to en-
sure that the condensed liquid can make jts waythrough the
suspended deck. For double-walled tanks it is necessary to
ensure that the condensation will also not enter the wall in-
sulation interspace.
ameter and it is not unusual for the liouid import line and the
vapour return line for these tanks to be 32" in diameter
Cleady the need for thermal efficiency and the need for me-
chanical strength are in conflict. This makes the design ofthese
fittings interesting. A lot of experience in the use and behaviour
ofthe various proprietary designs is useful here. lt is sometimes
written in specifications that the heat breaks shall prevent ice
formation orcondensation on the tank rooflocalto thefitting un-
der allatmospheric conditions. This is a quite unreasonable re-
quirement which is impossible to comply with. There willalways
be some measure of cooling ofthe roof or the warm side com-
ponents ofthe heat break adjacent to the fitting and under unfa-
vourable atmospheric conditions, some condensation or ice
build up is inevitable. lt would be more reasonable to require
that the heat break design will seek to minimise this phenome-
non.
For double-walled tanks where the inner tank has a fixed roof,
the situation is more complex as a means must be provided to
accommodate the differentialthermal movements which will be
present. These types oftanks are quite uncommon these days
although there are some companies in the Far East who still re-
main wedded to this arrangement. lt is most usual to include a
bellows in the penetration. This can be located between the two
roofs or external to the outer tank roof. Atypical arrangement is
illustrated in Figure 19.18.
For the heat break arrangement shown in Figure 19.17, experi- Figure 19.18 Atypical roof fitting for a double roof type of tank
ence has shown that the most effective form of insulation is
PUF. This can be installed in the fitting prior to its erection into
the tank roof. The most convenient way of achieving this is to
foam the PUF in situ into the inverted fitting using one ofthe pro-
prietary foam kits available on the market. The use ofglass fibre
or mineral wool packed into the insulation space has not been
good for the lowertemperature end of the product range. Prob-
lems of internal convection have frequently led to the appear-
ance of external ice spots.
Figure 19.22 shows a detail which was used for a double con- worked successfully for some 15 years. ln this case the heat
tainment liquid butane tank constructed at l\Iobil Oil's CoMon break is the bellows.
refinery This was a double-walled metallic tank where in;or-
mal service the inner pipe is cold and the outer pipe is warm.
Under accident conditions both inner and outer pipes are cold. 19.6 Internal pipework insulation
This was a fitting which was difficult to construct, but which has
The only pipework to be found within the tank envelooe is nor-
mallythatwhich runs from the cold liquid orvapour roofconnec-
tion down to the suspended deck. The insulation is simDle usu-
ally consisting of multiple layers of a suitably-backed glass
fibre, wrapped around the pipe and held in place with wire or
---i-* plastic ties, or of preformed pipe insulation sections usually
made from glass fibre or mineral wool.
-t,.-
l',+ atr-j.r.r,t fr ,./ 19.7 External pipework insulation
.//)l !I --
The insulation of lowtemperature pipework is a signifi cantsub-
ject jn its own right and more properly belongs in a publicatjon
tiK ll'1 "",""i
dealing with pjpework systems.
Regularvisits to sites where lowtemperature liquids are stored
U .'' and processed will rapidly revealto the observerthat the maior-
ity of problems of ice build-up and condensation occur in ihe
pipework. In addition to causing expense by virtue of excessive
heat gain, the ice build-up can also be the source of safetv Drob-
lems by inhibiting thermal movements at bellows and pipe sup-
oorts.
Good low temperature pipework insulation is the result of cor-
rect system design, specification, material selection and proba_
Fjgure 19.20 A typicat sidewall connection fora double-wa ed sjngle contain-
bly most importantly, the careful installation and site supervision
by experienced specialists.
Traditionally,pipework insulation has been fitted followino erec-
tion ofthe piping system. In recent years there has been Jmove
away from site installation and it is now common for orefabri-
cated pipe spools to be sent to an insulation specialist to re-
ceive the thermal insulation prior to erection in the field. This
brings the benefits of controlled factory environments for this
activity, leaving onlythejoints between spools to be insulated at
site. Clearly good planning and dimensional control are a Dre-
requisite ofthe successful implementation ofthis method of in_
stallation.
The most commonly used materials for the insulation are pUF
and cellularglass. Both ofthese materials are available in fac-
tory-formed pipe profiles. lvlaterials commonly used for the
vapour seal/weather protection are galvanised or Aluzinc steel
sheeting, aluminium sheeting, stainless steel sheeting, poly-
ethylene and vadous non-mebllic mastics.
For manyyears an argument has raged concerning the relative
merits of the materials and combinations of materials in resist_
Figure 19.21 A typical sidewatt connection for a LOX or LtN tank
ing heat radiation loadings from various accident scenarios.
This still continues, with allsides frequently claiming victory. lt is l\4ost thermal insulation materials have thermal conductivities
not unusual for composite systems using PUF for the inner which change with temperature. This is illustrated for cellular
layers and cellular glass for the outer layer to be specified. glass by Figure 19.6. Hence the mean temperature of a layer of
insulation material within the multi-layersystem must be known
An area where particularcare is needed is in the fitting of insula-
before the thermal resistance of that layer can be calculated,
tion to valves and other fittings.
and the thermal resistance is required to establish the mean
Infrared thermography discussed in Section 19.10 is a useful remperarure.
tool for inspecting low temperature pipe insulation systems.
The way out of this apparent impasse is to assume a tempera-
The identification of the causes of failure or lack of longevity of ture profile for the various interfaces within the system, use this
such pipe insulation systems is not always straightforward. A to calculate the mean temperatures of the individual layers and
refinery in the UK had problems of early breakdown of its care- this in turn to obtain the k values of the various materials to per-
fully installed cellular, glass-based insulation. The cause ofthis form the initial calculation. The results of this calculation allow
problem was eventuallyhaced to the fact that the workforce fre- the interface temperatures to be recalculated and the k values
quently used the larger insulated pipes as walkways to the to be revised. Asecond calculation is carried out and the results
more inaccessible parts ofthe site. The brittle cellularglass was ofthis allow a further revision of the k values. A couple offurther
no match for the workers' boots! iterations should show temperature values at the interfaces
converging and this should be sufficient. Figure 19.23 shows a
numerical example of this Drocess. This is a tedious calculation
19.8 Heat leak calculations
to carryoutbyhand and is ideallysuited to Excel spreadsheets.
The basis of the heat leak calculations is quite straightforward.
Itisonlyin the detail that the subject becomes a little more inter-
19.8.2 Thermal conductivity values
esting. The tank insulation system is divided up into the areas
where similar materials or combinations of materials have been
used. For a typical full containment tank these would be: Initially, the source of the thermal conductivity values (or K val-
ues) to be used in the basic calculations is the manufacture's
. The central area ofthe tank base technical literature. Mosi low temperature tank designers will
. The oerioheral area ofthe tank base produce their own detailed technical specifications for the sup-
ply and installation of the different parts of the insulation sys-
. The lower tank wall where thermal orotection has been in- tem. Within such specifications it would be unusual if there were
stalled not some means of confirming the K values of the materials.
. The upper tank wall where no thermal protection has been This could take the form of regular samples being taken from
installed the place of production, be this a factory for materials such as
slab stock PU F, PVC foam, cellular glass, glass fibre or mineral
. The tank roof wool, or the construction site for such materials as perlite or site
expanded PUF.
19.8.1 Basic calculation methods These samples would be sent to an agreed laboratory where
the K values would be verified at the appropriate temperature
The basic equation to calculate the heatflux through a particu- (or range of tem peratures). lt is usual for the eventual owners of
lar component to be adopted where a slngle insulation material the tank to witness this testing, either themselves or via their
is used is: hired engineering or inspection companies. As has been men-
H=k xAxAT iL equ 19.1 tioned earlier, the measurement of low temperature insulation
properties is noteasyand should be leftto those skilled and ex-
where: perienced in this work. Note that this testing is usually con-
ducted in air.
H = heat flux through component (W)
For porous materials such as perlite, glass fibre or mineral
k = thermal conductivity of the insulation material
wool, the vapour within which the insulation material is operaf
(W/m'K)
ing wiil have a significant effect on lts effective K value. Thus the
A = area of component (m2) test results which are based on air as the interstitial gas will
have to be adjusted to account for the presence of a different
AT = hot to cold face temperature range ('K)
gas. This is discussed in Section 19.8.3.
L = thickness of component (m)
Where the insulation material has been penetrated by items
Where more than one material is used the following method made from different materials, such as is the case for resilient
taken from section A3 oI Reference 79.3 is used: blankets supported by being impaled on pins, the effective K
equ 19.2
valueto be used in the calculations must be adjusted to take ac-
U = 1/ (R1+ R2 + R3+.....+Rn)
count of the short circuiting effect ofthe pins. Asuitable calcula-
wnere: tion method for making this adjustment is given in section ,q3 of
Reference 19.3.
U = thermal transmittance (Wm'? 'K)
Certain insulation materials have thermal properties which
R1 & thermal resistance ofthe various insulation change with time. PUF used as external insulation may display
R2 etc = components (m2'K iV)
- calculated from an increase in its K value as the original foaming gas within the
equation '19.3 below cells is progressively replaced byair.ltis importantthatin these
R=L/K equ 19.3 circumstances a suitably aged property is used in the calcula-
tion.
Hence the equation to calculate the heat flux through a multi-
layer component is:
19.8.3 The influence of different interstitial gases
H=U xAxAT equ 19.4
It is not normal to include surface resistance in these calcula- The various equations which allow the K values of the vapours
tions. ofthe various low temDerature oroducts to be calculated at dif-
TRIAL No 1
' Calculate K values:
Concrete Taken as 1.60 Wm'K tiroughout calqiation
Perlite step l calculate K value of hterstitial gas (f1)
ATp 155 'K
KS1 0.0243158 w,lm'K
step 2 calculate K value of petlib (KP)
R 8.252384i|
y 0.137422
Kp 0.0401584 Wm'K
Gla6s fibre step 1 calculate K value of interstitial gas (lQ2)
ATfg 40'K
l{gz 0.0133521 dm"K
step 2 fuctor ftom Figure 19.25
f 1.455
step 3 calculale K value of glass fibr
Kg 0-0194273
TRIAL No 2
Calcxrlate K values:
Concrets Taken as 1.60 Wm'K thrcughout calculation
Pedite step 1 calculate K value of intersfital gas (lg1)
ATp 133.7714'K
Kgl 0.0266994 w/m'K
stp 2 calculale K value of pertite (Kp)
R 7.87Tt517
y 0.1374?2.
.l
Kp o.o428oa w/m'K
Glass fib| step calculale K value of inteGfitial gas (Kg2)
Arfu 69.1901 'K
Kg2 0.01499s6 w/m'K
step 2 factor from Figure 9.2S
1
t 1.455
step 3 calculate K value of glass fibre
Kfs 0.0218187
TRIAL No 3
Calculale K values:
Conqeie Taken as 1.60 w/m'K throughout clculalion
Pedite step 1 calculate K value ot interstitiat gas (Kg1)
ATp 136.0i20 'K
lQl 0.0285485 w/m'K
step 2 calculate K value of pedite (Kp)
R 7.9020321
y 0.137422.
Kp 0.0426242 wtm'K
Glass fibr step 1 calculale K value of interstitial gas (Kg2)
ATfs 66.7136 'K
Kg2 0.0148s87 dm'K
step 2 factor from Figure 1 9.25
1.455
step 3 calculate K value of glass jibre
Kfg 0.02i6194
'efent temperatures are given in Figure '19.24. The source of 19.8.4 Galculation of the hot face temperature
tis data is Reference 19.4.
The design specification will require a certain maximum heat
Fomula for themal conductivity In wm"K leak into the tank contents as described in Section 19.7 Ofren
o oorou * u'"tito'Lt'Jli the only data given is the maximum design ambient tempera-
ture, which is a shade temperature at the tank's geographic lo-
5 9l7 t 1o' ca on.
o.oos6r r lT'l''
The actual maximum temperatures to which the tank roof and
o.oorot .
uuttilo'[t.ll' walls will be subjected influenced by the local solar radiation
maximum levels, the attitude ofthe surface in question, the pre-
I 258'10 7
.-,e6rr, vailing weatherconditions (clear orcloudy skies)and the nature
nT t' lr
of the external surfaces. Data and calculation methods allowing
rrr,.1-.""" the actual maximum temperatures to be calculated for any set
\Ttll of circumstances are given in section AG ot Reference 19 3
avoid subsequent contentious arguments. lt is normal to make . lt may be necessaryto run the in-tank pumps during the test
the same form of wording for any tank containing a mixed prod- period to ensure proper mixing. Allowance for the energy in-
uct, expressing the permitted heat leak in terms ofa percentage out from this source must be made.
ofthe major constituent. The following points are worth bearing . Boil off is known not to occur at a uniform rate, but rather as
in mind:
a series of irregular "burps". This is another reason why the
. lt is importantto use the correct density in the calculation of test must be conducted over a protracted period.
the permitted heat leak. For LNG a latent heat of 507.0 . Arrangements must be made to record and take account of
kJ/kg should be used with the pure methane density of the effects of wind and solar radiation.
0.422. Using the design density of LNG (frequently given as
0.48) will give too high a value of the permitted heat leak. These difficulties combine to make a physical heat leak test
time consuming, expensive and inconclusive. To avoid this
. lt is often presumed that the worst conditions pertaining at problem area, the following procedure is often adopted:
any point on the tank outer surface at any time during the . The tank designer must prepare detailed heat leak calcula-
whole day will persist for the full 24 hours. This has occa-
tions together with the appropriate certification (and possi-
sionally become a point of dispute beh,veen the owner and
bly QA records if these are available at the time) to
the designer, with the tank designer claiming that it repre-
demonstrate that the materials used havethe required ther-
sents an unnecessarily conservative interpretation.
mal properties.
. The full tank contents is usually taken to mean just that, i.e. . These calculations and the associated documentation will
with no deduction for in-tank pump NPSH etc. be submitted to an expert third party, previously agreed by
. both the owner and the tank contractor, who would review
Whilst the calculations seek to cover all of the sources of
possible heat leakage from tank to atmosphere, there will the calculations and whose findings would be binding on
probably be some which have been ignored or overlooked both parties.
such as the smaller connected pipe connections. To cover One of the added advantages of this procedure is that in the
for these uncertainties, it is usual for the designer to aim for event of a shortfall being found in the thermal insulation pro-
a calculated heat leak lower than the full target value. A not vided, then this can be made good prior to the tank entering ser-
unusual starting point would be to aim for 85% of the full vice. This could perhaps be by a simple addition to the thick-
value in the first instance. ness ofthe insulation on the suspended deck, an action with no
knock-on effects. With the physicaltest route, this pre-commis-
A well set out heat leak calculation for a large full containment sioning adjustment is not possible.
type LNG tank is shown in Figure 19.26. This makes use of a
series of linked Excel soreadsheets.
19.10 The use of the infrared camera
An infrared camera will produce images which will identify ar-
19.9 Heat leak testing
eas where the heat leak is abnormal or merelydifferentfrom the
With the customer or his engineer setting a heat leakage re- surrounding areas of insulation. lt is a useful tool both at the
quirement for the tank and the distinct possibility that at least time of tank commissioning and as an occasional maintenance
some of the process equipment will be designed based on this device to locate any changes in the thermal insulation system
figure, it would seem sensible to test the finished storage sys- and its performance, perhaps due to such time dependent phe-
tem to see that it fullllls this performance criteria. This is not as nomena as insulation material degradation or perlite settle-
simple as it would appear for a variety of reasons: ment. The equipment is nowadays quite cheap to purchase, or
there are companies who will come and perform this service.
. lvleasuring the heat leak will require either a significant
change in the tank liquid level to occur, which may take
some days depending upon the accuracy ofthe level mea- 19.1 1Insulation problems from the past
suring equipment provided, or will require the accurate and their lessons
measurement of the vapour flow through the vapour outlet
line, something difficult and expensive to achieve. Vapour
19.11.'l Base insulation failure
flow measurement is not a normal part of the tank instru-
mentation. For a large LNG tank with a specified boil off rate
of less than 0.05% (a typical figure for such tanks) the level Two LNG tanks belonging to GAZ Metropolitan in lMontreal,
change will be of the order of 15 mm/day. To get a sensible Canada, had been in continuous satisfactory service until July
measurement which will be sufiicient to negate any uncer- 1990, when instrumentation in the tank base ofone of the tanks
tainty caused by tolerances on gauging accuracy, it is clear began to show evidence of cold spots. After double checking
that the test duration must run into several days. and adding new thermocouples, the problem persisted and it
became obvious that the tank required to be taken out of
. The tank must be fullor close to full at the time of the test to service.
avoid contentious arguments revolving around the extrapo- Following decommissioning it was found that the cellular glass
lation ofthe heat leakfrom a lowerliquid levelto a fulltank. base insulation was the subject of massive cracking and me-
. The tank must not be subject to any liquid movements dur- chanical breakdown.
ing the test period. This damage eventually necessitated the lifting ofthe innertank
andthe complete replacement of the cellularglass base insula-
. The test must be carried out at a time when barometric tion, an expensive and time consuming process.
pressure is anticipated to remain relatively constant.
An investigation into the cause of this base insulation failure
. Ambient temperature must be monitored throughout the was carried out and this is reported in Reference 19.5.
test period.
The investigation revealed that in July 1990, blasting work had
. For LNG LPG and other mixed products, it is necessary to been carried out within 200 m ofthe two tanks. The tank nearest
determine the composition of the liquid in the tank. This will to the blasting was full of Iiquid at the time and undamaged. The
require sampling as the iank is filled. tankfurthest awayfrom the blasting location was fllled to 20% of
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:s capacity and was damaged as described. The investigation . Exposed to frequent waterfall events, due to concentrated
:ound that the partiallyfilled tank had a higher natural frequency rainfall from the roof and shell.
:han the fuller tank and was thus more susceptible to damage
iom the blasfinduced ground motions.
. Complications to detailed design caused by holding-down
-lhe anchors.
lesson from this incident is clearly that any blasting on the
same, or adjacentsites should be avoided, and ifthis is not pos- . The correct selection of materials, detailed design and
sible, then detailed investigations should be carried out to de- careful installation together with regular inspection all have
iermine the susceptibility of tanks with brittle base insulation their part to play in this area.
naierials to damage.
19.1 1.4 Perlite settlement
19.11.2 External vapour sealing
Double walled tianks using perlite insulation have on occasions
A number of low temoerature tanks with external thermal insu- had a history of poor performance. Aring of condensation orice
ation on their shells, and in some cases also on their roofs, at. or close to the top ofthe outer shell, is an indication of exces-
rave come to grief over the years. The reasons for these fail- sive perlite settlement. The reasons for this can be:
Jres are usually associated with poor performance of their ex- . Lack of, or inadequate, or ineffective vibration ofthe perlite
:ernal vapour sealing arrangements. This has allowed mois-
during its site expansion and insiallation.
iure-laden air to invade the insulation material and form ice
/vithin the insulation or on the tank shell beneath the insulation. . The provision of insufficient hoppervolume atthe top corner
The damage can manifest itself immediately following the tank of the tank.
cool down or following several years in service.
. On at least one occasion, the location of a large diesel-pow-
Higher than anticipated heat in leak and consequent product ered generatoradjacentto the tank following perlite installa-
Soiloff, the appearance of external condensation orofice spots tion.
or (in at least one case) sudden failure and collapse ofallor part
of the shell insulation are the usual signs. The use of experienced perlite installation companies using ap-
propriate methods and equipment will help to avoid this prob-
The lesson here is that the external vapour seal and its lem and its solution, expensive in service topping up of the
ong-term abilityto keep atmospheric moisture out ofthe insula- perlite.
tion material is viialto the survival ofthe insulation system. Cor-
r.ect material selection, sDecification and installation are all ac-
livities, which will help to ensure that the required performance 19.12 References
and service life are obtained.
19.1 Foamglas@ lndustrial lnsulation Handbook, Pittsburgh
Corning NV Waterloo, Belgium.
19,11.3 Bottom corners
19.2 Research into the structural integrity of LNG tanks,
The bottom corner of tanks where the wall insulation is on the D. Neville and G. White, British Gas Engineering Re-
outer surface ofthe shell and the base insulation is beneath the search Station. LNG 9. October 1989.
iank bottom, have on occasions given rise to problems. Again, 19.3 The lnternational Heating and Ventilating Guide, fhe
the cause is moisture ingress and the reason is poorwaterand Chartered Institution of Building Services.
vapour sealing materials and details. This is a difficult area of
the insulation system to design for, for a number of reasons:
19.4 The Handbook of Cryogenic Engineering, J.G.
Weisland ll, Taylor & Francis, London, 1998.
. Large radial thermal movements caused by tank contrac-
tion.
19.5 Damage to base ofLNG tanks from blast loadings - A
case study, R. Tinawi, A. Filiatrank, C Dor6, Journal of
. High shell line loadings, requiring materials with good, me- Performance of Constructed Facilities. Vol 7. No 3. Au-
chanical and thermal DroDerties. qust 1993.
Contents:
20.1 General
Operalionsl condilion
Figure 20.1 Alypical section lhrough an inlank pump Figure 20.2 A complete in-tank pump assembly
Court$y of Nikkjso Cryo Eurcpe Cou esy of Mkkjso Cryo Europe
-a_..
50HZ
HEAD(m)
2ooo S<
N = "r--K :D\N\
1500
- -,1 x-
); \
r; l---\ N E
500
,r
5r+
rl-;-*
s '7- i
s:i!x
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)
)
r<i
sil $r
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il>{
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.}]
\ 1=4,
/1,
s4
/-
.# h -{'r JD\
# t;.,
)/
\-i5* al
5 100 200
FLOW(m3/h)
: lure 20.3 Pump pressure/flow rate curves
HEAD(m)
60Hz zoc{
r500
r000
7m
500
4C0
300
200
150
:lroughput tend to have many stages and be smaller in diame- cooled and lubricated by the product liquld and restarting at
.:r low levels may have pump wearand frequency of major ser-
vjcing effects.
lne area of concern for ihe tank designer is the ability of the
: Jmp to pump down to a low liquid level without losing suction
The unravelling of these is usually decided by discussion be-
:td the minimum liquid level at which the pump may be re- tween the owner, the pfocess engineers, the tank designers
:iarted. These characteristics combine to dictate the unusable
and the pump suppliers.
:pace at the boiiom of the storage tank, which economics re-
ruires to be minimised. What was at one time expressed as a The electrical power supply to the pumps is usually made via
:lngle NPSH figure has in recent times become more complex. cables which penetrate the pump column head plate and pass
-he variables are;
down ihe pump column to the pump itself. They are supporied
. The minimum head at which the pump willcontinue to pump from ihe lifting cable. There is another less ffequently adopted
at its full-rated capacity is of interest from overall process system which uses power cables that run inside a tubular sup-
port, which is also used to lift the pump.
reasons.
. The minimum head ai which the pump willcontinue to pump For service and maintenance reasons the in-tank pump ar-
at reduced capacity is of interest from tank decommission- rangements must be such that the pump can be safely removed
ing reasons. The minimum level of residual liquid left in ihe from the tank without any form of interruption to the tank opera-
tank after the pump has ceased to function will have to be tion. For this reason it is usual to fit one spare pump and its as-
removed by other means and will have an influence on the sociated equipment. The most commonly used purnp removal
ovefall decommissioning period and consequent costs. system is described in Section 20.2.2.
. The minimum liquid level at which the pump can be re- To ensurethatthe pump is notdamaged bythe ingestion ofany
started will have process consequences. The pump is both construction debris which may have been left in the tank or in
C Headpr.G
'e@r
INIIIA! UF'
other materials such as 9% nickel steel should not be used if Wozniak unless more sophisticated methods are readily avail-
these could be shown to be economical. aote.
Pump columns may be supported from the base of the tank or It is wise to position the liquid outlet connection on the side of
suspended from the tank roof. The former arrangement would the column some way down from the head plate. This allows a
reouire some device such as a bellows to accommodate differ- vapour cushion to exist betvveen the maximum liquid level and
ential thermal movements between the tank and the pump col- the head plate, especially at start-up when the product liquid
umn and a suitably strong base insulation material to allow for rapidly ascends the column. Early experiences where this con-
the local loadings. lf the suspended route is adopted, guides nection was placed close to the top resulted in the liquid con-
must be fitted to restrain the bottom of the column. For both so- tacting the head plate and flange which promptly contracted
lutions it is not uncommon to provide guides or restraints be- whilst the bolting remained at ambient temperature. This fre-
tween the column and the tank shell at higher levels, especially quently caused a transient leakage situation on start-up which
when seismic sloshing loadings are to be allowed for. To evalu- challenged the operators fleetness of foot.
ate seismlc sloshing loadings, it is usual to use the work of
20.3 Filling columns
These have become a common feature, especially for the
larger tanks with high liquid inlet rates. Theirfunction is to sepa-
rate the liquid and the flashing vapour as they enter the tank.
They are fitted immediately beneath the main liquid bottom fill
line and are suDoorted from the tank base.
The most commonly found detail for this purpose is the propri-
etary design owned by MW Kellogg Ltd. A typical detail is indi-
cated in Figure 20.9. These fittings can be substantial in size.
The columns forthe DabholLNG tanks were 2.2 m in diameter.
Such large and heavyfittings must be accommodated in terms
of base insulation loading and must be located sufficiently far
from the tank shell not to inhibit the uplifting of the tank shell in
unanchored tank seismic design.
Doubts have been exDressed as to the usefulness ofthese ex-
pensive fittings, however a large number of tanks have been fit-
ted with these details, and there is no evidence thatthey do not
perform their intended function.
,t')a -'t...\
tt /r/..,.)..
Brine slorage
Healing coils in
tank base slab
The most commonly found valves of this type are simple flap b) Maximum rate of withdrawal of liquid product
valves which are held open during service by cables running to c) Possible escape of product under emergency conditions
tank roof connections. In the event of a mishap being detected
by the instrumentation provided for that purpose, operators lo-
d) Suction capacity of comPressor
cated on the tank roof release the cables and shut the valves lt e) Heat leakage to the tank from atmosphere
is normal to reset (i.e. reopen) these valves manually from the f) Barometric pressure variation
tank roof. Atypical valve and operator is shown in Figure 20 13. g) Fire exposure
h) Any other special circumstances (e.g roll over)
20.7 Venting systems
The tankdesign Codes have contributionsto make in thisarea
As is the case for ambienttanks, the function ofthe venting sys-
API 620 requires that:
tem is to protect the tankfrom excessive levels of internal posF
tive pressure and negative pressure (i e. vacuum). . Automatic pressure relieving devices shall be fitted to pre-
The design and description of venting systems for ambient ventthe pressure atthe top ofthe tankfrom rising more than
1O7o above the maximum allowable working pressure (usu-
tanks has been described earlier in Chapter 8. The design and
types of equipment used for low temperature storage systems ally taken as the tank design pressure) except as provided
is essentiallythe same with a few differences to allowfor the low DCIOw'
temperature and higheroperating pressures commonly assocF . Where an additional hazard can be created bythe exposure
ated with low temperature storage and in some cases to cater of the tank to accidental fire or another unexpected source
for the very high throughputs required. of heat external to the tank, supplementary pressure rellev-
For the larger, more sophisticated tanks, it is usual to provide ing devices shall be installed. These devices shall be capa-
two pressure relief systems. The first of these is connected to a bl; of preventing the pressure from rising more than 20%
system of pipes which will deliver the relieved vapours to a re- above the maximum allowable working pressure. A single
mote location, usually a flare stack. where the vapours may be pressure relieving device may be used if it satisfies the re-
safely disposed of. The second system relieves directly to at- quirements of this Paragraph
mosphere. lt is usualto set the relieving pressure ofthe system Note: lt is normal practice to test low temperature tanks to
to flare at a lower setting than the relieving system to atmo- 25% overthe design pressure The 20% maximum ex-
sDhere. This ensures that the safer option istriedfirst and onlyif ternal fire induced excursion is then less than the pres-
this fails or is of insufficient capacity for the particular process sure to which the structure has been tested.
circumstance causing the upset, does the less desirable option
of relieving direct to atmosphere become operational
. Vacuum relieving devices shallbe installed to permitthe en-
try of air (or another gas or vapour if so designed) to avoid
A typical series of pressure and vacuum settings for a large the collapse ofthe tank wall ifthis could occur under natural
LNG tank are shown in Figure 20.14. operating conditions. These devices shall be located on the
The basis of the design of pressure and vacuum relief valve tank so that they will never be sealed off by the tank con-
systems is API 2O0O (Reference 20.3). Fot low temperature tents. Their size and pressure (or vacuum) setting shall be
tjnks, the section on refrigerated tanks is to be applied This such that the partial vacuum developed in the tank at the
document is, unusually, also quoted in BS 7777 : Part 1 lt is maximum specified rate of air (or gas) inflowwill not exceed
quite unusual for American Standards to be referenced in Brit- the partial vacuum for which the tank is designed.
ish Standards. . The system shall be designed in accordance with the re-
The design of product vapour (for pressure relief) and air (for quirements of API 2000.
vacuum relief)flow capacities are made up ofthe most onerous Pressure relieving devices shall be installed such that they
combination of the following: are readily accessible for inspection and removable for re-
a) Vapour displaced during filling at maximum rate pairs. The practices suggested in API RP 520 (Reference
20.4) shall generally aPPlY.
MRP, RVs oischa.gi.q to al,nospne6 319 lf the relieving devices are not located on the tank roof (a
290
most unusual situation), they shall be installed on the piping
sP, RYs Oischarging lo Almosphere
connected to the vapour space as close to the tank as is
MRP, Rvs D6chrrglng lo FlaE 245 practicable. lf the relieving devices are vented to atmo-
sP, RVs D schaE ng Io Fla sphere, they shall be at a sufflcient heightto prevent chance
ignition.
255
The opening from the tank leading to the relieving device
Maxidum Nodal OPe6ling P(essuE shall have a diameter at least equalto the inlet size ofthe re-
Minimum Nofral Opling Pessure 100 lieving device.
30
When a discharge pipe is fitted to the outlet side of the re-
15
lieving device, itshallbeofan area at leastequaltothe area
0
ofthtoutlet ofthe relieving device, or if a single plpe is pro-
vided for the discharge of several relieving devices, it shall
vaclum RlEf FlllFloe have an area not less than the aggregate areas ofthe multi-
ple valves. The discharge pipe shall have an open drain to
laEc
orevent wateror other liquids from accumulation on the dis-
Glossaryi MRP = Manmum Relieving Pessuc
RV= charge side of the relieving devices.
PABH = HEh Pressure Tdp {PressuE Alam High HEh) Discharge pipes shall be installed such that no undue stress
PAH .- High Pressure Peal.m
PA! = LN Pessure PE-alam is placed on the valve body. open discharges shall be
placed and orientated such thatthe oumowis directed away
Figure 20.14 Atypical LNG tank pressurc setting tabulation irom thetankand willnot cause a hazard to walkways, stair-
courlesy of l\4 W Keilogg Ltd ways or operating Platforms.
. A vacuum relieving device shall have as direct an inflow to Normally the pressure and vacuum relief valves are sepa-
the tankas is possible, and shallhave no pipeworkahead of rated from each other However a combination may be
the inlet apart from a weather cover. used. This is taken to mean that valves with a combined
. pressure and vacuum relieffacility may be used. There are
Stop valves, if used between the relieving devices and the
such valves on the market and the minimising of the roof
tank to allow seryicing of these devices, shall be locked or
connections and isolating facilities makes this an attractive
sealed open, and an authorised person shall be present if
this situation is changed. lf the tank is in use, the authorised choice. However, care must be taken to ensure that full sys-
person shall remain there until the locked or sealed open tem capacity is maintained at all times and the distribution of
vapours beneath the tank roof is carefully thought out.
state of the relieving devices is restored.
It is interesting that API 620 does not make mandatory the pro-
For a full containment tank, the pressure relief system shall
vision ofa spare valve in any set and the use of stop or isolation be designed such that it can accommodate the vapours
generated from an innertankfailure. For this purpose a hole
VAIVES.
in the flrst course ofthe tank shell of 20mm in diameter may
BS 7777 : Part 1 make similar demands. but with some minor be assumed. The origin ofthis notional leak is a mystery not
differences: least to the authorwho served on the committee which cre-
. For "normal" pressure relief (i.e. as determined from a)to e) aied these rules! Clearly a concentration failure!
listed above), the internal pressure at the top of the tank The number of pressure relief valves required shall be cal-
shall not exceed the design internal pressure by more than culated based on the total product vapour outflow specified.
10v.. ln addition, one spare valve shall be installed for mainte-
. For vacuum relief, the internal negative pressure shall not nance purposes. The inlet piping shall penetrate the sus-
pended roof, where such a roof is fitted, thus preventing
exceed the internal negative design pressure by more than
2.5 mbar.
cold vapour from entering the warm space between the
outer roof and the suspended roof under relieving condi-
. For "emergency" pressure relief (i.e. as determined from f) tions.
and g) listed above), supplementary pressure relief should
be installed. These pressure relieving devices should not
The number of vacuum relief valves shall be calculated
based on the total air intlow specified. In addition one spare
allow the tank internal pressure from exceeding the design
valve shall befitted for maintenance purposes. The vacuum
internal pressure by more than 20%.
valves shall allow air to enter the vapour space located di-
. Where a single valve will satisfy the emergency venting re- rectly under the roof.
quirement, a duplicate valve should be installed to facilitiate
Because the design pressures of low temperature tanks are
inspection and maintenance. generally higher than is the case for ambient tanks, the use of
. Where multiple pressure relief valves are required for the dead weight valves for pressure relief is unusual, and in the
venting duty, they should allbe ofthe same capacityand at larger valve sizes, becomes impractical because of the physi-
least one additional valve should be fitted of the same ca- cal size of the weight required. lt is normal practice to use pilot
pacity as a standby for inspection, maintenance and possi- operated valves which have advantages of not leaking at pres-
ble replacement purposes. sures close to their set point, having a reduced blow down and
being more suited to operation with pipe-work on the inlet and
. The use of isolating valves installed between the pressure ouilet sides. This is discussed in some detail in ADDendix C of
relief valve and the tank should be agreed between the pur- B57777 : Pat11. Atypical pilofoperated pressure reliefvalve is
chaser and the contractor, i.e. is optional. Appendix C ofthis shown in Fioure 20.15.
part of the Code suggests rather more strongly that this
should be the case and normal industry practice usually de-
mands this facilityfor all pressure and vacuum reliefvalves.
. Appendix C repeats some of these requirements and pro-
vides additional guidance on this subject.
The newprovisional Euronormfor low temperature tanks, prEN
14620, is strangely reticent on the subject of pressure and vac-
uum relief bearing in mind the amount of detail that its ambient
tank counterpart (prEN 14015) has chosen to go into. Annex L
of this document provides comprehensive requirements forthe
design and installation ofventing systems, which for once is not
based upon API 2000.
Summarising the requiremenb of prEN 14620:
Venting to atmosphere shall be excluded from tanks de-
signed to contain toxic product.
For tanks designed to store non-toxic products, sufficient
margin shall be provided between the operating pressure
(i.e. the reliefvalve set pressure) and the design pressure of
the tank to avoid unnecessary (i.e. too frequent) venting.
l3 I r+
'T/-_l -T --l
I
A{nedyGs.e!5.Body
e!' xg|b.|qb.
2x3
t'x4' ft
4x6' wo
6xa
AxlO' !,
10\17 t,
l2'x 16 .q
NOIE vImN isan eunpl ol a suluble produd a\aihnF.onner.rxlv
Tlis infomauv. s sven rof ihe eneenihce ot LsE or rhis Pan of BS 77?7
Figure 20.17 An example of a range of pilofoperated pressure relief valves
Figure 20.16 A typical dead-weighi vacuum relief valve Coulesy of Tyca Valves & Conttols
From BS 7777 :Paft 1, figure c.4
need to design for a rollover has been largely removed by the
Vacuum relief valves are commonly of the dead-weight type orovision of level/temperature/density (LTD) measuring equip-
and an example is shown in Figure 20 16 Proprietary designs ment together with provisions for top filling, bottom filling and
product mixing via the in-tank pumps. These provisions gave
for pilot-operated vacuum valves and valves which combine
ihe tank ooerator an indication ofsituations within the tank con-
the pressure and vacuum relieving elements within the same
valve are available. These provide the possibility of reducing tents which were prone to initiate a rollover and the means to
the number of roof connections and consequent cost savings' take the appropriate preventative action.
For tanks of the suspended deck type using the conventional ln earlier times the rollover had to be considered, and one com-
system of separate valves for pressure and vacuum relief, it is pany designed and manufactured a large capacity relief-valve
usualto locate the pressure inlet to the valves beneath the sus- ior this puipose. tnis valve was made in large sizes (24" and
pended deck and arrange for the vacuum valves to discharge 36" diameter) and had correspondingly large throughput of
directly into the roof space above the deck The use of com- vapour. The basis of operation was a frangible link within the
binedvalves clearly does not permitthis arrangementand deci- vaive which held the valve closed in normal service and would
sions have to be made aboutthe configuration beneath the tank fail at a predetermined over pressure to allow the valve to fully
roof. Adjustments to the suspended deck venting system may open. The valvewasfitted with a spring which closed the valve'
be fequired if these combined relief valves are used albeit at a much lower pressure than the opening pressure'
These valves were also used when sudden inner tank failure
It isusualto mount pressure reliefvalves, vacuum reliefvalves
pressure and vacuum valves on individual rooffit was a design requirement. An example ofsuch a valve, known
or combined
as the reserve capacity relief valve, is given in Figure 20 18
tings. The fittings for pressure and combined valves in non low
temperature roofs willrequire heat-breaks to be fitted Vacuum For LNG tanks, EN 1473 suggests the use of rupture discs for
valves, drawing in air at atmospheric temperature will have no rollover relief and references the French AGT Code forthe ba-
need of heat-breaks. Similarly pressure and combined valves sis oftheirdesign. The use ofrupture discs has not been a pop-
will require to be manufactured from materials with suitable low ular choice for this purpose, possibly due to the proportionate
temperature properties whilst vacuum valves have no such re- uncertainties in the actual failure pressures of bursting discs at
quirement. There are occasions where two valves or more are the comparatively modest pressures associated with low tem-
mounted on a single roof penetration perature storage tanl(s.
For pressure relief valves, the higher tank pressures for low Where pressure relief valves are fitted in a system where multi-
temperature tanks means higher flow velocities and conse- ple relief valves are manifolded into to a system of closed
quently larger pressure losses in the connected pipework on oipe-work (i.e. to a flare) it is necessary to provide isolation
both the inlet and outlet sides of the valve. These losses must valves on both the inletand outletside ofthe relief valveto allow
be calculated and subtracted from the total pressure difference for valve removal from the system
between the tank and atmosphere to give the pressure drop
Fire orotection for relief valve tail pipes is covered in Section
across the valve itself which is used to calculate the flow rate
20.8.
through the valve. Some relief valve manufacturers provide
software to assist the tank designer with this task
Reliefvalves are available in a range of sizes depending on the 20.8 Fire protection systems
vapour throughput required. An example of a range of pilolop- Fire protection systems for above ground, low temperature
erated pressure reliefvalves is shown in Figure 20.17' tanks are generally a part of the overall facility fire protection
The orecise evaluation of the vapourflow rates resulting from a svstem. The development of such a system, sultable for ad-
tank rollover event is difficult to calculate. In recent times the diessing all ofthe equipment on the site and all of the perceived
lf insufficient fresh wateris availableon the site, itwillbe neces- 20.9 lnstrumentation
saryto feed the fire water system with sea water in the event of The level of instrumentation which is supplied with a low tem-
an emergency. In the interests of corrosion protection following perature storage tank is usually specifled by the owner or his
exposure of all or part of the system to salt water, it will be nec-
engineer in the tank specification documentation The tank de-
essary to arrange suitable facilities for flushing the appropriate
sign Codes such as API 620, BS 7777 and prEN 14620 give lit-
parts of system with fresh water.
tl; or no guidance as to the extent of instrumentation which
It is usual to require the system to be tested on at regular inter- would be appropriate to supply with a low temperature tank to
vals. This is normallycarried outwith fresh waterand limitations ensure its correct and safe operation
in the available quantities of fresh water may necessitate the Codes and regulatory documents which have a wider scope
subdivision of the system such that it can be tested in smaller dealing with the overall storage and handling facility such as
sections. The system illustrated. which is for roof deluging only. NFPA 58, NFPA 59, NFPA 59A and EN 1473 are more forth-
is for this reason divided into six sections.
coming on the subject. The latter Code outlines what is now a
The equipment used to set the deluge system into action ls of- pretty huch agreed industry standard level of instrumentation
ten large, sophisticated and expensive Roof-mounted deluge for LNG tanks.
valves will themselves require a high level of fire protection
In addition to the deluge system, it is common to add a number 20.9.1 Level measurement
of fire monitors. A monitor is a means of providing a spray or
stream ofwaterfrom a fixed station to a locaiion where it is re- necessaryto measure the levelofthe product liquid
It is clearly
quired for fire fighting or equipment cooling. The control of the within theiankfor reasons such as inventory controland avoid-
waterspray and its direction can be achieved by either manual ance of overfilling. The normal form of level measuring equip-
or remote operation. ment used for these tanks consists of a roof-mounted servo
gauging unit connected via a suitable roof connection to a float
20.8.2.2 Foam systems
iitnin iperforateo stilling well inside the tank itself. Atypicalar-
For areas where liquid may accumulate such as tank bunds or rangement of this type is illustrated in Figure 20.20. The level
spillage impounding basins, it is usualto installa system of high gauging unit will be located where it can be readily accessed
expansion foam generators These will allow remotely-con- f-ronithe roof-mounted platform and may have a roofreading fa-
troiled blanketing ofthe spilled liquid which will either douse the cility.
fire or reduce the flame size and consequently the radiation
It is usual to have a remote transmitter associated with the
rate. Suitable systems, designed and tailored for the specific
oauoinq unit (proprietary equipment on the market often has
circumstances, are supplied by fire protection companies who
6uiliin iransmission equipment within the gauging unit) to send
specialise in this type of work. Asystem would consist ofthe fol-
the various level signals to the terminal control room lt is usual
lowing elements:
to provide each tank with two separate level measuring sys-
. High expansion foam generators tems, indeed EN 1473 insists upon this (with the exception of
peak shaving tanks where the level changes are slow and pre-
. Stoo valves
dictable). The level gauging equipment is almost always fitted
. Foam concentrate storage tanks with a set of levelalarms. These would normally be low low level
(LLA), low level (LL), high level (HL) and high high level (HHL)
. Foam inductors
It is also normal to install another instrument which is specifi-
It is usual to test the system at least once per yeat
cally to detect the HHL only The setting up of this system
20.8.2.3 Dry powder systems
Fires in pressure relief valve tailpipes are not unknown Forthis
reason it is common practice to fit a dry powder extinguishing
system. This will inject into the relief valve tailpipes a mixtureof
carbon dioxide and fire extinguishing powder in the event of a
tailpipe fire. The system is fitted localto the reliefvalves on the
tank ioof and should be capable of local or remote operation lt
is usualto allowsufficient storage of powderand propellantgas
to allow for two attempts to extinguish the fire. These systems
are the product of specialist companies and are often supplied
skid mounted.
20.8.2.4 Local protection of vulnerable equipment
It is imoortant that certain equipment associated with low tem-
peratuie storage tanks continue to perform their intended func-
iions when the tank is exposed to heat radiation, perhaps aris-
ing from an adjacent tankfire. ltems which fall into this category
arL relief valves, deluge valves and certain parts of the struc-
tural steel supporting critical equipment.
These are roof-mounted and may require specific fire protec-
tion. This is usually passive fire protection and can take the
form of proprietary intumescent paints, cementious coatings or
purpose designed shielding.
The principal value of this fireproofing is realised during the
earlystages of a fire when efforts are mainly directed at setting
in motion the various fire suppression equipment and prevent-
ing exacerbation by way of the addition of further fuel to the
evlnt. lf the fire is intense and prolonged' then passive fire-
proofing may prove ineffectual in preventing damage Figure 20.20 A typicallow lemperalure iank level gauge serup
should be such that a safety shut-down of the pumping equip- 20.9.4 Level temperature density (LTD) measure-
ment(often the delivering ship's pumps) is triggered bythe vari- ment
ous high level alarms.
lfthe tank level measuring equipment is to be used to measure As has been mentioned elsewhere, the need to have knowl-
the exact capacity ofthe tank, or the amount of liquid product in- edge ofthe temperature and densitydistribution within the body
troduced to or abstracted from the tank for commercial or cus- ofthe product liquid is important to avoid situations which could
toms purposes, it is important that the equipment is as accurate resultin a rolloverevent, with the possible vapour release which
as Dossible and that the tank has been calibrated. Calibration is may be difficult or impossible to accommodate within the nor-
the precise measuring of the finished or as built primary liquid mal tank operating parameters. For this reason, and especially
containing element of the tank. When the measurements have on tanks containing mixed products like LPG and LNG, the LTD
been made, and appropriate corrections have been made for instrument has been developed. EN 1473 makes the supply of
thermal contraction and mechanicalexDansion. a set ofcalibra- these mandatory for LNG tanks.
tion tables are produced which relate the measured liqujd level
The instrument is in essence a very sophisticated servo driven
to the liquid capacity. This activity is the preserve of specialist
level gauge. Like the levelgauges it is roof-mounted and has a
companies who carryout this service. lt used to be the case that
sensor head which can track up and down inside the tank within
ihe various measurements were made by mechanical strap-
ping of the structure, but nowadays there are clever electronic a stilling well. lt can measure the product temperature and den-
sity at each location and convey this information to the control
surveying instruments which can gather the necessary infor-
room where suitable software will produce a level/tempera-
mation from a single site within the tank.
ture/density plotfor the tank contents. Armed with this informa-
tion and perhaps detailed knowledge of incoming shipments,
20.9.2 Pressure measurement the experienced tank operator should be able to spot potential
roll over situations and take the appropriate actions. These ac-
It is clearly important to know what the pressure ofthe product tions could be to top fill, bottom fillor stir up the tank contents by
vapour is within the tank. Too high a pressure would give rise to running the in-tiank pumps on recycle or by other means.
unnecessary and expensive venting, and in the extreme, en-
dangerthe tank structure, and too low a pressure would create The relationship between the many variables associated with
a vacuum and cause air to be introduced into the tank, which is roll over and the various remedial actions are ouite soDhisti-
a minor disaster from an operating point of view cated and not alloperators are conversantwith what represents
a dangerous situation and what actions should be taken. Gaz
It is usualto provide equipment to monitorthe following param- de France has developed some proprietary software into which
eters: the LTD parameterscan befed and which willprovide advice on
. Absolute tank pressure the appropriate acfions.
. Gauge tank pressure Both the measuring instruments and the operator's software
are expensrve.
. Tank pressure alarms (high and low) and local pressure in-
dication
20.9.5 Leak detection
As with level measurement, it is usualfor provisions for the con-
tinuous pressure data to be transmitted to the control room to
The provision of leak detection systems is usually confined to
be incorporated into the system together with the triggering of
double-walled tanks. The function ofthe leak detection system
suitable safety related activities (i.e. stopping the boil-off com-
isto identifyant leakagefrom the innertank. This could befrom
pressor when low pressures are detected).
the innertankshell, bottom or (foropen-topped innertanks)the
It is usualto mount pressure measuring equipment on tank roof result of overfilling or seismic sloshing.
penetrations.
The most commonly adopted system consists of a number of
For double-walled tanks where the inner tank has a fixed roof, it RTDS installed on the inside of the outer tank at the bottom of
is particularly important to measure and control the pressure in the intersoace and at various levels close to the bottom of the
the interspace around the inner tank to ensure that no exces- interspace. These record a temperature change in the event of
sive external loads are applied to the inner bnk shell or roof. a liquid leak which will be relayed to the control room and raise
the alarm. lt is normal to install a number of RTDS at each level,
20.9.3 Temperature measurement say four equally spaced around the tank.
Another system involves the installation of an optic fibre within
There are three areas where temperature measurement is im- the lower interspace to detect leakage.
portant. These are:
. During tankcooldownto controlthe operation and avoid ex- 20.9.6 lnternal cameras
cessive temperature gradients
. During normal operation These are thought to be an expensive luxury by manywithin the
industry They are normally only to be found in large LNG tanks.
. To monitor the base heating system The camera can either be located within the tank and subjectto
The normal temperature measuring elements are three wire the low temperature, or be external with suitable optics to be
platinum resistance temperature detectors (RTD). The number able to view within the tank. In addition to the camera, lighting
required for the various functions are either for the owner to and camera manipulation and focussing systems will be re-
specify, or to be based on the tank contractor's experience. It quired.
should be remembered that the temDerature elements cannot
Some tanks have been fitted with cameras. Films taken within
be replaced with the tank in service. Any redundancy required
LNG tanks show that the cameras have remarkable resolution
must be in the form of additional RTDS.
and can identify small marks on the innertank bottoms. LNG is
It is usual to arrange for a special fitting on the tank roof with a very clear liquid. Quite what the realfunction ofsuch a system
suitable glands to allowthe RTDS to penetrate the pressure en- is, and whether it justifies the price tag (some $'1.00 million) is
velope of the iank. an interesting question. Technically it is an impressive feat.
Contents:
21,1 General
21.2What makes ammonia storage special?
21.2.1 Flammabiliiy
21 .2.2 f oxicity
21 .2.3 Latent heat
21.2.4 Eleclrical conductivity
2'1.2.5 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
21.3 Refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia
21.3. 1 Conventional systems
21.3 2 An alternative storage system
2'1.3.3 Chemical Industries Association guidance
21.3.4 Recent developments
21.3.5 Insulation systems
21.4 Inspection and repair of liquid ammonia storage systems
21.5 Incidents involving liquid ammonia tanks
21.6 References
21.1 General It is estimated that there are currently around 1000 fully-refrig-
erated liquid ammonia tanks in ooeration worldwide of which
Ammonia is manufactured in large quantities and has numer- some 50 are located in Europe.
ous uses in the chemical industry Amongst these are:
Vapour
concentration
(ppm v/v) Generrl effect Expmure period
21.2,3 Latent heat Although the main thrust ofthis effort was aimed at the storaoe
of ammoniaasa liquid in spherical vessels at ambienttempeL-
Liquid ammonia is also unusual in having a high latent heat tures, the findings are of interest and relevant in part to refriger-
(327.10 kcal/kg as opposed to the next highest listed gas which ated ammonia storage systems. The main conclusions were:
is methane at 121.86 kcal/kg). This makes it relatively easy to a) SCC initiation is influenced by the water and oxygen con-
achieve low atmospheric boil ofifigures, usually expressed as a tent of the ammonia as shown by Figure 21.2.
70 of the full tank contents per day, for liquid storage systems.
The commonly used insulation systems for liquid ammonia
b) Sufficient water addition to avoid cracking in liquid ammo-
nia may not always prevent its occurrence in the vapour
tanks are discussed in Section 21.3.5. phase, in the event ofcondensation, due to adverse oarti-
tion of oxygen and water
21.2,4 Electrical conductivity c) Under conditions typical of those known to cause SCC
(3 ppm oxygen and 50 ppm water) crack growth rates
Liquid ammonia in its pureform hasa high dielectric constant. lt found in the studies were similar to those found in service,
does however have a high affinity for water In addjtion, for rea- i.e. 2-6 mm/year dependent on stress intensity.
sons associated with the propensity of carbon steels to suffer d) Crack grolvth rates decreased markedly with time.
from stress corrosion when in contact with ammonia as de-
scribed in Section 21.2.5, water is deliberately added to stored
e) Lowerstrength steels showed generally lower susceptibil-
ity to SCC for both parent materiat and weld metal.
liquid ammonia. This generally gives a water content of be-
iween 1000 and 2000 ppm and at this level the liquid will con- f) The initiation of SCC is more djfficult and its propagation
duct electricity. The significance of this is that until recenflV it slower at -33 'C than at 18 'C, and is less affected by the
wasnot possible to develop an in-tank pump for liquid ammonia oxygen content at the lower temperature.
serytce. Both References 21.1 and 21.2include the following text:
Conventional in-tank pumps as described in Chapter20foruse "ln order to minimise the risk of stress corrosion crackino
with the other low temperature gases rely on the product liquid the welding consumables should overmatch the tensili
being pumped to both lubricate and cool the pump motor by properties ofthe plates by the smallest practicable amount
flowjng directly through the motoritself. This is clearly not possi- and carbon molybdenum electrodes shall not be used in
ble in the case of liquid ammonia. The influence of the lack of any circumstances. Furthermore, the tensile strenoth ofthe
availability of suitable in-tank pumping systems on the contain- plates shall not be allowed to exceed the maximum-detailed
ment systems is discussed in Section 21.3. in the plate soecifications."
The original versions of these guides to good practice were
21.2.5 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) published before the studies mentioned above had been car-
ried out.
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) has been known for many It is clear from the volume of work published during the 1970s
years to be a problem for the storage of liquid ammonia in car- and 1980s that SCC, particularly in the ambient temperature
bon steel vessels at or close to ambient temoeratures. paoers pressure storage area was seriously under the microscope.
were published on this phenomenon as early as 1956 (Refer- Work published by Cracknell in 1982 (Reference 21.5\ and
ences 21.3and 21.4). Although the potentialfor SCC to occur in Towers in 1984 (Reference 21.6) lutlnet explored the problem
carbon and low alloy steels in ammonia service was recoo- and served again to confirm the importance of variables such
nised, it was not until the 1970s that inspection technology ha-d as oxygen content, water content, steel strenqth and stress re_
developed to the point where the problem could be identified lief. Both suggest that refrigerated storage is l;ss tikely to suffer
and the effects quantified. This led to the discovery of wide- from this phenomenon than ambient temperature pressure
spread SCC in liquid ammonia storage spheres. For this rea- storage, but in the light of more recent findings, were wise notto
son, many of the facilities which stored ammonia in the have been too adamant that SCC will not occur at all in refrioer-
fully-pressurised or semi-refrigerated form were decommis-
sioned and were replaced by fully-refrigerated storage sys-
tems.
To provide more data on the problem of SCC in liquid ammonia
storage systems using carbon steel containment vessels. a A I
corporale research programme was Set up at the Institute for
Energy Tchnology in Oslo, Norway. This was sponsored join y
t! 1000 7
by BASF, DSN/, Kemira O! Norsk Hydro AJs, tcl, E I Dupont de e
Nemours Company Inc. and the UK Health and Safetv Execu- 3
tive. The work was all carried out by Lunde and Nyborg and the
early work was published in the proceedings of various confer-
i
g
B c
ences and in papers listed as References 21.7 to 21.11.
! 100
a
The general terms of reference for this work were:
a) To investigate the effect of operating parameters (espe-
cially water and oxygen concentrations and temperature)
on stress corrosion cracking.
b) To determine sfe/unsafe operating conditions for ammo- 1 10 100 t0o0
nra slorage spheres.
orys.n in trquid ph.$ ippn w/w)
mechanical properties on susceptibilityto stress corrosion B Insp.ct rt le8l rwice mrnrt frequeng_
cracking for both parent material and weld mebl. C Donolopfut in lhisrrer.
rrr b bdng op.nring .ondi.iois iib zom A or B_
ated storage systems. Alan Cracknell ends his paper with the construction using backing straps. lMany of the cracks were
following sensible suggestion: found in the tank bottoms and were repaired by fitting local
"ltwillbe appreciated that if SCC does turn out to be a prob- cover strips, a procedure which the authorwould not endorse. lt
lem in refrigerated storage, it is likely to affect all companies would be interesting to find out how these tanks have fared fol-
using as-welded equipment. Proving thatit is absentortak- lowing their subsequent inspections.
ing precautions against it can prove expensive. lt is sug- The industrywas atfirst slowto hold its hand up to the existence
gested therefore thatthe companies involved should set out of this problem. Indeed, it is probably unfair to blame those in-
to share information on their findings in much the same way volved in the refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia of an os-
as companies involved in the bulk (ambient temperature trich-like disingenuous self-interest for their failure to immedi-
pressurised) storage of ammonia. Hopefullythe information ately acknowledge the difficulty. ldentifying stress corrosion on
derived will benefit not only the refrigerated storage indus- the internal surfaces of carbon steel liouid ammonia tanks was
try, but will also give clues to the solution of the general not easy until detection techniques became more sophisti-
problem of avoiding SCC in ammonia storage." cated, largely due to workdone in the UK by NationalVulcan.
The earlyworkdone by Lund and Nyborg suggested that stress Separating the evidence of SCC from original construction de-
corrosion cracking was also a possibility at the temperature of fects and from hydrogen cracking is not easy. Since the publica-
the low temperature storage systems, i.e. -33 'C. This was tion ofthe reports of the BASF ammonia tank problems and the
something altogether new for the industry which had up to this availability of the means of detecting and identifying this phe-
time believed that refrigerated storage of liquid ammonia was nomenon, most of the liquid ammonia storage tanks in the UK
not susceotible to this oroblem. and Europe have been inspected. Some have been found to
The inspection of the 12,000 tonnes liquid ammonia tank exhibitthis problem and some have been found free of any sign
owned by BASF at the Seal Sands site in the UKwas something ofthe complaint. The reasons forthese apparent differences in
of a turning point. This tank was designed and constructed by behaviour between storage tanks (all builtfrom carbon manga-
Whessoe to BS 4741 and the CIA guidelines and entered ser- nese steels) is not clearly understood.
vice in 1978. The signiflcant variables would seem to be the same as those
The tank was previously owned by Monsanto who at that time identified for ambient temperature pressurised storage, i.e.:
were devotees ofacoustic emission (AE) methods of non-intru- - Stress in the parts ofthe tank exposed to the product liquid
sive inspection. The owners decided to override the CIA guide-
lines for the first internal inspection at six years after entering oxygen content within the tank during its early life (ie dur-
service, by carrying out an AE examination in 1984 and a fur- ing commissioning)
ther examination in 1985. These test procedures had the ad-
vantage that the expensive de-commissioning, internal exami-
- Water content ofthe stored product
On ground
Figure 21.6 Interspace roofdetailof lcl North Tees ammonia tank No.2
pinned type. The insulation systems were quite unsophisti- 21.3.2 An alternative storage system
cated as described in Section 21.3 5
It is important to prevent
rainwaterfrom entering the interspace The storage arrangement shown in Figure 21.7was developed
between the inner insulated steel shell and the outer steel or between the plant owner and the tank contractor for a
Drestressed concrete wall. The undetected accumulation of 22,000 m3 ammoniatankat a site in the UK and seemsto getas
rainwaterand possible condensation within this interspace has close to full containmentas the lack ofsuitable in-tank pumps at
led to a number of tanks of this configuration having to be de- that time would allow. The outertank is designed to contiain the
commissioned and be the recipients of expensive and time full liquid contents ofthe innertankwhich are assumed to reach
consuming remedial work. Clearly an effective roof covering
the interspace is a necessity.
The design of an efficient roof with a sensible lifespan would
seem straightfoMard, but for the reasons listed is not easily
achieved and requires carefuldesign and careful construction:
- The roof sDans between the steel inner tank which is sub-
ject to thermal movemenb and the concrete outer tank
which is not subject to thermal movements (at least not to
the same extent).
The first valve (i.e. thefirstvalve that the exiting liquid meets) is
a manually-operated valve whose purpose is to allow the sec-
ond valve to be serviced. This second valve is open during nor-
mal service, but is pneumatically-closed in the event of liquid
leakage being detected by instrumentation located close to the
liquid outlet connection. The purpose of this arrangement is to
protect the plant and its surroundings from an incident involving
the liouid outlet externalto the outertank and before the first ex-
ternal shut-off valve in the outlet pipework. Without this ar-
rangement, this incident would cause the tank to dump its entire
contents through the liquid outlet connection.
A single containment tank is traditionally surrounded by the inner tank and wall. An isolation valve is required to be
secondary containment in the form of a low bund wall to fitted betvveen the remote closing valve and the tank and
contain any leakage. should be located as closetothetank as possible Asingle
outlet is permissible.
Afootnote elsewhere in the document shtes:
4. ln the event of power failure, the remote closing valve(s)
"storage tanks, for example tanks containing petroleum should close automatically. The consequences to down-
products, are frequently surrounded with low earthern or stream operations should be evaluated
concrete bunds which will contain the liquid in a large open
Dool should failure ofthe main tank occur. lfthis method was
5. The outlet pipe (or pipes) shall be anchored into the base
slab (or wall if this is preferred in a structure which is not
adopted with an ammonia tank, evaporation from the pool
oost-tensioned) and due allowance made for the move-
of ammonia would cause toxic concentrations considerable ments which will occur when the bnk cools down
distances downwind and is not considered desirable, nor
acceotable in the UK." 6. The tank should preferably be fitted with two liquid outlets.
Both shall be fitted with internal valves capable of remote
We also find: closure.
"lvlany tanks were originally built as single containment type Items 1 to 5 apply to double containment systems with concrete
but have been retrofitted to become double containment outer walls. ltems 1 to 6 apply to double containment systems
type". with steel outer tanks and to full containment systems with both
These are quite strong indicators that single containment is not steel and concrete outer tanks/walls.
currently preferred. The document makes it mandatory for steel shell plates with
. Double containment mountings (penetrating fittings) to be stress-relieved. A sensi-
ble SCC precaution.
This refers to an inner tank designed and constructed with
secondary containment in the form of a wall or outer tank The document has a section on commissioning and de-com-
Both the inner tank and the wall or outer tank shall be capa- missioning. Again SCC raises its head and the following advice
ble of containing the refrigerated liquid ammonia. To mini- is offered:
mise the pool of escaping liquid, the wall or outer tank "Recognition should be given to the possibility of stress corro-
should be located at a distance not exceeding 1.5 m from
sion cracking (SCC) occurring in ammonia storage tanks. Ap-
the inner tank. The innertank shall store the refrigerated liq- propriate design and construction techniques wlll minimise this
uid under normal operating conditions. The wall or outer risk but it should also be noted that research work has shown
tank shall be able to contain the refrigerated liquid ammonia the following:
leakage from the inner tank.
The outer tank is not designed to contain vapour released
. SCC does not occur without the presence of oxygen
due to ammonia leakage from the inner tank . The oresence of water may inhibit Scc
. Full containment Therefore the purging ofthe tank with inert gas priorto the addi-
This refers to a tankdesigned and constructed with second- tion of ammonia, and the maintenance of a water content in the
ary containment in the form of a wall or outer tank. Both the ammonia of 0.15% to 0.20% should be considered The inert
inner tank and the wall or outer tank shall be capable of con- gas purging ofa tank priorto the addltion of ammonia is recom-
taining the refrigerated liquid ammonia mended as a standard industry practice."
e than problems relating to the product cleanliness, have oper- . Careful visual inspection of:
o ated successfully.
e All other welds in floor and shell plates
For land-based storage systems, this development opens the
way to true full containment for liquid ammonia. All other internal brackets and attachments
These new pumos could also be a useful addition to the marine Although it is not expressly stated, it is presumed that this in-
transport of liquid ammonia where external motors and long spection will be confined to the internal surfaces ofthe primary
drive shafts have traditionally been used. liquid container. The outer surfaces ofthe primary container are
often inaccessible due to the presence of the thermal insula-
tion.
21.3.5 Insulation systems
Some guidance is given regarding the methodology of MPI to
Because of the high latent heat of this gas, the tank insulation be used, but this is in outline only and would not impress those
systems are usually quite straighforward. organisations skilled in the techniques necessarylor the detec-
tion of SCC. The sensible observation that "Those carrying out
For the tank base, two layers of cellular glass with a load bear- the tests should be experienced with the techniques and of the
ing ringwall dependent upon the seismic environment normally interpretation of the results obtained." is included.
suffices. For the tank walls, polyurethane foam, either foamed
n-situ behind metallic cladding or spray applied with a mastic External inspection is confined to looking for insulation cold
weatherproof coating are commonly used on the outside sur- spots and ammonia leakage around fittings and pipework. For
faces. There are a few double-walled tanks which use perlite in- this the tank should be three-quarters full oi liquid ammonia.
sulation. Four holding down bolts and their boxes or holding down straps
should also be inspected.
The tank roof could have a similar arrangementto the tankwalls
orfor reasons associated with weather protection, befitted with An interesting more recent development is the "Recommenda-
an internal suspended deck supporting a glass fibre or mineral tions for safe and reliable inspection of atmospheric, refriger-
wool insulation. ated ammonia storage tanks" published in October 2002 by the
European Fertiliser ManufacturersAssociation (EFMA) (Refer-
ence 21.18). This document brings attention to the fact that
21.4 Inspection and repair of liquid there are major differences between the national regulations
ammonia storage systems and/or Codes of Practice from different EuroDean countries re-
garding the frequency of inspection of liquid ammonia tanks.
Reference 27.2 also provides guidance regarding inspection This is illustrated in Figure21.11.
and maintenance of refrigerated liquid ammonia storage tanks.
Clearlythe possibilityof SCC is the reason why rules specific to These regulations and Codes of Practice also do not discfimi-
ammonia storage are required. The Reference suggests: nate between tanks of diflerent lypes of construction, different
operating practices and posing different risks to the surround-
"All tanks should be thoroughly inspected, both internally ing envifonment. This new guidance is based on Risk Based In-
and externally, not more than 6 years from the date of inltial spection (RBl). and seeks to evaluate the pfobability and con-
commissioning. Thereafter, the interval between major in- sequences of failure of each lndividuaL tank. This process is in
spections should be determined by the tank owner, depend- turn intended to optimise the lnspection frequency to obtain
ing on past experience. For example, if SCC was found at knowledge about the tank and its cond tion and the negative ef-
the first inspection, then it may be necessary to carry out fects of opening the tank for intefnal lnspection which could in-
subsequent inspection at an interval of less than 12 years, crease the potential for the occufrence of SCC
and if it (the extent of SCC) was sufficient to warrant sub-
stantial repair or rebuilding, then it is recommended that the An inspection procedure is suggesied (Figure 2'1 .'12). A proce-
next major inspection should be carried out within a further dure is given for determining the maximum tolerable defect size
6 years."'
For such an important issue in terms of public safety, these
guidelines are remarkably non-specific and non-mandatory Maximum inspcctioD iotcrvrl for 2tnrosph(flc.
The Reference goes on to say:
"For guidance, inspection intervals in the region of 12 years
are considered an appropriate balance between the need to 20 years, but a notijled body can de(jde shoner
SteD I Step 2 Step 3 tank of carbon steel to retiain and protect the perlite thermal in-
I00% sulation. The tank was supported on an elevated base slab and
100% was surrounded by a concrete wall supported at local grade
B;ftom plates 50% r00%
level and described as reinforced (as opposed to prestressed).
SheLl Dlat6, T-wlds ir co@e I &d 2 t00%
Shll plales, honzontal atrd verhcsr t0% ICD% The inner tank was 30.3 m in diameter and 21 3 m high.
welds itrcowse I ed2
Shell Dlats. T-welds in @us 3 !o top to% 50% ILD'/O Itwould seem thatan operating erroralloweda small quantityof
Shell plat6, horizontal md vertic.l to% tatJ% warm ammonia liquid to enter the tank and this caused a large
welds in couie 3 to tot quantity of vapour which over-pressurised the tank. Failure of
Marhols, pip cotne.tio&s, purnp sink 1rfro/o
dd other sDeaial details the shell-to-bottom joint and of the holding down anchors then
clamp marks or t@pomry fabrieiion l0/o 100% occurred and the failure sequence is illustrated in Figure 21.14
poeeadon welds
which is taken from the SUPRA report.
89qq!@!e 100%
Ar.a! s biect to prvious repaiB 100./"
In much the same way as the Qatar LPG tank failure' the tank
was moved sideways by the reaction to the exiting liquid and
Figure 21 12 Inlernal nsoeclion Iecommendatol
smashed its waythrough the concrete bund wall, tlnally landing
Frcm EFMA docunent, Aq?endix I some 25 m from the originalfoundation. The tank bottom was
left on the elevated foundation slab.
The liquid ammonia vaporised and caught fire, in turn setting
fire to an adjacent 15,OOO tonnes store of NPKwhich continued
to burn/decompose for 3 days. The official number offatalities
E6 was 7, a surprisingly low figure for the magnitude of the event
and the number of employees. Jonava was evacuated for a
short period of time.
10yrs
It is a pity that there is so little published information relating to
this incident. The lessons which can be learnt would seem to
be:
0
12 24 3.0 4.8 60 72
The necessity for careful process control, especially dur-
Fallure Probabllity number ing unusual operating conditions such as start up or
Figure 21.13 Inspection frequency diagram re-commissioning activities, to avoid the unforeseen im-
port of warm liquid.
From EFMA dacunent
based on BS 7910 (Reference 21.19). An RBI evaluation - The design of a pressure relief valve system adequate to
method is provided which results in arithmetic scores forfailure cater for all uPSet conditions.
probability and failure consequence. These scores are entered incident, the tank failure
- ln an extreme overpressure provisions
in the inspection frequency diagram (Figure 21.13)and indicate modes must be reviewed and to ensure
made
an inspection frequencyforthe particulartank in question rang- that failure cannot occur in elements which will cause the
ing from greater than 20 years to a minimum of 3 years This tank to release the contained liquid, i e failure in the roof
seems a sensible and disciplined approach in an area where sheeting or the shell{o-roof compression area ratherthan
there is a confusing amount of non-specific advice. the shell, the shell-to-bottom junction or the holding down
arrangements.
21.5 Incidents involving liquid ammonia The reinforced concrete secondary liquid containing wall
must bedesignedto containthe productliquid in anycredi-
tanks ble inner tank leakageifailure scenario.
The history of liquid ammonia storage has been comparatively
- The location ofthe storage tank relative to othervulnerable
free of incident. A number of minor incidents involving vapour
eouiDment or materials on the site
releases to the atmosphere, non-performance ofvacuum relief
valves and foundation problems usually associated with pooror
inadequate base heating systems have happened over the 21 .6 References
years.
The one serious incident involved a liquid ammonia storage
21 .1 Code of Practice for the Storage on Anhydrous Ammo-
nia Under Pressure in fhe UK The Chemical Industries
tankin Lithuaniain 1989. Little information is available concern- Association Ltd - January 1980, (nowno longer avail-
ing this incident due to the site's military links, but despite this able).
the site was visited some two months afterthe event by a group
from the Swedish National Rescue Group (SUPRA) and a re- 21.2 Code of Practice for the Large Scale Storcge of Fully
port was written by a member of that group (Reference 21'20) Refrigerated Anhydrous Ammonia in the UK, The
This is interesting reading and the dearth (thankfully) of serious Chemical lndustries Association Ltd - 1997.
incidents in this area makes it importantthatthose that do occur 21.3 Behavior of welded pressure vessels in agriculturalam-
are recorded and published aswidelyas possible so that all the monia service, T.J. Dawson, The welding Journal Vol
lessons are learnt and any modifications to industrial practices 35, pp 568-574, 1956.
and regulations are made and implemented as soon as practi-
2'1.4 Sfress corrosion cracking of steeis ln agricultural am-
caole.
monia, A.W. Loginow and E.H. Phelps, Corrosion 18
The accident took place at the "Azotas" fertilizer plant'12 km (8), 1962.
from Jonava in Lithuania. Jonava has a population of around 21.5 Stress Corrosion cracking of Steels in Ammonia,
40.000 and the plant around 5OOo employees. The ammonia A.Cracknell,lcl The lnstitute of Refrigeration, Paper
tank was of 10,000 tonnes capacity and at the time of the inci- presented 6 MaY, '1982.
dent held some 70OO tonnes of ammonia The tankwasofJap-
anese design and was constructed by Soviet personnel in 21.6 SCC in welded ammonia vesse/s, O.L Towers, Metal
1978. The innertank was of lowtemperature steel and the outer Construction, August 1984
f-
r
F
21.7 Stress corrosion Uacking of some metallic maErtab in 21 .14 New Cases of Stress Co/'rosrbn Cra cking in Large Am'
ammonia at ambient and low temperatures, L. Lund and monia gorage Tanks, M. Appl, K. Fabler, D. Fromm, H.
R. Nyborg, UK Corrosion 1985, Hanogate UK. Gebhard and H.Portl, (BASF AG).
21.8 The Etrec't of Orygen and Water on Stress corrosion 21.15 Measures for Reducing Sfress Conosion Cracking in
Cracking of Mild steel in Liquid and Vapotous Ammonia Anhydrous Ammonla Storage lanks, Rolf Nyborg and
P/ant L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, Operations Progress Liv Lunde, lnstituftfor Energiteknikk Norway, presented
Vol 6, No 1, Januayl987. to the A.l.Chem. E. Ammonia Safety Symposium, Van-
couver, Canada, October 1994.
21.9 Sfress Corroslon Cracking in Different Steels in Liquid
and vaporous Ammonia, L. Lundeand R. Nyborg, cor- 21.16 Sfress Corro sion Cracking in Low Temperature Ammo-
rosion '87, Paper no 17, San Francisco, USA. n,a Slorage lanks, Rolf Nyborg and Liv Lunde - Institutt
21.10 Sf/'ess Corrosion Crack Growth Rate of Carbon Manga- forEnergiteknikk Norway, presented to the A.l.Chem. E.
nese Sfee/s, L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, Corrosion Pre- Ammonia Safety Symposium, Vancouver, Canada, Oc-
vention in the Process Industries Conference, 1988 - tober'1994.
Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 21.17 Advanced design for submerged liquid ammonia
21.11 Effect of Welding Electrode Composition and Storcge pumps, D- Cullen and H. Kimme!, Ebara International
Temperature on Slrcss Corroslon Cracking of Carbon Corporation, Nevada, USA, International Journal of Hy'
steels in Liquid ammofla, L. Lunde and R. Nyborg, drocarbon Engineering, April 1998.
NACE Corrosion Conference 1991, Cincinnatti, USA.
21 .'18 Recommendationsfor safe and reliable inspection of at'
21.12 Sfress corroslo n in a 12,000 tonne fully-refigerated am- mosphefic, reftigerated storcge tanks, P repared by the
monia storage tank, J.R. Byrne and F.E. Moir (National European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association,
Vulcan Engineering Group Ltd) and R.D.Williams (EFMA), October 2002.
(BASF Chemicals Ltd), 1988 Ammonia Symposium - 21.19 BS 7910 : 1999, Auide on method for assessing the ac-
Safety in Ammonia plants and related facilities, AICE,
Denver Colorado, August 1988. ceptability of flaws in metallic structures, British Stan-
dards lnstitution, London.
21 -13 gructural lntegrity of a 1 2,000 tonne Refrigerated Am-
monia gorage Tank in the presence of Slress Conosion 21.20 March 20 1989 accident in Lithuanian feftilizet plant'
Cracks, R.A. Selva (NationalVulcan Engineering Group B.O. Andersson, Swedish National Rescue Board (SU-
Ltd) and A.H. Heuser (BASF AG). PRA). A.l. Chem. E. Technical Manual, Vol 31, 1991.
22.1 General heat treatment, the applied stress and the number, size and
shape of any defects in the finished assembly.
This Chapter is devoted to the rules covering the selection of
There are a number of test methods which are used to deter-
materials suitable for use in low temoerature tanks of metallic
construction. lt limits its interest to the selection of plate materi-
mine the material toughness at a particular temperature.
Amongst these are:
als for the main parts ofthe tank structure, i.e. the bottom, shell
and roof plating. The various Codes give guidance for the se- . Wide plate tests
lection of materials such as structural sections, pipe, forgings,
bolting, etc. Those interested in this sort of detail should make . Pellini-type drop weight tests
reference to the appropriate parts of these Codes.
. crack opening displacement (coD) tests
To venture deeply into the philosophywhich underpins the ba-
Allofthese tests are difficult, expensive and time consuming to
sis of the metallic material selection for these tanks is beyond
perform, but arguably get somewhere close to determining the
the scope of Slorage Tanks & EquipmenL and certainly beyond
intrinsic toughness of the steel.
the abilities and knowledge of the author. The detailed discus-
sions surrounding such subjects as avoidance of brittle frac- A test which is suitably quick and cheap, and with which the
ture, fracture arrest, critical defect sizes and the like must be steel producers are familiar and comfortable with is Charpy
found elsewhere. V-notch impact testing. Unfortunately the industry is less confi-
dent ofthe ability ofthis test to revealthe true nature ofthe prop-
What will be discussed are the relatively simple rules for mate-
erty of interest for the materials in question. So, the unsatisfac-
rial selection which have been developed from a great deal of
tory situation exists of tests which provide an answer which can
detailed study and test work, carried out over a considerable
be believed with some confidence, but which are too expensive
number of years, resulting in the requirements of the various
and slow to be of use as a production quality control tool, and a
design Codes.
test which is quick and cheap, but which produces answers
The material selection falls into tlvo separate areas: which are contentious.
. Materials for primary and secondary liquid-containing parts. Fortunately much work has been done to accommodate this
apparent dilemma. lmproved production methods have
- These are the inner tanks of single containment tanks resulted in generally tougher steels and the design codes have
and the outer metallic tanks of double and full contain- in some cases become more conservative in the material
ment tanks. These parts are subjected to both the mini- selection area. As a consequence, for ferritic materials the
mum product liquid temperature and the full hydrostatic Charpy V-notch impact test is used as the toughness criterion
head. despite its limitations.
. Materials for the outer metallic tanks of single containment Aluminium alloys and austenitic stainless steels are not sus-
tanks. ceptible to temperature dependent tough/brittle transitions in
the same wayas ferritic steels and consequentlytheir base ma-
- These are subjected to the minimum ambient tempera-
terials are excluded from impact testing requirements.
tures and comparatively modest stress levels arising
from internal vapour pressures and self-weight, wind
and seismic loadings. For these components the mate- 22.2The requirements of API 620
rialselection rules followthe ambient temperature prac-
tices. The requirements of API 620 regarding material selection re-
quirements are based in the main on the use of ASTM stan-
The material selected for the various parts ofthe structure must dards. Some Canadian Standards Association (CSA) and In-
possess the necessary strength, the ability to be fabricated into ternational Standards Association (lSO) steels are also
the required forms, weldability and the necessary toughness at included in the listings. The useofsteels manufactured to other
the design temperature to avoid the possibilityof brittle fracture. national and international standards requires careful study of
Ensuring that the materials possess the necessary propertaes the steel specification and the code rules to ensure that all of
to demonstrate their suitability for the first two of these consid- the necessary requirements have been fulfilled. It is frequently
erations is relatively straightfoMard. The usual tensile testing necessary to have to resort to additional testing of such steels
required by the material specifications to determine yield to be able to demonstrate equivalence. The code contains a
strength, ultimate tensile strength and elongation to failure are large number of rules, specific exceptions and footnotes relat-
normally sufficient. These properties are usually measured at ing to material selection. For those involved in the task of mate-
room temperature. rial selection, there is little choice but to become immersed in
As most materials are stronger at the lower service tempera- the fine print of the Code and consequently there is no need to
quote "chapter and verse" in Storage Tanks & Equipment. A
tures, this gives rise to a factor of safety additional to that im-
posed by the Codes in the determination of the allowable ten- brief overview is thus offered with some ofthe significant points
sile stresses. For certain materials this can be substantial. ln highllghted.
the case of 9% nickelsteels used at LNG temperatures, recent With the exception of plates which have their thickness se-
data suggests that this "hidden" factor can be as high as 50% lected based on minimum thickness requirements, plates are
for both the plate material and the weld metal. lt should be re- permitted to be a maximum of0.01" thinnerthan the calculated
membered that for LNG service, it is the latter property which thicknesses required, based on edge thickness measure-
controls the selected plate thickness. lt is the last of the re- ments.
quired properties that tends to cause the most concern. Ferritic
steels at warm temperatures, are malleable and can be plastic-
ally deformed without risk of fracture provided the materials 22.2.1 API620 Appendix R
elongation has not been exhausted. When the service temper-
ature is reduced, the material may become brittle and failure 22.2.1.1 Materials for parts subjected to ambienttempera-
can occurat low stresses with little or no plastic deformation. tures
The temperature at which the transition from ductile to brittle The Code describes these parts as basic orsecondary compo-
behaviour occurs is dependent upon the steel chemistry the nents.
no
er-
ae.
Pcrmi$ribh Spacifi crtio0s
Derign Mctd Plnc Thickn6s
lbmpcnum IrEludirS Co.rosion Spocid Roquilrrncnts
(icc 4.2,1) Allounmc (iD.) Spcci[c.rion Grr& (in ddirion to ,1.2.3)
tgurs 22.1 Minimum requkemenb for pl6te sFcifcaflons to be usd for design metal temperature
Bo.n API 620, Awendlx R, table +1
SEudonl ntnbcrs Plra or pipc !s list d .borc na. or pipc .! li$.d lbovc
ASTM A 36 Mod | lluctunl dupca (i.c 2.6) Suucnlrrl lhati ar liir.d io 2.6 or a.r li$cd ud.r E
- 6fF to - m'F llmpcr.|un hrding
ASTM A l3lOr?&CS
CSA C4021-M C6d.s 26OW..100W. rnd lsOW (s.. Mt!)
Figure 22.3 lvlinimum pemissible design metal temperature for plates used as secondary components without impacl testing
From API 620, Appendix R, tabla R-4
Basic components are those that contain the vapodsed lique- 6000 lb/in'z. Secondary components which could be designed
fied gas from the stored refrigerated liquid, but primarily oper- within this reduced stress are roof plates, including roof
ate at atmospheric temperature because of insulation system manways and nozzleswith their reinforcement, roof supporting
design and naturalambient heating. Examples ofsuch compo- structural members and shell stifieners.
nents are the outerwalland roofs ofdouble walltanks and roof
These components are furtherdivided into thosewhich contain
componenb above the internally insulated suspended deck.
the vaporised gas and those which do not. The materials forthe
former may (a curious choice of word, a BS or CEN standard
Secondary components are those whose failure would not re- would have used "shall" here) conform to one ofthe following:
sult in leakage of the liquid being stored. Secondary compo-
nents also include those components that are not in contact . Table4-1 (Figure 22.1 )fordesign metal temperatures down
with the refrigerated liquid but are subject to the refrigerated to -35'F (i.e. a lowestone day mean ambient temperature of
temperature vapours and have a combined tensile and primary -35'F) without impact testing unless these are required by
bending stress under design conditions that does not exceed Table 4-1 or by the purchaser.
Notcs:
.SrcR.2.l.2.
bFor design mc(al tcmpcratures of- 40oF ,nd lowcr {tc p(ate impact values shall bc nis.d 5 fl-lh
cThc tiequcocics of tcsting for ncrharical and chemical prcpcnies shall be at l.ast e4ual ro $osc of ASTM A 20.
dscc 4.23 for a complctc dascripiion of rhis matctial.
Thc sEel shall bc fully killd aM madc with fine-grain Factice.
r-rgure 22.4 IVinimum Charpy V-noich impact requlremenls for primary components plate specimens (transverse) and weld spec mens incJuding ihe heal affected
. Table R-3 (Figure 22.2) for design metal temperature down supporting structufal members and shell stiffeners where the
to -60"F without impact tests unless they are requifed by Ta- combined tensile and primary bending stress under design
ble R-4 (Figure 22.3) or by the purchaser cond tions exceeds 6000 lb/in2.
. lfapproved bythe purchaser, the material may be seiecled For components falling into this category, Charpy V-notch im-
by the requirements of paragraph 4.2.2 of API 620. This pact testing at or below the minimum design metal temperature
provides three oossibilities for the reduction in the stfin- shall be carried out to achieve the energy values given in table
gency of the material selection criteria where the actual R-2 (Figute 22.4). f he impact specimens shall be taken trans-
stress under design conditions in the component in ques- verse to the difection of final plate rolling. This is different to the
tion does not exceed one third of the allowable tensile requirements of BS 7777 which requires the impact test speci-
stress. mens to be taken parallel to the direction of final plate rolling
For the parts of an outer tank which do noi contain the vapor- (i.e. longitudinal). Some steel specifications quote impact en-
sed gas (i.e. in the case of a design using a fixed roof inner ergy levels for both longitudinal and transverse specimens, in
tank), the material may conform to any of the materials listed in which case the steel seleciion is quite straightforward. Other
Table 4-1 . Consideration ofthe design metal temperature is not specifications only quote longitudjnal Charpy V-notch require-
required if the actual stress in the component of the outer tank ments, in which case additional testing must be undertaken to
n question does not exceed one halfofthe allowabletensile de- ensure that the required properties are provided.
sign stress for the material.
It is not wise to estimate the transverse plate properties based
22.2.1 -2 Materials tor parts subjected to low temperatures on the longitudinal properties determined at the same tempera-
These parts are described as primary components which are in tures. The relationship between the two properties is depend-
turn defined as components whose failure would result in leak- ent upon the directionality of the plate which is in turn a funciion
age of the liquid being stored, components which are exposed of the amount of cross rolling in the production process. As a
to the refrigerated temperature and those subject to thermal guide, the transverse energy levels can be between 50% and
snocK. 90% of the equivalent longitudinal values.
These primary components shall include, but not be limited to, Note: Table R-2 also gives energy values for the weld metal
the following parts ofa single walltank or the innerwallof a dou- and the heat-affected zone (HAZ)for use in the welding
ble walltank: shell plates, bottom plates, knuckle plates, com- Orocedure Oualifications.
pression rings, shell manways and nozzles including reinforce-
ment, shell anchors, piping, tubing, forgings and bolting. Roof 22.2.2 API620 Appendix Q
nozzles in contactwith the refrigerated liquid shall also be con-
sidered as pfimary components.
22.2.2.1 Malerials lor parts subjected to ambient tempera-
Also included are those parts of a single wall or an inner tank IUres
which is not in contactwith the refrigerated liquid butare subject
to the refrigerated temperature. Such components include roof The Code describes these as secondarv comDonents defined
plates, roofmanways and nozzles with their reinforcement, roof as follows:
This part ofthe code allows the use ofthe following materials for The commonly used AST[,4 materials are listed in table Q-1
pnmary components: (Figure 22.5).
A 24O, Typc 304 A 213, Gr.de TP 3O4 A 182, Gradc F 304 A 320, CradcsBE, B8C, B8M
A 240, Tnc 3ML A 2 I 3, Gradc TP 304 L A | 82, Cradc F 304L and B8T
A 312, Crrdc TP 304 (scc notc 3)
A 313, GrNde TP 304L (s.c norc 3)
B 209, Alloy 30034 (scc notc 5 B 210, Alloy 3003-0 B 247, Alloy 3m3-HI12 82l I, Alloy 606l -T6
B 209, Alloy 5052{ (s.t notc 5) B 2 10,Alloy 3003-H I 12 E 24?, Alloy 5083-Hlt2Mod
B 209, Alloy 50E3{ (!.c nolc 5) B 2lq Alloy 5052{
B 209, Alloy 508tu (scc notc 5) B 210, Alloy 508tu
B 209, Alloy 51544 (!cc notc 5) B 2l0,Alloy 5154{
Notas:
l. Whc{r Fcssurc para d! rndc ofASTM A 353 orA 553 rnat dd or nickcl rlloy, pipe nangc! or pipc may bc rustcnitic stainlcss sl.cl of
r rr?c that cannot bc hardcdcd by hat EEaEncnL Pipc nanSca or pipc may bc wcldcd to nozzlc nccks of dE prcssurc part mat tial if thc
butr wcld b locltrd rno(c than I dist$cc cqual !o thc 4 mcrsurcd from thc facc ofthc rcinforccmcnl whcrr r= insidc ridius of $c nozzlc
ncclq in iL
rnd r s thick|ess of thc mzzlc ncck in in. Thc d.sigr of thc nozzlc ncck rhall bc bas.d on thc allo*blc stcss veluc of
wcrkcr mrlc.ial.
2. Scrmlcss piping rnd rubing only.
3. Wcldcd piF sha bc wcld.d ftom rhc ootsidc only by thc tungstcn-arc inscn gas-shieldcd CfC) prcccss nithout $c addition of 6llcr
mctrl and Ehall bc hydroslaticdly testcd.
4. Impacl lcst of wcld! shall bc madc for thc w.lding proccdurc whcn rcquncd by Q.6,3.
5. ASTM B 221 structural scctions dE also Dcrmittcd.
for
V.lu. R.qoicd Mhimln V.l@ Wi$oot vrlcRcqli!dd MiniooD hlc Wirh&l
Aeco(li.C Rcquiriq R.r.!P A...ptd R.qrili.t Ra6tr
(rr.lb) (ftlb) (ftnb) (finb)
l0 x 10.00 a l6 25 2A
l0 x ?J0 t5 t2 t9
l0 x667 t3 t0 t7 ll
l0 x5.0 l0 8 t0
r0x333 7 5 a 1
.NG,
abil- t0x2-!) 5 6 5
N'ld:
rA$dg. of dr!. rFdeaB
rally lonly G .pcdm of. .c!
: gure 22.6 Charpy V-notch impact value
+om API 620, table Q-2
the
mpact testing is not required for primary components made
iom austenitic stainless steel, nickel alloys oraluminium Mlntnrm Thtclness Mste d2)
1of ddlgn metd .
aUoys.
rg
For l}pe [V steels 35 J at - 196 oCa) NqlE l A mininun oi 15 pllre specinero are taken ar mid rhickne$ ioh rhe 3de side
l..li For lYpe V 35 J at - 196 oC3) Longitudinal dis of sDcinens ii !o be prpendicutd to weld uis.
NOlIj 2. A ninjhum of 15.pecimens.F taken ar mjd rhickne$, wiih rhe noLh tdated in
For $pe VI Not rquircd lhe tlAz, and e etched io denon6i6ie that rhe norch is hoi in veld melat o. parnt
r:'rsumables, and to then demonstrate that the 27J had been . Steelmaker
::rieved in the HAz by means of production weld testinq on . Steelmaking process
: ::. carries with it the possibility offailure to attain the req;ire-
-ent. This would have a devastating effect on the cost and . Deoxidation process
:'rgress of the project in question as by this time the steel . Desulphurisationprocess
, : JId have been purchased, delivered, fabricated, erected and
:;'iially welded. To avoid the possibility of encounters with this . Casting practice
:-barrassing and expensive scenario, it was decided to devjse . Heat treatment
: -ethod of pre-qualification for the steels commonlV used for
:-:se products. . Changes in specified chemical composition including mi_
cro-alloy additions.
This materialselection method has given rise to a long-running
-- s pre-qualification procedure was based around the deter-
and occasionally acrimonious argument. The UK a;d
- -atron of the AT shift for the material jn question. This
is the pean-based steel producers were opposed to the proposal and
Euro_
-:asurement by testing of the actual decrease in the touoh_ refused to carry out the test work necessary to pre-qualify their
-
.:s ofthe parent plate and the HAZ of the steel. Annex Aof -BS steels. When BS 7777 was presented as a possible draft for in_
---7 : Patt 2 gives the details of the methods of determinino corporation into the new European lowtemperature tank Code,
Figure 22.13 Temperature shift (AT)at the 27 J toughness tevel terial property data should be based on a minimum of two casts
Fram BS 7777 : Parl2, figure A.4
of steel of at least 250 tonnes each.
The PD goes on to make a number of points relating to the steel
this issue was atthe heart ofan ill-tempered series of meetings making process and the chemical composition of the steel. In
which delayed the production of the new standard for years, a
brief these are:
reaction which seemed to be disproportionate to the impor-
tance of the issue. The end result is that the new EN will not . All steels should be produced by a basic oxygen process
have this selection method for the materials to use for butane, and vacuum degassed.
ammonaa, propane and propylene tanks. The pre-qualification
route always seemed sensibleto the author, and it is hoped that
. Steels should be made to fine grain practice.
nottoo many tank builders fall into the holes described above. . It is likely, but not mandatory that these steels will be pro-
Type lV steel is now something of a historical irrelevance these duced by either a thermo-mechanical controlled process
days. lmprovements in production methods and chemistry (TN/CP), or by quenching and tempeing (Q&T).
have meant that nearly all9% nickelsteels produced are nowof . The tank manufacturer should obtain from the steelmaker
the improved quality. lt is not uncommon for the tank specifica-
the composition limits of the elements specified in EN
tion writers to require restrictions on sulphur and phosphorous
10028-4 (Reference 22.7)together with those elements, as
tevets.
agreed between the purchaser, the manufacturer and the
steelmaker, which are likely to afiect the final properties of
22.4 The requirements of BS 7777 : Part 4 the steel.
As has been mentioned earlier. this Dart ofthe Code is for tanks . The chemical composition as measured by the ladle analy-
for the storage of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and argon. lt was wri! sis should be reported.
ten at the request of the UK paft of the industry which had for
many years specialised in the production, storage and distribu-
. Requirements for product analysis and for carbon equiva-
lent should be agreed between the purchaser, the manufac-
tion of these products. This group argued that their intrinsically
turer and the steelmaker.
safer products did not require double or full containment sys-
tems which form much of the thrust of the remainder of BS Next, detailed Charpy V-notch testing requirements for the
7777. plate and drop-weight testing to determine the nil ductility test
They were of the opinion that single containment was appropri- temperatures (NDTT) of the plate and the HAZ, are given in
ate to their industry and persuaded the committee to let them considerable detail.
write BS 7777: Part 4 which gives the rutes which they consid- Two points are worth making at this stage:
ered that they needed.
. The various parties required to come to the above agree-
22.4.1 Parts subjected to ambient temperatures ments will need to have knowledge in depth of the
steelmaking process and the influence of the variables on
the steel orooerties.
The materials for these parts are carbon steels selected in ac-
cordance with the appropriate parts of BS 7777: Pan 2 Gee . This process makes the steel very much a non-standard
Section 22.3.1). product. Bearing in mind the arguments surrounding the AT
proposals which took place in the CEN committee, much of
22,4,2 Parts subjected to low temperatures which was lead by European steel makers who were reluc-
tant to manufacture non-standard or special steels, it willbe
TypeV orVlsteel in accordance with BS 7777: Part 2 (see Sec- interesting to see if this proposal gains in popularity. Per-
tion 22.3.2) or aluminium alloy in accordance with Annex C of haps the "carrot" ofthe steel weight-saving associated with
BS 7777: Pan2 shall be used. the partial hydrostatic test may prevailand force the issue.
_IUt'
kopylene -,t8 0.61 3.5% Ni Q &T -05 tiol
2.6% Ni TMCP M -110 -70 I71
Bibliography
qflah atrest @ aeptsfor
tll SJ. Carwood and C S, wiFl er., lan tetupetuhttein tute reqiru,nenls drtd'
it;roge tar*s, Proc Conf. "Bulk Storage lbnlis', Paper 4, IBC Guif Confelenceq Abu Dhabi, 1996'
[2] C.S. wie6net and B. Hayesi A rari4u oJ L'rt/* araest t2sta, nadds unl' applica'i'7t5' Ptoc Conf 'Crack
iirest Concepts for Failure hevention and Life b<tension", Papr 3, Abington PubXshing, 1996'
[3) C.S. Wiesner, SJ, Ga$rood and J.B, Denham; Thz s"ecili/ntiorl oi crock arrest Pvperti$ Jor stornse tanks
'b;ci$dnd d.nd tqownadati.otls. ASTM SI? 1337, Symposia on Design Cdteda to assue Stuc'h|ral Integdry,
New Odea$, May 1997.
[4] c.P Smedley; Pr"dtcrira and. specifiaatiotu oJ crad anest
poperti.4s oJ stcd plalr. Intemational Jounal for
Prssure vessels and Piping, 40 (f989), pp 279 - 302
[5] C.S. Uinet B. Hqyes and .!LA Mlowhb$ Ctudk d|'tzst in nadern steels ond, theb udhnetts
-Cowarison, -
behtwn snat! and large scdle tzst fta
,s. Int4rtBtional Joumal for Prs$rc Vssel md Ptping,
53 (1993), 100.
qnest bdtsviour 6i/ng s1t81Ls@14 ,nilefial chdlv.Eti&liort
[6] C.S. Wiesnef Predtcaing sttltotrEal, cftek
isrs. Intrnational Journal for hessule vessel ard Piping' 69 (1996) pp185 - 196.
lfl Y. fawauchi and A-A- Willoughby; Ctu.& orsst tpst and t].eir uae i,n etxhaliw nraterialytpefli8,'fhe
W;lding Institute Sympooiuft\ Newcasde upon Tne' Apiil f986.
[8] B6syo, Ozaw4 lbwaguchi and Nalonishi n@cerrt dadrpnett of 6beLplat"s for lan lqtuperfr1re sbt!4e
;aalis. 'Ihe Sumitomo Se;ah No. 2q November l9B4 Sumitomo Metal llrdusbies Ltd, 'Iblvo
I9l K Bessyq lMcPsred plorpJo lau tzrhperal'un stotuge ta*s, ?m Intnrational hEss|ne Vessd
Conference, Druseldo4 September l9g2
l10l hirate corununication' British Steel Corporatioq June 1984
Illl
'un'
Doucet, hessouyre, Bourges, Blondeau and C?diou Raenl yrogress in 9% Ni stzelfor LNG 6ppli.olions:
WCS gron" E;oya n;mish Society of Engineers Ltrnational Confelence, Brugge, MAy 1984.
$4P "bel.
alrd WJ M!trplry, Erpldsion bulge and d'tq ueight bsnkt4 oJ QT I Ni stql A&IE
oA
llzj Benter,
Peholeun MedEnical EngineeF Confercnce, September 1967.
22.6.1 Materials for parts subject to ambient tem- 2) The steel shall be in the normalized condition or produced
peratures by the Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (Tl\y'CP).
3) The carbon content shall be less than 0.20 %. The carbon
The steelfor the vapour containing outer tank shall be selected equivalent Ceq shall be equal to or less than 0.43 with
in accordance with Table 3 Figure 22.15. alternative types of
C"o = C + lVn/6 + (Cr + N.4o + \4i5 + (Ni + Cu) 115
steel are permitted providing equivalent properties can be dem-
onstrated. c) Type lll steel:
AType lll steel is a fine grained low nickel alloy steel which shall
22.6.2 Materials for parts subject to low tempera. be specified for pressure purposes at temperatures down to mi-
tures nus 80 'C. The steel shall meet the following requiremenb:
'c . For material thickness less than 11 mm, the largest practical
S 235 JRG2orS;75 JR orS 3551R sub-size specimen shall be used. The minimum Charpy
S 235 J0 or S 275 J0 or S 355 J0 V-notch impact test values shall be in direct proportions to
S 235 J0 or S 275 J0 or S 355 J0 the value sDecified for full size soecimen.
S 235J2G3 orS 275 J2G3 ors 355 J2G3
s ?35 J2G3 0r S 275 J2G3 0r S 355 J?G3
. lmpact testing shall be carried out for each inner tank shell
s 235 J2G3 or S 275 r2G3 or S 355 J2G4 plate and annular plate. For other components impact tests
Fo'desiQn meral lempeEtures below 20 "C 6nd/or for rhicknesses shall be carried out per heavcast of the material.
above 40 n6. lhe charovv notch value shll be 27.1 rono rud,nar
NOT For desiqn neiar Gmpra|lr6 be]ow 0'c, rhe rouqhness or l}E Ne d . The degradation effect due to welding shall be taken into
account.
lmoroved 9 % n,ckelsleel
NOIE For nidrer base weLd nerars ior Type rv sGsrs th rmp8cr roughns 6n6Qy tu w6ld m5r6l
and heal fiecred 20n6 shan be 55J
Figure 22.16 Product and steelclass Figure 22.17 lrinimum Charpy V-notch impact lesl enercy
Fron prEN 4620-2 : 2003, table
1 I Fran prEN 14620-2:2043, bble 2
!
-f!
lE*
VTI
IBe
g!r
cFg ^
"Ill 5
rrr .E
ag
.E
I !;
e btl r
ff .e!. i
EE;P
;!;d
; i:" o
. For certain materials, higher Charpy V-notch impact test sheet of Dapef. lt also reflected a time when the material cost
values of lower test temperatures may be needed for the savings in a structure were seen as being a major factor in the
base materials to meet the requirements in the HAz final price. The increase in the cost of the labour element of
such work in relation to the material costs in the intervening
The latter two requirements perhaps represent an olive branch years, has made this rather fussy procedure seem less rele-
to the losers of the pre-qualification arrangemenb. vant.
cli-
s3
tiv-
w-
'cal
oe-'
l.|b-
@I
@:
23.1 General The basic methods oftank erection, particularly relating to the
steelcomponents, are based on the methods used for ambient
tanks and these are described in ChaDter 12.
Large low temperature tanks are often the critical components
of a terminal or storage facility in terms of time. This fact tends
to place a great deal of emphasis on the tank construction pe- 23.2 Air raising of tank roofs
riod. Time is often equally, or on occasions, more important
This is a commonly adopted practice for large tanks of the full
than cost to the facility owner. Early completion equals early
containment type, although there is no reason why the tech-
revenue, and forfacilities such as LNG terminals, the revenues
nioue should not be used in other circumsbnces.
are enormous and so speak loudly in this equation.
Where a pre-stressed concrete outertank is adopted, there are
As a consequence, the tank contractors and their subcontrae two options for the construction ofthe steeltank roofframework
tors are always under pressure in their efforts to obtain con- and roof sheeting which will be required for both steel or rein-
tracts by promising tighttimescales and furtherdriven in this di- forced concrete roof types:
reclion, once successful, by the financial penalties associated It can be built at the fulltank height afterthe outertank shell
with not performing to these anticipated schedules. Over the is completed.
years, these pressures, together with those aimed at'Tinished
costs", have given rise to some interesting and ingenious con- It can be constructed within the outer tank whilst the con-
struction methods. lt would be thought that novel and advanta- crete shell is being built and air lifted into its final position
geous construction methodswould remain the closely guarded when both are complete.
secrets oftheir originators, but forvarious reasons the geneEl
The former route requires the outerconcrete tank shelland the
methods tend to leak out into the Dublic domain and become
roof framework construction operations to be in series, whilst
common knowledge quite quickly, whilstthe details and equip-
the latter puts these operations substantially in parallel. The
ment used tend to remain the property of individual companies. time required to design, procure the materials, carryout the fab-
rication and erect the steel roof is often comparable with the
Some of these methods and sequences are described in the time to construct the concrete wall, which is convenientfrom a
following Sections. programming point of view.
the The roof framework is erected within the concrete outer tank
ient during the construction period forthe latter method, starting as
soon as materials become available and the concrete workswill
allow lt is usual to provide a central king post and a peripheral
ring ofsupports to construct the roofframework. For certain de-
signs of dome roof structures further intermediate supports
rfull may be required.
)ch- The roofsheeting can be constructed to be a loose membrane
only supported by this framework, or may be welded to the
iramework to provide a generally more robust structure. lt is
usual to construct the suspended deck and arrange for it to be
/ork
lifted with the roof. The sealaround the Derimeter ofthe roof can
ein-
be a specially designed segmental rubber type or a simple ar-
rangement of polythene film and wire mesh. Other aspects lo
hell be considered are:
. Suitable details must be provided to ensure that during the Figure 23.4 Large dome roof under construction, showing king post in position
and slart of roof plating
lifting operation the roof remains level, circularand concen- Cautesy af Whessoe
lron tric within the outer shell.
. When the roof arrives at the top of the shell, suitable ar-
Ine rangements are made to secure it from its upper surface.
,lilst . Trial lifts are helpful to trim and balance the roof before the
fhe final lift.
the
. The roof and the concrete shell must be surveyed prior to
lifting to determine that no unacceptable out ofshape prob-
lems exist.
Tempory extension to
Cantibwr sction of roof
1) - Sta.i pemanenttoundalion prling The tank owner was lCl at North Tees Works, situated in the
- Erect temporary ioundaton
north east ofthe United Kingdom, who at that time had its own
engineering and construction staff. The tank design, fabrication
and erection contractor was Whessoe Heavy Engineering who
Figure 23.10 Simultaneous conslruction of the carbon shell ouler tank and the
elevated perma nent fou ndation
::-re 23.9 The fasl track elhylene tank erection sequence
.t
F.
-F3"rb.!+*FF=?.=_
Fg!re23.1lTre nf atec sk rt used to fl lh-..!1-.. isrrk Fgure 23 13 The neary compleied strLrcture
TWTWV,Z - Z-
2)-comprere peJma^0dbasesrab
.::
I
!
5) Lfl ,enovabreroorottoder taik aid This sequence put various operations in parallel and produced
a very shorl constructlon period. The erectlon sequence is illus-
tfated n Figure 23.14.
What made it possible was the relatively small size and weights
ofthe two tanks lnvolved. The inner tank was 12.0 m in diameter
and 12.35 m high whilst the outer tank was 16.0 m in diameter
and 16.9 m in height. The useable capacity was 1326 m3 which
is not unusual for a liquid oxygen tank. With careful attention to
the detailed design, it was possible to arrange for both tanks to
be lifted with a reasonable sized crane.
Figures 23. 15 and 23.16 show the removal of the outer tank
roof and the installation ofthe innertank within the outertank.
: ;-re strip into the slot formed by rotating the upper part of the shell
23.14 The fast track lquid oxygen tank ereclion sequence
on the lower part.
Step 2 -
SlKlniionu'rv ti,e bottom course of tank coivenLrona ly erect the top course of tank complete
w
"r""t w h toD strfiener directly on top of bottom course.
lnstatl iackrnq equrpmeni and drect suooort steework for
plate cbrl and'wdldlng machines (rnside and outside oftank)
\,.-
N----l
\De ivered plates
prepared at mil
N\i-t\
Step 3 - Step 5 -
MJJe p ate coil forward and acd Contrnue assernbIng plates Complete
Stari plate coild outside of the tank. next plate We d veriical jo nt rnsrde.
Tack and roofweld vertical ioints. welding vertical joints.
Delivered p ates
Step 6 -
Spiia top course round 1 plate length, move coil n and make vertical
conrnJe sorralino lanl shelland wed Lpp'l'o'iTorta
r:ms end no sltreneB nsrdeLan^ hsb;ctweloeo sedn5
-re equipment used io allow the shell parts to slide on each erection method. The outer pre-stressed concrete tank was
-:her and be pushed circumferentially is of a proprietary nature built whilst the outer steel portions of the roof were being con-
ird the patents are owned by the Swedish company structed within it and air lifted to its final position when it was
iodoverken. lf spiraljacking is the chosen erection method, it is completed. The inner tank was built by spiraljacking with the
-sualto hire the necessary equipment and the site supervision "tail" of shell plates, joined by having their vertical seams
'lr its operation from this company. welded, protruding out of the concrete shell via a suitable ac-
- re advantage of this erection method cess opening. This tank in its finished form is shown in Figure
is that all of the plating,
23.18.
,,e ding, inspection and repair activities take place in fixed ar-
?s which can be arranged to have more sophisticated equip-
-ent that might normally be the case. lt is particularly suited to 23.7 The construction of tanks with rein-
-echanised plate handling, welding and inspection methods A forced concrete roofs
: g LNG tank of 75 m in diameter and 32.5 m shell height will
-?ve some 242 identically sized (apart of course from the plate Full containment tanks often have reinforced concrete roofs for
:-lckness) rectangular plates to erect. This volume of repetitive reasons associaled with providrng protection From external
., ork is suited to the setting up of a factory-like environment and missiles, fire or blasi loadings. Such tanks will also require a
':r continuous shift operation to reduce costs and programme steel roof sheeting to provide a product vapour and mols-
: Tles. No scaffolding and subsequent cleaning down of the ture-tight lining fof the tank roof.
:lmpleted tank shell will be involved To erect such a roof sheeting clearly requires a supporting roof
-re disadvantages are thai the equipment is expensive to hire framework, as does the placing of the concrete feinforcing sys-
: rd if anything goes wrong, perhaps with the plate material tem and the uncured concrete. lt is this latter loading which
: Jpply chain orwith the equipment used, the method leaves lit- causes the problems. A 500 mm thick layer of concrete at 25
: : flexibility for
alternative methods to be considered, whereas kN/m 'willgive a roof loading some 10 times the 1 .2 kN/m' used
:cnventional erection would provide a numberofways of possi- to design a "normal" roof framework. To design for supporting
: y circumventing the problems. the full 500mm ofwet concrete will give rise to a massive frame-
-1e design of tanks for erection by spiral jacking is interesting. work and the costs associated with such a structure. This
seems a very wasteful concept, made the more so by the
'',/ith the exception of the upper courses of minimum thickness thoughtthat the roofstructure is only required to fulfll its full load
js required by the design Codes, all of the other shell plates,
bearing function for a brief period during the placement and ini-
'.nere the thicknesses are derived from hydrostatically-in-
tial curing of the concrete. Indeed, if it were practicable to re-
:Jced loadings, can in theory be of different thicknesses. The
move ihe roof framework once it had done its job, this would be
:'oblems of manufacturing all of these shell plates at margin-
done providing rneans were made to support the roof sheeting
. ly different thicknesses and of maintaining their identification
from the now load-beafing reinforced concrete stlucture.
:r avoid getting them mixed up during ihe subsequent fabrica-
: on, transport and erection processes are well known. To min!- Even if the con cfete ls placed n two or rnore layers ltlsstillex-
-;se these potential problems, it is usual to arrange ior the penslve to provide a foof framewofkwhich w i dlrectly support
: ate thickness to change only for each full or half revolution of such a loadlng. So. as concrete toofs becarne more common,
:re tank circumference. This small sacriflce n overall shel the ndustry cast about fof means of avoid ng these costs. Most
,,eight is usually considered as money well spent. of the tank contfactors came to the sarne conclusion which was
-'re disposition of the shell stiffening is also lnteresting. lt LS
to use internal air pressure to balance the weight of the uncured
concrete and to maintain this pressure unti such a time that the
-sual to arrange these members as a series of fings set paralle concfete roof could be considered self-supporting.
:l the ground. This however does not suit the erection and
', elding mechanisms for which an arrangement with the stiffen- Points which require consideration when designing such an
:'s running parallel to the spiral is more convenient. A tech- erect,on syster wrll include the tollowing:
- a ue which has been used is to allow the stiffeners to follow the . lt is normal to provide an erection opening in the shell of
:eifal for the majority of their circumference and to have a spe- concrete outer tanks and this opening will be required after
: al section which crosses the main tank spiral seam ioining the the roof concrete-placing operation. Conseq uentially a suit-
:,vo ends of the ring of stiffening. The detailed design of such an able air tight door is needed to provide a temporary seal for
:rrangement to cater for wind, vacuum and insulation loadings this opening. lt is usual to incorporate connections for the
s quiet demanding.
incoming air and control and measuring equipment as a
-he full containment 105,000 m3 tank built at the Cartagena ter- part of this door. A typical arrangement is illustrated in Fig-
-.lnal in Spain had its inner 9% nickel steel tank built using this
= gure 23.18 The 105,000m3 Cartagena terminal LNG tank Figure 23.19 Atempofary closure lor the concrete outer tank wall
:.unesy of Enagas Couftesy of Whessae an.l DEPA
ure 23.19. Such a closure may also be useful during the in- . Slip forming is fast
ner steel roof air lifting operation if this is the chosen . Slip forming systems must run continuously once started to
erection method.
avoid expensive cold joint work Th's means shift working.
lf a concrete roof can be designed which is self-supporting . Afullset of slip formworkfor a big tank is expensive. This will
with only a part of the cured concrete present (typically one militate against the simultaneous construction of more than
halfor one third ofthe totalfinished thickness), then this can one tank at a time on a particular site.
provide advantages. For large diameter tank roofs, the air
pressure required to balance the whole weight of the con- . Cleaning ofjump formwork is labour intensive. Cheap la-
crete placed in a single thickness pour may give rise to in- bour favours this aspect.
creases in the plating thickness above the Code minimum . Slip forming requires the whole supply and installation sys-
values of 5 mm ot 3/16". tem to work close to perfectly. Jump forming is more accom-
lvlultiple layer concrete placement may lead to costly clean- modating of delays and interruptions.
ing ofthe upper parts ofthe reinforcement which may have . Different areas of the world have their own traditions and
been effected by earlier concreting operations. skills. An area where slip forming is common will have com-
The air oressure must be maintained until such a time that panies, workpeople and supply infrastructures who are
the newly placed concrete can be considered self-support- used to this technique. Introducing it into other areas may
ing. This usually takes a few days depending upon the de- present problems.
tails and the concrete mix chosen. Arrangements must be Which ever construction method is adopted, there are a lot of
made to ensure that the air supply is secure for this period. different activities going on in a confined area and good organi-
Duplication of blowers and power supply to drivers willavoid sation and supervision are essential to good performance.
any unpleasant surprises. The thought of watching the roof Some indication of the congestion may be gleaned from Fi9-
slowly succumb to the full weight of the wet concrete and ures 23.20 and 23.21 . Figure 23.22 shows a jump form at the
disappear from view, to take its piace on the tank bottom Dabhol site in India.
with the carefully constructed roof frame crumpled beneath
several hundred tonnes of heavily reinforced concrete, cur-
ing rapidly in the hot sun, is one which should concentrate
the mind on this matterl
The slope of the roof at the periphery may be such that the
newlyplaced concrete tends to slide off the roof. lfthis is the
case then shuttering may be required to contain the un-
cured concrete for some distance radially inwards to the
point where there is no longer a tendency to slide. A
mock-up of this oortion ofthe roof can be useful in assess-
ing the need for shuttering.
to
9.
an
/s-
nd
23.9 Wall and base liners ing backwards. This is a shame as there seems considerable
E merit in pursuing these methods. As has been discovered by
As has been discussed in earlier Chapters, the provision of a
9- the shipbuilders and the offshore rig-builders, productivity and
ner, impervious to a degree specified in the tank specification
I'e quality can both be improved by operating as far as is possible
:c the product vapour and to watervapouris a common compo-
in a factory environment. The examples described in Sections
"ent, particularly for the inner surfaces of the outer 23.4 and 23.5 show a tentative step in this direction, although
3re-stressed concrete tanks of full containment systems
both of these examples are now somewhat dated. Further
\on-metiallic systems involving the spray application of propri- steps in this direction involve:
alary coatings, such as are marketed and installed by Recinco
.f Belgium, have been successfully used, either in isolation or
. Prefabrication of steel shell plates intodoublewidth panels
:ombined with an insulation layer.
This can save some 50% of the onsite circumferential
welded seam length.
-he more commonly adopted system is to use a metallic car-
tron steel barrier for both the wall and the base of the bnk.
. Prefabrication of roof frame sections away from the tank
and lifting these into place
he base liner is usually lap-welded from 3 or 5 mm thick steel
,
:lates. For reasons to do with the finished flatness of such a
. Prefabrication of concrete tank parts for wire-wound type
tanks
ner, it has sometimes been found convenient to weld this liner
:J cast-in inserts in the tank base slab. . Modularising the roof platforms, especially the in-tank
-te pump platforms. These could be factory-builtand lifted onto
wall liner is also usually made from 3 or 5 mm thick steel
the tank roof as a single module.
:lates and the most common means of installation is to weld
--'rese plates to inserts cast into the concrete wall. Vertical in- . Modularising the tower stairway. Figure 23.23 shows a stair
-.erts at between 1.5 and 2.0 m centres (usually dictated by the towerwhich was factory-built in three sections and fitted out
tf .vailable width of carbon steel strip mill plate) seem to be the with the stairway, the lighting and electrics priorto being de-
tl :Jrrent favourite. livered and erected in a single day. The intention was to in-
inother method which has been utilised is to make use of the clude all of the pipework (including the thermal insulation)
JJi -ner steel liner as the inner shutter for the construction of the running to the tank roof in these modules, but circum-
:oncrete wall. This involves the earlier construction ofthe liner, stances prevented this.
: ther as a complete tank shell or course by course in advance . For membrane type tanks there is considerable prefabrica-
:! the construction of the concrete wall. The liner/shutter must tion in the production of the stainless steel panels and the
:e strong enough to resist the external loadings from the con- insulation panels, both of which are factory made.
:'ete as it is placed. This will require an increase in the thick-
-ess of the plating or temporary/permanent stiffening being Clearly there is a lot of work to be done in this area.
:dded.
23.11 Automated welding methods
23.10 Modular construction and prefabri- The low temperature tank builders have followed the practices
of the ambient tank builders in this respect. There seems con-
cation techniques
it -f're tank construction industry has, to the mind of the author,
siderable room for automated welding methods, perhaps ac-
companied by automated inspection methods, to be borrowed
from other industries and used in the tank building area. For
8 agged behind the shipbuilding and offshore industries in the
-se of modular construction techniques. The building of low conventional tanks, the focus of automated welding has been
::mperature tanks is no exception. The building of ships fre- the tank shell, and in the past particularly the circumferential
:Jently involves subsiantial component parts being made in seams. In more recent times, the vertical seams have also
r'fferent locations, commonly in different countries, being been welded by automated methods. As has been mentioned
:'ought together and assembled in a single location. Similarly earller, automated welding techniques are particularly suited to
:^e offshore industry has equipped itself and become familiar the spiral jacking erection methods.
.,,.th the lifting and moving over considerable distances, of
One area where this apparent Luddite approach to automation
^:odules in excess of 5000 tonnes in weight.
is not the case is in the construction of membrane tanks. Auto-
?nk builders are new boys on this particular block, indeed in matic welding of the seams between the membrane sheets is
:.rms of modular construction techniques, may even be mov- an essential part ofthe construction of these tanks. The smaller
p'
23 Ercction considerations for low temperaturc tanks
Excavalion
'.._.-.-\
t'-
when land is expensive, perhaps because it has been re- and the placement of the concrete from the bottom up-
claimed from the sea as at Inchon in South Korea, or is just wards, so as to displace the bentonite mud, is a remarkable
expensive or in short supply. achievement in its own right. 35,300 m3 of concrete and
2,300 tonnes of rebar were used.
. The partial or full burial is a useful plus in planning discus-
sions, and may allow in-ground tanks to be built in locations This retaining wall allowed the inner excavation to take
where the visual impact of above ground tanks would pro- place. Around 284,000 m3 of material were removed.
hibit their use.
When the excavation was completed, a gravel layer was
The disadvaniages lie in the increased construction costs, placed in the bottom of the hole and a heavily reinforced
f,/hich may be offset bythe better use of land or planning issues
base slab 9.0 m thick was cast involving 42,200 m3 of con-
Tentioned above, and in the increased construction time. Fora crete and 7,600 tonnesofrebar. Thethickness and strength
oig LNG tank the approximate construction time would be 54 of this base slab is a function of the high groundWater uplift
Tonths which comDares with around 36 months for an above oressures.
lround iank.
The construction of thesetanks, currentlyata maximum capac- The concrete side wallwas 2.5 m thick and required 33,200
ty of 200,000 m3, is quite remarkable. There are a number of m3 of concrete and 5,100 tonnes of rebar
Dapers and articles which describe the construction process The steel roof was assembled on the bottom ofthe tank and
rublished in the LNG Journal (References 23.1, 23.2and 23.3) ised to its permanent position by air lifring orjacking.
rr presented at the LNG conferences.
Both the walland the base werefitted with a heating system
The 200,000 m3 LNG tank, described in Reference 23.3 andil-
to protect from frost heave.
ustrated in Figure 23.25, at the Chita Midorihama Terminal is
rypical. The construction sequence is shown in simplified form The fitting of the thermal insulation and the membrane fol-
n Figure 23.26. The following lists some ofthe construction as- lowed the conventional membrane type bnk methods.
rects of this project:
. The liquid containing membrane is 74.0 m in diameter and
23.13 References
46.6 m deep.
. The site has been reclaimed from the sea and was of such 23.1 Development and construction of large LNG in-ground
poor load bearing capability that a major soil improvement storage tanks, Junji Umemura and Sasao Goto, Tokyo
programme had to be undertaken before construction vehi- Gas, LNG Journal November/December 1996.
cles could access the site. 23.2 Construction of an underground storage tank, Kenji
. The nature of the subsoil was such that a slurry wall 100 m
Yanagiya and Tomoyuki Ogawa, Kajima Corporation,
LNG Journal November/December 1999.
deepand'1.4 m thick hadto be constructed to reach downto
the impermeable rock layer The excavation ofthis retiaining 23.3 Construction of a new LNG receiving terminalin central
wall, the balancing ofthe soil pressures with heavy benton- Japan, Naoshi Furukawa, Toho Gas, LNG Journal
ite muds, the insertion ofthe 100 m deep reinforcing cages March/Apil .1997.
Contents:
24.1 General
24.2 Code requirements and guidance
24.2.1 API620
24.2.2 BS 7777
24.2.3 DIEN 14620
24.3 Some examples and problem areas
24.4 References
All of this is sensible advice, but for various reasons, non-spe- Frcn BS 7777 : Pat13:1993,table 3
ntractual . lmprovement by vibration or dynamic compaction expensive to construct in the first olace.
proJect.
. Pre-loading with a temporary overburden For a site which has been piled, the elevated slab may be con-
structed on extended piles which will make the cost difference
. Enhanced sub soil draining with pre-loading
between on-ground/elevated solutions perhaps less than
. Stabilisation by chemical or grout injection where a ground-based slab, columns and an upper slab are
1S Of Ver- reoutred.
. Piling
Where seismic isolation is required, an elevated slab is a matter
esents a idvice is also offered on the avoidance of frost heave and local
of necessity. lsolator inspection, maintenance, removal and re-
)ot man- :?lnage. placement may have an impact on the design.
:our different types of foundation are suggested and a brief
Worries about product vapour accumulation beneath the ele-
35 8004 :ommentary is provided on each type. These are:
vated slab, particularly for LPG, may have an influence on the
. The ring beam type choice. A butane iank at the CoMon refinerywas designed and
number . constructed with an elevated base slab. Worries about safety
The surface rafr type
caused this to be subsequently back-fllled with sand and fitted
. The pile supported base type with a base heating system to give the arrangement shown in
. The elevated base slab type
Floute 24.2.
24.3 Some examples and problem areas Most elevated slabs are supported by a number of columns of
-he choice between a ground-based slab and an elevated square or circular section. The number and layout ofthese col
umns may be dictated bythe shength ofthe elevated slab orthe
'cundation and the reasoning behind this choice is interesting.
pile layout. An alternative scheme, which has been used be-
lleady a ground-based slab will require some form of base neath the liquid ammonia tank built at Ravenna in ltaly, uses a
-eating which is itself expensive and has ongoing costs in series of radialwallsto separate the ground bearing and the el-
:erms of power and maintenance. The elevated slab does not evated slabs. Some of these walls run almost to the centre of
-ave any ongoing costs in the same sense, but may be more the slab and some stop short. lt had been questioned as to
whetherthis arrangementwould allowa suitablyfree circulation Figure 24.5 Concreling oflhe reinforced base slab at Reviihoussa lsland
of air beneath the slab, but experience has shown this not to Couiesy of Whessoe
have been a problem. revealed a widecrack in the limestone, running acrossthe base
For the LNG tanks on Revithoussa lsland in Greece, the ele-
ofone ofthe tanks. Aprotracted discussion took place to decide
vated slab located within a pitwith an interspace covershown in
if this was a harmless defect, a seismic fault or an ancient de-
Figure 24.3 presented problems of limited air circulation to pro-
bris-filled sea cave. lt was eventually sentenced to be the latter
vide heat to both the tank bottom and the tank walls. This was
for a mixture of reasons, a decision which allowed the project to
eventually overcome by the installation of a quite sophisticated proceed. The technical solution adopted was to construct a
(and expensive) system of forced ventilation.
massive 2.5 m thick, heavily reinforced slab. This shown under
The LNG tanks at Point Fortin in Tdnidadwere constructed on a
construction in Figure 24.5.
site with very poor load-bearing ability. The eventual solution
chosen was to use a ground-based slab supported by some
'1200 steel pipe piles, each of 600mm diameter and around 30
24.4 References
m long, beneath each tank base. This is shown in Figure 24 4.
Returning to the LNQ tanks in Greece, the excavation ofthe pit 24.1 BS 8004:1986 Code of practice for foundations
Contents:
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Regulations governing LPG storage tacilities
25.2.1 NFPA 58
25.2.1.1 Pressurised LP-Gas storage
25.2.1.2 Rettigetaled LP-Gas storage
25.2.2 NFPA 59
25.2.2.'1 Pressurised LP-cas storage
25.2.2.2 Reftige.aled LP-cas storage
25.2.3 fhe Institute of Petroleum rules
25.2.3.1 Genetal
25.2.3.2 LPG pressure storage (Volume 1, Chapter 2)
25.2.3.3 Refrigerated LPG storage (Volume 2, Chapter 3)
25.2.3.4 Storage tank spacing
25.2.3.5 Vapour travel requirements
25.2.3.6 Bunding requirements
25.2.4 APt 2510
25.2.4.1 Pressurised LPG storage
25.2.4.2 Re'friget ated storage
25.3 Regulations governing LNG storage facilities
25.3. 1 DOT.CFR rules
25.3.2 NFPA 59 A rules
cide 25.3.2.1 Origin and development of NFPA 59A
25.3.2.2 lmpoundment
?tte- 25.3.2.3 The design spill
qIc 25.3.2.4 Thermal radiation
rde-
25.3.2.5 Vapourdilution considerations
25.3.2.6 Minimum spacing requirements
25.3.3 EN 1473:1997 rules
25.3.3.1 Scope
25.3.3.2 Scenarios to be considered
25.3.3.3 Design spill
25.3.3.4 Thermal radiation
25.3.3.5 Vapourdilution
25.3.3.6 Minimum spacing requirements
25.4 References
25.1 lntroduction This seems to leave LP-Gas marine import terminals not asso-
ciated with refineries, petrochemicals and gas plants - not a
This Chapter is devoted to the codes and regulatory guidelines very wide area of application.
which govern the layout on site of vertical cylindrical fu lly refrig-
The Code also excludesa numberofother applications includ-
erated tanks for the storage of the various products described
in Chapter 17. For completeness and for purposes of compari- ing frozen ground containers and underground storage in cav-
son some of the regulations relating to pressurised storage of erns.
these products are also included in this chapter. Note LP-Gas is defined as "any material having a vapour
pressure not exceeding that allowed for commercial
The various codes and standards are soecificallv addressed to propane that is composed predominantly of the follow-
the storage of LPG and LNG. ing hydrocarbons, either bythemselves or as a mixture;
The discussion ofthese regulations has been confined to those propane, propylene, butane (normal butane or isobu-
most widely used. The National Fire Protection Association tane) and butylene". This is similar to but not exactly
(NFPA) standards are legal requirements in the USA and are the same as LPG as defined in Chaoter 17. Section
commonly employed elsewhere in the wodd. The US Depart- 17.1.
ment of Transport Code of Federal Regulations 25.2.1.1 Pressurised LP-Gas storage
(USA.DOICFR) is mostly confined to use in the USA and
makes many references to the NFPA regulations over which it The Code provides a bewildering number of spacing rules and
interestingly takes precedence. The American Petroleu m Insti- exceptions to these rules. Much of this is devoted to small ca-
tute (APl) publish guidelines for LPG installations which fall out- pacity storage units (cylinders) and is of little interest to storage
side the NFPA area of regulation. The Euronorm Regulations tank designers. Figure 25.1 giving the separation distances be-
(EN) are more recent documents which reflect European prac- tween containers, important buildings and other properties is
tices taking into account the various categories of containment interesting particularly because of the apparent advantages of
discussed in Chapter 17. The Instltute of Petroleum (lP) repre- mounded or underground containers over above ground con-
sents UK Dractices for LPG and it is oresumed that the lP rules tainers in terms of spacing requiremenb.
will eventually be replaced by EN rules. 25-2-1.2 Relrigercted LP-Gas storage
There are a multitude of other regulatory guidelines, some lmpoundment
country specific or even more locally based where certain local
The main rules governing impoundment for refrigerated
circumstances may necessitate their own requirements. No at-
LP-Gas tanks are given briefly below:
tempt has been made to address these other documenb.
- lmpoundment shall have a volumetric holding capacity
equal to total volume of liquid in the container assuming
25.2 Regulations governing LPG storage that the container is full.
facilities - If an outside container wall is used as a spill containment
the materialto be used shall be suitable for exposure to the
25.2.1 NFPA 58 Reference 25.1 temperature of the refrigerated LP-Gas liquid.
-
The areas ofapplicabilityofthis documentare not entirely clear. - lmpoundment structures, and any penetrations thereof,
shall be designed to withstand the full hydrostatic head of
It appears that it is; "The design, construction, installation and
impounded LP-Gas and the effect of rapid cooling to the
operation of marine terminals whose primary purpose is the re-
temperatures of the liquids to be confined.
ceipt of LP-Gas for delivery to transporters, distributors or us-
ers". This is then conditioned by two exceptions: Provisions shall be made to clear the impounding area of
pe! rain or other water.
Exception I - Marine terminals associated with refineries,
rochemicals and gas plants. Minimum spacing requirements
Exception 2 - lvlarine terminals whose purpose is the delivery For refrigerated tanks designed to operate at below 15 psig, the
of LP-Gas to marine vessels. minimum spacing from occupied buildings, storage containers
s.t
<129d <o.5d lo 0 0" 0 0
125-250 0.5-1.0 l0 $ l0 3 0 0
25t-600 1.0r-1.9 l0 n l0 3 3 I
50r-2000 l.9r-?,6 l0 25 7.6 3 I
200r-a0,000 7.6+l 14 50 50 l5 5
30,001-?0,000 11{r-265 50 23
?0,001-90,000 265F:Xl 50 t00 30
90,001-120,000 Wlt-454 50 125 38 diamctc$ of
I m,001-200,000 SL-157 50 ?00 6t aqjaccnt con-
Figure 25.1 Sepafation disiances betlveen conlainers, imporlani buildings and olher propedies
Fron NFPA 58, table 3.2.2.2
i asso-
\thicr Cryacity Abovcgrourd
-nota Pcl coIrtaber Codain ll Walcr C.pa.ity
cd (-)
s.r (m)
nctuo- Up lo 70,000 (265)
<70,000 965 15
't cav- 70,00r to9o,0,00 (265.0 3{r} 100
>?0,000 >265 100
'l) 90,m1 to l1O,O00 (!41 to4t{) 7
Volume I cluded.
. Chapter 1 - General information applicable to LPG The rules governing equipment layout are numerous and in-
cruoe:
. Chapter 2 - Pressure storage at reflneries, bulk distribution
plants and also industrial consumer premises, where such LPG storage vessels shall be located to ensure that the
storage is large minimum distances to fixed sources of ignition are:
22.5m for storage vessels not exceeding 337m3
. Chapter3-RefrigeratedLPG 30.0m for storage vessels exceeding 337m3.
. Relevant appendices The radiation flux levels given in Table 1 of Appendix'1 (Fig-
Volume 2 ure 25.5) shall be complied with. Calculation methods for
determining the radiation flux levels are given in Appendix
. Chapter 1 - Pressure storage at industrial, commercial and 2.
domestic premises
The rate ofspillage and its duration used to calculate the ra-
. Chapter 2 - Plant for filling, handling and storage of cylin-
diation flux levels shall be based on identified potentialleak
oers
sources in the system. The identification and quantitative
. Chapter 3 - Transport by road and rail assessment of such leak sources requires a systematic SJ
evaluation of the design and operating procedures taking
. Relevant aDoendices
into accountfailure modes and the likelihood oftheir occur-
25.2.3.1 General rence. Examoles of potential leak sources and indications
This document contains a great deal of sensible and practical of leakage rates from them under specific conditions using
advice and guidance, only a little of which will be described in simplified typical equations are given in Appendix 3.
this Section. Three baslc points relating to safety of LPG stor- Provisions shall be made to minimise the prcbability of a
age systems in general are worth repeating; flammable cloud resulting from a spill as defined above
. LPG at ambient temperature and normal atmospheric pres- from reaching the site boundary Typical provisions may in-
sure is normally heavier than air. Commercial butane clude such measures as spacing, limitation of spill pool
vapour and commercial propane vapour are approximately area, screening and vapour dispersion equipment. Appen-
2.0 and 1.5times as heavyas air respectively. LPG vapours dix 3 gives examples of leak sources and Appendix 4 pro-
will therefore sink to the lowest levels of the surroundings vides means of calculating hazard distances for these
and flow along the ground or through drains or similar pas- releases.
sages. Under still air conditions the natural dissipation of The permitted radiation level on thermally protected adja-
accumulated vaPour may be slow cent LPG storage vessels is based on the protection ofthe 2a
. LPG has a low viscosity. Hence it is more likelyto find a leak- adjacent vessel bythe application of cooling water at a rate
age path than water or most other petroleum products. of 7 litres/(minute,m3).
. Although LPG in its liquid and vapour phases is colourless, There shallbe a minimum spacing between adjacentabove
'e
the evaporation which occurs when liquid leaks results in ground vessels of 1.5 m or 0.25 times the sum oi the adja-
water condensation or water freezing which appears as a cent vessel diameters.
white mist or cloud. For below ground-mounded vessels, the spacing between ]
a'
25.2.3.2 LPG pressure storage (Volume 1, Chapter 2) adjacent vessels shall be determined by the site conditions
.a
and the requirements for safe operation/ removalofthe ves-
The scope of this chapter covers above ground, mounded or 5t
sels in addition to inspection, testing and malntenance re-
belowground storage of LPG involving vessels ofindividualca- qutrements. 2l
pacity greater than 135m3 or group storage greater than 450m3
Storage in frozen ground or underground caverns are not in- The maximum number of vessels in any group shall be 6.
Prcesurc siongc
Bquipdcrt
Thcoutcrrurfrcasof adjaccdt
prsuEtaftge Y?rtcb(l)
TrAnfltlb proi.crcdQ) 44 13,750
Unpro&cr.d (3) 2,ffi
f h! outcrrurf acas ohdjacc
itoragc kr&rco rinin&flamttabL
products (4) mdproccss tacilitics
Th.nnallt protcd.d (21 10,000
UnFotdcd (3) 8 25@
Plant boundary
Romorc rroa (9) 4,000
Urban lrcr (10) 5 1,500
Critical arcr (8) 1.5 500
. Any one group shall be separated from any other group by used above shall be based on ideniified potential leak
ano ln- 15m. sources in the facilities which need to be considered. The
identification and quantitative assessment of leak sources
. In any group vessels shall be in a single line, i.e. shell to should be based on a systematic evaluation of ihe design
rat ihe shell and not shell to end or end io end. and operating procedures of such facilities, taking into ac-
. The layout and spacing of above ground vessels should re- countfailure modes and the likelihood oftheif occurring. Ex-
ceive careful consideration to ensure accessibility for fire amoles of ootential leak sources from LPG facilities and
fighting and to avoid spillage from one vessel from flowing indications of leakage rates from them under specific condi-
1(Fig- under any other vessel or other vulnefable equipment. tions are quoted in Appendix 3.
rds for . The provision of bunds around above ground pfessurised 25.2.3,5 Vapour travel requirements
cendlx LPG storage is not normally required. Provision shall be made to minimise ihe possibility of a flamma-
. Separation cufbs may be required to direct spillage away ble vapour cloud of LPG from a spill as defined above from
:ne ra-
from storage vessels and other vulnerable equipment. reaching the site boundary. Such provisions may include such
alleak measures as spacing, limitations of spill area, insulation of the
-he Code gives wide spread advice on good practice in pres-
:rtative bund or impounding areas, screening or vapour dispersion
ematic :urised LPG storage facilities under ihe following headings; equipment. Appendix 4 contains references relating to various
taking . Pressure storage (i.e. the design of the pressure vessels mathematical models for calculating hazard disiances arising
cccur- themselves) out of spillages of LPG and the resultant vapour cloud forma-
ations tton.
using . Piping, valves and tlttings
25.2.3.6 Bunding requirements
. Foundations and supports for vessels and piping
The various requirements relating to the need for bunding, the
:lofa . Pumps, compressors and meters bund capacity and the bund design include the following:
:oove
'ay in- . Road and rail loading and unloading facilities . No refrigerated tank shallbe located within the bund enclos-
pooi ing any other storage tank.
. Electrical, static electricity, lightning protection
cpen- .
. Each refrigerated storage tank shall be completely sur-
.1 pro_ Reouirements for fire orotection
rounded by a bund unless the topography of the area is
. Operations such, either naturally or by construction, that spills will be di-
rected safely by gravity drainage and diversion walls (if re-
adJa-
. Inspection of pressure storage quired) away from adjaceni tanks, equipment and sensitive
trf the 25.2.3.3 Refrigerated LPG storage (Volume 2, Chapter 3) areas to an impound!ng basin suitably located within the site
r rate The scope ofthis chapter covers refrigerated LPG tanks, above oounoary
;round, fully in-ground and partly in-ground. lt does noi cover . Fu I and double containment systems by def nition fulfil the
cove storage in frozen earth pits, in underground caverns or partially above requirements but low bunds may be required around
adla- 'efrigerated storage. the tank main connections to contain leaks ffom external
-he three categories of liquid containmeni are discussed to- piping. valves and fittings.
I een :ether wlth guidance for provisions fof spil age containnrent . Forsystemswhichdonotconformtodoubleorful contain-
:rons :nd handllng, the avoidance of leakage, the minirnising of ment, the bund/impoundlng basin sha I be capable of re-
/es- ,'apour formation following a liquid leak and reducing the con- tain ng the tota content above ground level or of the largest
I re- sequences of a fire following a liquid leak. tank connected to any shared impounding basin.
25.2.3.4 Storage tank spacing r Where bunds are provided around tank connections they
Ihe rules for location and spacing of refrigerated storage tanks should be of sufficient capacity to contain the anticipated
are summarised as follows; spill volume.
. Refrigeraied LPG storage tanks and their containment sys- . Bunds and impounding basins shall be provided with water
tems shall be located and soaced so that the minimum dis- removal systems designed to prevent LPG spiilages escap-
tance to any fixed source of ignition is 30m, irrespective of ing into any system outside the area of the bund/impound-
radiation flux levels. in9 basin.
. Containment systems, i.e. tanks and the associated bunds . The capacity and reliability of water removal systems for
and impounding basins, shall be located and spaced so that rain and fire waier where aDolicable shall be sufficient to
in the event of a fire, eg a tank fire or fire resulting ffom the prevent the accumulation of such quantities of water as
ignition of spillage of flammable products, thermal radiation would cause damage to the tank foundations, bund wall or
flux levels shall not exceed the maximum levels given in Ta- would lead to tank flotation.
ble 2 ofAppendix 1 (see Figure 25.6)
. Consideration should be given to the monitoring of bunded
. The thermal radiation flux levels in the above requirement areas for LPG leakage.
shall be based on the ignition of flammable product either in
This section of the Code also gives sensible advice on a num-
a tank or from spillage. In the case of spillage, the pool
ber of other related subjects.
formed will be dictated by the spillage rate, the evaporation
rate and the duraiion ofthe spill (see below) and the topog-
25.2.4 API2510 (Reference 25.41
raphy/locatlon of the site and facilitjes associated with it.
-
. Reference should be made to Appendix 2 for guidance on
The scope of this Siandard includes the design, construction
ihe calculation of thermal radiation levels with respect to and location of both pressurised and refrigerated LPG storage
LPG facilities. Appendix 2 includes comprehensive guid-
vessels, loading systems, unloading systems, piping and re-
ance, references and a number of excellent worked exam-
lated equipment for installations at marine and pipeline termi-
ples on this subject.
nals, reiineries, petrochemical plants and tankfarms. Excluded
. The rate of leakage of flammable product and its duration from the scope of this Standard are:
Rc(rigc.atcd storsgc
Equipmcnt
Thc outcr surfaccs of adj accot
I cfr4c rutc d s to n Ee la n ks
Thznw lproucad(z) 32 10,000
Unprotc.tcd (3) 8 2,5m
Plart boutrdary
Rcrdotcarca (9) 1,000
Urbno arca (10) 1Joo
Gitical area (8) 1.5 500
Nots
(1) The distance from all LPG presrare storsgc v.ssel to a refrigeruted storage rark is detcrmincd by thc
re{uircmcnt of Chapter 3 (Eee 3.3.1) ard Tsble 2 of this appcndix.
(2) Such facilitieJareas arg protcctod by means ofwater sprays, iosulation, mdiation screens or similar systems.
(3) Protecion is providcd by spacing alooe.
(4) Spc<ial co[sidcration Ehould bc givcn to the location of floating roof tan&s containing high vapour pressurc
produds si[cc cffcctivc watcr cooling of thcir roof structures is impraciicablo.
(5) A normalty unocorpied arca occasionally Dattncd by traincd and suitably clothcd pcrsons familiar both with
cscapc rout6 and opportuoitics for tcmporary shcltcr afforded by tbc proccss plant,
(6) A pcrmancnt building whcrc pcrsonnl insidc arc shicldcd and/or bavc shicldcd mcans ofcscapc.
(7) An open arca or small (c,g. temporary) building without shicldcd mcaus of cscapc.
(8) This is cithcr an uoshiclded 8(ca of critical imponaoce where pcoplc without protcctivc clothing may bc
rcquircd it all timcs iocludiog during cmcrgencies or a place diffiorlt or dangerous to cvacuatc rt short
loticc (e.g, a spors stadium).
(9) An arca only infre4uently occupied by small numbcrs of persons, c.g. moorland, farmland, dqscrt.
(10) A.u arca which is noither a remote area oor a Gitical arca.
(11) Thc allowablc thermal ndiation flux levcl is rcstrictcd for thcr facilitics h vicw of the potcntially longer
duratioo of crposure resulting from a rc/z'gc rafud t4nkl bund fiIe.
. Above ground concrete tanks . The minimum distances betvveen the shells of pressurised
LPG tanks or between the shell of a pressurised LPG tank
. Tanks covered by NFPA 58 and NFPA 59
and the shell of any other pressurised hazardous or flam-
. Tanks with capacities less than 2000 US gallons mable storage tank shall be as follows:
Water Capaciry of Each Minimum tanks each. Where multiple groups of horizontal LPG ves-
Tnnk (gallons) Distance (feet) sels are to be provided, each group shall be separated from
2,000-30,000 50 adjacent groups by a minimum horizontal shell-to-shell dis-
30,001-?0,000 75 tance of 50 ft.
70.001-90.000 100
90.001-120.000 125
And again
- the ominous Note: Horizontal vessels used to
store LPG should be orientated so that their longitudinal axes
120,00t or grcater 200
do not point towards other facilities (such as containers, pro-
:rqJ'e 25.7 ll"e mrnrmum d stance between lhe -nel' ola p'essur sed LoG cess equipment, control rooms, loading or unloading facilities,
:ana drd t1e rine ol adjoirilq propeny thal Fay be developed or flammable or combustible liquid storage facilities or offsite
non APl251A, bble 1 facilities located in the facility of the horizontal vessel). The vi-
sion of a ruptured LPG vessel "rocketing" through a control
- lf the other storage is refrigerated, three quarters of the room is difficult to suDoress!
greater diameter.
SDill containment
lfthe storage is in atmospheric tanks and is designed to Spill containment may be achieved by either remote impound-
contain a material with a flash point of 1000 F or less, ment or by the provision of a dike around the tank. The main
one diameter of the larger bnk. points to consider are:
- lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks designed to . For remote impoundment systems:
contain materials wiih a flash point greater than 100" F,
half of the diameter of the larger tank. - The remote impoundmentarea shall be located at least
50 ft from the vessels draining into it and from any hy-
- 100 ft. drocarbon piping or other equipment
. The minimum horizontal distance betlveen the shell of an The holdupofthe remote impoundmentarea shallbe at
LPG tank and a regularly occupied building shall be as fol- least 25% of the volume of the largest vessel draining
lows: into it. lf the material stored in the vessel has a vaoour
pressure that is less than 100 psia at 100'F, the holdup
lfthe building is used for the controlofthe storage facil-
ity, 50 ft. forthe remote impoundment shall be at least 50% ofthe
volume of the largest vessel draining into it
lf the building is used solely for other purposes (unre-
lated to the control of the storage facility), 100 ft.
. For diked systems:
lf an LPG sphere is diked, each sphere shall be pro-
- Both of the above requirements may be replaced by
vided with its own diked area. lf LPG stored in horizontal
comDliance with API 752.
vesels, a single diked area may serve a group oftanks
. The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of an
LPG tank and facilities or equipment not covered above - The holdup ofthe diked area shallbe at least25% ofthe
volume of the largest vessel within it. lf the material
shall be as follows:
stored in the vessel has a vapour pressure that of less
- For orocess vessels 50 ft. than 100 psig at 100 'F, the holdup for the diked area
shall be at least 50% of the volurr]e of the larqest vessel
For flares or other equipment containing exposed withln it.
flames, 100 ft.
25.2-4.2 Retrigetale d storage
For other fired equipment, including process furnaces
and utility boilers, 50 ft. Again a number of requirements are included in the Standard.
Minimum spacing requirements
For rotating equipment, 50 ft, except for pumps taking
suction from the LPG tanks, 10 ft. The following requirements apply:
- For overhead powertransmission lines and electric sub- . The minimum horizontal distance between the shell of a re-
stations, 50 ft. In addition siting shall be such that a frigerated LPG tank and the line of adjoining property that
break in the overhead line shall not cause the exposed may be developed shall be 200 ft. Where residences, public
ends to fall on any vessel or equipment. buildings, places oi assembly, or industrial sites are located
on adjacent property, greater distances or other supple-
For loading and unloading facilities for trucks and mental Drotection shall be orovided.
railcars, 50 ft.
. The minimum distance between the shells of adjacent re-
. The minimum horizontal distance betlveen the shell of an frigerated LPG tanks shall be halfthe diameterofthe larger
LPG tankand the edge ofa spill containment area for flam- taNK,
mable or combustible Iiquid storage tanks shall be 100 ft.
. The minimum distance between the shell of a refrigerated
. Pressurised LPG tanks shallnot be locatedwithin buildings, LPG tank and the shell of another non refrigerated hydro-
within the spill containment area of flammable or combusti- carbon storage facility shall be the largest of the following
ble liquid storage tanks as defined in NFPA 30, or within the subject to a maximum distance of 200 ft:
spill containment area for refrigerated storage bnks.
lf the other storage is pressurised, three quarters ofthe
. Compressors and pumps taking suction from the LPG tanks larger tank diameter
should not be located within the spill containment area of
any storage facility unless provisions are made to protect lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks and is de-
the storage vessel from the potential fire exposure. Exam- signed to contain materialwith a flash point of 100'F or
ples of such include (a) a submerged motor direct-coupled less, one diameter of the larger tank.
pump with no rotating equipment outside the pump contain- - lf the other storage is in atmospheric tanks and is de-
ment vessel or (b) a submersible pump within the LPG tank. signed to contain material with a flash point greaterthan
. Horizonial LPG tanks with capacities of 12,000 US gallons 100 'F, half the diameter of the larger tank.
or greater shall not be formed into groups of more than six - 100 ft.
Soill containment porated documents are listed with the appropriate edition re-
As is the case with pressurised storage, spitl containment may lated to each DOT.CFR paragraph.
be achieved by the provision of remote impoundment or by In brief, the salient points from this document are:
diking.
. ln the event of conflict between DOICFR and NFPA 59A.
Remote impoundment the DOT.CFR prevails.
The following requiremenb apply: . This Standard applies to any new LNG facilities placed in
. The remote impoundment area shall be located at least 50 ft service after l\4arch 31, 2000.
from the vessels draining into it and from any piping or other
eouroment.
. lf an existing LNG facility is replaced, relocated or signifi-
cantly altered after March 31 , 2000, it must comply with the
. The holdup of the remote impoundment area shall be at salient part of these regulations (with certain exceptions).
least 100% of the volume of the largest vessel drain ing into . Each container must have a thermal exclusion zone in ac-
it.
cordance with NFPA 59A 2-2.3.1 (see Section 25.3.'1).
Diking
. Each LNG container must have a dispersion exclusion zone
The following requirements apply: in accordance wjth NFPA59A2-2.3.2 (see Section 25.3.2).
. Each refrigerated LPG tank shall be provided with its own . Average gas concentration at boundaries = 2.5%.
diked area. The holdup of the diked area shall be at least
100% of the volume of the tank. . The design spil! shall be determined in accordance with
NFPA 59A 2-2.3.3.
EXCEPTION: More than one tank may be enclosed within
the same diked area provided provisions are made to pre- . An outerwallofa component served by an impounding sys-
vent lowtemperature exposure resulting from leakage from tem may not be used as a dike unless the outerwall is con-
any one tank from causing subsequent leakage from any structed of concrete.
other tank. . A covered impounding system is prohibited except for con-
. When dikes are used as part of the spill containment sys- cfete wall desjgned tanks where the concrete wall is an
tem, the minimum height shall be 1.5 ft measured from the outer wall serving as a dike.
inside of the diked area. When dikes must be higher than Note: These last two points suggest that this Agency has be-
6 ft, provisions shall be made for normal and emergency ac- gun to accept the concept offull containment tanks and
cess into and out of the diked enclosure. Where dikes must the advantages which accompany this category of con-
be higher than 12 ft or where ventilation is restricted by the tainment.
dike, provision shall be made for normal operation ofvalves
and access to the top of the tank or tanks without the need
. Each impounding system serving an LNG storage tank
for personnel to enter into the area of the diked enclosure must have a minimum volumetric liouid imDoundment ca-
pacity of 1 10% of the LNG tanks maximum liquid capacity
that is below the top of the dike wall. All earthen dikes shall
(for an impoundment serving a single tank).
have a flat top section at least 2 ft wide.
. Aflammable non-metallic membrane liner may not be used
as an inner container in a storage tank.
25.3 Regulations governing LNG storage
Note: A throwback to the Staten lsland LNG Tank incident,
facilities see Chapter 17, Section 17.3.
Figure 25.9 attempts to define the design spill, forthree types LDpoundingarea Th oow bom any For l0 mioures or
*rvt(Ig only sirgle accidenral for ? shodr tjroe
of storage tank: !?Ponzauon,.., leakagesource. ba5edoodemon-
proceJs, or LNU
. Containers with penetrations below the liquid level without trarBfer areas
sFable surveil
quirements.
. Containers with over the top fill, with no penetrations below
the liquid level (also presumed to be equipped with in-tank
pumps for unloading).
For the first two tank types ihe calculation of the design spill is
quite straightforward. The formula given is:
Noiac
4 ^-
. oimensbn Xshall q]a, or xced the sum of fmendoo yDlus t|e
sqivalnt head ln LNG of he prgssu.o In tt vapor spaco abovo
o'3= d'Jh equ 25.1
t|s huld.
Excf,pfKn: WtBr tto h,lght ol he dl@ or hrvwNing *aI ls equdt A where
or gealer tlgn, tE nptdmrm qtfr le'/el, X ntsl hd!.e any velue-
. Do|enslon Xb h dshnco ipm fie hnr wall of fis cootalnr b tl6 q = flow rate (ft3/min)
closest hce of |hs dik6 or [npounding walt
. DinFnslon yb fls dstance ftom t| marmun lilrld lgvel h ho d = diameter of the tank penetration (ins)
conblnr b tho iop ol th dlks or trpoundng wafl.
h = height of liquid above the penetration when the
Figure 25.8 Dlke or impoundment wallproximtty ro conlarners tank is full (ft)
Fran NFPA 59A, figute 2.2.2.6 The spill duration is also given in Figure 25.9.
For the third tank type the picture is less clear. The industry shows the large differences in the various spacing require-
practice has been to take the maximum export rate (i.e. the ments and the savings in site area arising from the use of the
combined flow of all of the installed in-tank pumps assuming different types ofcontainmentcategory The summary ofthe re-
these to be manifold together) as the 10 minute duration spill sults of this exercise are given in Figure 25.10.
(presuming a suitable shutdown system is provided). However,
One additional requirement relating to thermal radiation is that
the design spill wording "The largest flow from any single line
the LNG container impounding areas shall be located so that
that could be pumped into the impounding area with the con-
the heat flux from a fire over the impounding area shall not
tainer withdrawal pump(s) considered to be delivering the full
cause major structural damage to any LNG marine carrier that
rated capacity,", leaves room for doubl.
could Drevent its movement.
Fora typical LNG import terminal, the liquid pumpout rate from 25.3.2.5 Vapour dilution considerations z
a large tank may be ofthe order of 2000 m3/hr whereas the liq- ,1
uid import rate (i.e. the carrier's maximum unloading rate) may NFPA 59A has the following requiremenb:
be as high as 12000 m3ihr The 10 minute spillvolume in one . The spacing of an LNG tank impoundment to the property
case is 2000 x 10/60 = 333 m3 and in the othercase is 12000 x line which can be built upon shall be such that, in the event
10/60 = 2000 m3. ofthe design spill(Section 25.3.2.3), an average concentra- lr
The logic of postulating a possible failure in the case ofthe liq- tion of methane in air of 50% on the lower flammability limit
uid export line whilst not doing the same in the case ofthe liquid (LFL) does not extend beyond the property line that can be
import line seems contentious. The differences between the built upon. Three different calculation methods are given:
two figures in terms of the cost and difficulty of containing the
spill at the tank roof level, the conveying ofthe spilled liquid to
- GRI 0242 "LNG vapour dispersion prediction with the
DEGADIS dense gas dispersion model".
localgrade and the further guiding of liquid to the site impound-
ing basin are substantial. - GRI-96/0396.5 "Evaluation of mitigation models for ac-
cidental LNG releases-Volume 5; using FEM3Aforac-
25.3.2.4 Thermal radiation
NFPA 59A requires provisions to be made (almost always by
adjusting the site layout)to preventthe thermal radiation from a
tire from exceeding the limits listed belowundera defined setof
atmosphe c conditions (zero windspeed, 70oE 50% relative
humidity):
o 1600 Btu/hr/fi3 (5000 w/mr) at a property line that can be
built upon for ignition of a design spill (see Section
25.3.2.3).
. 1600 Btu/hr/ft, (5000w/mz) atthe nearest point located out-
side the owners property line that, at the time of plant siting,
is used for outdoor assembly by groups of 50 or more per- 2
sons for a fire over an impounding area containing the full
T
design volume (see Section 25.3.2.2).
3000 Btu/hr/ftz (9000 Mm2) at the nearest point ofthe build- ]
ing orstructure oulside the owners property line that is in ex-
istence at the time of plant siting and used for occupancies =(
classified by NFPA 101 (Life Safety Code) as assembly, ed-
ucational, health care, detention and correction or residen-
tial for a fire over an impounding area containing the full
design volume.
',OOOO t,urn7ftz (30000 wim2) at a property line which can
be built upon for a fire over an impounding area containing
the full design volume.
The calculations of radiation distances shall be calculated by
the following method:
Gas Research lnstitute Reoort GRl0176 "LNG Fire:Ather-
mal radiation model for LNG fires"
lfthe ratio ofthe majorto minor dimensions ofthe impound-
ment does not exceed 2 then:
d =F./a equ25.2
where
d = distance from the edge ofthe impounded LNG
(ft)
requtre- cidental LNG accident consequent analysis". e Part 6.1 ofthe Standard states "Tanks can be Dlaced on the
se of the ground.....
of the
Another model subject to stated guidelines.
re-
. Provisions shall be made to minimise the possibility of a
.....The raft of the tank can be supported by raised piles.
In isthat flammable mixture of vapours from the design spill from . Part 6.2.3 states "there shall be no penetrations of the pri-
i so that reaching the property line that can be built upon and that mary and secondary container walls or base.
;hall not would result in a distinct hazard. Flammable mixture disper- .....The absence of wall or base penetrations requires the
rier that sion distances shall be calculated in accordance with GRI use of submerged pumps." Le. tanks ofall types must be fit-
0242 subject to certain stated conditions. ted with in{ank pumps, This is very different from NFPA
25.3.2.6 Minimum spacing requirements 59A.
n addition tothe spacing requirements arisingfrom the require- 25.3.3.3 Design spill
Tents of impoundment (Section 25.3.2.2) thermal radiation The Standard mentions "loss ofcontainment of LNG and of nat-
rroperty Section 25,3.2.4) and vapour dilution (Section 25.3.2.5) con- ural gas" in Section 4.4.3.1, "Evaporation of spilled LNG" in
e event siderations, the following minimum spacing requirements ap- 4.4.5.1, "Atmospheric dispersion of LNG vapour'' in Section
centra- lly: 3.3.4 and "Provisions for control of leaks or spillage" in Section
lity limit
can be
. The minimum distance from the edge of the impoundment 4.5.2. lt does not provide means of evaluating the flow rate or
to buildings or property lines shall not be less than 0.7times duration ofthe design spill. The Standard provides guidance on
given:
the container diameter or 100 ft whichever is the greater. hazard assessment using probabilistic and deterministic ap-
/iih the proaches, the use of hazard and operability studies (HAZOP),
. The minimum distance between LNG storage containers failure mode effect analysis (FMEA), eventtree method (ETM)
shall not be less than 1/4 ofthe sum ofthe diameter of adja- and fault tree method (FTM) together with a listing of possibte
for ac- cent containers or sfr whichever is the greater. hazards of both internal (i.e. within the site) and external origin
lor ac-
Hote: Both ofthe above applyto LNG tanks with capacities in (i.e. from outside the site).
excess of 265 mJ. Forverysmall tanks refer to Table There is also some briefguidance on the estimation of probabil-
2.2.4.1 of NFPA 59A. ities (Section 4.4.4) and the estimation of consequences (Sec-
. In no case shall the distance from the nearest edge of im- tion 4.4.5 and Annex F). Whilst allof this guidance is admirable,
pounded liquid to a property line which can be built upon, or it leaves the deflnition ofthis important design event a matter of
the near edge of a navigable water way as defined by fed- conjecture and debate which will require a lengthy and expen-
eral regulations be less than 50fr. sive site specific studyto resolve. The much simplerapproach
to this issue taken by NFPA 59A, albeit not entirely clear in all of
xoie: Clearly for tanks with capacities >265 m3, the first con-
its aspects, may appealto terminal designers and contractors
dition above willgovern for disiances to property lines.
and to the various regulatory authorities in view of ib clarity.
25.3.3 EN1473 : 1997 rules 25.3.3.4 Thermal radiation
Figure 25.12 gives recommended maximum incident radiation
25.3.3.1 Scope values for equipment within the site boundary including tanks
-r;s European Standard gives guidelines for the design, con- with outer surfaces constructed of concrete or steel. oressure
3:!ction and operation of all onshore stationary LNG installa- vessels, process facilities, control rooms, workshops and ad-
:ons including those for the liquefaction, storage, vaporisation, ministrative buildings arising from an LNGtankpoolfire. These
are maximum values to be used unless deflned otheMise in lo-
-nsfer and handling of LNG The Standard is valid for the fol- cal regulations. The Standard then moves on to suggest that
c$iing plant types:
the maximum radiation flux levels for each main structure shall
. Export terminals between the desjgnated gas inlet bound- be calculated and provides some guidance on how this may be
ary limit and the ships manifold. achieved.
. Receiving terminals, between the ships manifold and the For LNG storage tanks, the permissible radiation flux shall be
designated gas outlet boundary limit. determined taking into account the following factors as a mini
. Peak-shaving plants, between designated gas inlet and mum:
outlet boundary limits. . lf no deluge system is installed, watercooling is deemed to
. LNG satellite plants with a totial storage capacity above 2OO
applyafterthe time required to provide firewater in sufficient
tonnes, including the loading station up to the designated
gas outlet boundary limited.
tlote: Satellite planb with a total storage capacity less than
200 tonnes are excluded from the scoDe of this Stan- SingIE conteinnent l)
dard. Double co0unn$eltt 2)
-^is Standard is very difierent in philosophy and content from Fltl contairunent 2) s)
1- USADOT.CFR and NFPAStandards. lt is based on hazard Mernbrane 2) 3)
rd consequent risk assessment methods and is generallyless Ctyogmic conste 2l 3)
in its requirements than the American Codes. The fol- l)
=ecific
or/ing Sections are an attempt to abstract the salient points Slraical
fngrttrd 4 3)
:r',en jn this EN Standard astheyrelateto LNG storagetanks.
S@Ei6 to b @Eid.rE l:
25.3.3.2 Scenarios to be considered r) Ir .3le of @Uar6e of tlE Lrik
lrlnrry .onr.hr, !n pool
rlr. conldpd& !o the inpdtndng.ie..
-'ese are summarised for the full range oftank types in Figure 4 h ce ol @0qe o( dE tsn* rcoq tlE !E loot tdr!
:5 11 . lt is interesting to note the distinction made between full @nt{d& b dE lDdlry cont lE
r) No @U!9e i! @Etder.d for tlse t !* h,!..,
tanks without concrete roofs where the pool fire
=.ltainment
;ze is based on the secondary contiainer and full containment Figure25.11 Scenarioslobeconsidered inlhehazad assessmentasfunctionof
E-KS with concrete roofs where no collapse is considered and tank types
r., implication no poolfire is to be considered. Frcn EN 473, table
1 5
. The temperature ofthe safetyvalve shallnot reach the auto Adminjstrative buildings 5
ignition temperature of the flammable substance in the
tank. Figufe 25.14 Allowable themal radiation flux excluding solar radiation inside
the boundary
. Surface emissive powers Fron EN 1473, table 3
Contents:
26.1 General
26,2 The basic seismic design data
26.3 Damping
25.4 Directional combinations
26.5 The behaviour of the product llquid
26.6 Natural frequencies
26.6.1 The horizontal convective frequency
26.6-2 The horizontal impulsive frequency
26.6.3 The vertical barelling Aequency
26.7 Ductility
26.8 Calculation of the design accelrations
26.15 Gonclusion
bn-
26.16 References
nrt
YD
fl>
'ot
,
aa-
IF
to-
istr
The amount of theoretical and test work carried out in this area
is awesome. Not only have the giants of the subject like
Housner, Veletsos, Yang, Haroun, Manos, Wozniak, Newmark
and Hall been publishing learned works for many years. but
they are joined by a host of other authors working in the same
area. A fook at the list of publications in References 26.1, 26.2 :J,
L______' t,
I
of low temperature liquid storage systems described in Chapter SUPPORT I.IOTION: v, v, v MASS f10Ti0N:
17. For example the approach of the designer of the steel inner
liquid container is often very different to that of the designer of Figure 26.2 Asingle degree offreedom damped system
the outer pre-stressed concrete tank.
The provision ofdesign spectra to the tank designer is usuallya
It is clearly not possible to describe the whole breadth of this task placed in the hands of specialist geo-technical consul-
area of activity in a single chapter, indeed it would be difficult to tants. These are companies with wide and respected experi-
envisage doing itjustice in a single book. Forthis reason the fol- ence in the study of seismic events. The days when a single nu-
lowing Sections confine their interest to the seismic design of merical reference to an anticipated seismic event using such
vertical, cylindrical, flat-bottomed steel primary liquid contain- devices as the Richter Scale was considered sufiicient input for
ment tanks. These are one of the most commonly found com- the tank designer are long past. The RichterScale isstillused in
oonents of low temperature liquid conbinment systems the media to describe the magnitude of seismic events, and for
The level of sophistication of the analysis is that which the au- interest the scale and a subjective set ofeffects is shown in Fig-
thor has found to be sufficient to satisfy the owners of newstor- ure 26.3.
age facilities togetherwith their engineers and technical consul-
tants. To those seeking information on the seismic design of The usual outputfrom such specialists is a site-specific seismic
-500
<Q
il5
E 0.250
6
9 0.200
0.150
0.100
0_050
0.000
0 0.5 11.52 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 77.58 8.5 9 s.5 10
Priod T , secs
t
l - 5% Damping
c 0.200
-OBE - 5%
-ssE
E o.tso
0.100
0.050
\
0.000
0.5 1.5 4.5 5 5.5
Period T , secs
Figure 26.48 A typical vertical seismic design response spectra in graphicalfom for 5% damping
OBE oos+
ssE o-+
26.3 Damping
It is important to select the appropriate level of damping for the
djfferent component parts of a storage system for the (usually
two) levels of seismic design event being considered. Guid-
ance can be found in Iable 4.2 of Reference 26. / which is reoro-
duced in Figure 26.9. This reference uses the ierms "probable
design earthquake" (PDE) and "contingency design earth-
quake" (CDE) in place of the more familiar OBE and SSE.
Where the seismic design data provided is tied to a single
damping level (usually 5%), it is necessary to have a means of
converting to other levels of damping as indicated in Figure
26.9. The accepted means of doing this is to use the Newmark
and Hall amplification factors as shown in the table (Figure
26.10). The three columns headed A(B), V(p)and D(B)apply to
the constant acceleration, constant velocity and the constant
displacement parts ofthe response spectrum. This is illustrated
"-'i in Figure 26.11. T2 is usually around 3 seconds.
a3@
?t\r)
or+ So, by way of an example:
The natural frequency of the impulsive portion of the tank liquid
contents falls between To and T1 and is 0.609 taken from the
OBE 5% critical damping horizontal seismic response spec-
: trre 26.68 An example ofselsmjc design data presenled as a series of
::.a1ions and also in gfaphical form
trum. lt is required to determine the acceleration appropriate to
2o/o ctilical damping as required for OBE design as shown in
',-at given in the USAEC Regulatory cuide 1.60 (Reference Figure 26.9.
r5.4). The spectral shape is expressed in a tabularform cover-
-g a fange of levels ofdamping (Figure 26 7). When plotted oui The acceleration is then
ue-
'q --is is as shown in Figure 26.8. The point where the accelera- Nt3\(2V"\
: rn intercepts the zero time axis is known as the peak ground - -" '"
nA^
4 B ttsv" )
::celeration (PGA) and in these plots it has a value of unity. lt is
-ecessary to know the PGAappropriate to the chosen site to be Using the data from Figure 26.10 this becomes:
is 9-
0.60 y::: = 0.81o
c-s ' 2.71
ll
subject and the influences of tiank flexibility and foundation stiff- comes T = 1.81 1k(D)' '. (Rememberto use consistent
ness. In the interests of avoiding over complication, the meth- units for D and H in Figure 26.12.)
ods considered in this ChaDterare limited to those discussed in This calculation method is probablythe most commonly used to
References 26.3, 26.5 and 26.6. determine this period.
From References 26.1, 26.3 and 26.5
26.6.1 Horizontal convective frequency
The same equation forthe frequency ofthejth sloshing mode is
oiven in each of these references and is:
From APf 620 (Reference 26.q
.1
This is the same method as is used for ambient temperature
tanks (see API 650 Appendix E ) and is described in detail in '2n .F'*"6H equ26.2
c.itical D;npjne'
constanr cssbnr comt.nr
I I vr.dry I dr!pr.c.m.d
)'obdble De)lgn
:.rt\qudre (P0F)
biplig, v"ssels, 5!a.ts, eqJio- to ? +--+--,-
'c.6rrarion
_,__+
flusr r4.in elasric
lelded sleel, p.est.essed
concreter rcll relnforced
concfete (only sli9hr c.acking)
Reinforced .o^.rete Hith
conside.able c.acklns
Bolted andlo. .iveted sreel,
{ood st.uctu.er rith nailed
0.8
Bolred and/or rivered steel, rood
stfuclu.es rlrh bolred jojnts
$ri nal red joln.s 0.6
Ileial ranks - convective (slosh) 0.5
- rnp! r5lve 4.O 7.0 80
Soil-str0ctu.. iiteraction effectr nor in.1!qe!
DIH
:gufe 26.9 Damping levels appropriate for different componenls Figure 26.12 Figure L-4 from API 620 Appendix L
-.ken fram Table 4.2 from Relercnce 26.1
E Young's modulus of tank shell material (N/m2)
pm density of the tank shell material (kg/m3)
Cr A dimensionless coefficient which depends on
the tank proportions (H/R and VR in consistent
units), the Poisson's ratio of the tank shell ma-
terial and the relative densities of the oroduct
liquid and the shell material (p /p.)
nence:
;
-1
P'
In rhi$ obr. rhe f!.rots (P), v (P) and D (p) ryty ro ie conea r..l.mnD. !,n$d \ dsi!. rd
^
r.nianr dBprrancm p.niotu. esperildy. ofrtrc tl.ssn sp.(nnn.
where:
pw = density ofiresh water (1000k9/m3)
:igure 26.10 Newma* and Halldamping amptificalion factors
pr = density of the product liquid (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) pn = density ofthe tank shell material (kg/m3)
o28
Frequent @6cient, C-, in expressio! for fthdmertal
Mtdal frequelcy, to, of tels fll wirh wateri v=03,
AIP =0'127
HIR vzt@ ol c.
tlR=00fd5 I JR = 0.N1
26.7 Ductility
26,6.3 The vertical barrelling frequency
This is a complex subject about which much has been written.
In this level of analysis it is dealt with in a very simple manner.
The method given in References 26.1 and 26-5 Wozniak and Mitchell in their paper (Reference 26.7) support-
The natural frequency of the axisymmetric breathing mode is ing their proposal for a seismic Appendix to API 650 suggest
grven by: the following:
"The increased hoop tension due to earthquake ground motion
{,YLl: equ 26.5 should be added to the hoop tension due to hydrostatic pres-
z,rn \l pm sure. The hydrodynamic portion (i.e. that part due to the earth-
quake) should be divided by a ductility factor of2.0 for applica-
Where the variables are as given in Section 26.6.2 with the ex- tion in the design at the normal allowable stresses."
ception of:
This method ofanalysis treats ductility in a different way. Forthe
C" = factor taken from table 7 .5 of Reference 26.1 oBE condition the structure must remain elastic and a ductility
(Figure 26.16) or table 4 ot Reference 26.5 factor on 1 .0 is used. For the SSE condition the structure must
(Figure 26.17). remain nearly elastic and ductilityfactors of 1 .2 to 1.3 are usual.
Note: This table is for materials with a Poisson's ratio of 0.3 A factor is calculated using the formulal
C0EFFICIENT Cv IN EXPRISSIoN FoR FUNDAT4ENTAL FRIQIIENCY 0F events at 5% damping in Figure 26.6 and using the periods cal-
AXISYI'1I,IETR1C, SREATHIN6 I,IODT OF VIBRATI(]N OF TULL TANKS culated above (i.e. horizontal convective = 8.95 sec, horizontal
impulsive = 0.35 sec and vertical barrelling = 0.30 sec) the ba-
sic accelerations can be taken from the graphs, or more accu-
Bending Bending rately calculated from the formulae given.
Sol ution Sol uti on
These accelerations must now be adjusted for the corlect level
of damping, the inclusion of the second horizontal component
!.?0 0.0467 0.052I 0.0787 0.1135
and the influence of ductility.
0.30 0,056/ 0.06 L0 0.09/ 3 0,1250
0.50 0.0705 0.0738 0. t230 0,1414 Figure 26.6 does include a means of adjusting the damping
0,75 0.0808 0.0834 0.1423 0.1564 from the 5% figure provided to othervalues, but in this instance
1.0 0.0868 0,0889 0.1533 0.1650 the more commonly used Newmark and Hall relationships will
1,5 0.0925 0.0950 0.1641 a -r7 26
be adopted (see Figure 26.10).
?.0 0.0949 0.0964 0.r688 0. i/56 The damping values suggested in Figure 26.9 for the OBE and
3.0 0.0969 0,0982 D,TI24 0. l7 70 the SSE for various actions have been adopted. These adiust-
5.0 0.0979 0.0992 0.1/44 0.1775 ments are illustrated in Figure 26.19.
oosign lIod6 Priod Batrc gcond Crilical Dqmping Ductility 0uctillty O..lon
aerSmlc tonzonlEl dafiprn0 adjul|med factor adjultm! Edjustod
EV6nl (c) lclor faclar
faalor s6lgclgd A'B'CD
(%)
Horizontl conv6ctiv6 8S5 0.0028 1.U4 0.5 1.512 1.00 1.000 0,0044
HorizonlEl inpLrlsive 035 0.175 1.U4 1.00 1.000 0.2645
Vertlcel barrsling 030 0.1153 1.000 2.O 1.35i 1.00 1.000
Y Y o prEN 14620
P o.sl
-277AGD,[0.75D r 0.75D'
l'z equ 26.10
L
This allows '1.33 times the allowable stress for normaloper-
ation (as Chapter'18) for the OBE case and minimum yield
Y> 0.75D: of the olate or weld metal for the SSE case.
R = 1 .384AiGD'z equ26.11 The required thickness of the tank shell to comply with these
criteriaforthe OBE and SSE casescan becalculated and com-
/HY) pared with that derived from the static normal operation rules.
cosh 3.68
P^ 0.975A-cD/ / ^'
u
equ26.12
As the seismic loadings can be the governing criteria for shell
H\ thickness at different levels, it is necessary to calculate the
cosh 3.68 I I thicknesses required for both the OBE and the SSE cases for
T D,j
each course of the tank shell. This is lengthy and tedious work,
wnere: best carried out by bespoke computer programs or by the use
of spreadsheets.
P" = hoop tension per inch of shell heightduetothe
horizontal convective acceleration (lbi in) It is customary to use the fixed fraction combinations of the
three components for the OBE thickness calculations and the
A" = horizontal convective acceleration (g) souare root ofthe sum ofthe souares forthe SSE thickness cal-
see Section 26.8 above culations. Using the 65 m diametertank adopted as an example
I rr-r-v'l
P" = AP,cos ,r * equ 26.13
earlier, and the accelerations from Figure 26.19, Figure 26.20
shows these calculations. lt can be seen that to accommodate
L \ zn 1)
|
2 2.700 22.3AA 19471 3352 4830 43 25350 24245 25351 14.83 14.52 13.91 14.52
3 2.700 13.600 17114 3207 4659 45 22740 21732 22770 13.03 '13.04 12.44 13.04
2.704 16.900 14756 297A 4374 4A 20069 19053 20443 11.49 10.91 11.48
5 2.704 14.240 12399 2647 3975 51 17219 16254 17175 9.44 9.86 9.31 S.84
6 2_704 11.500 10041 2249 3r'62 56 14234 13346 14170 8.00 815 7U 8.11
7 2_7AA 8.800 7644 1786 2835 62 11117 10339 11035 8.00 6 37 5.92 6.32
)e1 I 2_7AA 6.'100 5326 '1272 2094 fa 7472 7247 7777 8.00 4.51 4.15 4.45
I 2.744 3.400 2969 721 1239 79 4503 4085 4404 8.00 2 5a 2.U 2.52
10 90
Ph*, = The maximum hoop tension as a rcsult ol the combined masses in lhe horizontat; phnax=ps+pi+pc+0.3pv
:--
P",". = The maximum hoop tnsion as a resuttoflhe cdombined masses tn the vedjcal;
-9
:_ -: P","" - The squarc rcol ot the sum of the squares Ps/ss=Ps+!@-t[7;j
-:-
Ts: Thickness ofsnettdue to hyd.ostatic toadings onty
-: G. Product SG =
2 2.700 22.300 '19471 9919 11667 142 34256 32932 34785 14.83 15.00 14.42 15.23
3 2.700 19.600 17114 9489 '11254 147 31362 30023 31835 13.03 13.73 13.15 13.94
2.700 16.900 '14756 8788 10565 156 28113 26760 28499 11.24 12_31 11.72 12.48
5 2.700 14.200 12399 7834 9602 168 2451A 23163 24792 9.44 14.74 10.14 10.86
6 2.700 11.500 10041 6655 4362 '184 20544 19260 20730 8.00 9.01 8.43 9.08
2.700 8.800 7684 5285 6848 204 16321 15084 16336 8.00 7.15 6.61 7.15
8 2.700 6.100 5326 3763 5058 229 11742 10675 1 1635 8.00 5.14 4.68 5.10
I 2.700 3.400 2969 2133 2993 259 6861 6078 6653 8.00 3.00 2.66 2.91
10 442 1338
Ph,* = The maximum hoop tension as a resu[ o he combined masses in the hodzontat] phnat=ps+pi+pc+0.3pv
P*,"= The maximum hoop tension as a rcsutt ofthe cdombined masses in the vedicat; Ps+ Pv + A.j ei + Pc)
T"* = Thickness ofshsttdue to maimum hoop tension frcn square root ofrhe sums squaredl
: gure 26.20 Spreadsheets showing the calculaiions for siabjtity and axiat compressive toadings
-e!
:'f,.
o =P ae,
-:C
:lr'
N\
0.8
\
\ ,a
p
.g \ \
t
\.
\ Pi
-o 0.4
Pv \,,
\
\
\
0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0
Figure 26.21 The distribution ofthe ho zontal impulsive, horizontal convective and the vedical barrelling pressures on lhe tank shell
masses and their moment arms, the resistance to overturning compressive stress is one third ofthe classical buckling stress
provided by the liquid action on the annular plate, the axialcom- for a perfect cylinder When the influence of the internal liquid
pressive stresses in the tank shell and the overall stability are pressure is considered, there is clearly room to increase this
exactly as described in Chapter 15. stress, especially for extreme load cases like the SSE. NFPA
59A, which is often one ofthe significant design codesfor LNG
One difference is that the calculations are carried out for both
tanks, requires the design limit for the SSE case to be "critical"
the OBE and the SSE seismic events and for a numberofload-
for buckling.
ing casesfor each event involving the directions [horizontal (H)
and vertical (VI and coexistent proportions (usually 100% and l\.4uch has been written about allowable buckling stresses in
30%). lt is usualto look at the following for both OBE and SSE: vertical cylindricalvessels. Before choosing a value for the SS E
. 100%H + 30%v condition it would be wise to look at in Figure 18.5, in Chapter
18, (The Royal Aeronautical Society Structural Data sheet).
. 100%H - 30%v This takes account of fabrication and erection imperfections
. 30%H + 100%V and the influence of internal pressure on axialbuckling strength
of vertical cylindrical vessels.
. 30%H - 100%v
A similar relationship between these variables is illustrated in
This represents quite a lot of work and is best achieved by the Figure 26.27 taken ftom Reference 26.3. Also the elastic plastic
use of spreadsheets. The means of including the vertical com- collapse (elephant's foot buckling) criteria given in this Refer-
ponent into the calculation is to increase or decrease the den- ence could usefully be explored. Figure 26.28 shows a tank
sity of the product liquid and the effective weight of the tank which has suffered an eleDhant's foot buckle in the first course.
shell. These calculations have been carried out for the 65m di- It may be that in the light ofthese investigations, a factor of 1.33
ametertankand are shown as Figures 26.22 to 26.26. Notallof is found to be conservative figure for SSE buckling. Indeed, BS
the load cases have been included as it is clearthattheydo not 7777 in Annex B to part 1 suggests that the same value for al-
all play any part in the selection of the tank scantlings. lowable compressive stress as is permitted byAPl 620 is used
It is clear from these soreadsheeb that the various OBE load for the oBE and a vatue oto.+lEllis used for the sSE. This is
cases do not change anything other than the annular plate \R/
width, which is increased from the API 620 minimum require- two thirds ofthe "critical" value and is the same as using a factor
ments. The dominant load case is the SSE 100% horizontal of2.0 rather than 1.33.
plus 30% vertical combination. To achieve a workable solution
for an unanchored tank, the annular plate must be thickened lf it isdecided thatan anchored design can be adopted, then the
and made wider, and the lower shell courses be made thicker. situation becomes easier in certain respects. The axial com-
The axial compressive stress criteria adopted in this calculation oressive stresses in the lowercourses ofthe tank shellare con-
has been theAPI 620Appendix Lvalue increased bya factorof siderably reduced, as are the local high line loadings being fed
1.33. into the base insulation and thence into the foundation.
As has been mentioned in Chapter 15, the API allowable axial As has been discussed in Chapter 15, this is due to the bending
-eutral axis of the cylinder being maintained in a central posi- to be substantial and will need to be attached to the low-
:on, ratherthan being displaced to one side and effectively con- est shell course where the hoop and vertical bending
:entrating the axial compressive portion of the bending load stresses are high during the defining seismic event. i.e.
rto a small Dortion of the shell circumference. In certain cir- when the tank is full of product liquid. The addition of
:umstances, perhaps where the site is of restricted area and large localstresses into this area is seen by manyas en-
:re spacing rules diciate a tank of proportions unhelpful to the hancing the risk of tank failure under seismic loading
sismic design process (i.e. tall and of a small diameter), then conditions.
anchorage is inevitable unless expensive options such as seis-
-ric isolation are adopted. Where either design is a possibility,
:ren a number of other factors come into play: 26.11 Tank sliding
As has been mentioned earlierin Chapter 15, there are differing
. Where the tank can withstand the seismic loadings without
views held by those with seismic design wisdom on the need to
increasing the tank shellthickness, the only increased cost
prevent tanks from moving horizontally during seismic events.
ofthe unanchored alternative being an increase in annular
One school ofthought, which probably represents the majority
plate width and thickness, then it is usualto choose the un-
view and certainly has determined the Code requirements on
anchored alternative.
the subject, requires there to be no movement during the most
. When significant increases in shell thicknesses are re- onerous seismic design event. The second school of thought
quired to make the unanchored alternative viable, then an considers the horizontal seismic desagn event to be a sefies of
economic assessment will help to make the decision, un- rapid reversals as is illustrated in Figure 26.1 with the input en-
tess: ergy equally distributed around the zero acceleration axis. Con-
sequently the tank shuffles around on the spot and any lateral
- The owner, or his engineer have strong views regarding
displacemenb are small. This shuffling about is considered a
the use of anchors. These usually relate to the non-de-
useful and harmless way for the system to increase damping
sirability of attaching anchors to an already highly-
and dissipate the input energy.
stressed part ofthe tank shell. The anchors may require
!!q 65m dio x 27ln high LNr tonk Mg 65n did x27n high LN6 tonk
Led @s. OB 100% horizodol+ 30% vedi@l Ldd .ose OBE 100% horizoni.l - 30% ve.ticol
*zon c.efticient -l
z.fl--o.+loo 'Zo^z c.ztticient
Essntidl Fociliti.s fodor r.[--iE--l i<entidl Focilitier f octor
weighi of l@k shell. insulotion Tsoa- Weighl of rank shell+ insuldtion W,= 1021577 l') T?rn
Roof l@d c.frled by 5hll
Height oJ tdnr shell Hr= 88-58 ft
r-nrl
?r.oo
|- I
Roof led cd.ied by shell
Height of tonk shell
w.= O lb
HJ. 88.58 fr
T-rl
t ,?.@-l
uid 'fork Dionete. D= 213-25 fr f6;_oo I Tdnk Diohetef D: 213.25 lt l-6l-00
his Produ.t specif ic 6.dvity 6.fi---5024 -l P.odlct specif i. Gravit 6=f-nE6-l
I
lm
= z 6ot)
D/H
= 2.600
: 0,613k
D/H
k. 0613
'r= kool = 8.958
ln c?= 3-375 3/12. 0.0166
r. koo5). 8.958
c2.3.375 S/t2 - 00166
bc Wtlwt- 0:4344 wl= 39914438.12 O 4344
Wzlwt. 0.5309 Wz= 44742749-44 Wr/W'= W1= 36355188.86
'tk x/H: 0.3750 Xr. 30.76 W?/q. 0.5309 Wz- 44432695.35
xz/H- 0.5693 Xz- 46.69 X1/H. O.37aO X1 = 30.76
iLn.nr (EBP) lb-fr : 334rt99504.9 xz/H - 0.5693 x, . 46.69
P.oduct weight wL = 6053.70 lblfi
l enent (E8P) lb-ft = 322887096.9
'J Productweight WL=
S Min ridth of onnu,or = 4925 ft -
5777.49 tb/tt
F sloshing mve height d= 0.656 lt Mii widih.f dnrulor 4.28
GHD,/1, . 4335010 sloshihg wove heighi d. 0.656 fr
d shelllii lood GHD,/t,
M/ID1WJ+ W!) : I.0O9 5helllihe lood Wi. 1524.85
Figure 26.22 Spreadsheet calculations for stability and axial compressive Figure 26.23 Spreadsheet calculations forstability and axial compressive
|oaorngs rcaorngs
!!t 65n dio x 27n high !| ronk !S9- 65n dio x 27|n nigh LNG tonl
l4s!L!s$ sse rco% ho.itontdl * 30U wrt 6l L.od c.t sSE I0o% horieitdl- 3o%v.tti6l
,5'o
Thi.lB of fhst .dE f ezoo l* l^.rihuln liquid l.vel H: 42.02 ft T 1
_rhickn
Thi.l6*s of @nuhB pldtd T ro.oo l.'" $ of fa.sr cou.s. |z16-l
Yi.ld siretdn of omhrs r,,.f-J5@-*ltuzin' ThicloBs of .irEh.s pldta f-63o-l
l in yi.ld of 13t @urs. rn = l--ffi--lturin' Yield srreryth of orrul@s Fq.f--ffi-lturin'
FoE e.fficidt l^in yield of lsi cours? r,".|--ffi-.]tuuin'
sir. I nplifi..rion fodd "'=|"-_-l
s.l 1.0o I For.e coefficient =f-o;-l
c'
site Arnplif icotion fdctor s:l r.@ I
W.irhl ot ronk @nr.ii3
Weight of tonk contnis wl: 3112963719
- 2.600
0/H
, = 0.613
T.k(Dd5). a.95a 6/H= ?.600
C2: 3.375 s/T? : 0.0135
I : 0.613
wl/Wi. 0.4344 wt= 44O7f444.59 T. k(Dot) = 8.956
W,/W'. 0-5309 W,.53870759,14 c2 :3.375 s/.'2. 0.0135
Xt/ta= O3IAJ Xr = 30.76 wy'W.= 0.4344 Wt. 32459497.b?
x,/H: 0,5693 X2= 46.69 wrl4. 0.5309 W,: {01503?0.8
l.ndt (ESt) lb-fi = 937391231 X,/H : 0.3750 X, = 30.7b
Product rejghr wL. 1212996 lb/ft X/H: 0.5693 X, = 46.69
l{in width of omkr : 73U lt iLn r$ G8P) lb-fr : 6984?51Y.4
5l6hin9 ME h.ignr d= 1-?91 ft P.oduci ri9hi wt= 9o42.al lb/L
6H6"F . 1331396
sh.ll liE load . M46.72 lbltt l in wadrh of .nelqr = 7.304 f+
d-
Wt
Sloshiis *6ve heighi 1.291 tr
. 7.475
^.!/lo'(wi*wJ
M lo'g .olnp fft. 6 : 797A2.A6 l6/lt 6Hb'/{ . t36a295
r4itudjel @nP 5116 6254.5a lb/inz shelllihe lodd wl: 1378.39 lb/ft
otkMbl coinp iifd F,. 49A4.68 lb/i.z l 4D'z(wi* wD = 1 475
|mx loig conp for@ b = 59472.33 lh/tr
chck !i..sg dlebl. conP.6iv. !tr4 sceed.d
= Wornhg longiiudiml .onp s+fss 4662.34 lb/i,J
olloftbL @hPte$iv. st,B O(
Enhohc.d .lloebr. comp dr63 F,= 49W.6a lb/i^z
-
chal srohili'y ol' check sire$e. : Ol
zIq+\atdzrc2=A. (mlu.s of z did c,.djGr.d r. suir) chak ndbility : Ok
amslor lhte rhicktEs iMr@.d to lllow d tukhor.d $iurroh
Eotros shll couE. 6lso ind.@d to ollow oh uMchorsd $lution N.ie ZIc'=iiand 2TCr:,t" 1o erit)
(wiues of Z 6nd C, adjusted
Othc. low *ell cdr36 tjll rcquir. chcli'g fof 4Pr6ive str4 dd 5ow lnruld. pldle thickrcss inc@!d to dllo{ uekhored solution
on
Sottoh colrse sh.ll plot. thickns. incM!.d fo dlloa oi un nchor.d sorution
(e. Figta 26-24)
ap|.""O"n""t calculations for stability and axial compressive Figure 26.25 Spreadsheet calculations for stability and axial compressive
lJSOrffi.rO toaotngs
of friction of 0.40. B
tank bottom will be constructed of9% nickelsteeland the base
insulation willmost usuallybe capped with a concrete screed or .
t
BS 7777 This gives no advice regarding this matter.
similar lt is this interface that predominantly concerns the de- n
signer, although it is worth considering the possibility of there o prEN 14620 This gives the following mandatory (i.e. shall
being another interface within the base insulation "sandwich" rather than should) requiremenb n
which may be the more likely slip plane. This is not usually the n
case. Assuming the 9% nickel steeliconcrete screed situation
- Horizontal sliding ofthe tank shall not be allowed
in this case, the efiective ooefficient of friction can vary widely - Friction factors shall be based on literature ortesting I
depending on the surfacefinishes ofthe steeland the concrete.
- For the OBE case a factor of safety of 1.5 shall beap-
The steel can be supplied untreated, shot-blasted or shot-
olied
blasted and primed. The concrete screed can be supplied with
a wide variation of compositions and finishes. Proprietary mate- - Far the SSE case a factor of safety of 1.0 shall beap-
rialssuch as are often used onfactoryfloors and concretewalk- plied
ways can be used to increase the coefficient of friction. I
The resistance-to-sliding throughfriction between the tank bot-
The best source offriction datia is derived from laboratorytests tom plating and whatever lies beneath will impose significant I
rzor..o.tfi.i!nt z=[-o.orE
*l
ilr" rtrtidl F@iliris f.dor r=[--i]ii-l
W.i+t of iq.k 3h.lllin{ldrion &= 1238549 rb | lflr 1
W.igl'r of rdk.6ir.nr.
D/H: 2.600
k= 0 613 Figure 26.27 Figure C4.5lrom Reference 26.3
T= ktDo6) = a.958
C2= 3.375 Sff2. O!:o41
WtIWr= 04344 Wt:440774aa.59
WrlW1: 0,5309 Wr= $47O75t14
x/l: 0.3750 x= 30.76
X?Al: 0-5693 Xz= 46,69
l 6at (EBF) lb-ti = 27361536!.3
PFodu.r w.ighr WL= 1?12956 l6/tr
Min odth of qnnula : 7.304 fi
slhingMw highr d: O.ll7 ll
a\bz/rz : 1831396
sh.ll litr. load Wr = t84A.72 lb/lr
M/tD1W'tw.) . o43o
nd hn9 .ohP f.r.. b = 94f,7-9o lb/I1
longitudind conp.rr.s 74537 lb/it'
.lloeble conp dr.# F. = 49t4.68 lb,li?
chak.t..#ee = Ok
ch.ckltability: Ok
p
2 6 s ei
]!f39:p!!! j!!!!9E!Ep!t
Inc_rsd-di(a|a
W
ho|tl tt'" cclier 6ladrtilm5 thc 6lbr'1l|g psk grod dccetariicrs d[I b. ur.d r. d"rrfriE
if tl'. i||'s td* is sbirct t6 taizurtol stdiB due ro s.irric fr.c.i
o!!E 55E
,tccbnrion of itqdd!. .o{pqsr,
",=f.:,645-1 f o.e:r, 1
@Cdr|lcti{dcc
*E- lqdicft?cc
.@
hortzortrlslidiq t'I
slf |.dgkr
W
ll'a folbaing l.3ds nrrst S oo.6id.rc4
o 5.F r"&||l of tu* dE[, niffas! drd 6rry aiidch.j in$hticr W : f:G6]r.
b E tecti tr6 of tutt c.frbs rhich nlows iI l,|is.ri rith rE k C*ll is irqrli\*; Y,r: fEzlr.
c Ef6".ti!" tl6otftikdrdlnt3di.fi ne!s in t E fst slo*iT hode i.c-.rn crirc %: fiiifiIlr.
&srn'c td* s?F r.iglt Fc*.rr&ds tipubw liquid
4: 4:n 5-OO T.
T6id .tf,lctiri sdf rdghr. S'Wi YrW,rW?
5Ir: t69ta@ TG
3,2 sSE CG
lhi.(rrhl frtr.G, t+= (y . yiq + (g?)q.
f+! rtg-17 L
Totd dnlciiF.dfndgftt, Sl{: t' + yr. y,
SAr: 3AIa.lD Tc
%aant.
/t.f OBE d@
lhdzrrrd ft.c., l*= (W*Ur)c * (Vtq.
+: ,r7 .q) Tc
Fgcrh
5.1 OBE f@
o3lr,rard fq!.. lt= or'[*'t1". ft;* ]
+: 143E8O TG
wnere
AASE
INSJLATId'l R = tank Edius
A = design convective acceleration (g)
MNCRETg This is taken from Reference 26.1.
BASE 5LA8
It is generally accepted thatseismic calculations should be car-
ried out based on the normal maximum tank filling level and not
the very maximum under excursion conditions, (i.e. HHLA
level).
:
::
Lead Core
Steel Load Plates
Steel Reinforcing Plates
Internal Rubber Layers
' ihe impounding system shall, as a minimum, be designed have evaluated the influence of the outer tank itself on the de-
:c withstand an SSE while empty and an OBE whilefull. Af- sign seismic criteria (usually a subsbntial enhancement).
:eran OBE oran SSE there shallbe no loss ofcontainment
:apability.
26.16 References
. An LNG contiainer shall be designed for an OBE, and a
stress-limit check shall be madeforthe SSE to ensure com- 26.1 Guidelines forthe sebmic design of oil and gas pipeline
cliance with above. OBE and SSE analyses shall include systems, Chapter 7 - Seismlc response and design of
Jre effect oi liquid pressure on buckling stability. Stresses liquid storage tanks. Committee on Gas, Liquid fuel life-
lines, American Society of Civil Engineers, November
ior the OBE shall be in accordance with the rules given in
1984, ISBN 087262428 s5.
API 620 and forthe SSE, tension shall not exceed the mate-
rial minimum yield strength, and for compression the critical 26.2 Above Ground Storage larks by Philip E. Myers,
buckling stress (this is forthe metallic components, different Mccraw Hill, ISBN 007 044272 X.
rules are Drovided for Dre-stressed and reinforced concrete 26.3 Seismlc des/gn of storage tanks, Recommendations of
oarts). a Study Group of the New Zealand National Society for
S"N:
: :-E -rind these rules lie two simple but slightly contradictory con- Earthquake Engineering, December 1 986.
Contents:
27.1 Gasholders
27.1.1 Wet seal gasholders
27.1.2 Dry seal gasholders
27.2 Silos
27.2.'l Materials of constuction
27.2.2 Silo shapes
27.2.3 Product removal
27.2.4 Silo design
27.2.5 Codes and design guidance
27.3 Elevated tanks
27.4 References
27.1 Gasholders
Gasholders are probably the most visible large tanks, espe-
cially around the UK. Stemming in the main from the days when
most towns ofany size possessed theirown gas works, the spi-
ral-guided wet seal types are still a common site, often withjn
the built up areas of towns. The dry seal types of gasholder are
often associated with industrial plant such as steelworks and
are more often sited in industrial areas, but are highly visible
due to their height.
Although Sforage Tanks & Equipmenf is directed mainly to-
wards liquid storage systems, it is interesting to look at
gasholders which in many instances led the way in the design
and construction of large storage tanks.
Little seemsto have been written about gasholders bycompari-
son with their liquid storing companions. What is available is
somewhat dated, so that the brief descriptions which follow Figure 27.1 Askeich ofan exiernallyJramed wei seal gasholder
may not reflect current practices accurately, for which the au-
thor apolog ises. lt is interesting that in the introduction to Refer-
ence 27.1, the afihor l\,4r R.J.Milbourne observes "At the pres-
ent time (1923), when the attention of the gas industry the
Institution of Gas Engineers, and the Board of Education is be-
ing so wisely directed to the education and technical training of
young men forthe Gas Engineering profession, it is a matterfor
regret that the publications obtainable on Gasholder Design
and Construction are neither numerous nor exhaustive.".
There do not appear to be any Standards or codes of practice
covering the design and construction of gasholders.
There is a document published by the lnstitution of cas Engi-
neers (Reference 27.2) which covers the design of both wet
and dry seal gasholders in a very general manner. The main
thrust of this document seems to be the safe operation and
maintenance ofthese structures. NeveTtheless, it does contain
a lot of useful information, some of which is repeated below
A quite detailed description of the design of spirally-guided
gasholders by M.A.Thompson has also come to light (refer Figure 27.2 Asketch of a spiral-guided wet seal gasholder
ence 27.3), so ifthere is a resurgence ofinterest in this subject, or lifts are supported against lateral loads and guided by a sub-
then we will at least have something to refer to, albeit rather stantialframework. An example is shown schematically in Fig-
dated. ure 27.1. The first is where the external guide framing is equal
Thanks must go to Mr Peter Hutchinson who has also provided to the full height of the top of the top lift when the holder is fully
a lot of what follows. inflated. The second is where the guide framing is shorter al-
lowing the top lift to protrude above itwhen fully inflated, and the
27.1.1 Wet seal gasholders third type having no externalframing at all. This latter type is the
spiral-guided gas holder which is most familiar to us today. The
l\,4ost ofthis Section is abstracted from Reference 27 i .fhis pa-
spiraltype is shown schematically in Figure 27.2 and a photo-
graph of such a holder is shown in Figure 27.3.
per is a compilation of a series of articles which appeared in
1922, written by Mr R.J. lvlilbourne, managing director of C & W The reasons for such large capacities may lie in a combination
Walker Ltd, describing various aspects of the design and con-
struction of a 12.5 million cubic feet capacity gasholders in Syd-
ney, Australia.
Thjs type of gasholders seems to have been made in large ca-
pacities for a long time. In 1880 the world's largest holder was
recorded at 5.5 million cubic feet (155,700 m3). In 1887 two
holders of6.25 million cubicfeet (172,100 ms)were built in Bir-
mingham and in 1888 a holder of 8.5 million cubic feet (249,700
m3) capacity was constructed at East Greenwich. In 1892 a
six-lift holder of 12 million cubic feet (339,800 m3) was built. For
some years this was the world's b;ggest gasholder until it was
overtaken by two in the USA, each of 14 million cubic feet
(396,400 m3) capacity.
Bearing in mind the fact that we currently consider a crude oil
tank big at 100,000 m3 and large LNG tanks are being consid-
ered at 200.000 m3, these are massive structures and one can
only admire the nerve of the designers and erectors of such
holders.
Three types of wet seal gasholders are described. The first two
arethe externally-framed typeswhere the various moving parts Flgure 27.3 A spiral-guided wet sealgasholder
g
!H
-7
2,
l6
,2
.,
il
OE.TAILS OF CUF CARRIAGES PLAN Of. ]OP CARR1ACES
OIJ}ER LIFT
: !ure 27.4 Some detail ol ihe 12.5 million ft3 wet seal gasholder
of the economies of scale together with the presumption at the 27,1.2 Dry seal gasholders
time that to ensure economical working of the facility, the stor-
age capacity provjded should equal the daily output of the Dry seal gasholders are most usually associated with steel-
gas-making plant.
works where their function is to capture and contain the gases
The 12.5 million cubic foot capacity holder described in Refer- issuing from the blast furnaces for both economic (these gases
ence 27.1, was ordered in 1913 by the Australian Light Gas have usefulflammable portions) and the more obvious environ-
Company, of Sydney, NSW, from Messrs. C & W Walker Ltd, mentat reasons.
Nilidland lron Works of Donnington, near Newport, Shropshire, There are a number of proprietary designs for dry seaL
UK. All ofthe steelwork was fabricated in the Donnington works gasholders which are licensed to a small number of fabricators
with the first shipment leaving in September 1913 and the last in and constructors. Amongst these are the M.A.N., Klonne.
December 1915. Wiggins and Hammond types. Little has been written about th s
The excuse for this lengthy fabrication period is attributed to type of gasholder over the years.
problems associated with the enlistment of workmen, the diffi-
An exception to this trend was an article in The Gas Joumal.
culties of transport and the prior claims of the N4inistry of Niluni- dated August 1933, by lvlr W. Beswick, who was at that time the
tions and the Admiraltyfor the manufacture of munitions of war. managing director of Ashmore, Benson and Pease Ltd of
In March '1917, the holder was inflated, tested and put into com-
Stockton-on-Tees, who were licensed builders of the Kl<inne
mission. lt apparently gave every "satisfaction in service". The type of dry seal gasholders. This article describes a holder of
fixed lower shell was 300 feet (9'1 .44 m) in diameter, the guide
126' 0" (38.4 m) in diameter and 180' 6" (55.0 m) in heightto the
frame is 188 feet (57.30 m) high and the crown ofthe roof is 202
curb. This was of2.0 million cubic feet (56,600 m3) capacity and
feet (61.57 m) above the internalwater level. There are four lifls
was erected in the UK atYork. A generalelevation ofthis struc-
and some indication ofthe complexity ofthe watersealing sys-
ture is shown in Fioure 27.6.
tem and various details can be seen in Figure 27 .4.
The completed holder is shown in Figure 27.5.
The internal gas pressure varied as the holder filled due to the
changing weight supported, so that when:
. the inner lift only is inflated 5.6 ins watergauge
. the inner & second lifts are inflated 7.8 ins water gauge
. the inner, second & third lifts are inflated 9.8 ins watergauge
. allofthe lifts are raised 11 .6 ins watergauge
Distant memories of elderly relatives complaining that "the gas
pressure is down" whilst cooking Sunday lunch, may not only
have been due to the peaking of gas consumption, but also the
decreasing pressure in the system as the local holder was
emptied.
In several ways these gasholders were easier to design than
their liquid containing counterparts:
. The internal pressures were modest as described above
. There are no axial compressive loads applied to the lifts
apart from the self-weight of each lift
. The roof framing is always supported by internal gas pres-
sure when the inner lift is raised or by an internal wooden
framing when it is lowered Figure 27.6 A generalelevation of a 2.0 m llion ft3 capacity dry sealgasholder
The bulk of the vertical shells or lifts are carbon steel of either The complex arrangement of guide rollers, dry seals and oi
0.25" or No. 9 lmperial Standard Gauge (0.144") thickness. seals are shown in Figure 27. 7. The stability of the piston was
The majority of the roof plating is No. 8 lmperial Standard improved by arranging a concrete weight as low as possible as
Gauge (0.160") thickness. shown in Figure 27.8. As in ship design, this gave a centre oi
buoyancy above the centre of gravity. This could also be sized
to suit the desired gas storage pressure.
The shell was a true cylinder, (rather than the polygonal shape
adopted by some other gasholder types), and was of riveted
construction using counter sunk rivets to give a smooth internal
surface. The turret located at the centre of the dome roof con-
tains an electrically-powered liftwhich gives access to the top of
the piston. Such wasthe confidence in the efficiency ofthe seal-
ing arrangements that operators entered this space and wefe
lowered onto the top surface of the piston for inspection and
greasing operations whilst the holder was in service.
A list of gasholders of this type in service at the time of writing
the article is shown in Figurc 27.9. The 6.0 million ft3
(170,000 m3) gasholder for the Syracuse Lighting Company in
; :r*. the USA is a monster by any standards and perhaps the world's
biggest.
Figure 27.5 The completed 12.5 million ft3 wei seal gasholder Dry seal gas holders of this type were frequently fitted with an
}.rJu.IonlDd@ia'rkl'Kbj$h
l-J:- ?du< Im lDduwia Lrd., xhtu
cg worlrr, B.yo,n.
Gs CoDBrr, Mon@lnr
sosi.d du Gs d.Pff,!, vUdt Glr worta -
soci.la d E.u .r d. rEohin{.. L. M!.!, ca
wor,c, k Mr4
Cir, dq BouLonnn! Gr wqlc, A
- SL Ch.dnd -
Urbntt ud q'qer SUDpD comDlB Glr work'
:igurc 27.7 The sealing arangemenls for a dry seal gasholder Se- ToMid Azi.ndr, Gd Wrlc, Flar.M '
Snoq Lilhdnr Coopuy, sF
Phirrd.lDhh Gd wdkq Rddidt . -
Co.sD6' Pow* Cm@t, xrlh
_)
27 Miscellaneous stonge syslems
Steel rubbing
sii
9
m
e)
Figure 27.11 Atypicaltar sealarrangement for a M.A.N. type dry seal b(
a(
ages or inadequate flow rates. 27.12, is anothet wide ranging document containing a great
deal of useful intormation regarding steel silos.
To ensure that the outflow rates are suited to the plant produc-
tion or the vehicle loading requirements, it is common to utilise When discussing silo design, it would be unfair not to mention
devices for this purpose. These take a number of forms involv- Professor J.M.Rotter of the Universities of Sydney and Edin-
tE ing air injection, vibration and local modification of the dis- burgh, who over the years has published an enormous volume
ciarge connection. Many propriebry devices and details are of material on this subject.
)c{ found in this area of aclivtty. Reference 22.5 contains descrip-
)cf tions of a number of commonly adopted solutions with com-
27.3 Elevated tanks
ment on their various applications and advantages.
Most elevated tanks are for the storage ofwater and also serve
Flat-bottomed silos require specialised equipment to remove
to maintain the waterpressure in the locality. Some arethe rect-
their contents. This usually takes the form of screw type dis-
chargers, often fitted into suitable recesses in the silo base.
angular Braithwaite types, supported by brick or steel struc-
tures which are afeature ofairfields, factories and occasionally
]:ts
urban settings. The Braithwaite type of tank is rectangular in
Xr_l 27.2.4 Silo design form and made up of factory-fabricated panels, which are
r bolted together. The internal pressure from the contained liquid
b- The design of silos for the storage and handling of particulate is resisted by a system of internal rods stressed in tension.
solids is more difficult than the design of liquid storage tanks.
The cylindrical elevated watertianks, usually supported by rein-
ir The determination of the required properties ofthe stored ma-
forced concrete structures are also common.
la terialsandthe loading applied bythese materialsto the silo un-
>-- derstatic and dynamic conditions are complex. One ofthe ma- In the USA in particular, elevated water toweF made of steel
jor differences between liquid storage ianks and silos is thatthe and supported on either a steelframework orthe more elegant
ts solid product gives rise to longitudinal or axial loadings on the single central column are to be found. These are often made in
vessel shell in addition to the internal pressure loadings. lt is the form of a well-known local product or other interesting
hese loadings which tend to dictate the wall thickness of the
!5 silo.
ne
The early silos wereforthe storage ofwheatand were designed
d using methods derived from the field of soil mechanics. The
s-
work of Janssen (Reference 27.6) dating from 1895, is cited in
Milo S. Ketchum's book, (Reference 27.n as the method of de-
- termining the radialand verticalforces in silowalls (in the chap-
F ter on Steel Grain Elevators). This remained the method of de-
riving these forces until the 1970s when work of Jenike,
Johanson and Carson were published ( References 27.8, 27.9
n
and 2Z 70). These provided more sophisticated methodswhich
: took account of certain additional oressures which occurred
during product movement conditions, especially in the cylindri-
f cal-to-conical jointarea. Atoraround thistime there seemed to
f be an upsurge of interest in silo design and numerous papers
r were published. Atrawlthrough the bibliographies ofthe listed
references will provide the interested student with any amount
6 of reading on the subject. A plot ofthe internal pressures com-
,! puted using various different methods is included as Figure
I 27.14 where the pressure spike at the cylinder/cone junction is
f quite apparent.
t
27.2,5 Codes and design guidance
A useful guide to silo design is found in Reference 27.11. Figure 27.15 The steel "peach" water tower
A second publication, again produced jointly, see Reference cau'lesy ol Chicago Bridge & lron Conpany (CB & l)
-J
27 Miscellaneous stonge systems
27.4 References
27.'l Design and construction of a 12.5 million ft3 gasholder,
R.J. l\.4ilbourne, Managing Director of C. & W. Walker
Ltd, Donnington,Shropshire, first published as a series
ofarticles bythe Gas Journal ('1922) and lateras a com-
pilation by Walter King Ltd (1923).
27.2 Low-pressure gasholders storing lighterthan air gases:
Safety recommendations: IGE/SR/4 Edition 2 Commu-
nication 1624, The lnstitution of Gas Engineers, Lon-
don, June 1996
27.3 Designing spira y-guided gas holders, M.A.Thompson,
reprintedfrom the Gas Times by Hallowsand Slaughter,
Grove Road, Leighton Buzzard, 1 940.
27.4 Bulk 2000 : Bulk materials handling towards the year
2000, International conference sponsored by the Bulk
Figure 27- 16 "The world" water tower Materials Handling Committee of the Process Indus-
CowTesy af Chicaga Bidge & lron Conpany (CB & l) tries Division of the L Mech.E., October 1991.
27.5 Solving problems in hopper and sl/o sysfems, from a
seminar organised bythe Bulk Materials Handling Com-
mittee of the Process Industries Division of the
l.Mech.E., June 1996.
27.6 Versuche Aber cetreidedruck in Silozellen,
H.A.Janssen, Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher
Ingenieure1895.
27.7 The Design of Walls, Binsand Eleyators, M.S.Ketchum,
Mccraw Hill 1909
27.8 Bin loads - Paft 2: Concepts, A.W. Jenike, J.R.
Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no. 72-lVlH-1
1972.
27.9 - Paft 3: Mass Flow Bins. A.W. Jenike. J.R.
Bin loads
Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no. 72-MH-2
1972.
27 .10 Bin loads * Pad
2: Funnel Flow Bins. A.W. Jenike. J.R.
Johanson, J.W. Carson, ASME, Paper no.72-MH-3
1972.
27.11 The Draft Code of Practice forthe Deslgn ofs,'7og B,ns,
Bunkers and Hoppers, The Institution of Mechanical
Engineers and the British Materials Handling Board.
27.12 Useful lnformation on the Design of Stee/ B/ns and S/-
Figure 27,17 An elevated watertoweron a concfete masonry column
/os, John R. Buzek, - The American lron and Steel Insti-
Coulesy of Chicago Bidge & lron Conpany (CB & I) tute and the Steel Plate Fabricators Association lnc..
1989.
shapes. Many of these water towers in the USA were con-
structed by Chicago Bridge & lron Company, indeed the com-
27.13 ANSI/AV|/WA D 10096: AVIWA Standard for Welded
Slee/ Slorage lanks for Water Storage , AW WA, Denve r
pany's in house magazine was called The Water Tower. Some
Colorado.
examples are shown in Figures 27.15, 27 .'16 and 27 l7 . fhe
design of such structures for seismic loadings is both interest- 27.14 ANSUAWWA D 103-97: AWWA Standard for Fac-
ing and challenging. Any failures would be very public evenb! tory-coated Bolted Steel Tanks for Water Storage.
AWWA, Denver. Colorado.
The design of steel water tanks in the USA is covered by the
American Water Works Association Code D 100, (Reference 27.15 ANSI/AWWA D 110:95: AIUWA Standard for Wire and
2Z 73). This is an interesting document in that it is not so tied to Strand Wound Circular Prestressed Concrete Water
the practices ofthe petrochemicalindustry as most ofthe other Ianks, AWWA, Denver. Colorado.
liquid storage codes. lt is written in a refreshingly different way 27.'16 ANSUAVVWA Standard for Circular Prestressed Con-
and has its own view of what is appropriate. lt is well worth crete Water Tanks with Circumferential Tendons.
spending a bit of time with for those interested in storage tank AWWA. Denver. Colorado.
.R
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28.1 Introduction The storage tanks section (Section 28.3) is preceded by the
names and addresses and contact details of all comoanies ao-
The guide classifies liquid storage tanks into main groups: pearing in the guide.
. Ambient temperature A
Names and addresses Section 28,2
. Low temperature -
The principal ambient liquid storage tank types are then classi-
This Section has been based on a questionnaire sent to manu- :
facturers and suppliers woddwide. Where possiblethe informa-
fied by:
tion supplied has been used. Full company and contact details a
. Vertical cylindrical above ground hnks are given. Companies are listed alphabetically, by country of
. Maximum diameter
origin. i
. l\y'aterials of construction Storage tank types
- Section 28.3.
. Other types of above ground tanks The data presented in this Section is based on the same ques-
tionnaire. Where possible all the information supplied has been
. In or below ground lanks
used. Discussions were held with many companies to ensure
Low temperature Iiquid storage bnk types are classified by: wherever possible, that their activities were correcfly inter-
preted. There will however inevjtably be some overlapping due
. Tank type
to limitations of descriptions and space, and the information
. Capacity given is for guidance only. Where there was doubt in interpret-
. Products stored
ing the data, some of it has been omitted. lt is strongly recom-
mended that direct contact with all companies be made to en-
. Containment type sure their details are clarified wherever necessary E.
. Materials for primary and secondary conbiners Ancillary equipment and services Section 28.4
The guide has been classified in this way to impose tight bound-
-
Also based on the same questionnaire, this Section lists com- s,
ary limits on categories with the specific aim of simplifying the
panies alphabetically underthe relevant productor service and
choice of supplier from the user's point of view.
with their country of origin. Ambient temperaiure tank ancillar-
Although these are not always strictly logical, it should be obvi- ies are listed first, followed by those for lowtemperature tanks.
ousto both userand manufacturer what is meantbya particular
group or ancillary equipmenVservice. Trade names Section 28.5 t
-
The guide also covers the essential ancillary equipment and This Section has been compiled similarly. lt lists companies al-
services usually available for both ambient and low tempera- phabetically under the relevant trade name and with country of
ture tanks. Trade names are comprehensively listed as well. oflqtn.
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29 Reference lndex
The refercnce jndex conlains a large n umber of key words used wiihin the industry. lt ists the page numbers on which the key
wofds are used. The list ofcontents al the siad ofeach chaDteralso Dfovides a usefutouide.
Acoess arrangements
As{onstructed foundation tolerances 250
365 E
APl650 requirements 25Q
307 E
BS 2654 Equiremenls 251
247 E
prEN 14015 requnernenis 251
Air Eising ot tank roofs 452 E
ASItE 8.96.'l 220
Double-Walled lank 453 t
asMEv t 216
Pre-Shessed concete ouier tank 452 I
13,438
Aluminium alloys 438, 351, 361,442
Austenitic stainless stesl
I
99,434,442
Ambient temphture lanks 't5 I
Automaied welding method6 461
Ancillary equipmenl and nliings 185 I
7,'t00
Design 15
22, 26, 319, 334, 335
Design ol tankrools lixed 113
Axial compression loadings 324
Design oftank roois - floating 153
Erectiorconsid-arations 235 B
249 Base heating sFtems 415
Fabr calion considerations 231 380,466
Layoul ol tank installalions 257 Baseinsulallonrnatrlals centalarea 384
Non-verlical cylindrcal tanks and other iypes 215 Base insu ation free oforganic maleriats 386
Nozle des gn and efiecl ofapplied oading 103
Base insuation materials- periphera area 387
Materia se eclon crileria 219
B asl iurnace sag 387
263
384
245
composit sysloirs . 387
338 385
APl620 Append x R appDach
338 384,466
L quid @nlaining mela lic lanks
Cenira, crown rinq design calculation 133
Non lqud conlan ng metal clanks 340
charpyv-notch impact testing 22 t,225, 337 , 4X8, 444
341
chicago Bridge & hon Company 13
Llqu d conla n ng metallc tanks
Civil monitoring syslems 424
Non- iqLid contalning metallc tanks 341
column-supported roof s 115
prEN 14620 approach 341
Compression area forfixed roor tanks 80
Bottom boom of the truss 131
API lmitatons lor the length ol the rooi compresslon area 83
Boltom oorner protection systems 362
83
CalcLlating lhe compresslon zone area
Compression zones 81
4,2't6,509
BS and API Code difiernces oi allowab e
Brine-based heating sYsten 416 compressive svess 82
34 toAP a2
Compression zone area Code
British slandards Institution (BsD 13
Compresson zone area lo BS Code 81
220
cosl-effecl ve design 88
BS 150'l aea 8l
Derivation ofthe requned conpresson zone
BS 2454 I
Effecl of rooi slope on cross-sectrona area 81
BS 2654 19,20.27, 90, 114, ',t54, 190, ',|92, 193,
206, 221,222,225,232, 236, 246, 274,277 86
F lsh lype cear-oLt doofs 188 Rationa islng the calcu ation 86
188 Roof compresson area 86
D 131
Tankdesgnedforanoperatingp.esslreof 7.5mbar 91
Heated storage tanks 1,6,243
Hsavy or viscous products 283
Fomua as exprcssed n APL650 90
30
Addiliona requiremenrs to APl650 90
Historical background lo stobge tanks 3
Formula as expressed in BS 2654 90
History of the design and construction regulations 7
Addit onal requiremenis lo BS 2654 90
American standards
Frangib e rooliointtheory 89
8
Chicago Bridge Engineerrg Standards 13
EE]\4UA 94 13
Cornpany Slandards
89 EEMUASiandard 13
l',4arimum @mpression zone area a lowab e 89 Eubpean Standards I
Other iactors affecting lhe frangible roofconneclon 90 Euon basic PclL@s 13
90 Olher European nat onal Slandards 13
Heai breaks lor roof conneciions 393 Leak detection and pfevention ofground conbmination 254
Heat breaks iortank botom connections 395 254
Heat breaks tortank sidewallcofnecl ons 394 EENIUA 255
400 Probabil iy oi botlom eakage 255
Base insulalion failure 400 Liqueried Natuhl Gas (LNG) 6, 29'1, 293, 30?, 310,
317.36A,393, 400, 426, 462
409
Liqueried Peholeum Gas (LPG) 7 , 216, 291, 292, 420.473, 426
Exlernal vapoLr sealing 409
467
409
Insulation syslems for tow temperature ianks 377
Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) I
456
Basic design and maleral requirements 379
217
Basic requ rements oi the insLlaiion sysiem 375
495
Design Code f equirements 380
ExlernaL pipework insu ation 395 2al
lnsla lalon cons derations 379 LNG 6,291,426
Insulation ctegones 379 6, 216, 2S3, 303, 308, 412
Iniernal f loating roofs 156 Anc llary equipment and littings 411
Types of inlemaL I oal ng rooG 173 Ammon a slorage a sp-"c alcase 425
Double cortainment sysiems 294
Erectior considerallons
173
435
Pontoon and skin roof '173
Ful conla nmenl syslems 300
Internal pipework insulation 395
291
Interna! shuGoff valves 417
Historica background 292
LNG tank at Slaten sland 293
454 Qatar LPG term na 294
242 377
308
BS 7777 302
Comparison ot above ground membranetanks
Storage of induslria gases in liquid lorm 249
and convenlionallanks 306
294
Tank slzjns considerations
DeveLopment history 303
30
EN 1473 302
LOX and LIN 365, 395 Land-based membranesysiem 304
LPG 7 , 216, 291, 426 lnsllation sysiem 306
476
lMeia lic membrane 304
291
Outeriank 306
M The knot 304
507 Lined mined rock cavem iniliative fof tuturc LNG slorage 307
Magnetic Panicla Flaw Detection {MPl) 433 LNG cariiers 303
285 NFPA 59A 342
295 prEN 14620 342
245 lrreial arc wlding 241
234 lrelhane 334
441 lrilf scale 234
234 Mineralwool 390
itaterial groups, 5lUni6 223 Minimum impact test rquifemenb 224
Itaterial quality control 221 Minimum spacing requirements 475
232 Miscellaneous storagesFtems 503
Itaterial seclion critria for low tempeEturetanks 438 Wire wound lype 461
5
Pressurevesse,s 1,215
Pre-stressed concror.lanks 309, 460, 461
"One foot" method or rule 28, 60
Preshessing bultresses 370
Operating Basis Earthquake (OBE) 2f4,443
Probablo Design Earlhquake (PDE) 445
ODaraton and maintenance of ambient temDerature tanks 275
Product identification 277
2AT
Producl liquid pressuresacting on tank shells 489
Product identlicanon 277
2TT
APt620 490
B3T77T 490
277
prEN 14620 490
Wilh lnternaL i oat ng covers 277
Protessor A. S. Tooth 31 , 43, 56, 63, 'l04, 1'16
Floating rooi lanks 277 Propane 6,291,394
Op.raiion of fixed roof hnks 274 Propylene 291
F xed roof lanks with interna ioaiing coveB 279
R
Hazardous atmospheres 279
279 Radial raiter type cone roof '124
Pessurised LPG storage 474 ELropean Code prEN 14015 requiremenls 193
NFPA58 47O
176
Compresslon p ale type sea s '177
Pressudsed LP-Gas siorage 470
177
Relrlgerated LP Gas storage 4TO
Seals incorporating foam dams 177
NFPA5g 471
177
Pressurised LP-Gas storage 471
Liqu d flled fabric sea 176
Refr seraled LP-Gas sioEge 471
176
Reinfofced and prestrcssed concrete component design 367
Resi inl foam-rlled seal '176
General 367
345
Tank bases 367
APl620approach (Appendices R and O) 345
Tank rools 374
345
Tankwals 368
prEN 14620 approach 346
Above groLnd tanks 368
234
Bonom corner delails 372 174
In-groundtanks 372 Roof water drench system 421
Preslressedconcretewal-intemaltendonlype 369 Roof5 wlth no supporting st.ucture 116
Prestressed corcrete wall
- wirc woundlype 371 Co umn-supported oofs 142
Reiniorced conc.ete wal wilh earlh embankment 372 cdumnseeclion 143
Top comerdetais 373 116
Rinfored base slab 468 selisuppodns cone (of membEne oo0 116
Reinrorced concrete 101 Thickness of roof plating 116
Reinfored concrete roofs 345, rt59 117
Refoase Prevention Barier(RPB) 254 116
Resetue capacily relief valve 420
Folded plate lype 118
Rim venb 174
122
Risk Based Inspection (RBl) 433 '122
Rivetted and weld.d structures f 122
45,101,133
122
279
122
'182,232
Roofs wilh supponing strLclures
174
179 Cenlral crown ring 127
180 123
pN 14620approach 360
244
Requiremenis ofAPl 620 355
Surface proteotion fof plates and sections 234
APl620 Appendix R 358
360
APl620AppendixQ 358
prEN 14620 approach 362
APl620 secUon 5 355
Requ rcments oJAPl620 361
Design of heat breaks 358
Requ remenis oi BS 7777 361
180 ReqLirements of BS 7777 358
Innerlank and olterliquid @ntaining lank
Connecting pipework bendeen innef and
Tankaccess 198 oulerlank @nnect ons 359
Horizontal p adorms 199 Outer @niainer moLntings 358
Rada slancase 198 36
sp Elsla rcase 198
American Code requnernenls 39
Vertlladde6 199
Annular plates >12.5 mm thick
Tankanchorage 350
F oorairangementlor ianks requiring optmum drainage
BS 7777 requirehents ?51
F oors lormed from lap welded plates only 40
p|EN 14620 app@ach 352
Requiremenls ol API 620 Appendix Q 351
Ldpppd loor pates. oraniJldrpa,a' 12.5 rm ifi.k 40
tanks
Liquid conlaining
Shel tofloorplatewelds considebtion
351
for speciic maleria s 4A
Nor-Lquid @ntainng tanks 351
Tank foors wh ch requne specia @nsideralion
Requnenrenls ol API 620 Appendix R 350
Brtish Code rcquirenrenls 36
Liqlid conlaning metalictanks 350
Tanks above 12.5 m diamelef 37
TankanchoEge furthef considerations 94
Tanks up to and includng 12.5 m diameler 36
Anchorage attachmenl 94
Env ronmenial @nsideralions 42
Spacifg ofanchors 94
Floor p aie arngements 36
Wind loading and internalseryice pessurc 94
424
Worked example 94
246, 433
Anchorage ca cu alion 97
Tank ja6king {or jack buildins) 454
Check for iranqib lity 99
454
Comp eiion oiiank design 95
Welding and inspeclior 454
Design oflhe anchoge 98 454
Alax mum urstifiened height otlhe shell 95 284
Ovefturning momenl due io wind action only 9T Permii-lo-work syslems 244
Overturning moment due io wind acton while in sewice 97 Work on equipment n operation 244
147
493 246
Vacuum bor testing method
495 24,206
496 306
Tank stability under seismic loadings 490 19,56
"variable design point" method
196 5T
Botlom shel course
197 63
Conparison of the thickness resulls
197 lcllaion
Delaibd "vadable des gn point method 63
196 56
Method deveLopmeni
Prcssurc and vacuum (P &V)valves 197 60
Tanks produced in slainless steel materials 99 Shel siifiening gnde6 76
-wind
Technigd mmbEne 304 Comparison behveen Brilish and American
241 secondary wind girder requnmerts 78
4a
Weld edge preparalion 233
Wells Wde Plat6 (wWP) tests 29, 221, $4, $O Ronon and stress analysis 4A
507
Shell-to-bottom connection
Wind and vacuum stiffonlng ambisnt temperature bnt(s 43
- lvind and vacuum stiftuning
51 low temperature lanks - 324, 334, 336, 338
Ch@sing BS or APt shelt thickness design methods 53 239
51 Saiety measurcs against wind damage 240
Shelldesign slresses 51 Wlndenburg and Tdlling 329
Shell plate lhicknesses 53 wlnd girder *ctions
Use of shell design fomuiae 53 318
Worked examples 56 30
P mary wind gideE 43 Wire wound .oncrele lank walls 372
Wlre wound concrele waGr tanks 1
43
Rfining the dsign technique 43 z
Secondary wind sidels 45 57,63,328
Advant ca
Alibert Buckhorn UK Ltd
Amadeus Pss Ltd
Anderson Greenwood
Angus Fie
Antuerp Gas Termina NV
API (Amedcan Pelrcleum Inslitute)
BSI
Cell U Foam CoQoralion
CEN (Eumpan Commifiee for Slandad zalion)
chi@so B dse& lrcn Company(CB&l)
DEPA S,A.
DOT (US Depadmeni of Transportalion)
Eadhquake Proleclion Syslems Inc
EEMUA
EFIVA
Enagas
Endrcss+Hausr Systems & GauginS Ltd
Energy (formedy the Institute ofPetrcLeum)
'nstiluie tci Plc
lnslitute of Petroleum
lntemalional Code Council (lCC)
JFE Engineering Corpoiion
LNG JoumEl
lM W Kellogg Lid
IMB Engineering Se ices Lid
McTay
Molhsrwel Conlrol Syslems Lld
N FPA (NaUonal Fire Poleclion Association)
Nikkiso Cryo ELrrop
Philips Pelrcleum Company
Pilt-Des Molnes lnc
Pittsburgh Corning Corpoalion
Prsload lnc
Recinco NV
Roya Aronautca Soc ely
Roya Vopak
Seetru Ltd
Sinclair Slainless Fab cations Ltcl
SN Technigaz
Sui Generis Intemational Ltd
xxviii
Taylor Woodrow Construction
TesTex NDT Ltd 527
Tmctebel Gas Engineering GmbH vi
PROCESS
ffiffi
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ioning solulions for
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