Trace historical developments in the choice of materials used in the construction

of ocean-going vessels with a focus on the metals used

Ocean-based expedition provides society with innumerable benefits, and just as

knowledge develops over time, so too has the construction of ocean-going vessels.
From the primitive materials of early communities to modern steel composites, the
methods, materials and foundations used in the construction of sea-faring vessels have
evolved. Accompanying this progression has been improved efficiency, safety and
productivity of ocean-going vessels and expeditions. Humans have thus constantly
been involved with oceanic expeditions and the construction of ocean-going vessels
has developed over time.

The construction of boats and ships by early communities was heavily influenced by
availability of materials. This local availability meant that different societies used
different techniques and materials, however most ocean-going vessels were
constructed with logs, animal skin, bamboo and other readily available materials.
Following the beginnings of the Iron Age, wooden planks became the most common
material for boat-construction. Metal, such as copper, was used to fasten the planks
together and later civilization, such as the Greeks and Romans, replaced copper with
iron due to its strength. However, many problems were associated with wooden
vessels, including rot, salt penetration and biofouling due to marine organisms.
During the 1500s, lead, and then copper, sheeting was used to as a biocide and made
the hull stronger and less flexible. However, the iron nails, which were in contact with
the copper, were subject to severe corrosion and needed to be replaced with copper
nails. This introduced the issue of corrosion in ocean-going vessels.

By the 1800s, composite ships were being constructed, in which wooden planks were
laid over iron frames and metal components were introduced in other areas of the
vessel (including rigging, anchors, heels, rudders and canons). This led to the
abandonment of copper plated vessels. The first wrought iron ship, the SS Great
Britain, was constructed in 1843 and was used for passenger transport. The outbreak
of the American Civil War catalyzed naval technological advancement and iron ships
became popular, due to their ability to withstand military attack. By 1870 more than
90% of the ships produced in the UK were iron. Although they required constant
maintenance due to corrosion, iron ships had numerous advantages over wooden
vessels: stronger, safer, more economical, easier and less expensive to repair, allowed
larger ships to be built, could carry more cargo, travelled faster, reduce transoceanic
navigation costs and were not susceptible to fire due to explosions. However, iron
presented many corrosion issues, and severe rusting occurred in the superstructure
due to differential aeration. This led to re-evaluation of iron as the ship-constructing
material.

Many techniques were implemented to prevent corrosion, such as the use of sacrificial
anodes, however by the later 1800s, shipbuilders began to use steel alloys due to its
lighter weight and greater strength, durability and versatility. However, the steel-
making process was unsophisticated and difficult to control, leading to a high level of
impurities in the steel (such as carbon, sulfur and phosphorus) and very brittle steel,
especially in cold temperatures. This improper composition is thought to be the cause
of the Titanic and Liberty Ships disasters. During the early 1900s, the production of
steel improved after WWII, in which manufacturers were able to remove impurities
and the invention of electric welding meant faster and better construction of steel
ships. Experimentation with different manganese compositions led to a more durable
and less brittle material.

Shipbuilding advancements during the twentieth century lend to the reason for steel
being the primary material in modern shipbuilding. These developments included the
progressive improvement in steel alloys, incorporating aluminium, chromium,
titanium and zinc, leading to lighter, stronger and more corrosion-resistant modern
steels. Other developments at this time include:
Bronze (copper and tin alloy) was used instead of steel in propellers (because
they are more corrosion resistant when exposed to rapidly moving, highly
aerated water)
Aluminium was used in the superstructures and fittings of modern ships due to
its lightweight and corrosion resistance
Stainless steel, being extremely resistant to corrosion but very expensive, was
used in fittings and equipment.

The metal predominantly used in the construction of modern ocean-going vessels is

still steel, due to the high abundance and low cost of iron, and the tensile strength and
malleability of steel. Aluminium and aluminium alloys, however, is also becoming
increasingly more common, however is limited in larger ships due to strength
requirements. Advances in modern metallurgy, steel-making techniques and a greater
understanding of corrosion have lead to improved methods of protecting steel from
corrosion, and have allowed sea-faring ships to withstand harsh oceanic
environments.

It is clear, therefore, that oceanic expeditions have been an integral component in

society since early ages. Due to developments in knowledge, availability and
construction techniques, the materials used in ocean-going vessels have improved
over time, and will continue to improve in the future. From the primitive materials or
early communities to modern steel composites, ocean-going vessels have been
common throughout history.

Summary:
1. Early Communities: Readily available and local materials (animal skin,
bamboo, logs etc.)
2. Prior To and During the Iron Age: Wooden planks connected via iron
screws and iron/copper sheeting to protect from biofouling (introduction of
corrosion)
3. Early 1800s: Composite ships with wooden planks overlaying iron frames
4. Mid 1800s: Iron ships became very common (SS Great Britain, American
Civil War) with 90% of UK ships being constructed with iron hulls.
5. Late 1800s: Steel became the predominant material in shipbuilding. Poor
composition and steel-making processes led to poor tensile strength and hull
breaches (Titanic and Liberty Ships disasters)
6. Twentieth Century: Introduction of steel composites (aluminium, chromium,
manganese, titanium etc.) led to lightweight, stronger, more corrosion-
resistant steels.
7. Contemporary Shipbuilding: Aluminium is becoming very common due to
its lightweight and corrosion resistance (strength limitations)