Do we know how to teach the mathematics of complex numbers

Aref Hamawi, Kunskapens Hus 511 80 Kinna, Sweden

Abstract
The mathematics of complex numbers is of special importance and has a great application.
Teachers and other mathematics educators should know about the deep meaning of complex
numbers and their use. Unfortunately, many pupils carry out the mathematics without
knowing what they are doing. They actually just copy the procedure rather than realizing the
way those numbers work. Accepting the idea of the complex numbers opens many
possibilities towards new concepts and making things much more fun. The most fundamental
concept that should be know about imaginary and complex numbers is that numbers in
general are not scalars any more rather they are vectors having both magnitude and direction.

Introduction

The idea of complex numbers started when mathematicians dealing with quadratic equations
faced such equations that are not solvable within the vicinity of the real numbers. In other
words, those functions have curves that do not intersect the x-axis. There is no such known
number(s) that can be inserted in the equation x2 + 2x + 2 = 0 so that the answer will be zero.
This also leads to the conclusion that the equation is not factorizable. The equation also means
the following question: what are the two numbers which there sum is two there product is also
two. The lack of solution for such an equation is simply because the discreminant is negative.
By introducing the square root of a negative number then it will make possible to have a
solution or to have the curve cutting the x-axis, figure 1 below. All equations of type x2 + a
such that a > 0 must then have a solution regarded that the x-axis in the x-y plane must be
only imaginary.
y (Re)

(-i√a, 0) (i√a, o)

x (Im)

When knowing that i = √(-1) which is the fifth fundamental number in mathematics then it is
very interesting to show that upon combining all the five fundamental numbers then one gets
the most beautiful equation in mathematics;

eiπ + 1 = 0
 This equation has another interesting aspect which is it also shows all the fundamental
mathematical operations i.e the plus, the product the equal sign as will as the exponent. The
above equation is called Eulers equation.

Upon introducing imaginary numbers to the pupils it is always expected to have questions like
how are they looking like? Do we have examples from reality that describe those numbers
and if that is the case why we do not use them in a more scale. The answer of these questions
is of course simple and convincing. We always have to remember that such questions arose
when concepts like the average or negative numbers came in. What we mean by saying that
the average members in the Swedish family is 3,20 is simply that for one hundred Swedish
families we expect to have about 320 family members. And upon saying that one has – 500
SEK simply means that one is owed to the bank by 500 SEK. regarding the imaginary
numbers one can bring the following example; we know that when we buy things from a shop
then we have to pay for that. It sounds logic and natural but when saying that we get paid
upon buying things from the shop then it sounds non logic and unnatural. In some if not many
cases is actually goes like this especially when the shop is new and it wants to attract new
customers. Sometimes one gets paid for thing, directly or non directly, by direct money or by
souvenirs or even by travels somewhere upon buying just anything. The fact that these case
are unreal or non logic then they are imaginary cases that can be related to imaginary
numbers.

The reasons why I choose this subject to talk about are many. They are partly motivated by
the fact that it is not paid a lot of attention towards this important issue. The main reasons are
the following

1. students often carry out the mathematics of the complex numbers correctly and accurately
but without understanding the meaning of that or for what purpose is all that. They just get
passed with a good or an excellent grade without knowing why!

2. teachers having that course mostly lack sufficient and basic knowledge about the use or
the philosophy of the complex numbers. This in turn will give the students no motivation
or encouragement for the whole issue although it is of crucial importance and of great fun.
In many cases I had long discussions with teachers about their way of looking to the
mathematics of the complex numbers. In many of the cases it was disappointing to see
that in most of these cases they lack this basic knowledge. The only thing one concludes is
that they just follow the textbook and the way it is presented without discussing the use of
the world of complex numbers. Sometimes they discuss classical examples about
electrical circuits containing coils or capacitors or both but with no radical look att the
meaning of having a phase between the current and the voltage.

The way I and other mathematicians present the mathematics of the complex numbers may
differ from some others in many ways since I (we) concentrate on their meaning and their
concept rather than just carrying out the algebra in a copy process without paying attention on
the content.

In any of my presentations I take into consideration the following facts about imaginary and
complex numbers:
1. numbers in general have direction, they are not scalars any more, instead they have both a
magnitude and a direction i .e they are vectors. As far as we deal with complex numbers
then we should think of them as vectors. All real numbers are located along the x-axis
direction and all imaginary numbers are located along the y-axis direction. Complex
numbers on the other hand have a direction between the real x-axis and the imaginary y-
axis. If for example z = 3 + 2i , this simply means that z is a vector consisting of a real
vector of 3 units directed towards the plus x-axis and another imaginary vector of 2 units
directed towards the imaginary part or the y-axis. If, for example, z is added to another
vector zz = 2 + 3i then the result will be a third vector which is zzz = 5 + 5i. This result is
clearly obtained if z and zz are vectorially (geometrically) added by completing a
parallelogram, figure 2 below.
Im

Re

Figure 2. Addition of two complex numbers is carried out as vector addition.

If that is known, what is –z then? From vector geometry we know that the minus of any
vector is simply the same vector having the opposite direction. What will happen if any
number is multiplied by i. For example if c = a + ib is multiplied by i then we get ic= ia–b
which is another vector having the same length as c but is rotated 900 counterclockwise.
Multiplying c by –i will produce another vector having the same length as c but is rotated
900 clockwise. Upon multiplying any complex number (vector) by ni or –ni where n is an
integer will therefore rotate the complex number anti clockwise or clockwise and then
prolonging or contracting with a factor n. When multiplying any complex number by i2
which is –1 then it is as if we rotate the complex number (vector) twice by 900 each anti
clockwise or simply rotating by 1800 . Upon multiplying by i3 or –i then it is as if we rotate
by 900 trice anti clockwise or simply rotating by 2700 . Generally, upon multiplying any
vector by in implies that one has to rotate the vector clockwise or anti clockwise by 900 n.
The conclusion is that the multiplication procedure is an operating process i .e a rotation .
Complex numbers are therefore operators, they increase or decrease the length of the
vector and then they change its direction. The operating process is therefore one of the
basic concepts in modern or quantum mechanics which started by the beginning of the
19th century. Having known that complex numbers are vectors will make it easier for
pupils to carry out the mathematics in an understandable way.

2. Imaginary numbers make it possible to factorize numbers and that were not factorizable
before. For example, the expression x2 + 4 was not factorizable before introducing the
imaginary numbers. We all know now that x2 + 4 can be factorized as

x2 + 4 = (x – 2i)(x + 2i)
 the number 6 which has only two real factors ( 2 and 3) will have more factors, actually an
infinite number of factors (imaginary factors);

6 = 3 x 2 = (1 – i√5)(1 + i√5)
= (– 2 – i√10)(2 + i√10)
= (– 3 – i√15)(3 + i√15)
and so on.

The fact that real numbers have an infinite number of factors means that all quadratic
equations must have solution within the frame of real or imaginary numbers.

3. the introductory of imaginary numbers breaks the old rules regarding the prime numbers.
This consequence directly comes from the factorizing ability mentioned before.
According to this fact number 2 is not a prime number since 2 = (1 – i)(1 + i) while 3 is
still a prime number. Number 5 on the other hand is not a prime number since it can be
factorized; 5 = (2 – i)(2 + i) while number 7 is a prime number since it cannot be
factorized. If we follow this sequence we see that the only prime numbers left are 3, 7, 11,
19, 23 and so on. One observes that these numbers follow a certain pattern which is when
one is added to these numbers then the result is divisible by 4. In this case one has to
redefine prime numbers in this way: P is a prime number if P +1 is divisible by 4. In this
aspect 143 is not a prime number while 131 is a prime number.
Before leaving this point it is worthy and interesting to note that the expression n2 – n + 41
is very unique in the since that when substituting n from 1 to 40 then the expression will
generate prime numbers starting from 41 up till 1601 !

4. unlike real numbers, –i can be written as i– 1 . The real number –3 can not be written in
that way as 3–1 . Generally speaking, –ni can be written as ni-1 or as n/i. Furthermore, the
expression in + 1/in is equal to

a. zero if n is an odd number

b. – 2 if n is even and only divided 2 but not divided by 4
c. + 2 if n is even and divided by 4

5. probably the most interesting thing about complex numbers or complex functions is their
interpretation and how to calculate them. For example, what do expressions like 2i , i i , ln i,
, ln (–5) sini and cosi mean? How do we calculate them and what is their interpretation?
Do they mean something practical or they are just abstract or fun to calculate(1). In other
words, is the function of an imaginary number necessarily an imaginary number or an
imaginary function? Since i is imaginary then does sini essentially mean the sin of an
imaginary angle? And if so what is an imaginary angle?

To answer these questions let us start with the simple exponential function 2 i . If one has
to follow the definition of the exponential function then 2 i would mean that 2 is multiplied
by itself i times. This definition does not make sense. In order to calculate such an
expression then we have to remember that a b can be written as e b lna. This will give that 2 i
= e i ln2 . The right hand side can simply be written as

= cos (ln2) + i sin (ln2)

 which is a vector having two components; a real one of length cos (ln2) and an imaginary
one of length sin (ln2). This will mean that any exponential function having the form xi
can be written as

x i = cos (lnx) + i sin (lnx)

as far as imaginary numbers are involved then the classical definition of the exponential
function should be modified to have a vector aspect.

Regarding the natural logarithm function of imaginary numbers the modification of the
definition is essentially even there. In order to calculate lni then one has to use Eulers
formula(2)

eiπ + 1 = 0

which can be written as eiπ = –1

when taking the natural logarithm of both sides then we get iπ = ln(–1) = ln(i2 ) = 2 lni.
Then lni can be written as iπ/2 which is a vector or an operator that rotates vectors
counterclockwise by 900 and then expanding them by a factor of π/2. What is surprising in
this connection is that the natural logarithm of a negative number is now defined and can be
evaluated. We know that in the vicinity of the set of real numbers the ln of a negative number
lacks a real solution. The lnx is negative if 0 < x < 1 and as x approaches zero then lnx
approaches minus infinity. When x goes beyond zero then lnx goes beyond minus infinity(!)
which is imaginary. To evaluate ln(-x) where x is positive then we have to write ln(-x) as

ln((–1).x) = ln(–1) + lnx

= ln i2 + lnx
= 2 lni + lnx
= 2 iπ/2 + lnx
= iπ + lnx

the conclusion is that the natural logarithm of a negative number is simply a vector having
two components; a real one of length lnx and an imaginary one of length π. The most amazing
thing of this issue is that if x goes to plus infinity then the real part of ln(-x) which is lnx
becomes much larger than the imaginary one which is iπ, a constant. In this case iπ can be
ignored and then ln(-x) is essentially consisting of a pure real component i.e. ln(-x) = ln(x).
This amazing result should open a discussion about the meaning of the infinity concept and
whether the plus and the minus infinity simply meet each other!
Im y

ln(-x)
iπ
Re x
lnx

Figure 3. A vectorial sketch showing the evaluation of ln(-x) as two components. As x goes to
plus infinity then ln(-x) becomes practically equal to lnx since iπ is negligible.
Finally, regarding the trigonometric functions such as the sin and the cosin we know that can
be written as

Cosx = ( eix + e–ix)/2

Sinx = ( eix – e–ix)/2i

To evaluate, we just put x = i in the respective expressions

Cosi = ( e –1 + e1 )/2 ≈ 1,54 which is a real number and

Sini = ( e–1 + e1 )/2i ≈ 1,17 i which is imaginary.

Then cosi is a vector having only a pure real component of 1,54 and sini is another vector
having a pure imaginary component of 1,17. The conclusion is that cosi is an enlargement
factor or operator and sini is another factor that rotates vector (complex numbers) by 900 anti
clockwise and then enlarging it by a factor of 1,17. The most beautiful thing in this
connection is that even upon dealing with imaginary trigonometric functions it is still that the
trigonometric rules do work. For example, it is easy to show that cos2 i + sin2 i =1 and cos 2i =
cos2 i – sin2 i and so on. The direct sequence of this is that trigonometric relations or functions
are valid for all numbers or angles regardless if they are real or imaginary.

These and other results give the students a remarkable kick and encouraging attitude to learn
more about the mathematics of complex numbers. In addition, they realize that complex
numbers are not the end of the history rather it is just a beginning of something more
importance which is still unknown. May be they are the people who will come with thosenew
numbers.

In conclusion, the mathematics of complex numbers is fun and important. The concepts must
be discussed simultaneously with the mathematics. The most important issue that has to be
learned out from the very beginning is the vectorial or operative character of the complex
numbers.

References:

1. Mathematical methods in the physical sciences, M.L. Boas.Willy International Edition

2. Boken om tal, john Conway and Richard Guy, Capital 8 and 9, ISBN 91-4401189-X