Introduction to Computers

What Is A Computer?
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of
instructions (software) stored in its own memory unit, that can accept
data (input), manipulate data (process), and produce information
(output) from the processing.
Generally, the term is used to describe a collection of devices that
function together as a system.

Devices that comprise a computer system

Monitor Speaker
(output) (output) System unit
(Processor, memory)
Printer

Mouse
(input)
Scanner Keyboard
(input) (input)
Storage devices
(CD-RW, Floppy,
Hard disk, zip,)
What Does A Computer Do?
Computers can perform four general operations, which comprise the
information processing cycle.

Input
Process

Output

Storage

Data and Information

All computer processing requires data, which is a collection of raw facts,
figures and symbols, such as numbers, words, images, video and sound,
given to the computer during the input phase.
Computers manipulate data to create information. Information is data
that is organized, meaningful, and useful.
During the output Phase, the information that has been created is put into
some form, such as a printed report.
The information can also be put in computer storage for future use.
Why Is A Computer So Powerful?
The ability to perform the information processing cycle with amazing

speed.
Reliability (low failure rate).
Accuracy.
Ability to store huge amounts of data and information.
Ability to communicate with other computers.
How Does a Computer know what to do?
It must be given a detailed list of instructions, called a compute program

or software that tells it exactly what to do.

Before processing a specific job, the computer program corresponding to
that job must be stored in memory.
 Once the program is stored in memory the compute can start the operation
by executing the program instructions one after the other.

What Are The Primary Components Of A Computer?

Input devices.

Central Processing Unit (containing the control unit and the

arithmetic/logic unit).
Memory.
Output devices.
Storage devices.
Input Devices

Keyboard.

Mouse.

The Keyboard

The most commonly used input device is the keyboard on which data
is entered by manually keying in or typing certain keys. A keyboard
typically has 101 or 105 keys.

The Mouse

Is a pointing device which is used to control the movement of a mouse

pointer on the screen to make selections from the screen. A mouse has one to
five buttons. The bottom of the mouse is flat and contains a mechanism that
detects movement of the mouse.
The Central processing Unit
The central processing unit (CPU) contains electronic circuits that
cause processing to occur. The CPU interprets instructions to the computer,
performs the logical and arithmetic processing operations, and causes the
input and output operations to occur. It is considered the brain of the
computer.

Memory

Memory also called Random Access Memory or RAM (temporary memory)

is the main memory of the computer. It consists of electronic components
that store data including numbers, letters of the alphabet, graphics and
sound. Any information stored in RAM is lost when the computer is turned
off.
Read Only Memory or ROM is memory. It is permanent memory.

Output Devices

Output devices make the information resulting from the processing available
for use. The two output devices more commonly used are the printer and
the computer screen.
The printer produces a hard copy of your output, and the computer screen
produces a soft copy of your output.

Storage Devices
Auxiliary storage devices are used to store data when they are not
being used in memory. The most common types of auxiliary storage used on
personal computers are floppy disks, hard disks and CD-ROM drives.
.

Hard Disks

Another form of auxiliary storage is a hard disk. A hard disk consists of

one or more rigid metal plates coated with a metal oxide material that
allows data to be magnetically recorded on the surface of the platters.
 The hard disk platters spin at a high rate of speed, typically 5400 to 7200
revolutions per minute (RPM).
Storage capacities of hard disks for personal computers range from 10 GB
to 120 GB (one billion bytes are called a gigabyte).

Computer Software
Computer software is the key to productive use of computers. Software can
be categorized into two types:
Operating system software
Application software.

Operating System Software

Operating system software tells the computer how to perform the

functions of loading, storing and executing an application and how to transfer
data.
Today, many computers use an operating system that has a graphical user
interface (GUI) that provides visual clues such as icon symbols to help the user.
Microsoft Windows 98 is a widely used graphical operating system. DOS (Disk
Operating System) is an older but still widely used operating system that is text-
based.
Application Software
Application Software consists of programs that tell a computer how to
produce information. Some of the more commonly used packages are:

Word processing
Electronic spreadsheet
Database
Presentation graphics

Word Processing
Word Processing software is used to create and print documents. A key
advantage of word processing software is that users easily can make
changes in documents.
Electronic Spreadsheets
Electronic spreadsheet software allows the user to add, subtract, and
perform user-defined calculations on rows and columns of numbers.
These numbers can be changed and the spreadsheet quickly recalculates
the new results.
Database Software
Allows the user to enter, retrieve, and update data in an organized and
efficient manner, with flexible inquiry and reporting capabilities.
Presentation Graphics
Presentation graphic software allows the user to create documents called
slides to be used in making the presentations. Using special projection
devices, the slides display as they appear on the computer screen.
Compliers and interpreters
High level languages are called either compiled languages or
interpreted languages.
In a compiled language, a translation program is run to convert the
programmers entire high level program, which is called the source
code, into a machine language code. This translation process is
called compilation.
Some of the most widely used compiled languages are c, c++, cobol ,
fortran.
In an interpreted language, a translation program converts each
program statement into machine code just before the program
statement is to be executed.
The most frequently used interpreted language is BASIC.
The compilation process
Source file --compiler ----object file ---linker ---executable
program

Run time library

 Computer Language /Programming language

A language thats is acceptable to a computer system is called computer language or

programming language , and the process of writing instructions in such a language
for an already planned program is called programming or coding.
A computer language is used by a programmer to instruct a computer what he/she
wants it to do.
Natural language has a systematic method using the words and symbols of that
language, which is defined by the grammar rules of the language.
Similarly, the words and symbols of a computer language must also be used as per set
rules, which are known as the syntax rules of the language.
Computer languages can be broadly classified into three categories.
Machine language
Assembly language
High-level language
Machine Language
Computers can be programmed to understand many different computer languages,
there is only one language understood by the computer without using translation
program. This language is called the machine language.
The machine language of computer is normally written as binary 1s and 0s.
A Machine language instruction has two-part format.
The first part of an instruction is the operation code, which tells the computer
what function to perform, and the second part is the operand, which tells the
computer where to find or store the data or other instructions, which are to be
manipulated.

Machine Language
EG:
Opcode (Operation code) Operand (Address/Location)
Advantages and limitations of Machine Language
Programs written in machine language can be executed very fast by the computer. This
is because machine instructions are directly understood by the computer, and no
translation of the program.
Disadvantages
Machine dependent because the internal design of every type of computer is
different from every other type of computer, the machine language also differs
from computer to computer.
Difficult to program
It is necessary for the programmer to memorize the dozens of operation code
numbers for the commands.
Error prone(level)
For writing programs in machine language, since a programmer has to remember
the opcodes, and must keep track of the storage locations of data and instructions,
it becomes very difficult for him/her to concentrate fully on logic of the problem.
Difficult to modify: its difficult to correct or modify machine language
programs. Checking machine instructions to locate errors is very difficult and
time consuming.
In Short, writing a program in machine language is so difficult and time
consuming that it is rarely used today.

Assembly language
Assembly language programming, which was introduced in 1952, helped in
overcoming the above listed limitations of machine language programming.
A language, which allows instructions and storage locations to be represented
by letters and symbols, instead of numbers is called an assembly language or
symbolic language.
Assembler
An assembly language program must be converted into its equivalent machine
language program, before it can be executed on the computer. This translation is done
with the help of a translator program, which is known as assembler.
EG:
Mnemonic Opcode
ADD 14
SUB 15
Assembly language program------ Assembler ----------Machine language
program
Advantages
Easier to understand and use
Due to the use of mnemonics, instead of numeric op codes, and symbolic names
and locations, assembly language programs are much easier to understand.
Easier to locate and correct errors
Easier to modify
No worry about address
Easily relocatable

Limitation of Assembly language

Machine dependent
Knowledge of hardware required
Machine level coding.
High Level language
They are machine independent That is, a program written in a high level
language can be easily ported and executed on any computer, which has the
translator software for high level language.
They dont require the programmers to know anything about internal structure
of the computer on which the high level language programs will be executed.
This allows the programmers to mainly concentrate on the logic of the problem,
rather than be concerned with details of internal structure of the computer.
High level language program (source program) ------Complier------Machine
language program (object program)
Linker is used to properly combine all the object program files (modules) of the
software, and to convert them into the final executable program,
Advantages of high level languages
 Machine independence
Easier to understand
Fewer error
Lower program preparation cost
Better documentation
Easier to maintain
Selecting a language for coding an application
Nature of the application
Familiarity with the language
Ease of learning the language
Availability of program development tools.
Execution efficiency
Features of a good programming language (simplicity, naturalness, extensibility
and etc)
Five levels of language
Machine language /first generation language
Assembly language/second generation language
Procedural language/third generation language
General purpose languages are called procedural languages. (eg. BASIC,
COBOL, FORTRAN)
Problem oriented language/fourth generation language
High level languages designed to solve specific problems or develop specific
applications.
Natural language/fifth generation language
Natural language are still in the development stages .(egs artificial intelligence
and expert system)
 Algorithm
A step by step procedure to solve a problem
Properties
o A finite sequence of steps
o Each step shall be explicit and unambiguous
Algorithms are not specific to any programming language
An algorithm can be implemented in any programming language
An algorithm is just steps that are needed to solve a given problem.
Algorithm
o Identify the Inputs and Outputs
o Identify any other data and constants required to solve the problem
o Identify what needs to be computed
o Write an algorithm

Let us now take an example.

Iterative refinement: This is stepwise refinement of the algorithm to get to the

actual solution
Ex. Taking names, then marks, validating marks, finding average

Algorithm Example

Find the average marks scored by a student in 3 subjects:

BEGIN
Step 1 : Accept 3 marks say Marks1, Marks2, Marks3 scored by the
student
Step 2 : Add Marks1, Marks2, Marks3 and store the result in Total
Step 3 : Divide Total by 3 and find the Average
Step 4 : Display Average
END
To find the average marks scored by a student in three subjects.
Read the problem statement and find out
What is the input required to solve the problem ( marks scored in 3 subjects in
case of the example above)
What is the processing needed on the input that will generate the desired
Output (the marks are added and the total is divided by 3 to get average)
What is the output (the result we get is average which is displayed back to the
user)
The above algorithm can be written in precise steps.

Algorithm-Example
Find the average marks scored by a student in 3 subjects:
BEGIN
Step 1 : Read Marks1, Marks2, Marks3
Step 2 : Sum = Marks1 + Marks2 + Marks3
Step 3 : Average = Sum / 3
Step 4 : Display Average
END

Use of Algorithms
Facilitates easy development of programs
Iterative refinement
Easy to convert it to a program
Review is easier

Different Patterns in Algorithms

Sequential
Sequential constructs execute the program in the order in which they appear
in the program
Selectional (Conditional)
Selectional constructs control the flow of statement execution in order to
achieve the required result
Iterational (Loops)
Iterational constructs are used when a part of the program is to be executed
several times
Example Selectional

Write a program to find the average marks of a student. Also check whether the student
has passed or failed. For a student to pass, average marks should not be less than 65.

BEGIN
Step 1 : Read Marks1, Marks2, Marks3
Step 2 : Total = Marks1 + Marks2 + Marks3
Step 3 : Average = Total / 3
Step 4 : Set Output = Student Passed
Step 5 : if Average < 65 then Set Output = Student Failed
Step 6 : Display Output
END

Example Iterational

Find the average marks scored by N number of students

BEGIN
Step 1 : Read NumberOfStudents
Step 2 : Counter = 1
Step 3 : Read Marks1, Marks2, Marks3
Step 4 : Total = Marks1 + Marks2 + Marks3
Step 5 : Average = Total / 3
Step 6 : Set Output = Student Passed
Step 7 : If (Average < 65) then Set Output = Student Failed
Step 8 : Display Output
Step 9 : Counter = Counter + 1
Step 10 : If (Counter <= NumberOfStudents ) then goto step 3
END
Programming Methodologies
o Classification based on behavior
Sequential Approach
Event Driven Approach
o Classification based on structure
Structured Programming
Object Oriented Programming

Structured programming is built on systematically breaking down the problem into

modules .The programs are organized into modules that are coded using independent
functions and data.
Eg. BASIC/ FORTRAN/ MSDOS programs
Definition of Structured Programming: A Technique for organizing and coding
computer programs in which a hierarchy of modules is used, each having a single
entry and a single exit point, and in which control is passed downward through the
structure without unconditional branches to higher levels of the structure.
Object oriented programming style results in programs that are organized into
objects that encapsulate functions and data.
Eg. C++ / Java / Windows programming.
Sequential programming results in programs that allow the user to follow a
predefined sequence of events. For example if there is a structured program written
to accept student info the sequence in which this input is prompted is fixed. Any user
using the application has to necessarily enter the input in that sequence only.
Eg. MS DOS programs/CUI (Character User Interface) applications
Event driven programming - the user can control the flow of events and may
choose the sequence of events. In such cases the UI is displayed to the user. User is
then allowed to enter the input in the sequence which the user wants. The program
waits for the user to send a message (by raising a event) which is processed and the
program proceeds with execution.
Eg. Windows/GUI (Graphical User Interface) programs.

History and Features of C

Dennis Ritchie is the creator of C
Created at Bell Laboratories
Portable Language
C language is machine independent. Source Code written using C
can be compiled on any machine
Structured Language
Problem is solved using a divide and conquer approach
 NOTE: C is used as the language to teach Programming Fundamentals.
Programming fundamentals does not cover all aspects of C. A person proficient in
C can easily pick up other languages.

Comments
Comments are used to document programs and improve readability
In C a comment will start with /* and ends with */
Syntax: /* Comments */
/*This is a single line comment */
/* This is a multiline
* comment in C */
/****************************************************
* This style of commenting is used for functions
****************************************************/
Variables
o Hold the data in your program
o Is a location (or set of locations) in memory where a value can be stored
for use by a program
o A quantity that can change during program execution
Variable Names
o A variable name can either begin with an alphabet or underscore
o No other special character except underscore is allowed
o Maximum characters recognized is 31 (compiler dependent)
o Variable names are case sensitive
o Keywords cannot be used as variable names

Data Types
o Data types determine the following:
Type of data stored
Number of bytes it occupies in memory
Range of data
Operations that can be performed on the data
o C supports the following data types:
int for storing whole numbers
char for storing character values, represents a single character
float
double
o Note: float and double data types are used to store fractional values.
o float can store up to 6 digits of precision
o double can store up to 12 digits of precision

Data types specify various formats that data can appear in.
The fundamental data types are the basic building blocks for all the other data
types.
Primitive data types:
o Basic/Primitive data types supported by C are:
 o int for storing integer values. Size will vary from 2 bytes 4 bytes
o char for storing character values Size is 1 byte
o float for storing decimal values single precision values are stored
where number of digits of precision after the decimal point is 6.
o double used to store decimal values of 12-digit precision
o char data types in C are represented using ASCII coding format. ASCII
stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
True and false values in C:
C does not have a boolean data type.
In C, a true value is any non zero value including negative numbers.
A false value is zero.
Declaration of variables
Syntax:
data-type [variable-name list]
data-type variable-name1 , variable-name2, ;
Example:
int iNum;
Declares a variable of int data type
The variables will contain some garbage value when they are declared.
A variable can be initialized when it is declared
int iNum = 10;
float fData = 2.3F ;
char cChoice = Y;

A complete C program:

#include <stdio.h> // Pre processor directive

void main() // Entry point for program execution
{
printf(Hello World);// Each instruction in a C program terminates with a semicolon
(;)
}
Explanation
Each C-program has a main function
Execution of a program starts from main()
Hello World is a string literal and is displayed as it is.
A block of code begins with an opening curly brace and ends with a closing curly
brace.
The first line of the program is pre processor directive. Directives are executed
during the preprocessor phase, a phase prior to compilation phase.
The program begins its execution with the first instruction in the main function.
The instruction is a print instruction that prints Hello World on the screen.
printf() is a predefiend function of the std I/O library which is made available to
your program by including it using a #include directive.
 Other predefined function is scanf() for accepting input from the user during
execution.
Each instruction in a C program terminates with a semicolon.
Comments are inserted in the program and more clarity and readability of the
programs. They are enclosed between /*.*/ or proceeded by //.

Preprocessor Directives
C provides many built-in functions, also called as library functions.
These functions are declared in header files.
To use them, weve to include proper header files in our program using #include
statement.
e.g.:
#include <stdio.h>
More Header files in C:
math.h
string.h
limits.h



types.h
Each standard library has a corresponding header file containing the function prototypes
for all the functions in that library and definitions of various data types and constants
needed by those functions.

Compiler and Linker Errors

o If a program do not follow the syntax of a language then the compiler raises errors
Example: Missing semicolon, improper use of key words
o When the linker is not able to find a piece of code the linker errors are generated
Example: Variable or function referenced, but not defined anywhere in code

Operators In C
 Assignment operator =
Arithmetic operators +, -, *, /, %
Relational operators >, >=, <, <=, == , !=
Logical operators !, &&, ||
Address operator &
Increment and Decrement operators ++, --
Compound Assignment Operators =, +=, -=, /=, *=, %=
sizeof operator

Arithmetic operators
The % (modulo operator) is used to find the reminder of a divide operation
o eg.int x=5,y=2;
o int z=5/2; will store 2 in z
o int z=5%2 will store 1 in z
o % operator cannot be applied to float data type. Hence the instruction 5.2 %
2.5 will result in error.
For comparing if 2 values are equal or not remember to use == and not a single =.
== indicates comparisons and = indicates assignment operation.
o eg. int x=5,y=3
o x==y will be considered as an conditional expression that will be evaluated to
true(non-zero) for false(zero)
o x=y will be considered as an assignment expression which will assign 3 (value of
y) to x. x after the instruction will have value 3.
Logical operators
! (NOT), && (AND), || (OR)
eg. consider 3 variables x,y,x containing values 1,2,3 respectively
x=1, y=2, z=3
The condition x==1 && y == 3 will evaluate to false
The condition x==1 && z==3 will evaluate to true
The condition x==1 || y==3 will evaluate to true
The condition x==1 || z==3 will evaluate to true
The condition !(x <2 && y==2) will evaluate to false

Increment and Decrement Operators

Operators ++ and - are called as increment and decrement operators
These operators increment or decrement the variables value by 1
They are also called as unary operators because they have only one operand to
operate
If the operator is used before the operand, it is prefix and if the operator is used
after the operand, it is postfix
 Example:
++iValue and -iValue is called as prefix
iValue++ and iValue-- is called as postfix

Difference between prefix and postfix

Prefix operator first increments / decrements and then makes the assignment
Example:
int iValue;
int iResult;
iValue = 5;
iResult = ++iValue;

Difference between prefix and postfix

Post fix operator makes the assignment and then increments/decrements the
value
Example:
int iValue;
int iResult;
iValue = 5;
iResult = iValue++;

Address of Operator
Ampersand (&) is the address of operator
It is used to fetch the memory address of a variable
Precedence of Arithmetic Operators
Operator Priority
, / and % Highest
+ and - Lowest
The expression that is written within parenthesis is given highest priority

Format Specifier (sometimes called Conversion Specifier):

These characters tell the input or output functions as to what type of data is being read or
written.
Few Format Specifiers that can be used in a printf statement:
%d signed decimal integers

Formatted output using printf (3 of 4)

An escape sequence is interpreted to have a special meaning in the screen
output
All the escape sequences must be preceded by a back slash (\)
Escape sequences are non printable characters
Escape sequences are generally used with printf function
Escape Sequence Purpose
\n New line character. This moves the cursor to the next line
\t Prints a sequence of blank spaces.
\\ Prints back slash (\).
\ Prints the double quote ()
\ Prints a single quote ().
\a Causes an audible sound on the computer

Fundamental Algorithms

EXCHANGING VALUES OF TWO VARIABLES

Requirement :

If we have variables with values like this,

A = 10
B = 20

At the end of Running your logic, the values in the variables should be exchanged, that is

A = 20
B = 10

Algorithm 1 ( By using Third variable)

1) Have two variables ready by declaring.

2) Get First value from the user and store it in First variable.
3) Get another value and store it in second variable.
4) Declare another variable, say temp
5) Store the value in the First Variable in the Temp variable
6) Store the value in the Second variable in the First Variable
7) Store the value in the temp variable to the Second Variable

Temp = A
A= B
B = Temp

Program Logic :

int a , b;
scanf(%d%d, &a,&b);
temp = a;
a = b;
b = temp;
EXCHANGING VALUES OF TWO VARIABLES

Algorithm 2 (Without using a Third Variable) :

1) Have two variables ready by declaring.

2) Get First value from the user and store it in First variable.
3) Get another value and store it in second variable.
4) Add the two values and store it in First Variable
5) Subtract value in second variable from value in First Variable and store it in
second variable
6) Subtract value in second variable from value in first variable and store the
result in first variable

Logic Sequene with pseudocode :

a = a + b;
b = a b;
a = a b;

Program Logic :

int a , b;
scanf(%d%d, &a,&b);
a = a + b;
b = a b;
a = a b;

COUNTING SET OF NUMBERS

Requirement :

User goes on entering the numbers as inputs, once the user is done with entering
giving the inputs, the logic should say the COUNT of Numbers he has inputted. We can
use arrays to store the numbers the user is inputting

Algorithm

1) Declare an integer array named numberSet with a large Pre-Determined size

2) Have a character variable named Choice
3) Have a variable called Count to store the count of numbers, which is the output
4) Initialize Count to 0
5) Start a loop that runs for i value from 0 to (Pre-Determined size of array -1)
 5.1) Get integer value from the user and store it array numberSet[]using i value
as index value
5.2) Increment Count value
5.3) Ask the user if he wants to continue inputting number
5.4) Get character input from user and store it in choice variable
5.5) If value in Choice variable is equal to Y (yes) or y (yes) , then
CONTINUE the loop or else BREAK the loop.

6) Display the value in the count

Program Logic Sequence

int numberSet[100000]
char Choice;
int Count = 0, i,
for ( i = 0 ; i <= (100000 1) ; i++)
{
scanf(%d,&numberSet[i]);
Count++;
printf(Do you want to input more ?);
scanf(%c,&Choice);
if ((Choice == Y) || (Choice = = y))
continue;
else
break;
}
printf( Count of Numbers in the Array is %d , Count);

SUMMATION OF SET OF NUMBERS

Requirement :

Have to get Set of Numbers from the user and Display the Summed up value of
the Set of Numbers.

Algorithm : (Without Array usage)

1) Have one variable say sum with value initialized to zero

2) Get the Count value of Numbers in the set from the user.
3) Start a Loop, that runs for the Count value number of times
3.1) Get the value from the user
3.2) Add the input value with the sum
4) Print the Value that is in the sum
Program Sequence : (Without Array Usage)

int Sum = 0;
int Count, i, Value
printf( How many Numbers are in the set);
scanf(%d, &count);
for( i = 1; i <= Count ; count++)
{
Scanf(%d, &Value);
Sum = Sum + Value ;
}

Printf(The summation of set of numbers is %d , Sum);

Program Sequence : (With Array Usage)

int numSet[10] = { 23, 54, 5, 3, 223, 32, 1, 21, 12, 18};

int Sum = 0;
for( i = 0; i <= 9 ; count++)
{
Sum = Sum + numSet[i] ;
}

printf(The summation of set of numbers is %d , Sum);

FACTORIAL COMPUTATION

Requirement :

Have to get an integer value from the user and display its Factorial Value

For example, 5! Means - 1 * 2 * 3 * 4 * 5 = 120

Algorithm

1) Get the value to be computed from the user and store it in Val
2) Declare Variable for storing the result say Factorial
3) Store value 1 in the Factorial variable
4) Run a Loop that runs for i value from 1 to Val number of times
4.1) Multiply value in Factorial variable with i and store it back in
Factorial
5) Display the value in Factorial Variable
Program Sequence for the Logic :

int Val ;
int Factorial = 1;
int i;
printf(Enter the Value to compute Factorial for);
scanf(%d, &Val);
for( i = 1; i <= Val ; i++)
{
Factorial = Factorial * i ;
}
Printf(The Factorial of %d is %d , Val, Factorial);

Exchanging the values of two variables

Problem
Given two variables, a and b, exchange the values assigned to them.
Algorithm development
The problem of interchanging the values associated with two variables.
Example
A -721
B -463
After Swap
A-463
B-721
Algorithm description
I. Save the original value of a in t.
II. Assign to a the original value of b.
III. Assign to b the original value of a that is stored in t.

Swapping the two variables using Temporary variable

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a=10;
int b=50;
int t;
clrscr();
printf("before swapping");
printf("%d%d",a,b);
t=a;
a=b;
b=t;
printf("after swapping");
printf("%d%d",a,b);
getch();
}
Output :
50,10

Swapping the two variables without using Temporary variable

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a=10;
int b=50;
clrscr();
printf("before swapping");
printf("%d%d",a,b);
a=b;
b=a;
printf("after swapping");
printf("%d%d",a,b);
getch();
}
Output:
50 ,50

Swapping the two variables using Temporary variable

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a=10;
int b=50;
int t;
clrscr();
printf("before swapping");
printf("%d%d",a,b);
t=a;
a=b;
b=t;
printf("after swapping");
printf("%d%d",a,b);
getch();
}
Output :
50,10

Sorting(ascending) an array using swapping concept

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a[5]={83,42};
int t,i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
if(a[i]<a[j])
{
t=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]= t;
printf("\n%d%d%d%d",i,j,a[i],a[j]);
}
}
}
printf("\n");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
printf("%d",a[i]);
}
getch();
}

Output:
108342
4283
************************************************************************
Counting
Problem
Given set of n students examination marks make a count of the number of students that
passed the examination. A pass awarded for all marks of 20 and above.

Example
Set of marls ={20,40,50,30,10,20}
No.of.passed =5
Algorithm development
I. Prompt the read the number of marks to be processed.
II. Initialize count to zero;
III. While there are still marks to be processed repeatedly do
a. Read next mark
b. If it is pass(ie >=20) then add one to count.
IV. Write out total number of passes
Count how many numbers are greater than or equal to 20(Using 2 step)
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{

int sub[5]={10,20,30,40,50};
int count,ccount=0;
clrscr();
for(int i=0; i<5;i++)
{
if(sub[i]>=20)
{
count=1;
ccount=ccount+count;
}
}
printf("%d",ccount);
getch();
}
************************************************************************
Summation of a set of numbers

Problem
Given set of n numbers design an algorithm that adds these numbers and returns the
resultant sum.

Example
Set of marls ={20,40,50,30,10,20}
Sum=170

Algorithm description
I. Prompt and read in the number of numbers to be summed.
II. Initialize sum for zero numbers.
III. While less than n numbers have been summed repeatedly do
a. Read in next number
b. Compute current sum by adding the number read to the most recent sum.
IV. Write sum of n numbers.
Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int mark[5]={23,43,56,12,40};
int sum=0,i;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
sum=sum+mark[i];
}
printf("%d",sum);
getch();}
Factorial Computation
Problem :
Given a number n,compute n factorial where n>0
Example
N!=N*(N-1)!
4!=4*3!
3!=3*2!
2!=2*1!
1!=1*0!
4!=4*3*2*1=24.
Program
Method 1
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

main()
{
int fn=1;
clrscr();
for(int i=5;i>0;i--)
{
fn=fn*i;
}
printf("%d",fn);

int n=6;
int fact=1;
clrscr();
while(n>0)
{
fact=fact*n;
n--;
}
Method 2
int n=5;
int fact=1;
clrscr();
do
{
fact=fact*n;
n--;
}while(n>0);

printf("%d",fact);
getch();
}

Generation of the Fibonacci sequence

Problem:
Generate and print the first n terms of the Fibonacci sequence where n>=1
The first few terms are
0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,.
Algorithm development
I. Prompt and read n, the number of Fibonacci numbers to be generated.
II. Assign first two Fibonacci numbers a and b.
III. Initialize count of number generated.
IV. While less than n Fibonacci numbers have be generated do
a. Write out nest two Fibonacci numbers
b. Generate next Fibonacci number keeping a relevant.
c. Generate next Fibonacci number from most recent pair keeping relevant
for next computation.
d. Update count of number of Fibonacci number generated, i.
V. If n even then write out last two Fibonacci numbers else write out second last
Fibonacci number.

Program
Method 1
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a=0;
int b=1;
int c;
int i=2;
int n=10;
clrscr();
printf("%d%d",a,b);
while(i<=n)
{
c=a+b;
a=b;
b=c;
i--;
printf("%d" ,c);
}
}

Method 2:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int x=0, y=1;
clrscr();
printf("%d, %d, ",x,y);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
f=x+y;
x=y;
y=f;
printf("%d, ",y);
}// end of for loop
}//end of main
************************************************************************
Reversing the Digits of an integer
Problem:
Design an algorithm that accepts a positive integer and reverse the order of its digits.
Example
Intput 27953
Output 35972
Algorithm Description
I. Establish n, the positive integer to be reversed.
II. Set the initial condition for reversed integer q.
III. While the integer being reversed is greater than zero do
a. Use the remainder function to extract the right most digit of the number
being reversed.
b. Use integer division by 10 to remove the last rightmost digit from the
number being reversed.
program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n=12356;
clrscr();
int q;
while(n>0)
{
q=n%10;
n=n/10;
printf("%d" ,q);}}
Method 2:
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,rev=0,r;
clrscr();
printf("enter the number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);

while (n>0)
{
r=n%10;
n=n/10;
rev=rev*10+r;
}// end of while loop
printf("%d",rev);
}

Base Conversion

Problem:
Convert a decimal integer to its corresponding octal representation

Example 43 octal equivalent is 53

43%8=3
43/8=5

53 decimal equivalent is 43
3*80 =3
5*81 =40
program
void main()
{
int i=0,j=0,rem=0,a[10],b[10];
long int num;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter a number :");
scanf("%ld",&num);
while(num)
{
if(num<8)
{
a[j++]=num;
break;
}
else
{
a[j++]=num%8;
num=num/8;
}
}
for(i=j-1;i>=0;i--)
b[rem++]=a[i];
printf("\nOctal equivalent :");
for(j=0;j<rem;j++)
printf("%d",b[j]);
getch();
}

Sample 2:

4.Base Conversion
________________
i) decimal to binary

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,k,num,arr[10],n=0;
scanf("%d",&num);
while(num>1)
{arr[i++]=num%2;
num=num/2;
}
arr[i]=num;
}
while(k=i;k>=0;k--)
n=n*10+arr[k];
prinrf("%d",n);
}//end of main

ii) decimal to octal

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,k,num,arr[10],n=0;
scanf("%d",&num);
while(num>1)
{arr[i++]=num%8;
num=num/8;
}
arr[i]=num;
}
while(k=i;k>=0;k--)
n=n*10+arr[k];
prinrf("%d",n);
}//end of main

iii) decimal to Hexa

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int i,k,num,n=0;
char arr[10];
scanf("%d",&num);
while(num>1)
{ arr[i++]=num%16;
num=num/16;
}
arr[i]=num;
}
while(k=i;k>=0;k--)
{
switch(arr[k])
{
case 10 : printf("A");break;
case 11 : printf("B");break;
case 12 : printf("C");break;
case 13 : printf("D");break;
case 14 : printf("E");break;
case 15 : printf("F");break;
default :
printf("%d",arr[k]);
}
}//end of main
Character to Number conversion
Problem : convert character in to number (ASCII)
ASCII:
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
Computers can only understand numbers, so an ASCII code is the numerical
representation of a character such as 'a' or '@' or an action of some sort. ASCII
was developed a long time ago and now the non-printing characters are rarely
used for their original purpose. Below is the ASCII character table and this
includes descriptions of the first 32 non-printing characters. ASCII was actually
designed for use with teletypes and so the descriptions are somewhat obscure. If
someone says they want your CV however in ASCII format, all this means is they
want 'plain' text with no formatting such as tabs, bold or underscoring - the raw
format that any computer can understand
Sample Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
do
{

printf("enter a character : ");

getchar(ch);
printf("%d",ch); //prints the element till new line character
}while(ch!='\n');
}