Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Science
Teachers Guide
Unit 1
Department of Education
Republic of the Philippines
Science Grade 10
Teachers Guide
First Edition 2015
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Introduction .............................................................................................2
Overview .......................................................................................... 3
Pre-Assessment ...............................................................................4
Performance Task............................................................................20
Summary/Synthesis/Feedback.........................................................22
Glossary of Terms.............................................................................24
Overview...........................................................................................27
Answers to Pre-assessment............................................................29
Performance Task............................................................................43
Summary/Synthesis/Feedback........................................................43
Summative Assessment...................................................................46
Glossary of Terms.............................................................................50
K to 12 Curriculum Guide
SCIENCE
December 2013
(Grade 10)
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Science education aims to develop scientific literacy among learners that will prepare them to be informed and participative citizens who are able to make judgments
and decisions regarding applications of scientific knowledge that may have social, health, or environmental impacts.
The science curriculum recognizes the place of science and technology in everyday human affairs. It integrates science and technology in the social, economic,
personal and ethical aspects of life. The science curriculum promotes a strong link between science and technology, including indigenous technology, thus preserving our
countrys cultural heritage.
The K to 12 science curriculum will provide learners with a repertoire of competencies important in the world of work and in a knowledge-based society. It envisions
the development of scientifically, technologically, and environmentally literate and productive members of society who are critical problem solvers, responsible stewards of
nature, innovative and creative citizens, informed decision makers, and effective communicators. This curriculum is designed around the three domains of learning science:
understanding and applying scientific knowledge in local setting as well as global context whenever possible, performing scientific processes and skills, and developing and
demonstrating scientific attitudes and values. The acquisition of these domains is facilitated using the following approaches: multi/interdisciplinary approach, science-
technology-society approach, contextual learning, problem/issue-based learning, and inquiry-based approach. The approaches are based on sound educational pedagogy
namely, constructivism, social cognition learning model, learning style theory, and brain-based learning.
Science content and science processes are intertwined in the K to 12 Curriculum. Without the content, learners will have difficulty utilizing science process skills since
these processes are best learned in context. Organizing the curriculum around situations and problems that challenge and arouse learners curiosity motivates them to learn
and appreciate science as relevant and useful. Rather than relying solely on textbooks, varied hands-on, minds-on, and hearts-on activities will be used to develop learners
interest and let them become active learners.
As a whole, the K to 12 science curriculum is learner-centered and inquiry-based, emphasizing the use of evidence in constructing explanations. Concepts and skills in
Life Sciences, Physics, Chemistry, and Earth Sciences are presented with increasing levels of complexity from one grade level to another in spiral progression, thus paving the
way to a deeper understanding of core concepts. The integration across science topics and other disciplines will lead to a meaningful understanding of concepts and its
application to real-life situations.
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
Developing and
Demonstrating Scientific
Attitudes and Values
Brain-based
learning
The learners demonstrate understanding of basic science concepts and application of science-inquiry skills. They exhibit scientific attitudes and values to solve
problems critically, innovate beneficial products, protect the environment and conserve resources, enhance the integrity and wellness of people, make informed
decisions, and engage in discussions of relevant issues that involve science, technology, and environment.
KEY STAGE STANDARDS: (STANDARDS FOR SCIENCE LEARNING AREAS FOR K-3, 4-6, 7-10 AND 11-2)
K3 46 710 11-12
At the end of Grade 2, learners will use their senses to explore and describe the functions of their senses, compare two or more objects and
using two or more properties , sort things in different ways and give a reason for doing so, describe the kind of weather or certain events in the
Grade 2 home or school and express how these are affecting them, do simple measurements of length, tell why some things around them are important ,
decide if what they do is safe or dangerous; give suggestions on how to prevent accidents at home, practice electricity, water, and paper
conservation, help take care of pets or of plants , and tell short stories about what they do, what they have seen, or what they feel.
At the end of Grade 3, learners can describe the functions of the different parts of the body and things that make up their surroundings --- rocks
and soil, plants and animals, the Sun, Moon and stars. They can also classify these things as solid, liquid or gas. They can describe how objects
Grade 3 move and what makes them move. They can also identify sources and describe uses of light, heat, sound, and electricity.
Learners can describe changes in the conditions of their surroundings. These would lead learners to become more curious about their
surroundings, appreciate nature, and practice health and safety measures.
At the end of Grade 4, learners can investigate changes in some observable properties of materials when mixed with other materials or when
force is applied on them. They can identify materials that do not decay and use this knowledge to help minimize waste at home, school, and in
the community.
Learners can describe the functions of the different internal parts of the body in order to practice ways to maintain good health. They can classify
Grade 4 plants and animals according to where they live and observe interactions among living things and their environment. They can infer that plants
and animals have traits that help them survive in their environment.
Learners can investigate the effects of push or pull on the size, shape, and movement of an object.
Learners can investigate which type of soil is best for certain plants and infer the importance of water in daily activities. They learned about what
makes up weather and apply their knowledge of weather conditions in making decisions for the day. They can infer the importance of the Sun to
life on Earth.
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
At the end of Grade 5, learners can decide whether materials are safe and useful by investigating about some of their properties. They can infer
that new materials may form when there are changes in properties due to certain conditions.
Learners have developed healthful and hygienic practices related to the reproductive system after describing changes that accompany puberty.
They can compare different modes of reproduction among plant and animal groups and conduct an investigation on pollination. They have
Grade 5 become aware of the importance of estuaries and intertidal zones and help in their preservation.
Learners can describe the movement of objects in terms of distance and time travelled. Learners recognize that different materials react
differently with heat, light, and sound. They can relate these abilities of materials to their specific uses.
Learners can describe the changes that earth materials undergo. They can make emergency plans with their families in preparation for typhoons.
They can observe patterns in the natural events by observing the appearance of the Moon.
At the end of Grade 6, learners recognize that when mixed together, materials may not form new ones thus these materials may be recovered
using different separation techniques. They can prepare useful mixtures such as food, drinks and herbal medicines.
Learners understand how the different organ systems of the human body work together. They can classify plants based on reproductive
structures, and animals based on the presence or lack of backbone. They can design and conduct an investigation on plant propagation. They
can describe larger ecosystems such as rainforests, coral reefs, and mangrove swamps.
Grade 6
Learners can infer that friction and gravity affect how people and objects move. They have found out that heat, light, sound, electricity, and
motion studied earlier are forms of energy and these undergo transformation.
Learners can describe what happens during earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and demonstrate what to do when they occur. They can infer
that the weather follows a pattern in the course of a year. They have learned about the solar system, with emphasis on the motions of the Earth
as prerequisite to the study of seasons in another grade level.
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
At the end of Grade 7, learners can distinguish mixtures from substances through semi-guided investigations. They realize the importance of air
testing when conducting investigations. After studying how organ systems work together in plants and animals in the lower grade levels, learners
can use a microscope when observing very small organisms and structures. They recognize that living things are organized into different levels:
Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms. These organisms comprise populations and communities, which interact with non-living
things in ecosystems.
Grade 7
Learners can describe the motion of objects in terms of distance and speed, and represent this in tables, graphs, charts, and equations. They can
describe how various forms of energy travel through different mediums.
Learners describe what makes up the Philippines as a whole and the resources found in the archipelago. They can explain the occurrence of
breezes, monsoons, and ITCZ, and how these weather systems affect people. They can explain why seasons change and demonstrate how
eclipses occur.
At the end of Grade 8, learners can describe the factors that affect the motion of an object based on the Laws of Motion. They can differentiate
the concept of work as used in science and in laymans language. They know the factors that affect the transfer of energy, such as temperature
difference, and the type (solid, liquid, or gas) of the medium.
Learners can explain how active faults generate earthquakes and how tropical cyclones originate from warm ocean waters. They recognize other
members of the solar system.
Grade 8
Learners can explain the behaviour of matter in terms of the particles it is made of. They recognize that ingredients in food and medical products
are made up of these particles and are absorbed by the body in the form of ions.
Learners recognize reproduction as a process of cell division resulting in growth of organisms. They have delved deeper into the process of
digestion as studied in the lower grades, giving emphasis on proper nutrition for overall wellness. They can participate in activities that protect
and conserve economically important species used for food.
At the end of Grade 9, learners have gained a a deeper understanding of the digestive, respiratory, and circulatory systems to promote overall
health. They have become familiar with some technologies that introduce desired traits in economically important plants and animals. Learners
can explain how new materials are formed when atoms are rearranged. They recognize that a wide variety of useful compounds may arise from
such rearrangements.
Grade 9
Learners can identify volcanoes and distinguish between active and inactive ones. They can explain how energy from volcanoes may be tapped
for human use. They are familiar with climatic phenomena that occur on a global scale. They can explain why certain constellations can be seen
only at certain times of the year.
Learners can predict the outcomes of interactions among objects in real life applying the laws of conservation of energy and momentum.
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
At the end of Grade 10, learners realize that volcanoes and earthquakes occur in the same places in the world and that these are related to plate
boundaries. They can demonstrate ways to ensure safety and reduce damage during earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions. Learners
can explain the factors affecting the balance and stability of an object to help them practice appropriate positions and movements to achieve
efficiency and safety such as in sports and dancing. They can analyze situations in which energy is harnessed for human use whereby heat is
Grade 10 released, affecting the physical and biological components of the environment. Learners will have completed the study of the entire organism
with their deeper study of the excretory and reproductive systems. They can explain in greater detail how genetic information is passed from
parents to offspring, and how diversity of species increases the probability of adaptation and survival in changing environments. Learners can
explain the importance of controlling the conditions under which a chemical reaction occurs. They recognize that cells and tissues of the human
body are made up of water, a few kinds of ions, and biomolecules. These biomolecules may also be found in the food they eat.
G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10
Living Things
Force, Motion,&
1st Quarter Matter Matter Matter Matter Matter and Their Earth & Space
Energy
Environment
Living Things Living Things Living Things Living Things Living Things
Force, Motion,&
2nd Quarter and Their and Their and Their and Their and Their Earth & Space Matter
Energy
Environment Environment Environment Environment Environment
Living Things
Force, Motion,& Force, Motion,& Force, Motion & Force, Motion,& Force, Motion,&
3rd Quarter Matter Earth & Space and Their
Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy
Environment
Living Things
Force, Motion,&
4th Quarter Earth & Space Earth & Space Earth & Space Earth & Space Earth & Space and Their Matter
Energy
Environment
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
ECOSYSTEMS
Learners learn that living things Learners learn that there are beneficial and Learners are introduced to the Learners are introduced to the
depend on their environment for food, harmful interactions that occur among living interactions among components of interactions among components of
air, and water to survive. things and their environment as they obtain larger habitats such as estuaries and habitats such as tropical rainforests,
their basic needs. intertidal zones, as well as the coral reefs, and mangrove swamps.
conditions that enable certain
organisms to live.
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
ENERGY
Learners observe and identify different Learners learn that light, heat, and sound This time, learners explore how different At this grade level, learners are
sources of light, heat, sound, and travel from the source. They perform objects interact with light, heat, sound, introduced to the concept of energy.
electricity in their environment and simple activities that demonstrate how and electricity (e.g., identifying poor and They learn that energy exists in
their uses in everyday life. they travel using various objects. good conductors of electricity using different forms, such as light, heat,
Note: Electricity is not included in Grade simple circuits). sound and electricity, and it can be
4 because the concept of flow of They learn about the relationship transformed from one form to
charges is difficult to understand at this between electricity and magnetism by another. They demonstrate how
grade level. constructing an electromagnet. energy is transferred using simple
They also learn about the effects of light, machines.
heat, sound, and electricity on people.
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
GRADE 10
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARDS LEARNING COMPETENCY CODE
STANDARDS
1. Plate Tectonics The learners demonstrate The learners shall be able The learners should be able
1.1 Distribution an understanding of: to: to
1.1.1 volcanoes
S9ES Ia-j-
1.1.2 earthquake epicenters the relationship among the 1. demonstrate ways to 1. describe the distribution of
36.1
1.1.3 mountain ranges locations of volcanoes, ensure disaster active volcanoes, earthquake
1.2 Plate boundaries earthquake epicenters, and preparedness during epicenters, and major
1.3 Processes and landforms along mountain ranges earthquakes, tsunamis, mountain belts;
plate boundaries and volcanic eruptions 2. describe the different types of S9ES Ia-j-
1.4 Internal structure of the Earth plate boundaries; 36.2
1.5 Mechanism (possible causes of 2. suggest ways by which 3. explain the different
movement) he/she can contribute S9ES Ia-j-
processes that occur along
1.6 Evidence of plate movement to government efforts 36.3
the plate boundaries;
in reducing damage due 4. describe the internal structure S9ES Ia-j-
to earthquakes, of the Earth; 36.4
tsunamis, and volcanic 5. describe the possible causes S9ES Ia-j-
eruptions of plate movement; and 36.5
6. enumerate the lines of
evidence that support plate S9ES Ia-j-36.6
movement
Grade 10 Force, Motion and, Energy
SECOND QUARTER/SECOND GRADING PERIOD
The learners demonstrate The learners s The learners should be able
an understanding of: hall be able to: to
1. Electromagnetic Spectrum the different regions of the 1. compare the relative S10FE-IIa-b-47
electromagnetic spectrum wavelengths of different
forms of electromagnetic
waves;
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARDS LEARNING COMPETENCY CODE
STANDARDS
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARDS LEARNING COMPETENCY CODE
STANDARDS
Grade 10 Living Things and Their Environment
THIRD QUARTER/THIRD GRADING PERIOD
The learners demonstrate The learners should be The learners should be able
an understanding of: able to: to
1. Coordinated Functions of the
S10LT-IIIa-33
Reproductive, Endocrine, and 1. organisms as having 1. describe the parts of the
Nervous Systems feedback mechanisms, reproductive system and
which are coordinated their functions;
by the nervous and
endocrine systems 2. explain the role of hormones
involved in the female and S10LT-IIIb-34
2. how these feedback male reproductive systems;
mechanisms help the
organism maintain
3. describe the feedback
homeostasis to
mechanisms involved in
reproduce S10LT-IIIc-35
regulating processes in the
female reproductive system
(e.g., menstrual cycle);
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARDS LEARNING COMPETENCY CODE
STANDARDS
1. Gas Laws The learners demonstrate The learners shall be able The learners should be able
an understanding of to: to
1.1 Kinetic Molecular Theory how gases behave based 1. investigate the relationship
1.2 Volume, pressure, and on the motion and relative between:
temperature relationship distances between gas 1.1 volume and pressure at
1.3 Ideal gas law particles constant temperature of S10MT-IVa-b-
a gas; 21
1.2 volume and temperature
at constant pressure of a
gas;
1.3 explains these
relationships using the
kinetic molecular theory;
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARDS LEARNING COMPETENCY CODE
STANDARDS
2. Biomolecules the structure of
biomolecules, which are
2.1 Elements present in biomolecules made up mostly of a limited 2. recognize the major
2.2 Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, number of elements, such categories of biomolecules
and nucleic acids as carbon, hydrogen, such as carbohydrates, S10MT-IVc-d-22
2.2.1 Food Labels oxygen, and nitrogen lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids;
Sample: S8ES-IId-19
Domain/Content/
Uppercase Letter/s Earth and Space ES
Component/ Topic
Earth and Space ES
-
Roman Numeral
Quarter Second Quarter II
*Zero if no specific quarter Matter MT
Lowercase Letter/s
*Put a hyphen (-) in between
Week Week four d
letters to indicate more than a
specific week
-
1
Unit 1: Earth and Space
Introduction
For this quarter, the topics will focus solely on the theory that explains
the existence of volcanoes and other geologic features. The learners will work
on two modules to understand this theory better.
In the first module, learners will use some of the science skills like
graphing, measuring, analyzing and interpreting data, and inferring for them to
attain the desired outcomes.
What are the outcomes that are expected from the learners? First,
learners should identify the types of boundaries created because of lithospheric
movements. Secondly, they must relate the movement of Earths lithosphere to
the occurrence of different geologic changes. Finally, the learners will explain
the processes that are taking place along the boundaries.
In the second module, learners will perform an activity that will allow
them to probe the Earths interior by analyzing the behavior of seismic waves
(Primary and Secondary waves).
Lastly, included in the module, and the most important part is the series
of activities that will give learners an idea about the driving mechanism behind
the motion of Earths lithosphere.
2
Unit 1 Suggested time allotment: 12 to 16 hours
MODULE
1 Plate Tectonics
Overview:
In the previous grade level, the students became familiar with the different
types of volcanoes. They were also able to determine the factors that give the
distinct conical shapes of volcanoes. Lastly, they understood how energy can
be harnessed from volcanic activities.
In this particular module, the activities included will allow the students to
find out what causes volcanism. The learners will also determine the relationship
among the locations of volcanoes, earthquake epicenters, and mountain ranges.
Furthermore, they will have a chance to figure out what causes the formation of
different geologic features such as mountain ranges, volcanic arcs, trenches,
mid-ocean ridges, and rift valleys.
Learning Competencies/Objectives
In this Learners Material, the learners should be able to:
1. Describe the distribution of active volcanoes, earthquake epicenters,
and major mountain belts.
2. Describe the different types of plate boundaries.
3. Explain the different processes that occur along the plate
boundaries.
3
Pre-Assessment
A. Choose the letter of the best answer.
3. When two tectonic plates collide, the oceanic crust usually subducts
beneath the continental crust because it is
a. denser than continental crust c. thicker than continental crust
b. less dense than continental crust d. thinner than continental crust
Answer: a
4. If you will visit a place in the Pacific known to be along converging plates,
which of these should you not expect to see?
a. active volcanoes c. rift valleys
b. mountain ranges d. volcanic islands
Answer: c
4
5. You are an oceanographer and want to map the ocean floor on the east
coast of the Philippines. As you do your study, you noticed that there is a
portion of the ocean floor which is relatively much deeper than the rest.
What most likely is that deeper part?
a. linear sea c. rift valley
b. oceanic ridge d. trench
Answer: d
7. Crustal Plate A is moving away from Crustal Plate B. What is the expected
average rate of change in position between A and B?
a. a few centimeters per year c. a few millimeters per century
b. a few meters per month d. a few millimeters per day
Answer: a
8. Which plate boundary is formed between the Philippine Plate and the
Eurasian Plate?
a. convergent c. reverse fault
b. divergent d. transform fault
Answer: a
5
What is Plate Tectonics?
Lithosphere consists of crust and the upper portion of the mantle. Figure
1 in the LM shows two types of crust, the continental crust and the oceanic
crust. The continental crust is thicker but less dense than the oceanic crust.
Because of the difference in density, continental crust floats higher than the
oceanic crust.
Continental crust
Oceanic crust
Mantle
Figure 1. Kinds of crust
6
Figure 2. Map of plate boundaries http://pubs.usgs.gov
The next two activities will answer the question posted in previous page.
Activity 1
Teaching Tips
1. Let the students recall the different types of seismic waves particularly
the body waves (Primary and Secondary waves). Students must
recall also that Primary waves travel faster than Secondary waves.
3. Introduce Activity 1 Find the Center, which will allow the students to
use the triangulation method in locating the epicenter of a hypothetical
earthquake.
7
Answers to questions
Td
Using the formula d = ------------ = 100 km
8 seconds
Time difference of
Distance of epicenter
Recording station P-wave and S-wave
from the station (km)
(seconds)
Batangas 44.8 560
Puerto Princesa 32 400
Davao 38.4 480
Since the scale of the Philippine map on page 9 of the LM is 1.5 cm: 200
km, set the drawing compass to the following computed distances on the map.
Answer: Since the three circles drawn intersect in Cebu City, it is where the
epicenter is.
Q2. What difficulty will you encounter if you only have data from two recording
stations?
Answer: Assuming that the two circles will intersect, the circles will intersect
at two points. Therefore, there will be two locations that could possibly
be the epicenter.
The distance-time graph on page 10 of the LM shows that the S-P interval is
about 10 minutes.
8
Q3. What is the distance of the epicenter from the seismic station?
Answer: 9000 km
Possible answer:
* Locating earthquake epicenters will pinpoint which fault lines are active.
Usually, the less active fault line stores great amount of potential energy
that could cause major earthquake once released. Therefore, places near
fault lines that remain inactive for a long period of time are due to experience
a major earthquake.
Key concepts:
In order to locate the epicenter of an earthquake, you need to determine
the time interval between the arrival of the P and S waves (the S-P
interval) on the seismograms from at least three different stations. You
have to measure the interval to the closest second and then use a graph
(Distance-time graph on page 10 of the LM) to convert the S-P interval
to the epicentral distance.
Once you have the epicentral distances, you can draw circles to represent
each distance on a map. The radius of each circle corresponds to the
epicentral distance for each seismic recording station. Once you have
drawn all three circles and located the point where all three intersect,
you will have successfully located (triangulated) the epicenter of the
earthquake.
For instructions on how to perform triangulation method you may visit this
website: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBS7BKqHRhs
9
Activity 2
Lets Mark the Boundaries
Teaching Tips
1. Let the students look at Figure 2: Map of Plate Boundaries on page
7 and you may ask them the following questions;
a. What is the difference between Figure 1 and a regular World
map?
b. What do you think is the basis of dividing the world in such
manner?
Answers to questions:
Q5. How are earthquakes distributed on the map?
Answer: The worlds earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the Earths
surface. They tend to be concentrated in narrow zones.
Answer: Some are located near the edges of the continents, some are in mid-
continents, while others are in oceans .
Answer: Answers may vary. Some of the possible answers are: large part of
the Pacific ocean, northernmost Asia, majority of Europe, eastern
portion of North and South America and western Africa.
Q8. Why do you think it is important for us to identify areas which are prone to
earthquakes?
10
Q9. How are volcanoes distributed?
Answer: Volcanoes are not randomly distributed. Majority of them are found
along the edges of some continents.
Answer: Majority are found along the edges of some continents, particularly
in the western coast of North and South America, East and South East
Asia.
Q11. Based on the map, state a country that is unlikely to experience a
volcanic eruption?
Answer: Earthquake epicenters and volcanoes are both situated at the same
locations.
Q13. How will you relate the distribution of mountain ranges with the
distribution of earthquake epicenters and volcanoes?
Q14. What do you think is the basis of scientists in dividing Earths lithosphere
into several plates?
Key concepts:
Plates are large pieces of the upper few hundred kilometers of Earth
that move as a single unit as it floats above the mantle.
The plates are in constant motion. As they interact along their margins,
important geological processes take place, such as the formation of
mountain belts, earthquakes, and volcanoes.
11
To view an interactive map that will show the relationship between plate
boundaries and different geologic processes, you may visit; http://ees.as.uky.
edu/sites/default/files/elearning/module04swf.swf
Activity 3
Head-On Collision
Teaching tips:
1. Let the students recall that there are two types of crust, continental
and oceanic. Between the two, the oceanic crust is denser.
Answers to Questions:
Part A: Converging Continental Plate and Oceanic Plate
Q15. What type of plate is Plate A? What about Plate B? Why did you say so?
Tell the students that this sinking of plate beneath the other plate is called
subduction. Point out also to the students that, because of the subduction
process, a depression on the ocean floor called trench is also formed.
Q17. What do you think will happen to the leading edge of Plate A as it continues
to move downward? Why?
Answer: The leading edge of Plate A will start to melt because the temperature
beneath the crust (mantle) is higher.
12
You may add the fact that as the plate moves deeper into the mantle, it carries
with it water which also causes the melting of rocks.
Tell the students that volcanoes are mountains that are built by the accumulation
of their own eruptive products such as lava.
Parallel to the trench, point out in the diagram that volcanoes are formed.
Q20. As the plates continue to grind against each other, what other geologic
event could take place?
Answer: Earthquake could take place as the plates continue to grind against
each other.
Key concepts:
13
Part B: Convergence of Two Oceanic Plates
Teaching tips:
1. Recall the subduction process and the geologic events that will take
place because of the process.
2. Tell the students that two oceanic plates could also collide because
of plate tectonics.
3. Introduce the next activity. This time the students will use the
knowledge they acquired from the previous activity in predicting what
events could take place due to this type of collision.
4. You may ask the students to draw a diagram showing what they think
would be the outcome of this event.
Q21. What are the geologic processes/events that will occur out of this plate
movement?
The volcanic deposits pile up until they break through the surface of the ocean
and form an island arc.Examples of island arcs created in this way are the
Aleutians, the Kuriles, Japan, and the Philippines.
Q23. If the edge of Plate A suddenly flicks upward, a large amount of water may
be displaced. What could be formed at the surface of the sea?
14
Key concepts:
Teaching tips:
2. Just gather all the ideas the students will mention regarding the last
question. After all the ideas had been presented, tell them that they
will check their answers after they perform the next activity.
Q24. What happened to the strips of clay as they were pushed from opposite
ends?
Q25. If the strips of clay represent the Earths lithosphere, what do you think
is formed in the lithosphere?
Q26. What other geologic event could take place with this type of plate
movement aside from your answer in Q25?
Answer: Earthquakes will occur due to the collision of the two plates. (Since
there is no subduction, only shallow earthquakes will happen)
Q27. In terms of the consequences on the Earths lithosphere, how will you
differentiate this type of convergent plate boundary with the other two?
Answer: Since the two plates involved are both continental plates there is
no subduction process (because both plates are low in density). As a
result, mountains are formed instead of volcanoes.
15
Key concept:
Activity 4
Teaching tips:
1. You may start the lesson by saying this:
2. To find out the answer to this question, students will study the next
type of plate boundary-the Divergent plate boundary.
Answers to Questions:
Q28 What are common in the four pictures?
Answers: All four pictures show a fissure or a crack between two land masses.
Q29. What do you think is happening to the Earths crust in those pictures?
Answer: The land masses are moving away from each other.
Q30. If this event continues for millions of years, what do you think will be the
effect on the crust?
Answer: The distance between the land masses will be far greater than what
is shown in the picture.
Q31. Complete the drawing below to illustrate your answer in question number 3.
16
After millions of years
Answer: The illustration of the students should show a wider crack or fissure
between the two land masses.
Key concepts:
17
Activity 5
Slide and Shake
Teaching tips:
1. The next activity will be a simulation-type activity where students will
simulate how transform-fault boundary is formed.
2. After the activity has been performed, you may ask the following
questions:
a. If the blocks of wood were plates, what kind of plate boundary is
formed between Blocks 1 and 2? between 3 and 4? (divergent)
b. Describe the relative motion of Blocks 2 and 3; Blocks 1 and 3;
Blocks 2 and 4. (Same answer with guide questions 3 and 4)
3. Inform the students that this is another type of plate boundary called
transform-fault boundary.
5. Ask the students what they think would the consequence be if plates
move horizontally past each other, (Shallow earthquakes).
Answers to Questions:
Q32. Were you able to pull the blocks of wood easily? Why or why not?
Answer: No, because of the friction between the edges of the block of wood.
Q33. What can you say about the relative motion of Blocks 1 and 2? How
about Blocks 3 and 4?
Answer: Block 2 is moving away from Block 1, while Block 3 is moving away
from Block 4.
Q34. How will you describe the interaction between Blocks 2 and 3 as you pull
each block?
18
Q35. What is the interaction between Blocks 1 and 3? How about between
Blocks 2 and 4?
Answer: Block 3 is sliding past block 1 while Block 2 is sliding past Block 4.
Key concepts:
2. Most transform faults are found on the ocean floor. They commonly
offset active spreading ridges, producing zig-zag plate margins, and
are generally defined by shallow earthquakes.
Activity 6
Teaching tips:
1. Show the students an aerial picture of the Hawaiian islands.http://
www.aimforawesome.com/media-photos-ebooks-audio-videos/
photos/hawaiian-islands-aerial-satellite-photograph/
2. Tell them that the Hawaiian islands are volcanic islands.
3. Let them realize that Hawaii is situated in the middle of Pacific plate
and not along the plate boundaries. Ask them what gives rise to
Hawaiian islands.
4. Introduce to them the next activity which is about intraplate activities.
5. The activity will simulate how hot spots give rise to volcanic islands.
6. You can also watch a video clip on this website:http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=AhSaE0omw9o
Answers to questions
Q36. What can you see on the surface of the paper?
Answer: The surface of the paper which is directly in contact with the test tube
became wet.
Q37. Lets say that the paper represents the Earths crust; what do you think is
represented by the water in the test tube?
Answer: Magma from the mantle is represented by the water in the test tube.
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Q38. What geologic feature do you think will be formed at the surface of the
crust?
Answer: Volcanoes will be formed.
Q39. Which of the features at the surface of the crust will be the oldest? the
youngest? Label these on your paper.
Answer: The oldest volcano will be the first one that developed while the
youngest volcano is the last one that was formed.
Q40. Which of the features will be the most active? The least active? Label
these on your paper.
Answer: The most active volcano is the youngest one (the one that is
currently on top of the magma source). While the least active
volcano, is the oldest (because it is already cut-off from the source of
magma).
Key concepts:
1. A hot spot is an area in the mantle from which hot materials rise as
a thermal plume.
2. High heat and lower pressure at the base of the lithosphere (tectonic
plate) facilitates melting of the rock. This melt, called magma, rises
through cracks and erupts to form volcanoes.
3. As the tectonic plate moves over the stationary hot spot, the volcanoes
are rafted away and new ones form in their place. This results in
chains of volcanoes, such as the Hawaiian Islands.
Performance Task
Teaching tips:
1. The students will be asked to prepare an emergency kit for the whole
family that they can use during or after a disaster.
3. Some items needed in the kit may be costly, but as much as possible
let us encourage the students to do their best to complete their kits.
20
4. Let students present their emergency kits in the class and explain
why they think those items must be included in the kit.
7. The scoring rubric below can be use in evaluating the emergency kit
of the students.
21
Emergency kit checklist source: http://www.redcross.org/
Waterone gallon per person, per day (3-day supply for evacuation,
2-week supply for home)
Foodnon-perishable, easy-to-prepare items (3-day supply for
evacuation, 2-week supply for home)
Flashlight
Battery-powered radio
Extra batteries
First aid kit
Medications (7-day supply) and medical items
Multi-purpose tool
Sanitation and personal hygiene items
Copies of personal documents (medication list and pertinent medical
information, proof of address, deed/lease to home, passports, birth
certificates, insurance policies)
Cell phone with chargers
Family and emergency contact information
Extra cash
Emergency blanket
Map(s) of the area
Summary/Synthesis/Feedback
According to the plate tectonics model, the entire lithosphere of the Earth
is broken into numerous segments called plates.
Each plate is slowly but continuously moving.
As a result of the motion of the plates, three types of plate boundaries
were formed: Divergent, Convergent, and Transform fault boundaries
Divergent boundary is formed when plates move apart, creating a zone
of tension.
Convergent boundary is present when two plates collide.
Transform fault is characterized by plates that are sliding past each
other.
Plate tectonics give rise to several geologic features and events.
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Answers to the summative assessment:
1. Any of these three are the possible answers: mountains, volcanoes
or trenches.
2. d
3. b
4. Transform-fault boundary
5. a
6. b
7. d
8. a and f
9. b and e
10. c and d
23
Glossary of Terms
Continental volcanic arc. Mountains formed in part by igneous activity
associated with subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent.
Continental Crust. The thick part of the Earths crust, not located under the
ocean.
Oceanic Crust. The thin part of the Earths crust located under the oceans.
Divergent boundary. A region where the crustal plates are moving apart.
Magma. A mass of molten rock form from a depth, including dissolved gases
and crystals.
Mid-ocean ridge. A continuous mass of land with long width and height on the
ocean floor.
Plate tectonics. A theory which suggests that Earths crust is made up of plates
that interact in various ways, thus producing earthquakes, mountains,
volcanoes and other geologic features.
Primary (P) wave. The first type of seismic wave to be recorded in a seismic
station.
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Rocks. Consolidated mixture of minerals.
Transform fault boundary. A boundary produced when two plates slide past
each other.
25
References and Links
Department of Education, Bureau of Secondary Education. Project EASE
Integrated Science 1, Module 12: Inside the Earth.
Tarbuck, E.J. et al. (2009). Earth Science 12th ed. Pearson Education
South Asia Pte Ltd.
26
Unit 1 Suggested time allotment: 15 to 18 hours
MODULE
Overview
The topic on Plate Tectonics and the processes within the Earths interior
conclude the spiralling concepts in Geology. In fact, Geology is the only strand
discussed in Grade 10 Science because of the topics broadness.
There are seven activities in this module which slowly develop the
concept of relating the Earths interior processes with the physical structure of
the Earths surface.
27
After all these activities, a performance task is provided to connect and
conclude the two modules for Earth and Space in this grade. The task is very
important for the learners to understand the nature of our home planet and to
instil in them how they could be part of reducing the risks brought by geologic
phenomena.
In the discussion, it would be best if the teacher focuses and directs the
students towards the development of concepts by answering the following key
questions:
Learning Competencies
In this module, you should be able to:
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Answers to Pre-Assessment
Directions:
A. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
For questions 1 and 2, refer to the figure below that shows the cross
section of the Earth as seismic waves travel through it.
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2. Why are there no P-waves or S-waves received in the P-wave
shadow zone?
a. P-waves are aboserbed and S-waves are refracted by Earths
outer core.
b. P-waves are refracted and S-waves are absorbed by Earths
outer core.
c. Both the P-waves and S-waves are refracted by Earths outer
core.
d. Both the P-waves and S-waves are absorbed by Earths outer
core.
Answer: B
3. What makes up the lithosphere?
a. Continental crust
b. Crust and the upper mantle
c. Oceanic crust and continental crust
d. Upper mantle
Answer: B
4. Miners dig into the Earth in search for precious rocks and minerals.
In which layer is the deepest explorations made by miners?
a. Crust c. Mantle
b. Inner core d. Outer core
Answer: A
5. How do you compare the densities of the Earths crust, mantle and
core?
a. The mantle is less dense than the core but denser than the crust.
b. The mantle is less dense than both the core and the crust.
c. The mantle is denser than the core but less dense than the crust.
d. The mantle is denser than both the core and the crust.
Answer: A
6. The movement of the lithospheric plates is facilitated by a soft, weak
and plastic-like layer. Which of the following layers is described in
the statement?
a. Asthenosphere c. Lithosphere
b. Atmosphere d. Mantle
Answer: A
7. Alfred Wegener is a German scientist who hypothesized that the
Earth was once made up of a single large landmass called Pangaea.
Which of the following theories did Wegener propose?
a. Continental Drift Theory c. Plate Tectonics
b. Continental Shift Theory d. Seafloor Spreading Theory
Answer: A
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8. If you are a cartographer, what will give you an idea that the continents
were once joined?
a. Ocean depth
b. Position of the south pole
c. Shape of the continents
d. Size of the Atlantic Ocean
Answer: C
9. Which observation was NOT instrumental in formulating the
hypothesis of seafloor spreading?
a. Depth of the ocean
b. Identifying the location of glacial deposits
c. Magnetization of the oceanic crust
d. Thickness of seafloor sediments
Answer: B
10. As a new seafloor is formed at the mid-ocean ridge, the old seafloor
farthest from the ridge is destroyed. Which of the stated processes
describes how the oceanic crust plunges into the Earth and destroyed
at the mantle?
a. Convection
b. Construction
c. Diversion
d. Subduction
Answer: D
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B. Answer briefly the following questions.
1. What are the different layers of the Earth?
Answer: The different layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle,
and the core. The core is made up of a solid inner core and liquid
outer core.
2. Why is there a need to study the Earths layers?
Answer: We need to study the Earths layers because the mechanisms
in the inner layers facilitate the slow changes that occur on the Earths
surface. Although these changes takes millions of years to shape
the Earth, the tectonic activities that go along with these changes
affect us very much.
3. What proves the existence of the boundary between the crust and
the mantle?
Answer: As seismic waves pass from the crust to the mantle, the
velocity increases. If the velocity of waves changes, it means that the
density of the media where they travel through are different, and thus
proves a boundary.
4. What are the characteristics of the asthenosphere?
Answer: The asthenosphere is the soft weak layer below the
lithosphere. It has a temperature that facilitates a small amount of
melting that gives it the capability to flow.
5. What do the shapes of the continents now tell us about their past?
Answer: The shape of the continents seems like a jigsaw puzzle when
put together. A picture will be formed and indicate that the continents
were once together in the past.
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Activity 1
Amazing Waves!
33
Answers to questions:
Surface waves travel only on the Earths surface like ripples of water
while body waves travel through the Earths body (interior). In addition, surface
waves arrive last at seismic recording stations compared to the body waves.
Q2. Which type of wave do you think were useful to seismologists in their study
of the Earths interior? Explain your answer.
The body waves were used by seismologists because they can pass
through the Earths interior.
Allow to perform this activity in a way that the students will realize that it
takes different properties (like reflection and refraction properties of waves) and
characteristics to analyze and differentiate the media where they travel through.
Discuss the characteristics of the seismic waves and how these characteristics
led to the discovery of each layer of the Earth.
Post the questions on the board: How will the mixture of cornstarch and
water react? Will it act as liquid, solid or gas? The teacher writes the answers
of the learners on the board but should not expect that they will give correct
answers. Let the learners observe as the teacher performs the activity. After the
activity is done, the teacher should correct the misconceptions of the students
during the discussion.
34
Demonstration: Simulating Plasticity
(Adapted)
Materials
15 g cornstarch
2 small cups
20 ml tap water
medicine dropper
stirring rod or spoon
Procedure:
1. Put 15 g cornstarch into one of the beakers. Put 10 ml water into the
other beaker.
2. Add one drop full of water to the cornstarch. Stir the mixture.
Ask the students the question:
How does the mixture react like; solid, liquid or gas?
3. Continue to add water to the mixture, one drop full at a time. Stir the
mixture after each addition.
4. Stop adding water when the mixture becomes difficult to stir.
5. Pour the mixture into your hand.
6. Roll the mixture into a ball and press it.
Let the students explain what they have observed. Facilitate the students
reactions with the following questions:
A2: The mixture of cornstarch and water behaves like the mantle. It
has the ability to flow slowly..
A3: The cornstarch gained mobility due to addition of water while the
mantles plasticity is due to partial melting aided by the heat of the
inner layers of the earth.
Q4. How does the plasticity of the Earths mantle influence the
movement of the lithospheric plates?
35
A4: Since the mantle is capable of flowing slowly, it carries and
facilitates the movement of lithospheric plates above it as it
moves.
Activity 2
Our Dynamic Earth
Expected Output:
Answers to questions:
Q3. What element is the most abundant in the Earths crust?
36
Q5. What is the special feature of the upper mantle?
The upper mantle has with it a soft weak layer called the
asthenosphere, which is capable of flowing. This property facilitates the
movement of the lithospheric plates.
Q6. How did scientists discover that the outer core is liquid?
The scientists were able to show that the outer core is liquid due
to the fact that S- waves cannot travel through this Earths layer as proven
by the S-wave shadow zone.
Q8. Is the inner core solid, liquid or gas? What keeps it in this phase?
The inner core is solid. This is due to the very high pressure that keeps
it compacted together even if the temperature is really very high.
The outer and the inner core are made mostly of iron and nickel.
The outer core reaches a temperature of 2000oC. With this temperature,
the iron and nickel melt thus, this layer is liquid. The inner core has a
temperature as high as 5000oC. It is compact despite of the very hot
temperature because of the very great pressure that keeps this layer in the
solid phase.
The teacher may ask this question: Is the Earths interior processes
related with the structure of the Earths surface? Encourage responses from
the students.
37
Activity 3
Lets Fit it!
Divide the class into groups of 3 to 4 students and perform the activity as
a group. This will serve as the teachers springboard to the next activity. The
students reasoning ability will be enhanced. Conduct this activity as quickly as
possible.
Answers to questions:
Q10. What features of the newspaper helped you to connect the pieces
perfectly?
Q11. How do the lines of prints or texts in the newspaper help you to confirm
that you have reassembled the newspaper/magazine page?
The lines of prints make sure that the newspaper is fitted well.
The words written serve as clues in connecting the pieces of newspaper
together. The completed/connected words confirm that the newspaper
has been reassembled.
Activity 4
Drifted Supercontinent!
Answers to questions:
Q13. What does the Glossopteris fossils tell us about the early positions of
the continents?
Since it is impossible for Glossopteris fossils found in different
regions or continents to be blown by the wind or carried by ocean waves,
the only possibility is that these regions were once connected.
38
Q14. If Glossopteris fossils were found in Antarctica, what does this indicate
about the climate of this continent before?
It proves that Antarctica had a tropical climate before.
Q15. If the climate and the position of a place are relative to each other,
where then was the initial location of Antarctica 250 million years ago?
It tells us that Antarctica was nearer to the equator before as
compared to where it is today.
Q16. What does the presence of Mesosaurus fossils tell about the initial
location and position of South America, Africa, and Antarctica?
It tells us that these continents were connected before, since
this kind of animal cannot swim across the vast ocean.
Q17. What clues are useful in reconstructing Pangaea?
Q19. Will there be a possibility that the current location of a continent would
be different 100 years from now?
Q20. Where do you think was the Philippines located during the time that the
Pangaea existed? Research on how the Philippine islands emerged.
39
Q21. If the continents will continue to move, try to predict the Philippines
location 100 million years from now.
Activity 5
Answers to questions
Q22. What do the stripes in the paper represent?
The stripes represent the rocks with normal and reverse polarities.
Q23. What does the middle slit represent? What occurs in this region?
The middle slit represents the mid-ocean ridge where the actual
seafloor - spreading occurs.
Q24. What is the role of the midocean ridge in the movement of lithospheric
plates?
Q25. How does the new seafloor form at the mid-ocean ridge?
Hot, less dense material below the Earths crust rises towards
the mid-ocean ridge. As this material flows sideways, it creates a crack
in the crust where magma will flow out. This magma cools down and
becomes the new seafloor.
The side slits serve as subduction zone where the old seafloor
plunges beneath another tectonic plate.
40
Q27. Is the earth getting larger and wider when plates drift away from each
other? Explain briefly.
Activity 6
In this activity, students will compute for the rate of seafloor spreading.
After the activity, they will be able to determine the distance a continent moves
for every year. Reiterate to the students that NOT ALL plates move at the same
rate.
How fast does it go?
Q29. If Africa is approximately 2,400 km away from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, how
long ago was it when Africa was directly at or near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?
41
Recall the mechanisms of the Earths interior structure and properties.
The teacher must make a strong idea about the properties of the mantle and
the process it undergoes. This will lead the learners to connect the Seafloor
Spreading Theory with the convection current that happens in the mantle.
For Activity 7, the teacher must perform the activity first before letting the
students perform so he could facilitate the class. The teacher must constantly
remind the students to be extra careful in handling heating materials.
Activity 7
(Adapted)
Answers to questions
The blocks are pushed up to the middle of the boiling water and
then swayed towards the sides of the beaker.
The small, light wood blocks resemble the lithospheric/tectonic
plates that moved about slowly along the tectonic boundaries, pushing,
sliding past and drifting away from each other because of convection
current.
42
The teacher should explain that these are the possible causes of tectonic
activities. Again, reiterate that the processes/activities in the Earths interior
play a role in the processes along Earths surface.
The teacher may opt to end the lesson with a video presentation on the
evolution of the Earth or a video on how magnificent the Earth is if there are
available videos that can be downloaded from the internet.
Performance Task
This is the performance task for the students. This activity shows the
effects of geologic activities like volcanic eruptions and earthquake. This could
be an individual or a group activity which aims to motivate students to be part
in mitigating the effects of tectonic activities.
1. The teacher gives a situation where the students acts as a project
engineer who wants to develop a subdivision, a realtor who sells a house
& lot, a geologist visiting his/her hometown or simply a student seeking
to help the government. However, the students are given an option to
choose other characters in the society.
2. The performance task must be given at the start of the first grading
period.
3. This should be presented at the end of the grading period.
4. The teacher must set a date for the learners to present their outputs in
class.
43
5. The teacher may consider the following rubric in rating the students.
Criteria 4 3 2 1 Score
The method of
presentation The method of The method of The method of
Method of is easy to presentation presentation is presentation is not
Presentation understand, is unique and organized but organized and not
unique and organized. not unique. unique.
outstanding.
The presentation/
The presentation
medium includes The presentation
/ medium includes
unusual and / medium include The presentation /
some unusual
interesting
and interesting unusual and medium does not
Technique/ features and
features that interesting include unusual
Creativity components
interest the features, but they or interesting
that excite the
audience and do not add to its features.
audience about
relate to the meaning.
the topic and add
meaning.
to the meaning.
Information Information
contains minimal contains minimal
Information
Information error, none of errors, of which
Accuracy contains many
contains no error. which interferes interferes with
with the clarity of errors.
the clarity of
communication communication
44
Summary/Synthesis/Feedback
The Earth is composed of three main layers: the crust, mantle, and
core which is subdivided into outer core and inner core.
The crust is the outermost and thinnest layer of the Earth.
The mantle is the middle layer of the Earth. It makes most of the
Earths volume and mass.
The crust and a part of the upper mantle make up the lithosphere.
The lithosphere is subdivided into portions called lithospheric
plates.
The asthenosphere is the weak layer of the mantle on which the
lithosphere floats.
The outer core is made up of molten material. The outer core
accounts for the Earths magnetic field.
The inner core is the deepest layer of the Earth. It is made up of
solid nickel and iron. The temperature in the inner core reaches as
high as 5000oC.
The speed, reflection and refraction properties of seismic waves
are used by scientists to study the structure and composition of the
Earths interior.
The Continental Drift Theory of Alfred Wegener states that the
continents were once a part of a large landmass called Pangaea
which splits apart and the continents moved away from each other
towards their current positions.
Alfred Wegener based his theory on evidences from fossils
embedded in rocks and rock formations.
Seafloor spreading is believed to occur as hot magma rises at the
rift in the mid-ocean ridge. This magma cools down and becomes
the new seafloor as it pushes the former.
The old seafloor is destroyed at the subduction zone and melts
inside the mantle.
The age of rocks and the magnetic stripes in the ocean floor support
the seafloor spreading theory.
The theory of plate tectonics helps explain the formation and
destruction of the Earths crust and its movement over time.
Scientists believe that the plates movement is due to convection
currents in the mantle.
45
Summative Assessment
A. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
a. Eurasia
b. Laurasia
c. Pangaea
d. Gondwanaland
Answer: C
2. Who were the two scientists who proposed the theory of seafloor
spreading in the early 1960s?
A. C.
B. D.
Answer: A
46
4. During the 1960s, scientists were already equipped with gadgets
needed to explore the deep ocean. What discovery about the ocean
floor is associated with the seafloor spreading?
a. 3 kilometers
b. 30 kilometers
c. 300 kilometers
d. 3000 kilometers
Answer: B
6. Which of the following increases with distance from a mid-ocean
ridge?
47
8. If all the inner layers of the Earth are firm solid, what could have
happened to Pangaea?
a. It remained as a supercontinent.
b. It would have become as it is today.
c. It would have slowly disappeared in the ocean.
d. It would have stretched and covered the whole world.
Answer: A
9. Why does the oceanic crust sink beneath the continental crust at the
subduction zone?
48
B. Complete the concept map below on continental drift, seafloor spreading,
and plate tectonics.
Plate Tectonic
Theory
49
Glossary of Terms
Asthenosphere. Soft, weak upper portion of the mantle where the lithospheric
plates float and move around.
Continental Drift Theory. States that all the continents were once one large
landmass that broke apart and where the pieces moved slowly to their
current locations.
Convection current. Current in the mantle due to the heat from the inner layers
of the Earth and is the force that drives the plates to move around.
Lithosphere. The topmost, solid part of the Earth that is composed of several
plates.
Lithospheric Plates. The moving, irregularly shaped slabs that fit together to
form the surface of the Earth.
Mid-ocean ridge. Area in the middle of the ocean where new ocean floor is
formed when lava erupts through the cracks in the Earths crust.
Seafloor spreading. A process by which new ocean floor is formed near the
mid-ocean ridge and moves outward.
Subduction. The process in which the crust plunges back into the Earth.
Tectonics. Branch of Geology that deals with the movements that shape the
Earths crust.
50
References and links
Borrero, Francisco et al. (2008). Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and
the Universe. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Tarbuck, E.J. et al. (2009). Earth Science 12th ed. Pearson Education South
Asia Pte Ltd.
51
Internet
https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Asthenosphere.html
accessed March 1, 2014
http://www.learner.org/courses/essential/earthspace/session3/closer2.htm
accessed March 3, 2014
http://loki.stockton.edu/~hozikm/geol/Courses/The%20Earth/Content%20Web
%20Pages/Bugielski/webpage.htm accessed February 28, 2014
http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/topics/earth/geophysics/Seismic%20Waves%
20Reading.htm accessed March 1, 2014
http://www.learner.org/courses/essential/earthspace/session3/closer2.htm
accessed March 3, 2014
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/glossary/Contdrift.html
accessed March 7, 2014
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