KUHA, E. B. 34 Aa iN) UL a oe NY ACop A NPAKTMYECKAA Mead AW dea Lo YNPA-KHEHMAMM WY ES = Vou LTO ne) Re caes Ciirte fo) si) Co NCR C= aver Tel @ laa:I. PULKINA E, ZAKHAVA-NEKRASOVA RUSSIAN A PRACTICAL GRAMMAR WITH EXERCISES 8th edition, revised %G Russky Yazyk Publishers Moscow 2000 VM. M. IYJIBKMHA E. Bb. 3AXABA-HEKPACOBA PYCCKMM A3Z3bIK TIPAKTHYECKAA TPAMMATHKA C YIPA)KHEHHAMY Hadanue 8-e, ucnpaenennoe wD Visnatensctso «Pyccknii #351) Mocxpa 2000YJIK 808.2(075.8)-054.6 BBK 81.2 Pyc-923 1188 Tlepesog c pycckoro B. Kopomxozo Tlon penaxunet P. Tuxcona Tlyapkuna HM. M., 3axapa-Hexpacona E, B. Pyccknit #3pIK. Tipaxtirieckan TpaMMaTHKa C ynpaxkHeHHAMH: YueOuuxK (a9 roBopaMMx Ha aHTNHiicKOM #3EIKe) — 8-e USA. ucip. — M.: Pyc. 13., 2000. — $92 c. ISBN 5-200-02743-8 1188 YueGumx coctout w3 mpyx pasgenop: Mophonoruu Hu cuHTaKcHca. Marepwan yse6uuka pacnpesenéu no rpaMMaraueckum Team. Hayyenne kaxq0H TeMbI COMPOBOKIAETCR TPeHHPOBOUHBIMU YNPAKHEHHAMH, eM KOTOPHIX — pa3BHTHe HABLIKOBR YcTHOH HM MMCBMeHHOH peun. Muorowncnennate Ta6nunsi cucremaraanpyior yaeGuuit warepyan. > Tipeawasnayen ana mHu, wMeromMx ry! lONTOTOBKY fi HOWMX HavanbHy!O : : AFOTORKY 10 YAK 808.2(075.8)-054.6 BBK 81.2 Pyc-923 ISBN 5-200-02743-8 © anateascrao «PyccKuit a3biK», 1979, nepeson Ha aHrMHiicKnit a3siK, 1979, w3MeHeHna H DO- noaucnns, 1988, uameHenns, 2000 Penpoayumponanne (nocnpousseaenue) 1aH- Horo W32aHHA A0GEIM CHOcoGOM 6e3 noroBopa © 3qareaberaom sanpeulaeres. CONTENTS Foreword . Abbreviations MORPHOLOGY General Remarks on the Parts of Speech The Component Parts of a Word. Alternation of Sounds in the Stem of a Word Compound Words THE NOUN The Gender of Nouns. The Gender of Nouns Which Take No Ending in the Nominative Singular and Whose Stem Ends in a Soft Consonant . . The Gender of Nouns Denoting Members of a Profession 0 or Trade Nouns of Common Gender . . The Gender of Indeclinable Nouns. | Supplement 1 1. The Most Common Feminine Nouns Ending in “amb, “cre, “Ch, -Bb, -Ob, “ib ‘Supplement 2: The Most Common Masculine and Feminine Nouns Ending ine . : The Plural of Nouns | : Formation of the Plural of Masculine and Feminine Nouns Formation of the Plural of Neuter Nouns . Some Peculiarities in the Formation of the Plural of Masculine and Neuter Nouns . . . Nouns Used Only i jin the Singular or Plural - Changing the Noun for Case . i Some Meanings of the Cases... - Three Types of the Declension of Nouns - The First Declension Peculiarities in the Declension of Some Masculine Nouns in ‘the Genitive and Prepositional Singular. The Second Declension The Third Declension z The Declension of Nouns in the Plural The Genitive Plural . ¢ Irregular Declension of Some Nouns . Use of the Cases with and without ut Prepositions ‘Use of the Genitive . ‘Use of the Dative Use of the Accusative Use of the Instrumental Use of the PrepositionalTHE ADJECTIVE oa con hanging the Adjective According to Gender Changing the Adjective According to Number | The Declension of Adjectives in the Singular The Declension of Adjectives in the Plural Qualitative and Relative Adjectives Complete and Short-Form Adjectives and Their Function in the Sentence The Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives The Comparative Degree. HE The Superlative Degree. | |) Conversion of Adjectives into Nouns Cities and Towns... THE PRONOUN . cee Declension of Personal Pronouns The Reflexive Pronoun ce6it Possessive Pronouns . Demonstrative Pronouns Supplement 3. Declension of Nouns Denoting Surnaines and the Names of The Definitive Pronouns eam, cAmulii, Bech, peaiuil, KaxcTEN, m0bdi Interrogative Pronouns . Negative Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns THE NUMERAL .. ; Classification of Numerais | Cardinal Numerals epee imple, Compound and Composite srals Spelling of Cardinal Numerals Numerals Cardinal Numerals Used with a Noun pict ‘ardinal Numerals Used with an Adjecti : Declension of Cardinal Numerals ote and & Noun Collective Numerals es Hees Use of Collective Numerals Ordinal Numerals . Fractional Numerals | THE VERB . fae General Idea of Verb Aspects” Meaning of the Aspects © rammatical Distinction The Inflaltve ss eon OF the Aspects The Stem of the Infinitive | : Use of the Infinitive . The Present Tense. |) 1) ) |)! The Ist and 2nd Conjugations of the Verb | Mixed Conjugation Verbs... . Verbs with Stressed Personal Endings | The Stem of the Present Tense Ist and 2nd Conjugation Verbs with Unstressed Personal Endings | Main Types of Verb. 2s! : 1¢ Preser et ve s The Bast Tense (on OF the Verbs Gurr, ecrmy éxa Formation of the Past Tense |) ) | The Future Tense. . ; The Imperative Mood fae Formation of the Imperative | The Conditional Mood = ¢ Meaning and Use of the Co: /Me Transitive and Intransitive Verbs fenateL pene Verbs with the Particle ea... | | | Principal Meanings of Verbs with the Particle -ea Impersonal Verbs : Verbs of Motion ren Verbs of Motion without Prefixes 121 121 124 124 128 131 133 136 137 141 144 146 148 149 150 152 156 162 170 172 176 182 182 183 183 183 184, 185 186 189 192 194 197 197 198 199 202 203 203 208 208 209 209 212 213 215 229 231 232 235 237 238 241 241 243 244 245 254 256 256 Verbs of Motion with Prefixes ete Ho ae Use of Verbs of Indefinite Motion to Denote Single Actions... The Meaning of Some Phrases Consisting of a Verb of Motion and Rag TO cha EHH HS EEE eee eb Ee Eero Formation of Verb Aspects. 2s ss : Formation of Perfective Verbs by Means of Prefixes Perfective Verbs Implying Completion of an Action . Perfective Verbs Implying the Beginning of an Action . . 2. Perfective Verbs Implying Limitation of an Action in Time (the Prefix no-) Perfective Verbs Impiying the Short Duration of an Action, Momenta- neousness of an Action . BEE etar ee Formation of Verb aspects by means of Suffixes Prefixed Verbs with the Suffixes -bipa-, -Waa- eee Prefixed and Unprefixed Imperfective Verbs with the Suffix -na- : Aspectual Pairs of (Prefixed and Unprefixed)Verbs with the Suffixes -1-, Aspectual Pairs of Prefixed Perfective Verbs Whose Infinitive Ends in “cru, -31#, -4b and Imperfective Verbs Whose Infinitive Ends in -are (Except Verbs of Motion) eet ee Alternation of Vowels in the Verb Stem in the Formation of the Aspects ‘Aspectual Pairs of Verbs Formed from Different Roots ree ‘Aspectual Pairs of Verbs Differing in the Position of the Stre Verbs with the Suffix-wy- 2 6 ee ee ee Non-Paired Verbs Use of the Aspects. . BEE eee eee Principal Meanings of the Verb Aspects Lae oP the Verb Aspects to Express Actions Lasting a Definite Period of Time . eet Poe - Use of the Aspects to Express Recurrent or Single Actions Use of the Aspects of the Infinitive... - - Some Uses of the Aspects of the Infinitive Preceded by ne Peculiarities in the Use of the Aspects in the Past Tense Peculiarities in the Use of the Aspects in the Future Ten: Use of the Verb Aspects in the Imperative... - - Peculiarities in the Use of Tenses... ee es The Present Tense ; : The Future Tense The Past Tense tae Pee eee Different Tenses Used with the Particles 6ninia0 and 610 THE PARTICIPLE . . - The Verbal Features of the Participle . The Adjectival Features of the Participle . ‘The Participial Construction Lt Active and Passive Participles Formation of Participles Formation of Active Participles Formation of Passive Participles Declension of Participles . . naeeaaee #1 Hee ‘The Participial Construction and the Attributive Clause Short-Form Participles 3 _ ce The Spelling of the Negative Particle we with Participles Conversion of Participles into Adjectives and Nouns THE VERBAL ADVERB . Verbal Features of the Verbal Adverb Adverbial Features of the Verbal Adverb bee Use of Imperfective and Perfective Verbal Adverbs The Verbal Adverb Construction . . . . + - Formation of Verbal Adverbs... - ee se Formation of Verbal Adverbs from Imperfective Verbs Formation of Verbal Adverbs from Perfective Verbs 258 271 272 279 279 280 283 285 286, 288 288 290 293 297 299 301 304 304 307 310 310 312 315 318 323 326 332 334 338 338 339 341 342 344 344 345 346 347 348 348 350 356 357 360 362 363 367 367 368 368 369 370 370 37tVerbal Adverb Constructions and Subordinate Clauses . Supplement 4. Table of the pacar cope of Verb Prefixes | THE ADVERB. . Adverbs of Manner Ending in-o | | | The Degrees of Comparison of Adverbs Predicative Adverbs : Pronominal Adverbs . Relative and Demonstra Negative Adverbs Indefinite Adverbs | Adverbs of Place . Adverbs of Time | Adverbs of Measure or Degree | |] | ft PARTICLES eee eee Toate The Spelling of Particles ; See INTERJECTIONS Adverbs” SYNTAX Declarative, Interrogative and Exhortative Sentences ‘ Interrogative Sentences . Direct and Indirect Questions ” Exhortative Sentences Exclamatory Sentences | Negative Séntences Parts of the Sentence. The Principal Parts of the Sentence” Unextended and Extended Sentences The Secondary Parts of the Sentence . The Principal Parts of the eee - The Subject . The Predicate The Secondary Parts of the Sentence The Object... The Attribute . The Appositive i Adverbial Modifiers . z Active and Passive Constructions Coordinate Parts of the Sentence Coordinate Predicates Conjunctions Used with Coordinate Parts of the Sentence . Punctuation of the Coordinate Parts of the Sentence Generalising Words in Sentences with Coordinate Pas Detached Secondary Parts of the Sentence Detached Attributes . ef Detached Appositives | Detached Adverbial Modifiers Vocatives 7 : Parenthetic Words. | | Kinds of Sentences According to their Composition Personal Sentences i Indefinite-Personal Sentences - Generalised-Personal Sentences Impersonal Sentences Nominal Sentences Elliptical Sentences | : Compound and Complex Sentences Compound Sentences been The Copulative Conjunctions #, aa, 4m... uM. The Adversative Conjunctions Boy 8 ey iy onto The Disjunctive Conjunctions ro... T0, m1 (Hab), 160, He TO ... He TO ymplex Sentences aa Complex Sentences with Object Clauses Compiex Sentences with Subject Clauses . Conjunctions Used in Complex Sentences with Object and Subject Clauses Use of Verb Tenses in Subordinate Clauses Introduced by the Conjunc- ns 410 and 4TOGbE cegucnce! Words used in “Complex Sentences with th Object and nd Subject Clauses. Complex Sentences with Attributive Clauses. Conjunctive Words Used in Attributive Clauses Conjunctions Used in Attributive Clauses Complex Sentences with Predicate Clauses Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Place - Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Time . Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Purpose . Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Cause Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Result Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Manner . Complex Sentences with Clauses of Measure or Degree Complex Sentences with the Comparative Conjunction 4eM. Complex Sentences with Clauses of Condition Complex Sentences with Concessive Clauses Supplement 5. Use of the Conjunctions sro and 766m. Complex Sentences with Two or More Subordinate Clauses Compound-Complex Sentences . ae Asyndetic Compound and Complex’ Sentences | Direct and Indirect Speech i 516FOREWORD This book is intended for students who have already learned the fundamentals of Russian: the structure of the simple sentence, the types of relationship between the words in a sentence, and the basic rules of conjugation and declension. Students of Russian will find here a brief exposition of the material they have al- ready studied which will prove useful both for revision purposes and for improving speaking skills. Attention has been paid mainly to those themes which usually prove to be the most difficult for non-Russians: the meanings and uses of the cases, the productive and non- productive types of Russian verbs, the verb aspects, verbs of motion, the use of pro- nouns, and the meanings and uses of conjunctions and conjunctive words in compound and complex sentences. The book contains a large number of drill exercises designed to help the student ac- quire practical mastery of Russian As a rule, the examples in the explanations and the first exercises designed to pro- mote the assimilation of a particular grammar rule are based on simple everyday vocabu- lary to make them easier for the student to understand: however, in exercises in observa- tion sentences and whole passages from modern Russian fiction have been included to acquaint the student with Russian as it is spoken today. ABBREVIATIONS The following abbreviations of the names of the authors quoted are used through- out this book: Ane. B.H. Axien AKe.—C.T. Axcaxos AKT-—AK, Tonctoit ‘Anue-—M.M. Aanrép ‘Aum.—C. 1. AnToHos ‘A.Ocmp.— A... OctposcKnii Ape—B.K. Apoéines A.T.—A.H. Toncroit Bap —A. J. Bapro Bea —B.T. Bemitnicxnis Ba— A.A. Box H, Toneaoit By6-—M.C. By6ernon T. HB. Pérom Taiid.— A. 11, Paiaap Tapu.—B.M. pur Tonu, MA. Tonwapon Top6.—B. 11. Top6atos Ipu6-— A.C. Ppu6oen08 Hoan —E. A, Honmatoncknit Hcax.—M. B. Vcaxdncknit H3—W.T. Ipex6ypr Kam, —B. 11. Karaen A.B. Kospnon Kop.—B.T. Koposténxo Kp—W..A. Kpsit65 Kynp.— A.M. Kynpie f e6,-K.—B. V. Nebenea-Kywat IT. IH. Toncroi JM. 10. Jlépmoxton Main. —A.H. Maiixos M.I—M. Voppxnit z M-C.— JJ. H. Maman-Cu6upix Mapw.—C. A. Mapwak Manx.—B. B. Masxonckuit Mux. —M. JI. Maxiiixo3 Muxaax.— C.B. Muxaaxos H.—H.A. Hexpicos Hux W.C. Haxiran H.O.—H.A, Octposcknit Osew.—B.B. Onénxutt Ow. JA. Oude 11—A.C, Tyuxwnt Taba — M1. A. Mapnéuxo Tas. 11. Tapsion Han. —B.®. Tandwa Tlayem.— K.T. Tlaycronexnit Tlaew.— A.H. Taewées Tpuu.—M. M. Tpiuean ‘| C-i.—M. E, Canrsixos-Meapinn Cepap.— A.C. Cepapumonnt C-M.— H.C. Coxon08-Mururos Teapd.— A.T. Twapnoscnnit Tux: H.C. Taxouon Type. MC. Typréves Troma— ©. Mi, TroTHeB Pad.— A. A. Dazeen ed.—K. A. bern dypm— J. A. dypmaow Yepu.—H.T. Yeprenméscruii Yex-—A. 11. Yéxon Hloa.— M.A. Wonoxonfe The following abbreviations of some of the English terms are used throughout the ext: ace., accusative conjug., conjugation lit, literally mase., masculine dat., dative neut., neuter fem’, feminine nom., nominative fut. farure P-, perfective gen., genitive pl, plural imp., imperfective imp., in rep., prepositional istr., instrumental sing., singular MORPHOLOGY GENERAL REMARKS ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH There are notional and syntactic words in Russian. Notional words denote objects (maabunk ‘boy’, cToa ‘table’, Kapall- nant ‘pencil’), qualities (kpacientit ‘beautiful’, Gonbudii ‘big’, cimnii ‘plue’), quantities (apa ‘two’, Tpa ‘three’, aécaTp ‘ten’), actions (mimer ‘he writes’, 6éraeT ‘he runs’, yautes She studies’) or their modifiers (xopomdé ‘well’, m16xo0 ‘badly’, GeicTpo ‘quickly’, Tixo ‘quietly’). Syntactic words express relationships between notional words or clauses: ‘The book and the magazine are on the table’. ‘I have come from London.’ ‘The comrade did not come to the University because he had fal- Jen ill.’ Kutira wxypHdn sexar na croné. A upwéxan w3 JlOnnona. Topapuul He Mpuuién B yHuBepcn- TéT, HOTOMY 4To 3aGoeN. (In these eee the syntactic words are: u ‘and’, Ha ‘on’, 43 ‘from’, He ‘not’, B ‘to’, notomy uto ‘because’.) Depending on n their meaning, the way they change, and their func- tion in the sentence words are divided into groups called parts of Speech. Every word, whether notional or syntactic, belongs to a definite part of speech. There are ten parts of speech in Russian: 1, The noun: yyeni« ‘pupil’, croa ‘table’, sumanne ‘attention’ 2. The adjective: kpachBiii ‘beautiful’, G6onpmidii ‘big’, nepessmubtii ‘wooden’ . The numeral: oaim ‘one’, aga ‘two’, néppiii ‘first? . The pronoun: s ‘I’, rst ‘you’, on ‘he’, Tor ‘that’, moii ‘my’ . The verb: surah ‘to read’, caréTe ‘to sit’, yuTbes ‘to study’ . The adverb: xopomé ‘well’, 348rpa ‘tomorrow’, 3iecb ‘here’ . The preposition: B ‘in’, ‘to’, wa ‘on’, w3 ‘from’, éKom0 ‘near’ . The conjunction: u ‘and’, no ‘but’, aro ‘that’, noromy 4ro ‘be- cause” 9. The particle: passe ‘isn’t’, ‘don’t’, ‘won’t’, etc, (Paspe TbI He npu- éub KO MHe cerogHa? ‘Won't you come to see me today?’), am used to form a question (Uutas sm Thr Sty KHMry? ‘Have you read this book?’), 13 DADARWBeab which has emphatic force, xe used for emphasis or to show con- trast (Beab a Ke roBoplia Te6é 06 tom. ‘I told you that, didn’t I”) 10. The interjection: yet ‘alas’, ax! ‘oh!’, oif! ‘ouch!’ : Six parts of speech —the noun, the adjective, the pronoun, the nu- meral, the verb and the adverb— are notional words. They can be used as a of the sentence (for a definition of the parts of the sentence, see p. . Three parts of speech — the preposition, the conjunction and the particle—are syntactic words. They cannot be used as parts of the sentence. Interjections are neither notional nor syntactic words. THE COMPONENT PARTS OF A WORD Russian words are divided into parts called morphe s mes. E; of a word has a definite meaning. z fi aa The main part of a word is its root, which contains the principal meaning. 1. A word may consist of only a root: ‘ iy Merete ne ly : @Bop ‘courtyard’, nom 2. A word may consist of the root followed by a suffix: 16 ; rd in 1 > : DBOpHHK yardkeeper’, ”OMHK ‘little house’, crésmK ‘little table’ ace The part aBop of the word apopunk is the root, and the part -ank is a suffix. The suffix -nuk is used in this case to form a new word which denotes a person. The suffix -mx has the same meaning in the words KOJIXO3HHK collective farmer’, noon ‘assistant’, etc. The suffix -aKk in the words crésmx ‘little table’ and 6mm ‘little house’ is used to form diminutives. The suffix oHiK has the same meaning of diminution (and affection) in the words cégux ‘little garden’, kapanméume« ‘little pencil’, etc. A suffix can also be used to obtain a word form; thus, th 7 3 us 7 7 , the part qa- in the verb nam ‘he gave’ is the root, while -a is a suffix, used to form the past tense. ; The root in the word secesée ‘merrier’ is Becen, while the i 4 art -ee is a suffix used to form the comparative degree of adjectives. A suffix is the part of a word which follows the root and is used to form new words or word forms. Suffixes may add various connotations to the meaning of a word a 3. A word may consist of the root preceded by a prefix: nepexéT flight (nepexér sepes oxean ‘a flight across the ocean’), The root in the word nepexér ‘flight’ is aér which contains the principal meaning of this word. ‘We can find this root in the words aerate ‘to fly’, aéramk flyer’, nérHam (noréza) ‘flying (weather)’, etc. Tlepe- in the word nepe- aér is a prefix, used to form a word with a new meaning (across/over ree This Prefix adds the same meaning to the words nepexo- AUTb (4épe3 ropsl) ‘to go (over the mountains)’, nepedeaate (ué yamuy) ‘to run (across the street)’. : ots ee 14 A prefix is the part of a word which precedes the root and is used mainly to form new words. Prefixes add various connotations to the meaning of a word. 4. The stem. The root, suffix and prefix make up the stem of a word. Every stem has a root. A stem may consist of only the root: aBop ‘courtyard’, 20M ‘house’, croa ‘table’. Such stems are called primary. Stems which contain a prefix or suffix are called derivative: e.g. nsopuuk ‘yardkeeper’, ~6muK ‘little house’, nepenér ‘flight’. ‘A stem may contain more than one prefix or suffix, thus, the word nonactpout, ‘to build’ (nonactpéuth mMHOro oMén ‘to build many houses’) contains two prefixes (mo- and na-); the word ucenéqonatetbh ‘investigator’, ‘explorer’ with the root ene has a prefix (ue-) and two suffixes (-opa- and -tesb) following the root. A word may contain more than one root, thus the word napox6 ‘steamer’ contains two roots: map ‘steam’ and xog ‘going’. Such words are called compound words. 5. The ending. The part of a word which follows the stem and de- notes relationships between words is called the ending. One and the same word may have different endings. The different relationships be- tween a given word and other words are expressed by different endings: ‘I took my brother’s magazine.” ‘I took the magazine for my brother.” A Bsa KypHa Gpara. A Bsa xKypHan 6pary. The word 6par ‘brother’ in the above sentences has different end- ings which express different relationships between the words: the first sentence shows that I took a magazine which belongs to my brother (ei 2kypHast? ‘whose magazine? —xypHin 6pata ‘my brother's’), whereas the second shows that I took the magazine for my brother (komy? ‘for whom? — 6paty ‘for my brother’). The adjective Gomsmoii, Gombmda, Gomurde ‘big’ takes different end- ings in accordance with the gender of the noun with which it agrees: Sonbmdii ManbuuK ‘a big boy’, GoxBmdii crom ‘a big table’ (masculine), Sonbmaa 7én04Ka ‘a big girl’, Goaburan KHitra ‘a big book’ (feminine), 6ommide cobpanue ‘a big meeting’, Gomme TucbMO ‘a long letter’ (neuter): The verb nummy ‘I write’, nimenm ‘you write’ (sing.), mimer ‘he writes’, mimem ‘we write’, nimere ‘you write’ (p/.), mimyr ‘they write’ contains the stem maui- and the endings -y, -enmb, -eT, -em, -ere and -yT. These endings denote the person and number of the verb. 6. Suffixation. Suffixes help to form words of different grammati- cal categories from one and the same root, thus urate ‘to read’ is a verb; antares ‘reader’, 4rénne ‘reading’, wirka ‘reading’ and uurasbua ‘reading-room’ are nouns; auTaremckuii (Gunér) ‘library (ticket)’, unraspubiii (3am) ‘reading (hall)’ are adjectives; crpéurs ‘to build’ is a verb; erpofteas ‘builder’, crpotrenscrso ‘building’, no- etpoiika ‘building’ are nouns; crpofrespunii (maTepuas) ‘building (material) is an adjective. 15Every part of speech has definite suffixes. These suffixes express vari- ous meanings, particularly noun and adjective suffixes. Suffixes differ as far as their productivity is concerned: productive suffixes form a large number of words commonly used in Modern Rus- sian; non-productive suffixes form a limited number of words. Productive noun suffixes include: -eu ( Teopén ‘creator’, répeu ‘mountain dweller’, Gopén ‘fighter’); -(u)Hx (orate ‘top pupil’, korx63uMK ‘collective farmer’, nowkap- HHK ‘fireman’); “MHK, -UIHK (nepesézuMK ‘translator’, ‘interpreter’, 3aKa34MK ‘cus- tomer’, xamenmmHk ‘bricklayer’); ~ann(e), -eum(e) (BHuManne ‘attention’, sananue ‘task’, naGmonénHe ‘observation’) and a few others. The commonest productive adjectival suffixes are: oH (néTHnii ‘summer’, Beuépnnii ‘evening’, mécTuBsii ‘local’, a6- piuupiii ‘factory’); -ck- (ropoackéii ‘urban’, auraniicKuii ‘English’, ap- Méiickuit ‘army’) and a few others. 7. Prefixation. Prefixes help to form new words from other words of the same category, i.e. verbs from vebs (mcatb ‘to write’— nepenucatb ‘to rewrite’, cnucaTs ‘to copy’, BbINHcaT ‘to write out’, ete.), adjectives from adjectives (akycuniii ‘tasty’ —GesBxycuesii ‘taste- less’, myapeiii ‘wise’ —npemyapwiit ‘very wise’, pecémiii ‘live- ly’ — paspecéaniii_ ‘very lively’, naysnntii ‘scientific’ — anranayannrit ‘anti-scientific’). Prefixes are typical of verbs (except a few verbs, mainly those borrowed from foreign languages) (aanucaTs ‘to write’. Nepectpouts ‘to rebuild’, yéxate ‘to leave’, etc.) and of nouns formed from verbs (npHxogiTe ‘to come’ —npuxoa ‘coming’, B3MaxHYTB ‘to wave’ —B3max ‘wave’). Prefixes add various meanings to the words they are attached to. Thus the prefix psi- added to verbs denotes move- ment from within (Berxogirs 43 aynuTopun ‘to go out of a lecture- hall’, siesxat. 13 ropoya ‘to leave the town’, BLIHOCHTb YTO-TO 43 kOMHatoI ‘to take something out of the room’, BErBO3HTs TOBApEI 13 CTpanpt ‘to carry goods out of the country’, etc.); however, when added to other verbs, this same prefix may denote bringing the action to a cer- tain result (neuitrs GombHOro ‘to treat a patient’ —tneqTE Gomb- HOro ‘to cure a patient’, npocitte y Tosapuuta KHMry ‘to ask a friend for a book’ —s&mpocut y Topapuia KHury ‘to get a friend to give one a book’) or removing part of a whole (peape3aTb kapTHHKu ‘to cut out pictures’), etc, Like prefixes, suffixes fall into productive and non-productive. Some prefixes, e. g. mpu-, nepe- and c-, form many prefixed verbs with enone meanings, others, e. g. B3- and Boc-, form but a limited number of verbs. Exercise 1. Write out these words and underline their roots. |. poawna, ponirenk, poanoi. 2. semaa, non3émuniii, 3emaaK. 3, HOBEI, HO- BocTb, HopaTop. 4. neréTs, néTunK, nonér. 5. ueHd, NeHUT, UHHH, OUdHKa. Exercise 2. Write out the words having a common root and underline the root. 16 1, Bor can, B cay paSoraet candsHux. On nocanin Kpactiapie canonbie uBeTisL 2. Cxépo pacenér. Ha ropusoute cnéts1aa nonoca. Hé60 cnerséer. Cxopo comiue ocpé- Jur nose Hee. 3. Mbt wile 10 necdit nopore. BoKpyr rycToit nec. B rstyOuné steca 16- monk siecaKa. 4. Ha wéuieit anue crpéat HOpbti 20M. K MécTy cTpéiiKH HAcTO MOK 3xisor anToMauninsi. Oxi mpundsst Crpoirenbibte MaTepsastst. CTponresm paGoTaroT Gsrcrpo. Onit saKou4at crpoitrennctao oma K Hoaomy rosy. Exercise 3. Give some words which have the-same root as the following. pa6éra, cno662a, Map, Mocksa, Gopb6a, Mosioadit, crdpuiii, yur, Tpya, cxdcrbe Exercise 4, Point out the suffixes in the italicised words. Cadéenux paGoraer w cany. JTecuix oxpanier nec. Cmoasip nénaet cromés. Mopar ato6ut MOpe. Tucdmeas uarncan pomas. Vuimess uur. Yuenuxt fuarcs. Tpaxmo- piicm Boaur vpaxtop. Exercise 5. Write out these phrases and indicate the component parts of the ital sed words. Model: mop-cx-it aecuaa opera, cadbsme uBeTe, simnaa ONEKAA, uumepécHast HOBOCTE, cuacmati- an MOs10R0CT, BecnoKéiinas NSHP, Cé.recKOe XOBAIICTBO, Almoean ales Exercise 6. Find the prefix in these words. BEIXO’, BXO, Nonér, pasroRdp, GesondcHocrs, paccaér ALTERNATION OF SOUNDS IN THE STEM OF A WORD In Russian, when a word is given new forms or when new words are formed from a given word by means of suffixes, some of the sounds (vowels or consonants) are occasionally replaced by others: a conso- nant may be replaced by another consonant (€. g. micaTp ‘to write’ — may ‘I write’, apyr ‘friend’ — apyxeckuii ‘friendly’), and a vowel may be replaced by another vowel (stoMaTb “to break’ — pa314MbIBaTb “to break to pieces’, B3npIxaTp ‘to sigh’ —Bs3ox ‘sigh’); besides, when a word is given new forms there may appear or disappear the vowel © or e in its stem, e.g. con ‘sleep’—cna (gen. sing.), orén “fa- ther’ — ona (gen. sing.), Heub ‘day’— qua (gen. sing.), Gopén ‘fight- er’—Goputr (pl), KycéK ‘piece’ —Kyckh 2 (pl), | KopéTKnii ‘short’ —Koporok (short form masc.)—KoporKa (short form fem.). The replacement of one sound by another is called alternation of sounds, and the vowels that may be dropped are called unstable vowels. Consonants alternate more frequently than vowels. c—u HochT ‘to wear’ — HoUIy, HOCHUID... mucats ‘to write’— nummy, minneut... BuicoKnii ‘tall’ — peiue ‘taller’ x—u naxaTh “to — namy, namemp.,. plough’ Sane “drier” cyxoit ‘dry’ — cyme ‘drier yxo ‘ear’ — yum ‘ears’ cTpax ‘fear’ — crpammorii ‘fearful 2-384—* BosiiTb ‘to carry in a vehicle’— Boxy, BO3MUIb... pésatp ‘to cut” — péxy, péxeum. Hi3KHt ‘low’ — ninxe ‘lower’ —* ory ‘1 can” — MOéxemp ... MOryT Ropordii ‘dear’ ~=— yopéxe ‘dearer’ Hora ‘foot’ — HOxka ‘little foot’ r—*K—3 apyr ‘friend’ — npyaupuit ‘friendly’ — apyspn ‘friends’ A * cayéT ‘to sit? Mouiox6ii ‘young’ — cwRY, cnuinus... — Mmo.léxKe ‘younger’ A— KD xomiTe ‘to walk’ — xoanéune ‘walking’ K—4 maar ‘to cry’ — muadauy, maayenn... neky T bake” — neu ... neKyT kpénkuii ‘strong’ — xpénue ‘stronger’ pexa ‘river’ tiv — peuka ‘small river, rivulet’ BOCTOK ‘east’ — Bocrounpiii ‘eastern’ u—4 anué ‘face’ — smart ‘personal’ ™m4 xoTéTh ‘to want’? — xou4y, xdueun ... XOTAM... XJONOTATS ‘to — xaono4y, xrond4yeutE. bustle about’ KpyTOli ‘steep’ — Kpyue ‘steeper’ ™T mW Npekpatirs ‘to — mpexpamy, upekpariu.., stop’ pontats ‘to — pomny, pomuenn... grumble’ cr— mh spyeriere ‘to be — rpymy, rpyerimp... sa npocToii ‘simple’ — npéme ‘simpler’ cK— uckaT ‘to seek’ — mmy, fue... 6—6a a106iTb ‘to love’— sroGaro, noOHUIb... n—n01 TepnéT, ‘to en- — Tepnso, Tépnui... dure? ; B—BI roréputs ‘to pre-— rorésmo, roTésunn... pare’ o—oa rpagare ‘to rule-— rpadar, rpadau... M—Ma kopmurs ‘to feed’— kopmaro, KOpMHuE. Note.—For more detail on the alternation of vowels and consonants, see the chapters on each part of speech. Exercise 7. Write out these words and phrases, underline the root of each italicised word and point out the alternating consonants. 1. eocméx, socméuneiti paiiou. 2. cmoatiya, cmoaiuueie Tearpst. 3. pyrd, piuKa, pyundt Mennéab, epyuime miceMé. 4. Opy2, OpyoKok, nodpyea, nodpyacka, Opysbh, Opy dicts, Opyornan pabora, dpyoweckui MpHBET. Exercise 8. Read through these sentences; write out the words with a common root and alternating vowels. 1, — Hpowy re64, npuxomit xo mue ceréaus Bévepom.——He mpocit, He Mory, a ceréaHa Oven 34HsT. A O¥ay cunéTh noma w 3anuMdTEca.— Kame! Ho écn He Mo- xeulb ceréaHa, npaxoih 34BTpa.— He ory # sderpa. 3aprpa veraépr, « KaKABI 4eT- Répr xoxY padoTaTs B OUGAMOTEKY H CHxKY TaM Bech BexEp. 2. Buepa a xymia nntepécnyio kwary. A qanud xoréx Kymire Sty Kuioxxy. Eom xOueutb, @ M Tee KyRMO TAKYIO KHiIry. 3. —- Tlowemy y Te6a ceromna Tako naoxdii sua? — Buepa a ndsquo xér cnat», HY Mena GomiT ronopa. O6Er4HO § nO Ycb B 11 Yacés, Buepa nér B 2 4aca HOW H AdITO alexa — He Mor 3acHyTb. 4. Ha oxpaune répona nocrpéwnn Hopyto haSpuny. daSpisnoe saduue 6omsuide, cpérnoe. COMPOUND WORDS Aggregation of stems. Words may be formed by aggregating two or more stems (with or without suffixes): map-o-x6qa_ ‘steamship’, opu-e-B6i ‘sheep-breeder’, rpéx-aTaanbiii ‘three-storeyed’. Most words formed in this manner are nouns or adjectives. Words formed by aggregating two (or more) stems are called com- pound words. To combine the parts of a compound word, so-called con- nective vowels are used: 0 after hard consonants (e. g. napox6y ‘steam- ship’) and e after soft consonants (e. g. 3emaenésme ‘agriculture’), sibi- i 19eae ie . emer ciuenalines? ) a ae 5 oBueBoa ‘sheep-breeder’). Compound words may also be formed without a con- () ‘Auenporse ‘Dnieper z P fated first nective vowel: Daman Volgograd”, rocemunérka eight-year schoo’. 7 Hydro-electric | oraucenateae ae Sten eet and Compound words are generally formed from noun, and verb stems roe the initial sounds of (e.g. napoxég ‘steamship’, ancronag ‘fall of the leaves’, cagonéa ‘horti- each of the following culturist’); they may also be formed from adjectival and noun stems SOD at (e.g. 4epHo3ém ‘black earth’), a pronoun and a noun (e.g. camoxpa- Tuxa ‘self-criticism’) or a numeral and a noun (e.g. aeTsipéxTOMHHK ‘four-volume edition’) Baas Note— Like simple, Words corre onckan (rompepes) "(a 7 cational establi: — New words may be formed from compounds by means of suffixes: eee ana higher ‘educational establishment’. mapox6a-crs-o ‘steamship line’, osneséa-crs-o ‘sheep-breeding’, 3em- aenénp-4eck-nii ‘agricultural’, apyxenro6-n-ni ‘friendly’, _406- poxyu-n-Eii ‘good-natured’. Compounds may be formed not only from complete stems but also from incomplete ones (e. g. sapnata ‘wages’, ‘salary’ — from 3apa6ot- Has mata; _yHuBepmar ‘department store’ — from yHuBepcanbHbIii Mara3iin). Compounds formed from incomplete stems are called com- pound-abbreviated words. There are a large number of compound- abbreviated words in Russian which appeared in the language after the Great October Socialist Revolution (komcoméa ‘Young Communist League’, xo1xé63 ‘collective farm’, py3 ‘higher educational establish- ment, CIA ‘USA’='United States of America’, etc.) ‘Aenponcxan ruapo- | The compound consists According to the manner of aggregation and abbreviation, com- pound nouns are classed into a number of groups: @) 103 mpodpecewonastpunaii co- | Only the first word is ab- ‘trade union’ 3 breviated. sanudcru 3anacubie 4acTH ‘spare parts” (b) yuusepmar yupepeésienait Alll the words making up “department store” Mara3iin jhe compound are abbre- cobk6p c66craennEti viated. ‘own correspondent’ koppecnonaént komcoméa Kommynnctiwecknit co- ‘Young Commu- 103 MononeKH fist League™ (© ays Buseuee yxe6noe sase- | The compound consists “higher education- nenne of the initial sounds of al establishment’ the component words. CUIA ‘USA’ Coeaunénuere Ulrarer Amépuxn {_ (Po Pocesiiickas The compound consists (pronounced 9p- enepiuns of the names of the ini- 2) ‘RF’ tial letters of the com- ponent words. 20THE NOUN Russi Bee Fir ee nouns are distinguished by gender and change for number THE GENDER OF NOUNS A Russian noun belongs to one rs: ine, femi- ie een g of three genders: masculine, femi- It is necessary to be able to distingui: i lis n ary iguish the gender of nouns, si adjectives, participles, some pronouns, ordinal numerals and past tense verbs agree with their head noun in gender, i.e. the endings they take depend on the gender of their head noun: Masculine Feminine Neuter Murepécnat oa Murrepécnas kuira, Wntepécuoe saaanne. interesting re- ‘An interesting ‘An interesti . port. book.’ . ene Cini kapangam. Chuan Gymara. Cine natn. A blue pencil.” : ‘Blue paper.’ ‘A blue spot.” Hau: népsniit ypox. Hama néppaa néx- Haue néppoe coGpa- us. ne. ‘Our first lesson.” ‘Our first lecture.” ‘Or fi on. i ur first meeting.” aay erynénr. Tpamaa erygéurka, Tpumié imcoM. (boy) student ‘A (girl) "student ‘A letter came.’ came, came.’ I. The gender of nouns denoting i i persons is determined by the of thi mined by their ending meee: the gender of all other nouns is determined by The words myacaiina ‘man’, ronoura ‘ ", me _ The i " an’, | youth’, aéayunca ‘granddad’ oréy ‘father’, Opa brother’, MaaBunk (starneafanea) "boy" a vhich at note males, are masculine (no matter what their endings are); the words oe woman’, aépyuika ‘girl’, Mare ‘mother’, noun ‘daughter’, 64- yunKka fee cecrpa fine which denote females, are feminine : uline names (whatever their endings) belong to the m 1 line gender: Mean (Baus), Huko.rait (Kéna), Buranismp (Boab), Et kira, Basenrin (Basa), Anexcanap (Cima), , 22 All feminine names belong to the feminine gender: Tarpsma (Tans), Auna (Ans), Basenritna (Baas), Aaexcauapa (Cama). Of all the words denoting persons, the word aura ‘child’ alone is neuter (it is rarely used in Modern Russian). II. The gender of an inanimate noun is determined by the ending of the nominative singular as follows: 1. Nouns ending in -a(-) are feminine: crpana ‘country’, 3emaa ‘earth’, poawna ‘motherland’, aepésna ‘village’, Apna ‘army’. 2. Nouns ending in -o (-é), -e are neuter: micbMé ‘letter’, mpaso ‘right’, pyabé ‘gun’, Mépe ‘sea’, 34HMe ‘building’, naarse ‘dress’. 3. Nouns without an ending whose stem terminates in a hard con- sonant (ec ‘forest’, répog ‘city’, ‘town’, mocr ‘bridge’, 40m ‘house’) or the consonant ii (y3éii ‘museum’, Kpaii ‘edge’, 6oii “battle’) are mascu- line. 4, Nouns without an ending whose stem terminates in a soft con- sonant (4eup ‘day’, Teap ‘shadow’, oréup ‘fire’, aH3HL ‘life’, yroap ‘coal’, eras ‘steel’) or a soft or hard sibilant (Hox ‘knife’, pow ‘rye’, xapanaam ‘pencil’, tyu ‘Indian ink’, ays ‘ray’, wow» ‘night’, maamt ‘raincoat’, Bemb ‘thing’) are either masculine or feminine: (a) the words jen ‘day’, oréup ‘fire’, from ‘coal’ are masculine; the words Ten ‘shadow’, au3Hb ‘life’, cra ‘steel’ are feminine. (The gender of these nouns must be memorised, see Supplement, pp. 28-29.) (b) the words nox ‘knife’, kapanzam ‘pencil’, ayy ‘ray’; mrany ‘rain- coat’ are masculine; the words poxkp ‘rye’, rayusb ‘backwoods’, Hou, ‘night’, Benth ‘thing’ are feminine. Masculine and feminine nouns whose stem ends in a sibilant can be distinguished by their spelling: feminine nouns take b after the sibilant in the nominative singular, no matter whether the sibilant is soft or hard, while masculine nouns never take & after the sibilant. 5. There are ten Russian nouns ending in -ma (ima ‘name’, Bpémst ‘time’, 3naMa ‘banner’, mama ‘flame’, naéma ‘tribe’, céma ‘seed’, Tema ‘top of the head’, erpémn ‘stirrup’, 6péma ‘burden’, Bera ‘udder’); they are all neuter. 6. There are borrowed words in Russian which denote inanimate objects: namer6 ‘overcoat’, Merpé ‘underground railway’, kano ‘cin- ema’, Grop6 ‘bureau’, opi ‘jury’, map ‘bet’, Goa ‘boa’, etc. These words are neuter, except Kote ‘coffee’, which is masculine: Kpénknit kOe ‘strong coffee’. Exercise 1. Read through the text, state the gender of the italicised nouns and write them out in three columns, the first containing the masculine nouns, the second the femi- nine and the third the neuter. Model: Masculine Feminine Neuter répoa, cramuua — yrpo Burt eockpecéuse, Mur peuttian noéxare 34 zopod. Pano Srpom mpHuutit Mbt Ha 6ok- sda v cain » noes, Mut éxasH wac. Bpéma upomiad HesaMérho. Bor Hata cmanyun. Mer BeIuiIN 43 Bardxia. B&uIo sicHoe ympo, uitcroe né60. Ha HeGe mAMTy OM Oe70e 23