Electric Training Wirtgen Document

TRAINING DOCUMENT
Basic Electrics
Wirtgen GmbH 2014

This training document is not a substitute for technical documentation
(instruction manual, safety instruction and spare parts catalogue).
It is not subject of the technical modification service. All technical
instructions for description, operation, maintenance, etc. are taken by the
instruction manual, the safety manual or the spare parts list.
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Phone:: +49 (0) 2645 / 131 - 0
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Document name Handout _ Basic electrics_2363740_V01_en

Translation of the original training document
Module ELE 1 Basic electrics
Date of first issue 16.01.2014
Date of amendment 23.04.2014
Copyright Wirtgen GmbH 2014

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Wirtgen GmbH 2014

WIRTGEN GROUP TRAINING
2363740_V01 Basic electrics
Contents
1. Electrical hazards .................................................................................................................................................. 3

1.1 Information about electrical hazards ................................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Measures when working on electrical systems ............................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Isolating ................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Securing to prevent switching back on ................................................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Establishing absence of voltage ............................................................................................................. 4
1.2.4 Earthing and short-circuiting ................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.5 Covering/cordoning off adjacent live parts .............................................................................................. 5
2. The multimeter ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
2.2 Digital multimeters ........................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Analog multimeters .......................................................................................................................................... 7
3. Basic electrical values ........................................................................................................................................... 8
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Electrical voltage ............................................................................................................................................11
3.2.1 Direct current voltage ............................................................................................................................12
3.2.2 Alternating current voltage ....................................................................................................................13
3.2.3 Voltage generation ................................................................................................................................15
3.2.4 Measuring electrical voltage .................................................................................................................18
3.3 Electrical current ............................................................................................................................................19
3.3.1 Current directions ..................................................................................................................................20
3.3.2 Electrical direct current voltage .............................................................................................................21
3.3.3 Electrical alternating current voltage .....................................................................................................21
3.3.4 Electrical mixed current .........................................................................................................................22
3.3.5 Electrical three-phase current ...............................................................................................................22
3.3.6 The electrical circuit ..............................................................................................................................23
3.3.7 Measuring an electrical circuit ...............................................................................................................24
3.4 The electrical resistor .....................................................................................................................................26
3.4.1 Fixed resistor .........................................................................................................................................26
3.4.2 Potentiometers ......................................................................................................................................28
3.4.3 NTC resistor ..........................................................................................................................................29
3.4.4 PTC resistor ..........................................................................................................................................30
3.4.5 Measuring the electrical resistance.......................................................................................................31
4. Ohm's law ............................................................................................................................................................32
4.1 Ohm's law ......................................................................................................................................................32
4.2 Kirchhoff's current law (junction rule) .............................................................................................................33
4.3 Kirchhoff's voltage law (loop rule) ..................................................................................................................34
5. Series circuit ........................................................................................................................................................36
5.1 The series circuit ............................................................................................................................................36
6. Parallel circuit ......................................................................................................................................................38
6.1 The parallel circuit ..........................................................................................................................................38
6.2 Mixed circuits of resistors ..............................................................................................................................40
7. Basic electrical components ................................................................................................................................45
7.1 Switch systems ..............................................................................................................................................45
7.1.1 Old version ................................................................................................................................................46
7.1.2 New version ...............................................................................................................................................47
7.2 Diode..............................................................................................................................................................48
7.3 Solenoid .........................................................................................................................................................49
7.4 Relays/contactors ..........................................................................................................................................50
7.5 Z-diode ...........................................................................................................................................................52
7.6 Capacitor........................................................................................................................................................53
7.7 The electrical fuse ..........................................................................................................................................55
7.8 The terminal block .........................................................................................................................................56
7.9 Limit switches ................................................................................................................................................57
7.10 Optocoupler ...............................................................................................................................................59
Chapter 0 Contents 0 1 / 89
7.11 Fixed voltage regulator ..............................................................................................................................60

7.12 Rectifier .....................................................................................................................................................61
7.12.1 One-way rectifier circuit ........................................................................................................................61
7.12.2 Bridge rectifier circuit.............................................................................................................................62
7.13 Rotation angle transmitter .........................................................................................................................63
7.14 Power current circuit board .......................................................................................................................64
8. Circuit diagrams ...................................................................................................................................................65
8.1 Structure of circuit diagrams at Wirtgen ........................................................................................................65
8.1.1 Pagination..................................................................................................................................................66
8.1.2 Cross references .......................................................................................................................................68
8.1.3 Component identification ...........................................................................................................................69
8.1.4 Text area ...................................................................................................................................................70
8.2 Structure of circuit diagrams - new / E - .......................................................................................................71
8.2.1 Topology ....................................................................................................................................................71
8.2.2 Equipment lists ..........................................................................................................................................73
8.2.3 Machine function list ..................................................................................................................................75
9. Conduction of electricity ......................................................................................................................................77
9.1 The electrical conductor .................................................................................................................................77
9.2 Cable colours .................................................................................................................................................78
9.2.1 Conductor colour assignment 12/24 V direct current voltage ...................................................................78
9.2.2 230 V/400 V system ..................................................................................................................................79
9.3 Determining fuses for conductor cross sections ............................................................................................79
9.4 Crimping.........................................................................................................................................................80
9.4.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................80
9.4.2 Application .................................................................................................................................................80
9.4.3 Frequent mistakes when crimping.............................................................................................................80
9.5 Soldering ........................................................................................................................................................81
9.5.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................81
9.5.2 Quality of soldered joints ...........................................................................................................................81
10. Other electrical values ...................................................................................................................................83
10.1 Electrical potential .....................................................................................................................................83
10.2 Electrical power .........................................................................................................................................84
10.2.1 Relationship between power, voltage and current intensity..................................................................85
10.3 Electrical frequency ...................................................................................................................................87
10.4 Frequency converter .................................................................................................................................88
Chapter 0 Contents 0 2 / 89
1. Electrical hazards
1.1 Information about electrical hazards
International symbol for electrical hazards
The general rule is: 50 V alternating current (AC) voltage or 120 V direct current (DC) voltage are the limit for the
maximum permitted touch voltage. Alternating voltage of about 50 V or more is dangerous for humans, because it
can make the transition from the skin to the inside of the body, and the conductance of the human body increases.
However, it is not the voltage (U) but rather the current intensity (I) that is responsible for a fatal electric shock.
Remember! As the voltage increases, so does the current flowing, meaning that the higher the voltage,
the more dangerous it is!
Chapter 1 Electrical hazards I 3 / 89

1.2 Measures when working on electrical systems
Certain rules apply in many countries in order to avoid accidents involving electricity when work is performed in and
on electrical systems; these are summarised as five safety rules.
1.2.1 Isolating
Isolating refers to all-pole disconnection of an electrical system from live parts. This involves establishing a
separation distance of varying length between live and non-live parts of the system, according to the operating
voltage. For safety reasons, when working on electrical equipment with an operating voltage or operating current at
or above a particular level, isolating is always necessary if no special measures are taken for working with the
system live. In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, this level is set at 50 V alternating current voltage or 120 V direct
current voltage, and in Switzerland additionally for currents of more than two amperes (SN SEV 100-1). Isolating
can be achieved by operating main switches, correctly removing fuses, disconnecting plug connections, etc. If the
person performing the work does not undertake isolating himself/herself, as is often the case during work on
high-voltage systems when isolating is done by a control centre via remote control. Then the work is not allowed to
start until confirmation of isolating has been given verbally, by telephone, in writing or by fax. Simply agreeing a
time when isolating should be carried out is not permitted.
1.2.2 Securing to prevent switching back on
Switching back on must be reliably prevented so as to avoid a system on which work is currently in progress being
inadvertently reactivated. To do this, the fuses are removed from the low-voltage system for example, and replaced
by lockable blocking elements. If possible, the main switch, electrical cabinet or fuse box must be locked. A prohibi-
tion sign against switching back on must be affixed for the duration of the work. However, this is only sufficient if
the fuse box is located in a room that is only accessible to electricians, which is always the case when work is
undertaken on high-voltage systems. In remote-controlled high-voltage systems, a virtual switching lock is set by
configuration in the control area, indicating to the employee in the control centre that switching on is prohibited. In
low-voltage systems which are also accessible to non-electricians which is typically the case in the sub-
distribution area this form of protection with an information sign is inadequate. Simply affixing an adhesive label
over the circuit breaker to make it "safe" is regarded as grossly negligent in Germany. In all cases, a circuit breaker
should be made safe by disconnecting the outgoing cable or by means of a switching lock. Switching back on is
only allowed to be possible with the use of tools.
1.2.3 Establishing absence of voltage
The personnel working on the spot must use suitable measuring/test equipment to verify the absence of voltage on
all poles.
Voltage testers for systems up to 1 kV are generally two-pole versions (with a glow lamp and plunger coil measur-
ing mechanism; with glow lamp and moving coil measuring mechanism; with light-emitting diodes and function
test). The presence of a voltage is indicated either by a glow lamp lighting up, by a measuring instrument or by
light-emitting diodes. These instruments also make it possible to measure the magnitude of the voltage in the
system. More modern testing instruments feature an imbalanced motor, the frequency of which depends on the
voltage level to be measured.
Voltage testers for systems with rated voltages above 1 kV are one-pole. The measuring instruments typically
takes the form of an electrically isolated lance up to several metres in length, which is guided by hand towards the
high-voltage conductor. The presence of high-voltage is indicated visually and audibly by a test circuit installed in
the lance, using the method of capacitive voltage division. The use of low-voltage measuring instruments such as
multimeters and other test/measuring instruments in measuring categories CAT I to IV is prohibited due to the high
risk of accidents in high-voltage systems. The voltage testers used must have their function tested before and after
use by means of a source that is definitively carrying voltage. Before use because the voltage tester might be
defective, and after use because it might have suffered a defect during the course of use. One-pole high-voltage
tester for rated voltages above 1 kV has a built-in test device, thereby simplifying the function test. If high-speed

earth switches with switch-on short-circuit protection are used (e.g. spring-controlled earth switches in switchgear),
operating the earth switch is regarded as "establishing absence of voltage", although this should not normally be
done, or only in exceptional circumstances.
1.2.4 Earthing and short-circuiting
Once the absence of voltage has been established, the conductors and the earth system are connected together
using short circuit-proof earthing and short-circuiting devices. This measure ensures that in case of inadvertent
switch-on, the overcurrent protection devices on the input side will trip, and conductors connected in parallel will not
become charged (e.g. in overhead lines).
Also note that earthing is the first step, followed by short-circuiting. In systems with rated voltages up to 1 kV, ex-
cept for overhead lines and distribution networks, earthing and short-circuiting can be dispensed with if rules 1 to 3
have been carried out in accordance with the regulations.
1.2.5 Covering/cordoning off adjacent live parts
In systems below 1 kV, covering with insulating sheets, hoses, plastic covers, etc. is sufficient. At voltages above
1 kV, additional warning panels, ropes or barriers are required. Physical protection, close-fitting clothing and gloves
must be worn. This part can also be disregarded providing points 1 to 3 have been carried out correctly at voltages
below 1 kV AC or 1.5 kV DC.

2. The multimeter
2.1 General
A multimeter is an electrical measuring instrument that can be used for various measuring parameters and in vari-
ous measuring ranges. It is a basic feature of a multimeter that it can be used as a voltmeter and an ammeter. As a
rule, a multimeter can be switched over between direct and alternating parameter measurements. Also, it is normal
for it to be equipped as a resistance measuring instrument. The primary differentiating criterion is that between a
digital and analog multimeter. Since the 1990s, purely analog multimeters have become less and less important in
practical measuring technology; they have been increasingly displaced by digital multimeters, including for reasons
of cost. Alongside the oscilloscope, the multimeter is one of the most important measuring and diagnostic tools
used in electronics and electrical engineering; this is because it is comparatively inexpensive to buy.
2.2 Digital multimeters
FLUKE 85 III TRUE RMS MULTIMETER
MIN MAX RANGE HOLD
REL Hz

mV
mA
V
A
V A
A mA A COM V
400mA
FUSED
10 A 600 V
FUSED CAT III
In digital multimeters, the signal is recorded electronically using an analog/digital converters, and the measured
value is displayed as a numerical value. As a rule, the measuring ranges are from 200 mV to 1000 V and from 20
A to 20 A. Digital multimeters usually have a high internal resistance for voltage measurement, from 1 to 20 M,
with the standard being 10 M. The relative error limit is usually less than 1%, depending on the measuring range,
while in DC voltage ranges higher-quality instruments generally achieve less than 0.2%.
The current measurement is performed by measuring the voltage at shunt resistors with a changeover function.
Resistances are measured by the measurement of voltage, on the basis of a constant current source with change-
over function. The advantages of digital multimeters concern their relatively simple mechanical structure and mass-
produced electronic components, as a result of which they are available for a relatively low price, usually cheaper
than a good analog instrument. Operation is very simple because the units of measurement are shown on the dis-
play, and the difficulty of having several scales is avoided. Furthermore, many digital instruments have protective
circuits against overload and polarity reversal. Convenient instruments choose the voltage measuring range auto-
matically (auto range function). They are also relatively resistant to being knocked and dropped, since there are no
sensitive mechanisms to be damaged. The internal electronics for signal processing and display on the screen
mean that digital multimeters are always reliant on a power supply from a battery, mains adapter or solar cell.
Some instruments also have measuring possibilities for frequencies, capacity and inductance values as well as
transistor and diode properties. Built-in or external sensors mean that many instruments can also measure
atmospheric humidity, noise levels or temperature. An acoustic continuity tester is also incorporated into almost all
digital instruments.
Chapter 2 The multimeter II 6 / 89

2.3 Analog multimeters
In analog multimeters, the measured value is shown on a pointer measuring instrument containing several scales
for different measuring ranges. The read-off values are represented by separate gradations, while intermediate
values can be interpolated. In high-quality analog measuring instruments, the error limits can quite easily be less
than one percent of the ultimate measuring range value. As a rule, a moving coil measuring mechanism is used as
the decisive component in providing the indication. The measuring ranges of moving coil measuring instruments
range from approx. 100 mV to 1000 V for direct current voltages, and 100 A to 10 A for direct currents; high-
quality instruments sometimes have even smaller ranges. Analog multimeters for voltage measurement generally
have a much lower internal resistance than digital multimeters, which can lead to measurement discrepancies with
high-resistance voltage sources (switching influence). The influence of the internal resistance in current and volt-
age measurement can be reduced by built-in amplifiers, as a result of which such analog multimeters in voltage
measurement achieve a high internal resistance which can correspond to that of digital multimeters. For resistance
measurement, the current caused to flow through the resistor by a built-in battery is measured. The relationship is
highly non-linear; as a result, the measurement is only suitable for general statements. Also, amplifier electronics
can be used for scale linearisation in resistance measurement with very high-quality instruments.
Chapter 2 The multimeter II 7 / 89

3. Basic electrical values

3.1 Introduction
Electricity is a form of energy that offers many advantages compared to other forms of energy such as heat, light,
mechanical and chemical energy:
- Large quantities of energy can be transported over long distances by cross-country cables.
- It can easily be converted into other forms of energy, e.g. heat in pre-glow systems, light in incandescent
bulbs, mechanical energy in electric motors, chemical energy when charging starter batteries.
- Converting electrical energy into other forms of energy is largely environmentally friendly.
The Bohr model of the atom forms the basis for understanding electrical processes. An atom is the smallest chemi-
cal particle of a basic material.
Fig. 1 a: Structure of an atom with electron
The principal components of an atom are the atomic nucleus and atomic shell (see Fig. 1 a). The atomic nucleus
formed of protons and neutrons is located in the centre of the atom, and is surrounded by the atomic shell. This
atomic shell can comprise up to seven electron orbits, also referred to as electron shells.
Each proton carries a particular quantity of electricity, the elementary electrical charge. A proton is the smallest
amount of positive charge that can occur. As a result, protons are positively charged mass particles. Neutrons are
mass particles which are electrically neutral, and do not have an electric charge. Each electron, meanwhile, also
carries a particular quantity of electricity, the elementary electrical charge. An electron is however the smallest
amount of negative charge that can occur. As a result, neutrons are negatively charged mass particles.
REMEMBER! Electrons are carriers of negative elementary electrical charges, and protons are carriers of positive
elementary electrical charges. Neutrons are electrically neutral! The particular elementary electrical
charges are equal in magnitude.
Chapter 3 Basic electric values I I I 8 / 89

Fig. 1 b: Atom with elliptical orbits
Electrons move at very high speed around the atomic nucleus in circular or elliptical orbits (see Fig. 1 b), the
electron orbits/electron shells. The centrifugal forces to which the electrons are exposed are counteracted by the
attraction forces of the protons. This condition means the electrons remain in their electron orbits around the atomic
nucleus, and take on the electrical property of the substance.
REMEMBER! Electrical forces act between the atomic nucleus (protons, neutrons) and electrons. The cause of
these electrical forces is the elementary electrical charge (referred to in short as: charge). Equal
charges repel and opposite charges attract.
If the core of an atom contains the same number of protons as there are electrons orbiting it, this means the atom
is electrically neutral externally, because the electrical charges cancel one another out (see Fig. 1 c).
Fig. 1 c: Structure of a copper atom
The electrons that move in their electron orbits close to the atomic nucleus are firmly bound to it. The electrons in
the outer electron orbits are not firmly bound to the atomic nucleus, and can be removed from it. Electrons in the
outer electron orbits are referred to as free electrons or valence electrons, and they highly significantly influence
the electrical properties of a substance.

REMEMBER! The electrical properties of a substance are determined by the electrons in the outer electron orbits,
referred to as free electrons or valence electrons.
If one or more electrons are removed from the atomic shell of an atom, this means negative charge is taken away
from the atom. For example, if electrons are removed from a neutral atom then the atom will have a positive sur-
plus charge, and will lose its neutrality (see Fig. 1 d). It is now positively charged and is called a positive ion. An
atom can also receive additional electrons. If a neutral atom receives electrons, its electrical charge will change
from neutral to a negative one, in which case it is referred to as a negative ion.
Fig. 1 d: Receiving or donating electrons
Electrical processes are based on the existence and mobility of free electrons, the valence electrons. Electricity is
not generated from nothing, it exists in every substance. When valence electrons are stripped from or added to
substances, these substances take on a positive or a negative charge.

3.2 Electrical voltage
Electrical voltage is a basic electrical value which has to be generated. Generating electrical voltage involves sepa-
rating the positive and negative electrical charges in the atoms from one another. A surplus or deficit of electrons is
created in the atoms artificially.
There are forces acting between positive and negative charges equal charges repel and opposite charges attract
which means different charges are drawn to one another by the force of attraction. This striving to achieve a bal-
ance (see Fig. 2.1 a) between the positive and negative charges is referred to as electrical voltage.
anxious to balance
overrun of electrons deficit of electrons
Fig. 2.1 a: Striving to achieve a balance between different charges
Sources of voltage always have two poles (connections) with a different charge. On one side, there is the positive
pole with a deficit of electrons, while on the other side there is the negative pole with a surplus of electrons.
When a connection is formed between the poles, a discharge occurs. The connection itself restricts this discharge
process by opposing it with a resistance. This connection, with resistance, means an electrical current I flows. The
electrical voltage and resistance are thus what cause the electrical current to flow. The resistance is composed of
the physical properties of the connection. The magnitude of the voltage U, however, depends on the size of the
electron differential resulting from the separation of charge.
The following statements can be made about electrical voltage:

- Electrical voltage is the pressure or force acting on free electrons.
- Electrical voltage is the cause of the electrical current.
- Electrical voltage (pressure) results when there is a charge differential between two points or poles.
REMEMBER! Electrical voltage must be generated, and results when the positive and negative charges of the
atoms are separated from one another. When electrical charges are separated, they attempt to
balance one another out.
Chapter 3 Basic electrical values III 11 / 89

The term voltage is used in different ways in electrical circuits. For example, voltage is generally referred to as U,
whereas at voltage generators (voltage source) it is also called Utot or Ubat. The symbol used for electrical voltage in
formulas is U, while the basic unit of electrical voltage is defined as the volt (V). Normally, voltage values in electri-
cal systems range between a few millivolts and several hundred volts.
REMEMBER! Symbol for electrical voltage in formulas U

Unit of electrical voltage V
3.2.1 Direct current voltage
A direct current voltage is an electrical voltage that does not change when observed over a relatively long period.
It has the same sign and the same amount at all times. In many applications, the term direct current voltage is also
used if the voltage merely does not change its polarity in contrast to alternating current voltage. Direct current
voltage is the prerequisite for direct current to flow in a linear load (e.g. ohmic resistor)

3.2.2 Alternating current voltage
Alternating current voltage is the term used for an electrical voltage which changes its polarity at regular, recurring
intervals, and has an average value over time ("alternating quantities") of zero. The shape of the voltage curve
does not matter, and is by no means required to be sinusoidal.
Nominal value (for the special case of mains voltage)
The nominal value of a voltage, such as is stated on nameplates, is the root mean square value. Losses in the
supply lines of the distribution network means that the voltage actually available depends on the load. Progress
made in speed control of generators, the core materials of transformers and setting the dimensions of cable cross
sections means that the tolerance for nominal voltage has changed on several occasions over the course of time.
Rated voltages of 220 V with permitted deviations +20%/-10%, 230 V with 10% or 240 V with 5% thus refer to
the same supply system which has had its nominal voltage changed while the momentary voltage remains in the
tolerance band of the contractually agreed nominal voltage; see also rated voltage.
Root mean square value
The root mean square (RMS) value of the voltage Urms corresponds mathematically to the root of the mean value
over the square of the voltage or current function during a whole number of periods. The root mean square value
corresponds to the direct current voltage at which the same power is transmitted to an ohmic load. The specifica-
tion "230 V" for the alternating current voltage common in domestic applications is a root mean square value.
Peak voltage
The peak voltage Us (in alternating current voltage according to DIN 40110-1, it is referred to as the peak value
and in the sinusoidal profile, amplitude) is the highest voltage that can be achieved (irrespective of the polarity).
Calculations are possible for a given root mean square value of a defined voltage profile , although only statistical
values are possible with random voltage profiles (audio, noise, etc.).
Peak-to-peak voltage
The peak-to-peak voltage Upkpk is the difference between the positive and negative peak values of the voltage
function. With a sinusoidal voltage, it is simply double the value of the amplitude.

Rectified value
The rectified value is the average value of the rectified voltage. The simplest way to find this is by measurement.
Many simple measuring instruments measure this value and display it multiplied by the factor 1.11, as the "root
mean square value".
Crest factor
The crest factor is the ratio between the peak voltage and root mean square voltage. Using this factor, it is possible
to convert between the root mean square value and the peak value. For example, the crest factor of a sinusoidal
alternating current voltage is 1.414 ( to be precise). However, this only applies to periodic and precisely de-
fined voltage profiles; if there are random voltage profiles (measurement values, noise, etc.) then the crest factor
only permits statistical statements to be made about a demanded amplitude probability (e.g. noise with a Gaussian
distribution).
Form factor
The form factor specifies the ratio between the root mean square value and the rectified value. In sinusoidal alter-
nating current voltage, it is 1.111 ( to be precise). In statistical voltage profiles, the form factor is also a
clear number, in contrast to the crest factor, if the statistical behaviour is defined (e.g. 1.11 for white noise).
Frequency
The frequency expresses the number of periodically occurring oscillations over the time period during which they
are counted.
Alternating current voltage

1 = Nominal value
2 = Peak-to-peak voltage
3 = Root mean square value
4 = Frequency

3.2.3 Voltage generation
As stated already, electrical voltage involves a separation between positive and negative electrical charges at
atomic level. Various technical principles are available for generating an electrical voltage (separating charges).
The following sections present some processes for generating voltage.
Generating voltage by friction
Friction caused when insulating materials are rubbed together separates the electrical charges in the insulation
from one another. This results in an electron deficit in one insulator and an electron surplus in the other. As a result
of the friction, and thus the charge separation, an electrical voltage is created.
Fig. 2.1.1 a: Generating voltage by friction
Generating voltage by chemical processes
If two different kinds of metal are immersed in a conductive liquid (electrolyte acid, alkali, salt solution) (see Fig.
2.1.1 b), a charge separation takes place. The different metals and the properties of the electrolyte mean that
electrons are removed from one of the metals and added to the other. This results in a surplus of electrons at one
of the so-called poles (a pole is also called an electrode), whereas there is a deficit of electrons at the other pole.
This charge separation creates an electrical direct current voltage.
copper- Zinc-
plate plate
brine
Fig. 2.1.1 b: Generating voltage by chemical processes
The magnitude of the voltage of a galvanic element depends on the position of the electrode materials in relation to
one another within the electrochemical series.

REMARK! Connecting several galvanic elements one after the other in order to multiply the voltage results in
a battery.
When current is drawn, the current also flows within the galvanic element, namely from the negative pole to the
positive pole. The electrolyte is decomposed, the metal at the negative pole is dissolved or chemically converted.
The hydrogen created at the positive pole must be chemically bound otherwise the voltage would drop while the
current is being drawn. In the zinc/carbon element, this is done by cladding the positive pole in substances that
combine with the hydrogen, such as manganese dioxide. The current delivery stops when the electrolyte is con-
sumed or the metal of the negative pole has been chemically converted.
REMARK! Galvanic elements in which the electrochemical conversion can be reversed by supplying current
are referred to as accumulators.
Generating voltage by induction
Charge separation occurs by moving coils in a stationary magnetic field, or moving magnets in a stationary coil.
The technical application for this kind of voltage generation is in generators.

Generating voltage by heat
If two wires made from different metallic materials (e.g. copper and Konstantan) are connected together and the
connection point is heated, a charge separation occurs between the wires. This produces a direct current voltage
between the free ends of the wire. The magnitude of the direct current voltage depends on the combination of the
metallic wires and the temperature. Such a voltage generated by heat is used in thermocouples (e.g. digital
thermometers).
Generating voltage by light
Voltage is generated by light using components referred to as photo-elements. In certain materials (e.g. germani-
um, silicon, selenium), light has the effect of separating the electrical charge between the materials.
Such photo-elements are usually made of a metallic baseplate which has a semiconductor coating, e.g. selenium,
applied to it (see Fig. 2.1.1 d). The semiconductor coating is connected to a contact ring. Under exposure to light, a
direct current voltage is created between the contact ring and the baseplate.
contact ring
selen plate
light incidence
metalic base-
plate
Fig. 2.1.1 d: Generating voltage by exposure to light

Generating voltage by pressure
Voltage is generated by pressure in a piezo element which is made of a crystal (e.g. silicon dioxide). Fluctuating
pressure produces an alternating voltage that is conducted away by conductive coatings. Piezoelectric voltage
generators are used as sensors in processes where there are rapid changes of pressure.
pressure
piezoelectric
crystal
aluminium foil aluminium

foil
Fig. 2.1.1 d: Generating voltage by pressure
3.2.4 Measuring electrical voltage
Electrical voltage is measured parallel to a load by a voltmeter. For the measurement, the voltmeter is connected to
the connections of the generator or the load. The cables of the electrical circuit do not have to be/are not allowed to
be separated.
Resistor Voltmeter
Voltage source +
I R V
-
Spannungsmessung
Voltage metering--> Parallel
parallel
IMPORTANT! It is essential for the electrical voltage to be measured in parallel to the measured object using a
suitable voltmeter.

3.3 Electrical current
Electrical current is caused by electrical voltage. Electrical voltage results in the striving to equalise charge. When
charge is equalised, electrons flow from the pole with the electron surplus to the pole with the electron deficit.
The targeted and directed movement of electrons (see Fig. 2.3 a) is referred to as electrical current. However, it
can only flow if there are sufficient freely mobile charge carriers available between the different charges, such as in
a conductive material (metal, etc.).
power supply
electron current
consumer
Fig. 2.3 a: Flow of electrons
REMEMBER! Electrical current is the directed movement of free electrons.
The current flow is often compared with water flowing in a pipe. The more water is in the pipe, the more water
comes out at the end of the pipe. It is just the same with electrical current. The more electrons there are available,
the greater the electrical current intensity through the conductor. The electrical current intensity is used for express-
ing the electrical current in numerical terms. The more electrons flow through a conductor in one second, the
greater the current intensity. The symbol used for electrical current or electrical current intensity in formulas is I.
The basic unit of electrical current is defined as 1 ampere (A). Normally, the current values in electronics range
between a few microamperes (A) and several amperes (A).
REMEMBER! Electrical current is the directed movement of charge carriers (electrons) through an electrical con-
ductor. The unit of electrical current is the ampere [A], and its symbol in formulas is [I].

3.3.1 Current directions
Before the processes in atoms and the relationship between electrons were known, it was assumed that the
positive charge carriers in metals were responsible for the current flow, rather than the negative ones. Accordingly,
it was defined at the time that current flows from the positive pole to the negative pole, and not in the other direction
(see Fig. 2.3 b). If an electrical measuring instrument is used for determining the flow direction, it is actually possi-
ble to assume this is the case.
Although the assumption made at the time has now been disproved, the original (historical) current direction has
been retained for practical reasons. As a result, there are now two current directions in electronics, namely the
technical current direction (+ , see Fig. 2.3 b) and the electron flow direction ( +, see Fig. 2.3 c). The tech-
nical flow direction (+ ) continues to be used within an electrical circuit to this day.
technical current direchtion
Fig. 2.3 c: Technical flow direction from positive to negative
current direchtion
Fig. 2.3 d: Electron flow direction from negative to positive

3.3.2 Electrical direct current voltage
Direct Current (DC) refers to that electrical current which does not change its direction and magnitude over time,
i.e. remains constant. Direct current can be obtained from alternating current by rectification. There are also direct
current sources such as galvanic cells (battery) or photovoltaic cells (solar cells).
3.3.3 Electrical alternating current voltage
Alternating Current (AC) displays a continuous, mostly periodic change in the current direction. This periodic
change is expressed as a frequency (Hz), and specifies how often the current direction changes per second.
Advantage: Alternating current can easily be transformed between two different voltages.
Mains frequency: Mostly 50 Hz, USA and Japan e.g. 60 Hz
Three-phase alternating current (also referred to as power current) is a special form of alternating current that is
used in public power networks for distributing electrical energy at high power levels.

3.3.4 Electrical mixed current
Mixed current is the term used for an electrical current that possesses not only a direct current component but also
at least one alternating current component. It can also be imagined as a current fluctuating periodically about a
direct current. Mixed current can be obtained by summation, i.e. connecting together, both current components. In
practice, for example, mixed current is also obtained by rectification of an alternating current without using smooth-
ing capacitors or smoothing reactors. Electromagnetic direct current generators also always generate a direct
current, the intensity of which fluctuates to a greater or lesser extent with the speed of rotation of the machine, thus
representing a mixed current as well. However, even at constant rotation speed, purely direct current is not
obtained because transfer processes take place continuously at the commutator giving rise to voltage peaks
caused by the inductance of the exciter windings, and because sinusoidal alternating current voltages are created
in the exciter windings in the stator which are "rectified" at the commutator.
3.3.5 Electrical three-phase current
Three-phase alternating current also referred to as three-phase alternating current voltage, power current, build-
ing current or just three-phase for short is the term used in electrical engineering for a form of multi-phase alter-
nating current which comprises three individual alternating currents or alternating current voltages with the same
frequency, that have a fixed phase shift of 120 in relation to one another. The three-phase system is used above
all in the area of electrical power engineering for transport and distribution of electrical energy in power networks.
Examples of this are nationwide three-phase high-voltage transmission networks, low-voltage networks in the area
of local electricity supply or three-phase motors that are used for driving elevators or in electrically powered
vehicles. Compared to an individual, single-phase alternating current system, a symmetrical three-phase system
only requires half the amount of material for electrical cables for the same electrical power. Furthermore, three-
phase alternating current transformers can be manufactured with a smaller core cross-section than equally power-
ful single-phase transformers. Using the three-phase system makes economic sense from a few kilowatts onwards,
which justifies its importance in the area of electrical power engineering.

3.3.6 The electrical circuit
A closed circuit must be present so that the electrons can really balance one another out. Only in a closed-circuit
can the electrons be repelled from the negative pole and attracted by the positive pole, resulting in a flow of elec-
trons.
REMEMBER! Electrical current only flows in a closed circuit.
A simple electrical circuit i(see Fig. 2.3 b) s composed of a voltage source and a load, which are connected togeth-
er by cables. To simplify representation of the circuit, standard symbols (circuit symbols) are used and are con-
nected together in order to clarify how the components of the circuit interact.
wire
Power supply
consumer
wire
Fig. 2.3 b: Simple electrical circuit
Voltage sources can be, for example, batteries or generators while the connectors can be cables and loads such
as bulbs and motors.
An electrical circuit always needs a load. If both poles of the voltage source were connected together directly by
one cable, there would also be a circuit formed but the flow of electrons would be so great that the charges would
balance themselves out very quickly. Such a case would be referred to as a short-circuit, which can be a danger-
ous situation.
ATTENTION! Never connect the poles of a voltage source directly together! This produces a short circuit which is
dangerous for people and machines!

3.3.7 Measuring an electrical circuit
Resistor
Voltage source +
U I R
-
Closed circuit -->

Current flow
Electrical work (conversion of electrical energy into another form of energy) can only be accomplished if the electri-
cal circuit is not interrupted. This means a closed electrical circuit is a prerequisite for electrical current.
Resistor
Voltage source +
U R
-
Open circuit -->

No current flow
If the electrical circuit is interrupted, no electrical work (conversion of electrical energy into another form of energy)
can be done, and thus no electrical current flows.
REMEMBER! Electrical current is the directed movement of charge carriers (electrons) through an electrical
conductor. The unit of electrical current is the ampere [A], and its symbol in formulas is [I].
The electrical current (current intensity) is measured in series with the load in the circuit. For this purpose, the
circuit must be opened and the current measuring instrument (ammeter) must be inserted in the circuit in series
with the load. The current measuring instrument (ammeter) closes the circuit again.
Ammeter
A
Resistor
Voltage source +
I R
-
current Reihe
measurement-->
Strommessung series

IMPORTANT! It is essential for the electrical current to be measured in series with the measured object using a
suitable ammeter. Connecting the ammeter in parallel to the measured object generates a short
circuit, and the ammeter could be irreparably damaged or have its fuse blown.
Electrical current has various effects. The heating effect and magnetic effect always occur with an electrical
current. Light effects, chemical effects and effects on living organisms only occur under certain circumstances.

3.4 The electrical resistor
The resistor as a component is used in large numbers in almost all electrical circuits. Its principal property is to
present a resistance to the transport of charge carriers, i.e. the electrical current, and to restrict the current to a
particular value.
There are two basic groups of resistors: the group of fixed resistors and the group of variable resistors. The
symbols for resistors (see Fig. 3.1 a) depend on which group they belong to, and their design.
fixed changeable resistors

resistor
Fig. 3.1 a: Symbols for resistors
In contrast to fixed resistors, variable resistors have a specific starting and finishing resistance value. The operating
range lies between these resistance values, and the particular momentary resistance value in the electrical circuit
depends on various factors. The subsequent chapters deal with the individual types of resistor in more detail, in
order to obtain a better picture of their structure and operating method.
3.4.1 Fixed resistor
In fixed resistors, the resistance value is defined when they are produced. The resistance value is not changed by
any physical influences from outside, such as temperature fluctuations. Different resistance values can be obtained
by combining series, parallel or mixed circuits of resistors.
Fixed resistors are used in electrical circuits for limiting the current in them, thereby protecting other components.
Fixed resistors are used in very large numbers in electrical engineering as series resistors and shunts, as well as
voltage dividers.
There are differences between fixed resistors in terms of their power (see Fig. 3.1 b and Fig. 3.1 c), and thus in the
maximum current handling capacity. When the current flow (the flow of electrons) is restricted, electrical energy is
converted into another form of energy. In resistors, the electrical energy is converted into thermal energy, and
dissipated outwards. Under certain circumstances, resistors can reach high temperatures, which explains why
many are manufactured with a sturdy configuration, and some even have cooling fins.

REMARK! There is a voltage drop in any resistor. The effective electrical energy in the component is convert-
ed into thermal energy. This property of resistors means they can get very warm or even very hot.
Fixed resistors are also referred to as linear resistors or ohmic resistors, because Ohm's law applies to them with-
out restriction. In linear resistors, the U/I ratio (see Fig. 3.1 d) remains constant even with different voltage values.
Fig. 3.1 d: Fixed resistor characteristic
As a rule, coloured rings or dots are used for identifying the resistance value of fixed resistors. Labelling with
numbers is rather the exception. In order to define clearly what the reading direction is, DIN 41429 specifies that
the first coloured ring must be positioned unambiguously closer to the resistor connection than the last coloured
ring is located towards the other resistor connection. DIN IEC 62 stipulates that four coloured rings should be used
(see Fig. 3.1 e), corresponding to a two-digit resistance value.
Reading direction
Fig. 3.1 e: Fixed resistor with four coloured rings
If the resistance value is identified by five coloured rings (see Fig. 3.1 e), the first three coloured rings represent the
number sequence of the resistance value. The last two coloured rings specify a multiplier (power of ten) and
tolerance. A sixth coloured ring is added if the resistor is also temperature-dependent (see Fig. 3.1 g). This
specifies the temperature coefficient.

Reading direction Reading direction
Fig. 3.1 f: Fixed resistor with five coloured rings Fig. 3.1 g: Fixed resistor with six coloured rings
A table is used for identifying the resistance values (see Fig. 3.1 h). This lists the coloured rings with their position
and value.
Fig. 3.1 h: Table for identifying coloured rings on resistors
3.4.2 Potentiometers
Variable resistors that are adjusted using a sliding contact are referred to as potentiometers. There are various
types of potentiometer, and thus an extremely wide range of terms to designate them. For example, there are
rotary potentiometers (Fig. 3.1 e), trimming potentiometers (Fig. 3.1 f), slide potentiometers, etc.

Fig. 3.1 f Fig. 3.1 e
In principle, potentiometers have three connections: connection A (start), connection E (finish) and connection S
(slider). The slider contact allows the resistance value to be changed infinitely variably between the connection
points S and E, between zero and the total resistance.
3.4.3 NTC resistor
NTC resistors are temperature-dependent resistors that reduce their resistance value as the temperature
increases, because when the resistor material used is heated, more free electrons are available and thus there is
less resistance to the flow of electrons (electrical current). NTC in the name of the resistor stands for Negative
Temperature Coefficient.
Fig. 3.1 h: NTC resistor characteristic
The resistance behaviour of an NTC resistor is non-linear. As a result, it is not possible to deal with approximation
formulas for calculating the resistance behaviour when dealing with basic principles. However, a
resistance/temperature diagram (see Fig. 3.1 h) illustrates the resistance behaviour in response to temperature
changes.

REMEMBER! NTC resistors are made from a substance which is more conductive when hot than cold. NTC
resistors are thus frequently referred to as hot conductors or thermistors.
The symbol below is used for NTC resistors in circuit diagrams, in which case the arrows pointing in opposite
directions indicate that the resistance decreases as the temperature increases.
Fig. 3.1 i: NTC symbol
3.4.4 PTC resistor
PTC resistors are also temperature-dependent resistors, although they increased their resistance value as the
temperature rises. In this type of resistor, the number of free electrons decreases as the material is heated. As a
result, the flow of electrons (electrical current) is obstructed to a greater extent. PTC in the name of the resistor
stands for Positive Temperature Coefficient.
Fig. 3.1 j: PTC resistor characteristic
The resistance behaviour of a PTC resistor is also non-linear. As a result, in this case too, it is not possible to deal
with approximation formulas for calculating the resistance behaviour when dealing with basic principles. However,
a resistance/temperature diagram (see Fig. 3.1 i) illustrates the resistance behaviour in response to temperature
changes.
REMEMBER! PTC resistors are made from a substance which is less conductive when hot than cold. PTC resis-
tors are thus frequently referred to as cold conductors.

Fig. 3.1 k: PTC symbol
The symbol above is used for PTC resistors in circuit diagrams (see Fig. 3.1 k). The two arrows pointing in the
same direction indicate that the resistance value increases with temperature (not proportionally).
PTC resistors are used as temperature sensors, because they can be manufactured very small and integrated into
other components without difficulty. They do not just respond to their inherent heating (power losses), but also to
external heating (ambient temperature), which means they can undertake measuring and control functions as an
electronic component. PTC resistors are more expensive than NTC resistors, and are also subject to wider produc-
tion tolerances, as a result of which NTC resistors are preferred for use in electronic temperature control functions.
3.4.5 Measuring the electrical resistance
Electrical resistance is measured in parallel to the resistor (the load) using a resistance measuring instrument
(ohmmeter). For the measurement, the ohmmeter is connected to the connections of the resistor. The cables of the
electrical circuit must be separated in every case. This means an electrical resistance can only be measured with-
out voltage applied.
Resistor Ohmmeter
Voltage source +
R Ohm
-
Risistor measuring parallel
IMPORTANT! The component or circuit to be measured must be disconnected from the power system in order for
the resistance to be measured.

4. Ohm's law
4.1 Ohm's law
A circuit comprises a resistor (load), voltage generator and connecting cables. The terminal voltage [U] is present
in the generator (voltage source) at its terminals. When the circuit is made by the resistor [R] current [I] flows.
The current intensity [I] depends on the applied voltage [U] and the resistor [R] (load). The current is in an equal
ratio to the voltage, i.e. the higher the voltage at a resistor, the greater the current flowing through the resistor. A
large voltage means there is a large pressure on the free electrons, as a result of which the free electrons move
faster and a larger current flows.
When the voltage is the same, the current behaves inversely to the resistance. Double the resistance results in half
the current, triple the resistance one third of the current, etc. The greater the resistance, the smaller the current.
REMEMBER! The current intensity [I] increases in the same ratio as the voltage [U], and the current intensity [I]
decreases in the inverse ratio to the resistance [R].
REMEMBER! This means the electrical current is dependent on the voltage and the resistance. The greater the
voltage and the smaller the resistance, the greater the current.
Power supply
current
resistor
Chapter 4 Ohm's law IV 32 / 89

If the resistance and current are known, it is possible to calculate the voltage at the resistor. This is because the
voltage must be greater the greater the resistance is, and the greater the current should be.
Power supply = current x resistor
The resistance can be calculated when the voltage and the current are known. If a voltage only drives a small
current through the resistor, the resistance is large.
Power supply
resistor
current
The unit of voltage can be defined with the help of Ohm's law: An electrical voltage of 1 V drives a current of 1 A
through a resistor of 1 .
The information presented above regarding the dependencies between the individual parameters give rise to three
formulas which make up Ohm's law.
4.2 Kirchhoff's current law (junction rule)
In parallel circuits, there are always branching points, also referred to as nodal points. The currents branch at these
points. Certain general rules can be derived from this.

For example, if what happens to the current is observed from point A, it can be seen that the currents I1 and I2 flow
towards nodal point A, whereas the currents I3, I4 and I5 flow away from it. It is observed that the current value of
the inflowing currents is the same as the total of the outflowing currents.
REMEMBER! At each nodal point, the total of the inflowing currents is the same as the total of the outflowing
currents.
Using this law, it is possible to determine unknown currents at a current branching point.
4.3 Kirchhoff's voltage law (loop rule)
In a closed circuit (loop), the voltage distribution takes on a particular configuration. This voltage distribution can be
described by formulas.
Power supply
The two voltage sources with the source voltages Ub1 and Ub2 are cumulative with regard to their total effect on
the electrons, because they are acting in the same direction. They result in a current [I] depending on the resistors
R1, R2 and R3.

The current gives rise to voltage drops in the resistors R1, R2 and R3.
A comparison between the source voltages and the voltage drops leads to the observation that they are of equal
magnitude. This means the source voltages are distributed throughout the entire circuit.
REMEMBER! In each closed circuit, the total of the source voltages equals the total of all voltage drops.

5. Series circuit
5.1 The series circuit
Resistors are connected in series if the same current flows through all resistors in succession after a voltage is
applied.
Power supply
REMEMBER! The current is never consumed, because the electrons can never emerge or branch out of the
circuit at any point. As a result, the current intensity is the same in all resistors in the series circuit.
12V 12V
I = 0,2A I = 0,2A
- -
+
U=24V
U = 4V U = 6V U = 14V
R1=20 R2=30 R3=70
I = 0,2A I=0,2A I=0,2A
Adding together the three voltage components (voltage drops) U1, U2 and U3 reveals that the total of these voltages
is the same as the applied voltage Utot.
Chapter 5 Series circuit V 36 / 89

REMEMBER! The total voltage in a series circuit of ohmic resistors is equal to the sum of the voltage compo-
nents.
U ges = U1 + U 2 + U 3
The total resistance of the series circuit could be measured directly with an ohmmeter. However, the indirect
method is selected in practice, involving the resistance being calculated from the voltage and current
measurement, according to Ohm's law.
U ges
Rges =
I
24V
Rges = = 120
0,2 A
The result of the calculation makes it possible to derive that the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
resistance components.
Rges = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
REMARK! Remember Kirchhoff's voltage law, which is directly related to the series connection of ohmic
resistors.
Chapter 5 Series circuit V 37 / 89

6. Parallel circuit
6.1 The parallel circuit
Resistors are connected in parallel if the circuit causes the current to be divided into partial currents which flow
through the resistors simultaneously
U U
Iges Iges
- -
+
I1
R1
I2
B A
R2
I3
R3
The total voltage U is applied between the two current branching points A and B. All resistance components are
connected to it via their terminals, meaning that there is the same voltage U at all resistors.
REMEMBER! In a parallel circuit, all resistors have the same voltage.
12V 12V
Iges = 2,35A Iges = 2,35A
- -
+
U = 24V
I1 = 1,2A
R1 = 20
I2 = 0,8A
B A
R2 = 30
I3 = 0,35A
R3 = 70
Chapter 6 Parallel circuit V 38 / 89

A more precise consideration of the measured current values indicates that the total current of the individual
current branches is the same as the total of the current components.
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 + ...
The explanation for this is that the total current is only divided up between the three current tracks (current
branches), but is retained overall.
If the current intensities of the individual current branches are compared to the corresponding resistance values, it
can be observed that the smallest current flows in the largest resistor and the largest current in the smallest resis-
tor.
REMEMBER! The smallest current flows in the largest resistor and the largest current in the smallest resistor!
This means the current intensity is directly dependent on the resistance value.
This observation can also be verified with Ohm's law. Given the same voltage, the smaller current must flow in the
branch with the larger resistance.
U
I=
R
The total current is thus divided up between the current branches in a particular ratio that depends on the individual
resistors. The total resistance, also referred to as the equivalent resistance, can be calculated using Ohm's law.
U ges
Rges =
I ges
Comparing the resistance values of the individual resistors with the total resistance reveals that the individual
resistances are all larger than the total resistance.
REMEMBER! The total resistance, also referred to as the equivalent resistance, is smaller than the smallest
individual resistance.
This can be explained because each resistor connected in parallel carries its own current according to its
resistance value, and thus the total current increases with each parallel resistor, i.e. the total resistance decreases
and becomes smaller than the smallest individual resistance.
For example, if a 1 resistor is combined with a 1000 resistor, then although the 1000 resistor only carries a
very small current compared to the 1 resistor, the total current magnitude increases, i.e. the total resistance
becomes less than 1 .
The circuit conducts better for each parallel branch (parallel resistor) that is added. This means the conductance of
the circuit increases. The total conductance of the circuit is made up of the total of the individual conductance
values of the circuit branches.
Gges = G1 + G2 + G3 + ...

Conductance is the reciprocal value of resistance, as a result of which the following formula is obtained for
calculating the total resistance:
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
Rges R1 R2 R3
REMEMBER! The reciprocal value of total resistance equals the total of the reciprocal values of the individual
resistances.
REMARK! Remember Kirchhoff's current law, which is directly related to the parallel connection of ohmic re-
sistors.
6.2 Mixed circuits of resistors
Mixed circuits are a combination of any number of series and parallel circuits, and are also referred to as group
circuits. If one or more parallel circuits form part of a series circuit, this type of mixed circuit (group circuit) is
referred to as an extended series circuit. On the other hand, if one or more series circuits form part of a parallel
circuit, this type of mixed circuit (group circuit) is referred to as an extended parallel circuit.
By way of example, the drawing below shows a parallel circuit as a component of a series circuit, meaning that it is
an extended series circuit.
A systematic approach is needed in order to calculate this circuit, e.g. the current or one of the voltage compo-
nents. If one circuit forms part of another, the innermost of all circuits must be considered and calculated first. Spe-
cifically for the first example, this means the parallel circuit, being the innermost circuit, must be calculated first.
To aid understanding, the various mixed circuits should be calculated using values, taking one example for each.
Example 1:
U U
Iges Iges
- -
+
R2
R1 R3 R5
R4

The specified values are as follows:
Where: R1 = 10 ; R2 = 20 , R3 = 40 ; R4 = 100 ; R5 = 20 ; Utot = 24 V
Tot.: Itot = ? A ; UR3 = ? V
Solution: The first step is to calculate the parallel circuit. To be able to calculate the current value, we first
need the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit. The equivalent resistance means that we
change the circuit from a mixed circuit (group circuit) into a series circuit.
1 1 1 1
= + +
RParallel R2 R3 R4
1 1 1 1
= + +
RParallel 20 40 100
1
= 0,05S + 0,025S + 0,01S
RParallel
1
RParallel =
0,085S
RParallel = 11,765
Once the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit has been calculated, the next step is to calculate the total
resistance of the circuit. This total resistance is the same as the total of the individual resistances of the series
circuit which now exists.
Rges = R1 + RParallel + R5
Rges = 10 + 11,765 + 50
Rges = 71,765
The resulting equivalent resistance of the circuit and the specified total voltage make it possible to calculate the
total current of the circuit.
U = RI

U
I=
R
24V
I=
71,765
I = 0,334 A
The calculated total current of the circuit and the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit can now be used for
calculating the voltage drop at the equivalent resistor of the parallel circuit.
U Parallel = RParallel I
U Parallel = 11,765 0,334 A
U Parallel = 3,929V
The properties of parallel circuits mean it is possible to state that the voltage drop at the three parallel resistors (R2,
R3, R4) is the same.
REMEMBER! If a series circuit contains a parallel circuit, first calculate the parallel circuit.
Example 2:
U U
Iges Iges
- -
+
R1 R2
R3
The specified values are as follows: R4 R5
Where: R1 = 10 ; R2 = 20 , R3 = 40 ; R4 = 100 ; R5 = 20 ; Utot = 24 V

Tot.: Itot = ? A ; IR3 = ? V
Solution: The first step is to calculate the series circuits. To be able to calculate the current value, we first
need the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit
RRe ihe1 = R1 + R2 RRe ihe 2 = R4 + R5
RRe ihe1 = 10 + 20 RRe ihe 2 = 100 + 20
RRe ihe1 = 30 RRe ihe 2 = 120
Once the series circuits have been calculated, the circuit only comprises a parallel circuit. To be able to calculate
the total current of the circuit, it is first necessary to calculate the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit
1 1 1 1
= + +
RParallel RRe ih1 R3 RRe ihe 2
1 1 1 1
= + +
RParallel 30 40 120
1
= 0,33S + 0,025S + 0,00833S
RParallel
1
RParallel =
0,06633S
RParallel = 15,076
U = RI
U
I=
R
24V
I=
15,076

I = 1,592 A
The individual current that flows through the resistor R3 can be calculated with the resistance value and the total
voltage. In this case, it is possible to take the total voltage because the resistor is a component of the parallel
circuit, and the total voltage drops completely across this parallel circuit.
U = R3 I 3
U
I3 =
R3
24V
I3 =
40
I 3 = 0,6 A
REMEMBER! If a parallel circuit contains a series circuit, first calculate the series circuit.

7. Basic electrical components

7.1 Switch systems
A switch is a device for deliberate or automatic connection or disconnection of current pathways. When the switch
is switched on or closed, two contacts are brought into contact for each current pathway that leads through the
switch; on switching off, these contacts are separated from one another again. Actuation can be by human force,
mechanically or by liquids.
A switch consists of the actuating element (e.g. pushbutton, rotary knob, lever, etc.), the fastening flange and at
least one switching element, also referred to as the switching contact (normally open or normally closed contact).
Two different kinds of switching elements are used in switches. One is the normally open contact, the other is the
normally closed contact.
Basically, it is possible to say that a normally open contact interrupts the circuit when it is non-actuated, and only
closes when actuated. The normally closed contact, on the other hand, closes the circuit when non-actuated, and
opens it when actuated. Circuit symbols always indicate the non-actuated status of a switch contact.
Normally open contact Normally closed contact

not activated not activated
REMEMBER! Normally open contacts have the abbreviation NO with identification numbers "3" and "4", nor-
mally closed contacts have the abbreviation NC with identification numbers "1" and "2".
The functions of the switch in a circuit diagram are identified by the switch elements (normally open and normally
closed contacts) being divided into levels on the fastening flange.
Two different switch systems are used at Wirtgen, both from the same manufacturer, but differing in the number of
switch elements per level.
Chapter 7 Basic electrical components VII 45 / 89

7.1.1 Old version
In the older switch system, there are at most two switch elements on one level The designation of the switch
function is made up of the designation of the switch element and the designation of the level position.
The first level always has the designation "1" for the setting of the switch in the right position and the designation
"2" for the setting of the switch in the left position. To obtain the designations of the next level positions, it is always
necessary to add 2 to the designation of the previous level (2 + 2 = 4 or 5 + 2 = 7).
2 1 2 1 2 1
: : : : : :
: : : : : :
8 7 8 7 8 7
The designation for a switch function would thus be made up of the designation of the position, e.g. "1", and the
switch element designation, e.g. "1" and "2" (for normally closed contact), giving "11" and "12".
Actuating element
Instrument panel
Fastening flange
2 1
4 3
23 11
Switching Switching Level 1

block block
24 12
41 33

block block
42 34
61 53

block block
62 54
Even side Odd side

7.1.2 New version
In the newer switch system, there are at most three switch elements on one level. The designation of the switch
function is made up of the designation of the switch element and the designation of the level position.
The first level always has the designation "1" for the setting of the switch in the right position, the designation "2" for
the setting of the switch in the left position and the designation "3" for the setting of the switch in the middle
position. To obtain the designation of the next levels, it is always necessary to add 3 to the designation of the pre-
vious (lower) level (1 + 3 = 4 or 5 + 3 = 8).
2 3 1 2 3 1 2 2 1
: : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : :
11 12 10 11 12 10 11 12 10
The designation for a switch function would thus be made up of the designation of the position, e.g. "2", and the
switch element designation, e.g. "3" and "4" (for normally open contact), giving "23" and "24".
Actuating element
Instrument panel
Fastening flange
2 6 3 1
5 4
23 33 11

block block
Switching 24 34 12
block
51 61 43

block block
Switching 52 62 44
block
81 93 73

block block
Switching 82 94 74
block

7.2 Diode
Semiconductor diodes are two-pole components, the resistance of which depends on the magnitude and polarity of
the voltage that is applied. The dependency between resistance and voltage characterises the semiconductor di-
ode as a non-linear resistor.
A diode is created by combining a P and an N semiconductor made from an SI crystal (diode dielectrode). The
ideal diode is characterised by allowing current to flow very well in one direction, but not at all in the other direction.
An actual diode has similar properties, although characterised by the physical conditions of the semiconductor ma-
terials.
The properties of a PN junction are used technically in semiconductor diodes. The crystal of a semiconductor diode
consists of a P zone and an N zone, and is located in a protective housing.
If the PN junction has its polarity in the on-state direction, this means the diode has a very low resistance value. If
the PN junction has its polarity in the off-state direction, this means the diode has a very high resistance value.
REMEMBER! The semiconductor diode allows current to flow in one direction, but blocks it in the other.
The triangle in the circuit symbol stands for the P zone. The spike pointing in the conduction direction specifies the
flow direction in on-state condition.
If the crystal is contaminated (doped) with extraneous atoms, so that one side becomes N or negative-conducting
and the other side P or positive-conducting, this creates a barrier layer, and the result is a semiconductor diode.
N-conducting electron surplus
P-conducting electron deficit
When a diode is operated in the on-state direction, it is conductive. The on-state resistance RD can be read off on
the scale of the measuring instrument. If the diode is operated in the off-state direction, it blocks the current flow
and the off-state resistance RS can be read off on the scale of the measuring instrument.
Alternating current voltages can be rectified by means of a diode. The cathode is often labelled with a positive sign,
because this is where the positive pole of the load (accumulator) is connected.
SYMBOLS!

7.3 Solenoid
If a current changing over time flows through a coil, this produces a magnetic field in the vicinity of the coil, which
changes over time. This magnetic field induces a voltage in the coil (auto-induction).
The induced voltage is always opposed to the change in its cause. The magnetic field, and thus also the induced
voltage, is caused by the current.
REMEMBER! Each magnetic field change in a coil leads to a voltage being created in the same coil. This proce-
dure is referred to as auto-induction. The voltage generated has the opposite polarity to that of the
voltage applied. It is also referred to as the counter-voltage.
If the current flowing through the coil increases, this gives rise to an auto-induction voltage that is opposed to the
current, and impedes the increase in current.
If the current flowing through the coil decreases, this gives rise to an auto-induction voltage that acts in the
direction of the current, and impedes the decrease in current.
The induced counter-voltage depends on the magnetic field change. In turn, the magnetic field is dependent on the
magnetic material of the coil core which may be present, on the number of windings and on the dimensions of the
coil. Taken together, these values form the self-induction coefficients that are referred to as inductance. The unit of
inductance is the Henry, and its symbol in formulas is [L].
REMEMBER! A coil has an inductance of 1 Henry if a self-induction voltage of 1 volt is generated by a uniform
current change of 1 ampere in 1 second.
SYMBOLS!

7.4 Relays/contactors
Relays and contactors are electromagnetic components which work with the force effect of the electric current
through a solenoid. The relay contacts are operated directly or by the armature. Relays are manufactured with
different contact combinations (e.g. normally closed contact, normally open contact and/or changeover contact).
REMARK! The difference between the two terms (relay/contactor) concerns the application. Both components
are basically the same, and have the same function. However, contactors are used wherever more
powerful currents are switched.
The contactor or relay is actuated electromagnetically. When the contact coil is excited, an armature is attracted
and closes the contacts. The contactor coil is excited either by alternating current (alternating current contactor) or
by direct current (direct current contactor). Contactors are used for switching equipment with high power levels,
above all for switching motors, clutches, brakes and electrical heating systems. The contacts are differentiated
according to whether they are main contacts, e.g. for switching on motors, or auxiliary contacts for switching control
and monitoring devices. Contactors and relays that only have auxiliary contacts are called auxiliary contactors or
auxiliary relays.
1 3 5 13 21 33
A1
K
A2
2 4 6 14 22 34
Main contacts Auxiliary contacts
13 23 31 41
A1
K
A2
14 24 32 42
Auxiliary contacts
Quenching circuits are connected in parallel to the contact or relay coil in order to avoid overvoltages of several kV
and interference in electronic circuits.
In the direct current voltage area, diodes are used in quenching circuits. When the relay coil is switched on (A1 to
positive voltage), the diode is in off-state, and the complete voltage drops across the contactor or relay coil. When
the contactor or relay coil is switched off, a voltage impulse is created between A2 and A1, because A2 is briefly
connected to a positive voltage. This is a property of the contactor or relay coil. The diode short-circuits this voltage
between A2 and A1.
REMEMBER! Quenching circuits avoid interference.

Example 1
a Magnetic coil with connections A1 and A2

b Quenching diode
c Protection diode
d Light-emitting diode
e Series resistor for the light-emitting diode
f Changeover contacts
A light-emitting diode (d) with a series resistor (e) and quenching diode (b) are installed in parallel to the magnetic
coil (a). When the light-emitting diode (d) illuminates, this indicates that there is voltage at contacts A1 and A2. This
does not indicate that the relay is functioning correctly. The quenching diode (b) is used for reducing voltage peaks
that are caused when switching off. The protection diode (c) prevents damage if there is an incorrect connection at
A1 and A2.
In this auxiliary relay, changeover contacts are used as switch contacts (f), each comprising one normally closed
contact and one normally open contact. The first changeover contact in this case has connections 11 for the
common contact, 12 for the normally closed contact and 14 for the normally open contact. The second changeover
contact has connections 21 for the common contact, 22 for the normally closed contact and 24 for the normally
open contact. Both changeover contacts of a relay are switched simultaneously.
Example 2
a Magnetic coil with connections 86 and 85

b Quenching diode
c Protection diode
e Normally open contact with connections 87 and 30
A quenching diode (b) is installed in parallel to the magnetic coil (a), and is used for reducing voltage peaks that
are caused when switching off. The protection diode (c) prevents damage if there is an incorrect connection at 86
and 85.
In this auxiliary relay, only one switching contact (e) is used, and it is a normally open contact. The designation of
the switching contact here is 87 and 30.

7.5 Z-diode
Z-diodes are semiconductor diodes with particular properties. They have low impedance in the off-state direction at
a design voltage UZ0. In the on-state range, they behave like normal semiconductor diodes. The voltage UZ0 is also
referred to as the "zener voltage".
REMEMBER! Z-diodes are always operated in the off-state direction. The diode becomes conductive when a
particular blocking voltage UR is reached.
REMEMBER! Z-diodes become low impedance in the off-state range when the zener voltage is reached and
behave like normal semiconductor diodes in the on-state range.
Z-diodes are manufactured from silicon and are specified in voltage sequence. Z-diodes can be used for stabilising
voltages with small load currents (keeping voltages constant).
The advantage of a circuit with a Z-diode instead of a filter capacitor is that the output voltage remains largely
constant when the input voltage or load resistance change.
The Z-diode current increases as the input voltage rises. The Z-voltage does not change, so the surplus voltage
drops at the series resistor RV.
If the load resistance is changed, the load current changes. If the input voltage remains unchanged, the Z-diode
balances out the change in the load current. The current flowing through the series resistor thus remains constant.
Z-diodes are operated in the off-state direction. In contrast to the diode, the current with the Z-voltage increases
steeply in the negative direction. The current must therefore be limited by a resistor.
SYMBOLS!

7.6 Capacitor
The capacitor basically consists of two metal conductors and an insulating material (insulator), referred to as the
dielectric, located between the conductors (see Fig. 3.2 a). The metallic conductors can be two metal foils or metal
plates.
foil plate
connector
connector
isolation
Fig. 3.2 a: Capacitor structure
If no direct current voltage is applied to the capacitor, the positive and negative charge carriers on each foil/plate
are in equilibrium. If a direct current voltage is connected to the capacitor, the voltage source draws away the
electrons from one side of the capacitor and forces them to the other side of the capacitor. This "electron shift"
causes an electrical current (charge current).
REMEMBER! Direct current voltage at the conductors results in a different electron configuration at both conduc-
tors. One conductor has an electron surplus compared to the other conductor, at which there is an
electron deficit.
This charge shift (charging of the capacitor) is only completed when the voltage between the capacitor connections
(capacitor foils/capacitor plates) has the same value as the voltage applied by the voltage source. As soon as this
value has been reached, the capacitor behaves like a very large resistor and blocks the direct current.
REMEMBER! In fully charged state, the capacitor behaves like a large resistor and blocks the direct current.
If the applied direct current voltage is disconnected by the capacitor, the charge differential in the capacitor
foils/capacitor plates is retained. This means the capacitor is charged. The storage ability of a capacitor is referred
to as its capacity (C) (capacity absorption capability), which has the farad (F) as its unit of measurement.
As soon as the voltage is disconnected, the capacitor supplies the circuit with voltage. The length of time during
which the circuit is supplied with voltage depends on the stored capacity, and thus on the size of the capacitor.

REMEMBER! A capacitor stores electrical charges (energy) and releases them again if required.
The electrical charge absorbed by the capacitor foils/capacitor plates depends on the surface area of the
foils/plates, the internal gap between the conductors and the type of dielectric.
The insulating material between the two electrical conductors (linings) is called the dielectric. The dielectric has a
particular dielectric strength. This dielectric strength determines the maximum voltage that is allowed to be applied
to the capacitor.
ATTENTION! Charged capacitors contain a large amount of electrical energy. Never short circuit capacitors or
connect them to excessively high voltage! Risk of explosion and danger of electric shock!
There are direct current capacitors and alternating current capacitors. Direct current capacitors are designed to be
operated with direct current voltage. Direct current capacitors for a particular nominal voltage are not allowed to be
operated with an alternating current voltage.
Alternating current capacitors are suitable to be operated with alternating current voltage. They are designed for
the larger losses which occur with alternating current voltages, and are also allowed to be used with direct current
voltage if its magnitude does not exceed the root mean square value of the nominal alternating current voltage,
however.
Various component symbols have been introduced to make it clear what type of capacitor is involved.
Fig. 3.2 b: Capacitor symbols

7.7 The electrical fuse
The electrical fuse or overcurrent protection device (OCP) interrupts an electrical circuit if the electrical current
exceeds a defined current intensity beyond a specified period of time. There are various versions of overcurrent
protection devices, such as fusible links or circuit breakers. Normally, all electrical fuses in a building or an
apartment are housed together with other trip switches in a junction box or fuse box.
Overcurrent protection devices protect cables and other equipment against damage due to overheating which
would result if an excessive current were to flow for a long period of time. An overcurrent can be caused by an
overload or a short circuit.
The reaction time of an overcurrent protection device when exposed to different current intensities is referred to as
its characteristic, and is presented in time/current curves. There are overcurrent protection devices which remain in
the disconnected status for an unlimited period of time after they had tripped and must be returned to the function-
ing condition by manual operation or by replacing the protection device, such as in the case of a fusible link in
which the fuse cartridge is exchanged. As well as these, there is automatic reactivation which is used in industrial
systems, power grids and other more highly automated areas. These are set according to specific criteria such as
switch-off time or number of repetitions.
The various designs of overcurrent protection devices derived from the application purpose. In particular, these
include:
Fusible links, starting with small trip currents from a few dozen mA to several kA. These are used in low-
voltage systems, for example.
Electronic fuse, usually part of electronic circuits, for example integrated in electrical power supplies such
as switch-mode power supply units. In many cases, there is a function for automatic reactivation.
Self-resetting fuse, typically referred to as a PTC thermistor, a type of load-dependent resistor.
Circuit breaker, an electromechanical overcurrent protection device, with its range of applications particu-
larly in the low-voltage area.
Alongside these, there are also special applications:
Motor trip-switch in motor controls.

Circuit breaker in combination with the mains protection in high-voltage systems.
Traction current breaker as the main fuse for the motors used in trams.
There are slow-blow (T) and fast-blow (F) fuses. Slow-blow fuses trip later than fast-blow ones. Usually, it is possi-
ble to read off on the housing whether a fuse is slow-blow or fast-blow. We differentiate between five categories:
Super-fast (FF), fast (F), medium (M), slow (T), super-slow (TT)
Remember! Never repair or bypass a fuse!
SYMBOLS!

7.8 The terminal block

A terminal block in electrical engineering provides a releasable connection between wires, conductors and cables.
A durable, secure contact must be guaranteed when the terminal block is fastened. This is achieved by mechani-
cally securing (by screw or spring) the connected conductor within a conductive body. In addition, there are also
cable connectors that can be unscrewed. Connecting and disconnecting refer to connecting or disconnecting a
device from the power network, and in the context of terminal blocks no plug connectors are used.
Types of terminal blocks:
Earthing terminal blocks (PE terminal blocks): these also provide a connection to the mounting rail, and are
used for connecting protective earth conductors
Bridge terminal blocks: these are several terminal blocks connected together electrically
Screw terminal blocks have a captive screw in the housing and a moving plate that can be moved by the
screw. This means multi-stranded cables can be clamped directly without needing a ferrule, and without
the screw damaging the individual strands during the tightening procedure.
Modular terminal blocks: these can be arranged next to one another as required on a mounting rail
(e.g. DIN rail TS35 "top-hat rail")
o Disconnection terminal blocks: Special forms of modular terminal blocks for manual disconnection
of circuits
o Bus terminal blocks, further development of modular terminal blocks with control electronics
Spring-cage terminal blocks (also generally referred to as spring terminal blocks): they use the force of a
spring instead of a screw (short installation times, no slipping out, usually more expensive)
Fuse terminal blocks: they are used for accommodating a fuse element to protect against overcurrent
Terminal strips: these contain several terminal blocks on an insulating body, and are used in junction boxes
PCB terminal blocks, also referred to as printed circuit terminal blocks: these are soldered onto printed
circuits and make it possible to connect cables to them. PCB stands for printed circuit board.
Insulation displacement terminal blocks: used for the LSA connection method in telecommunications, as
well as for contacting multi-core ribbon cables
Luster terminal block
Individual terminal block (loose, isolated) according to DIN EN 60998-2-1 (VDE 0613-2-1) as a screw
terminal block or DIN EN 60998-2-2 (VDE 0613-2-2) as a screwless terminal block for use in installation
sockets according to VDE 0606-1 (also referred to as connection sockets or junction boxes)
Terminal strip
Induction terminal block for current measurement this is a non-standardised term as a description for a
current converter that is clipped onto an electrical cable, e.g. in automotive engineering for transmitting the
ignition pulses to an electronic rev counter, or in electrical installation engineering for connecting ammeters
or energy measuring instruments without having to make any significant interventions into the existing in-
stallation
Magnetic terminal block: Suitable for temporary and permanent connections. This type of terminal block
provides an extremely straightforward way of building battery holders.

Jumpers are electrical connections between one or more terminals. Using jumpers, it is possible to establish a ver-
tical or horizontal connection between the terminals. They are connected to the terminals in question, and remain
fixed there by spring force.
Remember! Jumpers and terminals always need a low-impedance connection.
7.9 Limit switches
Limit switches (also limit-position switches or boundary switches) are sensors that detect when a moved object
(e.g. a workpiece or machine component) has reached a particular position. The signal that is generated can be
transmitted electrically, pneumatically or mechanically. In sequence controllers for engineering processes involving
several working steps, limit switches detect the end of a movement, and then trigger the next step in the sequence.
They are also used as safety switches (e.g. door closed) in order to protect people against injury and machinery
against damage. Standard designs for limit switches include roller lever switches or proximity-type devices such as
light barriers, proximity switches or initiators.
Examples of the use of limit switches:
The limit switch on the rolling door of an underground garage detects when the rolling door is fully raised, i.e. has
reached its limit position. This signal causes a) the electric drive to be switched off and b) the light in front of the
door to be changed from red to green.
A hole should be drilled into a workpiece, but is not allowed to extend beyond a specific depth. To do this, a limit
switch is set on the drill so that the feed movement of the machine is switched off when the specified depth has
been reached, and the return movement is triggered.
A limit switch in aviation is a stop switch, which for example influences the mechanical procedure of moving the
landing gear.
Milling drum flap limit

switch W 2000

The group of limit switches is further subdivided into three subgroups. The main differences are between inductive,
capacitive and light limit switches.
An inductive proximity switch (initiator, proximity sensor, position sensor) is a sensor which reliably detects me-
tallic (electrically conductive) objects without contact. This means there is no direct contact with the object (target)
to be detected, but nevertheless a switch-like, binary signal "object detected/not detected" is provided at the output.
A capacitive proximity switch is a proximity switch (sensor) that responds to the approach i.e. without direct
contact of a conductive or non-conductive object, as well as liquids, with an electrical switching signal. In doing
so, it uses the changing electrical capacity of a measuring electrode in relation to the environment or a reference
electrode. Sensors of this kind operate with an oscillator, the capacity of which is partially established by the medi-
um to be detected or the environment, and determines the frequency.
When the probe capacity field is influenced by a non-conducting object, the change in capacity is based on a
change in the effective permittivity in the area of the electrodes; the achievable switching gap is low (up to approx.
40 mm depending on the size of the sensor). When the field is influenced by a conductive object, the switching gap
is increased to approx. 60 80 mm. As a rule, capacitive proximity sensors have a calibration option (potentiome-
ter) in order to adapt the sensitivity or switching thresholds to the application conditions. However, if the sensitivity
is too high, the effect of interference (e.g. atmospheric humidity, dirt) increases. Another switching concept uses
three electrodes. This involves not only the earth electrode and a measuring electrode, but additionally an
excitation electrode. The advantages of this principle concern its greater sensitivity at increased switching gaps,
and low susceptibility to interference. It is also possible to detect media with very low permittivity.
Light barriers comprise a light beam source (the emitter) and a sensor (the receiver) for this radiation. Frequently,
light-emitting diodes with a wavelength of 660 nm (visible red light) or 880 940 nm (infrared light) are used as the

light source. Infrared light has the advantage of a longer range with dark materials. It is also invisible. The
advantage with red light is that it is easier to set the sensor system, because of the visible light spot. Generally
speaking, red light from a laser diode is used for particularly precise applications (detecting small parts, high repeat
accuracy). The receiver is usually a photo transistor, a light-sensitive resistor or a photodiode. The functional prin-
ciple of a light barrier involves the change in light intensity caused by an object being registered by the sensor and
converted into electrical signals which can be processed further.
7.10 Optocoupler
Optocouplers are used for linking electronic circuits together using light energy. In an optocoupler, there is a light
emitter (LED, usually infrared) and a light receiver (e.g. phototransistor) that are connected together via a very
short optical conductor. The electrical (galvanic) separation between the input and output makes it possible to link
together circuits with very different voltage levels. This is necessary if there are dangerous high voltages, in envi-
ronments with high levels of interference, or in order to prevent ground loops. As well as optocouplers with photo-
transistors as their light receiver, there are also types with photodiodes or triacs. Types with photodiodes are signif-
icantly faster than transistor and triac types. In addition, there are also completely integrated types that can be used
like a normal digital IC without requiring further circuitry. Most optocouplers can only be used for digital signals.
Special optocouplers are suitable for electrical separation of analog signals. These usually have two photo receiv-
ers, which are usually photodiodes. One photodiode functions as a galvanically separated output, the second as a
comparator output in order to compensate for non-linearities, drift and ageing effects. This makes it possible to
establish a control system that sets the comparison voltage in proportion to the input voltage. As a result, the
transmission function of the optic coupler can be seen as a linear. Consequently, the term linear optocoupler is
often used in conjunction with analog optocoupler. However, if the requirements are moderate, it is also possible to
transmit analog signals with normal digital optocouplers.
The basic properties of an optocoupler are:
Galvanic separation between input and output

The output is potential-free
Transmitting analog and digital signals

7.11 Fixed voltage regulator
Voltage regulators are electronic circuits that are capable of stabilising electrical voltages and compensating for
fluctuations in the battery or mains voltage within broad limits. Both direct current and alternating current voltages
can be stabilised. With low direct current voltages, the entire circuit is often compactly integrated into one compo-
nent. Two common linear fixed voltage linear regulators, left 5 V/1 A, right 5 V/100 mA
Electronic voltage regulators are often built so they also limit the maximum current that can flow
Depending on the load, the mains voltage is allowed to fluctuate between 207 and 253 V, electronic circuits such
as computers may no longer work correctly if there is a deviation of more than 5 % from the nominal value, howev-
er. For this reason, their operating voltage is always stabilised and the residual ripple after the rectifier is also large-
ly eliminated. There are different principles for direct current regulators:
For extra-low power levels such as with reference voltage sources, no regulators are used but instead stabilisation
circuits with zener diodes such as shown below. The decisive factor in terms of function is the particularly low dif-
ferential resistance of these components which is about 5 , and must be much lower than Rv. Then and only then
does the output voltage Ua remain approximately constant even if there are significant fluctuations in the load cur-
rent. Linear regulators use a power transistor that operates like an electronically variable resistor. If the output volt-
age deviates from the nominal value, the difference is boosted and returned to the power transistor (control loop).
The relatively low efficiency of about 60 % is a disadvantage, as is the necessity of cooling the power transistor.
Advantages: Load changes can be equalised quickly and effectively, while very inexpensive components are avail-
able for low power levels. There are no alternating voltage residues at the output, and because the circuit does not
generate interference emissions it is possible to operate low-signal amplifiers without problems.
Switching regulators always contain an inductor, the current flow of which is not gradually changed by a power
transistor, but is switched on and off at high frequency (more than 40 kHz). Like any other switch, this transistor
scarcely undergoes any heating up, as a result of which efficiencies of about 90% can be achieved. This extends
the operating period of battery-operated devices such as laptops. It is a disadvantage that the circuit has to be
effectively shielded due to the high-power changeover frequency used internally (electromagnetic compatibility),
and that a small proportion of this alternating voltage can always be measured at the output. This does not cause a
problem for computers or battery chargers, although it does for sensitive amplifiers in radio equipment and hi-fi
systems, electro encephalopathy and scanning electron microscopes.
Different types of switching regulator are available; with boost converters, the output voltage is always larger than
the input voltage the principle of linear regulators makes this impossible.

7.12 Rectifier
Rectifiers are used in electrical engineering and electronics for converting alternating current voltage into direct
current voltage. Alongside power inverters and frequency changers, they form a sub-group of current converters. In
order to dampen alternating current components, a rectified voltage is normally smoothened.
Examples why rectification is used:

- To supply electrical loads operated with direct current from the alternating current system
- To connect power networks together which are far apart, or to link together non-synchronous power networks via
high-voltage direct current transmission
- For telecommunications applications, such as envelope curve demodulation
Rectification usually takes place without control, by semiconductor diodes, with an efficiency of up to 95%. Active
electronic components such as thyristors permit controlled rectification by means of phase-angle control. Field-
effect transistors (MOSFETs) are used with synchronous rectifiers in particular for rectification of low voltages
and high currents while their lower on-state voltage permits a higher efficiency to be achieved than would be
possible with semiconductor diodes.
7.12.1 One-way rectifier circuit
The one-way rectifier circuit is also referred to as a single-pulse midpoint circuit M1. It comprises a simple diode.
The polarity of the diode determines whether there is a positive or negative voltage value at the output of the
circuit. The semiconductor diode only allows current to flow in one direction, which means it blocks the second half-
wave coming from the alternating current
Oscilloscope image of the input voltage Ue
A completely normal sinusoidal alternating current voltage is applied to the input of the one-way rectifier circuit.

Oscilloscope image of the output voltage Ua
A pulsating direct current voltage results at the output of the one-way rectifier circuit. The current only flows through
the diode in one direction, meaning that each second half-wave of the alternating current voltage is missing from
the output voltage Ua. Under ohmic load (resistance R), the pulsating direct current voltage collapses to UDC with a
residual ripple.
7.12.2 Bridge rectifier circuit
The bridge rectifier circuit is also referred to as a two-pulse bridge rectifier circuit B2. It consists of two diode pairs
connected in parallel. The alternating voltage input is located between the diode pairs. The arrangement of semi-
conductor diodes in the circuit means that the alternating current flows through the circuit along two different paths.
The current always flows through the load in one direction.
Oscilloscope image of the input voltage Ue
A completely normal sinusoidal alternating current voltage is applied to the input of the one-way rectifier circuit.

Oscilloscope image of the output voltage Ua
The diode circuit causes the current flow of the second half-wave to be modified in such a way that the output volt-
age Ua pulsates. It is also referred to as pulsating direct current voltage, in which the second-half-wave of the input
voltage Ue is concertinaed. Under ohmic load, the pulsating direct current voltage collapses to UDC with a residual
ripple. Bridge rectifiers should always be preferred over rectifier diodes for rectifying alternating current voltages.
The bridge rectifier circuit is available as a prefabricated component.
Practical tip: There can be voltage peaks with steep flanks in the voltage profile of a simple bridge rectifier circuit.
These voltage peaks can be observed in particular in slow diodes (measurement by oscilloscope). They have a
disadvantageous effect when equipment in the vicinity (receivers) is disrupted. Four ceramic capacitors with ap-
prox. 100 nF connected in parallel to the rectifier diodes can provide the remedy. This short-circuits the voltage
peaks.
7.13 Rotation angle transmitter
Converting mathematical values such as angles into electrical values was always a problem when designing tech-
nical arrangements. However, the invention of the rotation angle transmitter made it possible to overcome this
technical obstacle.
Structure and function
Rotation angle transmitter is the term used to designate those sensors which are able to register rotating angle
changes, and output this information as an electrical value. The design arrangement can be highly diverse. The
"imaging scanning principle" is especially popular. This involves generating a beam of light which shines onto a
phototransistor. This phototransistor consists of at least two sensors which can be moved easily. The beam of light
passes through a condenser, an orifice and a scanning plate during the course of its travel. This scanning plate
consists of a metal disc incorporating slots through which light can pass. Changing the angle of the technical appli-
cation causes the metal plate to rotate. The beam of light can only strike the phototransistor if it is not reflected
back off the metal plate. In this case, the light passes through one of the slots that is permeable to light. The photo-
transistor registers whether it is struck by a beam of light or not. The periodic change in the optical sensors can be
represented approximately in the form of a sine curve. The sensors are located in slightly offset positions, thus
allowing several different sine curves to be detected. These are then compared. In the terminology used, the
curves are "trailing" or "leading" one another. Based on this information, it is possible to describe the incoming
movement as an electrical signal. This can be expressed in a voltage change, for example. The scanning form just
described is in the category of photoelectric scanning. In addition, there are magnetic scanning methods as well as
scanning methods involving slide contacts.
Application possibilities and significance
The application possibilities for rotation angle transmitters are varied. These components have been used on an
everyday basis for many years, and continue to be so. A particularly trivial example is use in the volume control of
amplifiers. In this case, rotation angle transmitters create the impression of an almost infinitely variable adjustment
possibility. Volume control involving a rotation angle change is particularly intuitive and convenient. However, rota-
tion angle transmitters are also essential in solar technology and for wind farms. For example, they provide quanti-
tative information about what angle the solar panels are located at. Rotation angle transmitters are also used for
mouse wheels in computing. Cars also used this kind of sensor technology. They scan the movement of the crank-
shaft. On this basis, it is possible to control injection and ignition with anticipation.

7.14 Power current circuit board
Power current boards are circuit boards (conductor board, board or printed circuit) which are substrates for
electronic components. It is used for mechanical attachment and electric connection. Almost every electronic de-
vice contains one or more circuit boards.
Circuit boards consist of an electrically insulating material with conductive connections embedded in it (conductor
paths). The insulating material is usually fibre-reinforced plastic. The conductor paths are usually etched out of a
thin layer of copper. The components are soldered onto pads or into lands. In this way, they are simultaneously
held mechanically onto these footprints as well as being electrically connected. Larger components can also be
attached to the circuit board with cable ties, adhesive or screw connections.

8. Circuit diagrams
8.1 Structure of circuit diagrams at Wirtgen
The drawing below shows a page from an electrical wiring diagram. This drawing is intended to explain the
structure of circuit diagrams for Wirtgen machines.
Particular attention is paid to the pagination, the cross-references, component designations and all the additional
information that is contained on a page of the circuit diagram.
Chapter 8 Circuit diagrams VIII 65 / 89

8.1.1 Pagination
Basically, a circuit diagram page is divided into three horizontal bands and eight vertical columns. The three
horizontal bands include the function area, text area and the labelling field. The eight vertical columns are also
referred to as current paths.
The vertical subdivision of the page can be seen by the numbers along the top edge of the page. This method of
subdivision into current paths makes it easy to identify the components with regard to their position on the page.
Also, clear cross references can easily be made and followed to other pages in the circuit diagram.
Eight columns or current paths
The horizontal subdivision starts with the function area that is limited upwards by a potential bar and downwards by
an earth bar.
If several potential and earth bars are used on one page, the individual potential bars are shown (drawn) one under
another.
The text area with additional information starts below the last earth bar. This additional information includes
function designations, switching contacts of relays, current values, etc.
The bottom of the page is the location for the designation field with the machine code (e.g. 06.20), the series area
(e.g. 06.20.0211-), the ID number with index value (e.g.. 148525.0001), the function designation (e.g. EMERGEN-
CY OFF) and the current page (e.g. 6) with the page count (e.g. 105).

Function area
Text area
Designation area

8.1.2 Cross references
Cross references are used in all circuit diagrams by Wirtgen, and always have the following structure.
T22/4.8
Vibr.2/42.8
The first expression before the slash indicates either a potential, a component, a function or a terminal point. Also,
this expression can have any designation, although it must be unique.
The second expression after the slash indicates the page (first number) and the current path (second number) in
the cross reference.
If a cross reference does not have the first expression, this means the component designation is to be placed
there. On the example page, the cross reference "/8.5" would be renamed as "6K5/8.5".
REMARK! Potential bars always start and finish with a vertical line. There may be a cross reference next to
this vertical line, indicating the page on which this potential bar is also used, or where it starts. If
there is no cross reference then the potential bar ends here. The same provisions as for potential
bars apply with regard to cross references for earth bars (T31) which separate the individual func-
tions from the text field. Functions must always have an end point. If a line is open, i.e. it does not
have a clearly defined end point, then a cross reference must be defined.

8.1.3 Component identification
All components in the circuit diagram (more recent circuit diagrams) are designated on the basis of the DIN ISO
standard (see section 5.1 Equipment identifications).
Furthermore, the page number, the current path number where the component is located and the position of the
component are used for the designation.
Components are identified first by the page number, then the equipment identification and finally by the position in
the current path. As a result, a correct component designation should look like the one below.
6K5
Position here indicates whether the component to be designated is the first, second, third, etc. component in this
current path. For example, a relay on sheet 6, current path 5 is designated as "6K5". If there are two relays in this
current path, the first relay is designated "6K5" and the second relay "6K5.1".

8.1.4 Text area
The text area can be seen under the last earth bar, and contains additional information about the functions, com-
ponents and subassemblies.
This information includes switching contacts of relays with cross-references, adjustable current values and descrip-
tions of function.
REMARK! The switching contacts of the switches are also specified as cross references in the function block
at the particular switch.

8.2 Structure of circuit diagrams - new / E -
In the circuit diagrams, there are three possible ways of finding the appropriate circuit diagram page for the
function. These possibilities are explained in brief.
8.2.1 Topology
The topology pages in the circuit diagram indicate all control panels of the machine. Pressing a switch on the page
opens the circuit diagram page directly containing the function of the switch.


8.2.2 Equipment lists
Each electrical diagram has an equipment list appended to it. This list contains all components that are installed in
the electrical system. Search for the name of the component in this list, and press the link in the list. The appropri-
ate page in the electrical diagram is then opened a directly.


8.2.3 Machine function list
As in all diagrams in the Wirtgen Group, there is a table of contents with the functions of the machine. In the list,
select the function of the machine to access the appropriate page for the function directly. This page displays all
components that are relevant for this function.


9. Conduction of electricity
9.1 The electrical conductor
When an electric current flows through a conductor, the free charge carriers (electrons) flow through between the
atoms. Electrical resistance obstructs the current flow in the conductor. This is what the word "resistance" means.
The cause of the resistance, and thus the obstruction to the current flow, is the friction between the mobile elec-
trons and the atomic cores in the crystal lattice. The greater this friction, the greater the electrical current.
REMEMBER! The obstruction to the current flow is referred to as resistance. The electrical resistance is the quo-
tient of the voltage [U] and the current intensity [I]. The unit of electrical resistance is the ohm [],
and its symbol in formulas is [R].
A load has the resistance value R = 1 if a voltage U = 1 V drives a current I = 1 A through it.
REMARK! Resistance is the term which describes this electrical property of a conductor or a load; resistors,
on the other hand, are components which present particular resistance values. This will be dealt
with in more detail later on.
The lower the resistance, the more easily the electrons can move through the load. The expression used is that:
the lower the resistance, the greater the electrical conductance. Electrical conductance is a physical parameter
which, mathematically speaking, is the reciprocal value of the electrical resistance.
Each cable and each load has an electrical resistance. This resistance depends on the internal structure of the
substance in question (atomic density and number of free electrons), and is referred to as the specific resistance.
As you know in practice, you encounter cables with different lengths, different cross-sections and made from differ-
ent materials. The conductor resistance depends on all these factors. The electrical resistance R of cables is
greater the longer the conductor, the smaller the cross section and the larger the specific resistance.
Increasing conductor cross section Resistance decreases
Reducing conductor cross section Resistance increases
Increasing conductor length Resistance increases
Reducing conductor length Resistance decreases
Increasing specific resistance Resistance increases
Reducing specific resistance Resistance decreases
REMEMBER! The larger the conductor cross section, the lower the conductor resistance. The resistance of a
conductor is inversely proportionate to the conductor cross section.
REMEMBER! The longer the conductor, the greater the conductor resistance. The resistance of a conductor is
proportional to the conductor length.
Chapter 9 Conduction of electricity IX 77 / 89

9.2 Cable colours

9.2.1 Conductor colour assignment 12/24 V direct current voltage
Red Red positive potential

(all cables up to the first switch contact/load after the last fuse)
Brown Brown negative potential
(Earth, not switched)
Blue Blue switched potentials after the first switch point, control outputs. (E.g. after
the fuse up to the relay contact in red, after the relay contact in blue; control output PWM, control output analog.)
Yellow Yellow CAN high
(In 4-core CAN cables, white is used as the second colour for CAN high)
Green Green CAN low
(In 4-core CAN cables, brown is used as the second colour for CAN low)
For examples, refer to the circuit diagram extract below, "Conductor colour assignment".

9.2.2 230 V/400 V system
In the 230 V/400 V AC system, it is important to know the colours of the individual cables.
Brown Phase L1
Black Phase L2
Blue Grey
Yellow Neutral conductor
PE Protective Earth
9.3 Determining fuses for conductor cross sections

9.4 Crimping
9.4.1 General
Crimping is understood to be a joining process in which two components are connected together by plastic defor-
mation. It is thus a special type of beading or flanging. A crimped connection can only be disconnected to a limited
extent, and then usually irreparably.
9.4.2 Application
Electrical engineering represents a very frequent application for crimping. In this case, it is used in particular for
creating a homogeneous connection that is difficult to release between the conductor and connection element,
which ensures a high level of electrical safety and mechanical security. It is an alternative to conventional connec-
tions such as soldering or welding. Crimped connections are predominantly used in mass production, and in the
assembly of individual wires on a piecework basis. The connection element is frequently a plug. Wherever it is not
easily possible to route a finished cable fitted with plugs, the cable alone is routed through to the destination, and
only then is an electrical contact attached to the end of the cable (e.g. by crimping). Plugs and cables are non-
positively locked together using crimping pliers. The crimping pliers usually function with a knuckle joint, because
the force of a hand is insufficient to achieve a durable deformation process. In industrial applications, crimping
presses or automatic cable fabrication machines are generally used. In this case, the crimp connectors are availa-
ble in strips in order to ensure high productivity. This type of connection has come to the fore in the fields of HF
electronics and telecommunications in particular, because it not only offers a secure connection but also signifi-
cantly facilitates handling. The connection is generated by pressure, involving a precisely specified deformation of
the connection element and conductor being achieved by crimping profiles that are exactly adapted to the connec-
tion piece and the conductor cross section. This procedure is carried out using special crimping pliers. In this case,
the tool and the press force of the crimping pliers must be precisely adapted to the crimped connection. There are
crimped connections with and without strain relief, in which case in connections with strain relief, these are also
deformed. The strain relief lies on the cable insulation and is not compressed to the same extent as the wire crimp-
ing. The strain relief must be sufficiently strong for the insulation not to slide forwards under the insulation crimping
when bend repeatedly through 45. However, it must not be so strong that it breaks and even damages individual
strands. If crimping is performed correctly, it results in a gas-tight connection. Deformation of the crimping sleeve
and the finely stranded cable results in a structure that forms a barrier to oxygen to a significant extent, meaning
that the inside is largely protected against corrosion.
9.4.3 Frequent mistakes when crimping
If insufficient force is applied during crimping, or the crimping tool used is too big, then finely stranded cables will
not be compressed sufficiently. In this case, oxygen can get to the individual finely stranded conductors. As a
result, there will be an increase in the transition resistance between the cable and the sleeve due to corrosion on
the individual finely stranded conductors. Furthermore, there is a risk that an incompletely compressed cable could
be pulled out of the crimping sleeve.
The crimped connection is not allowed to be compressed too much when crimping. If too much pressure is applied,
or the crimping tool is too small, the cross sections could be reduced to an impermissible extent in solid and finely
stranded cables. This can impermissibly reduce the current conducting capability of the connection as a result of
the reduced cross section. Furthermore, if the compression force is exceeded by an extreme extent, there is a risk
with finely stranded cables that individual conductors could be sheared through. Furthermore, the sleeve of the
crimped connector can be rendered unusable by cracks or breaking apart.

Serious crimping mistakes can also be caused during the insulation stripping procedure, however. If non-
professional insulation stripping tools are used, the quality of the insulation removal is significantly dependent on
the manual skill of the user. In addition to stripping the incorrect length of insulation, the following typical insulation
stripping mistakes are referred to in DIN IEC 60352 part 2:
Insulation not correctly cut off.
Residues of insulation remain on the stripped conductor.
Conductor insulation damaged by the insulation stripper.
Individual wires damaged or cut off by the insulation stripper.
Individual wires subsequently over-twisted.
Individual wires no longer twisted.
Further descriptions for the crimping topic can be found under ID number 2212169.
9.5 Soldering
9.5.1 General
Soldering is a thermal jointing process for forming joints with metal, whereby a liquid phase is created by a solder
(melted soldering) or by diffusion on the adjoining surfaces (diffusion soldering). The base material is not melted.
The difference between this and welding is that in welding the melting point of the components to be connected is
reached whereas, in soldering, although the chemical bond is the same the type of chemical composition of the
connection is different. In welding, not only the chemical composition but also the type of chemical composition are
the same. Once the solder has solidified, a joint is formed with metal.
Soldering is most widely used in electrical engineering and electronic engineering. In these fields, soldering almost
exclusively uses soft solder. In electronics, the only fluxes used are normally referred to as acid-free fluxes, such
as rosin. in this case, the term acid-free refers to the cooled soldered joint. During soldering, the decomposition
products of the flux, which have an acidic effect at the time, play an important role in determining the quality of the
soldered connection. Non-acidic fluxes can thus also have a corrosive effect. When soldering is performed over a
large area, the objects to be soldered are typically tinned with soft solder on their joining surfaces in order to reduce
the heat stresses exerted on the surrounding components. At the same time, this preliminary procedure has a
favourable effect on the wettability. In electrical engineering nowadays, it is predominantly splash bath soldering,
reflux soldering and soldering with hot air that are used on a large scale. In spite of numerous other connection
techniques (crimping, wire-wrap, screw terminal, insulation displacement connection technology, terminals), solder-
ing is still very widely used. The dimensions range from a few centimetres down to a few tenths of a millimetre (in
SMD components such as resistors or semiconductors).
9.5.2 Quality of soldered joints
Mounting by splash bath soldering can lead to residues of solder becoming apparent on the solder resist. The
quality of the actual soldered joints varies. Wetting is an important criterion in determining whether soldering is
successful. The amount of solder used at the soldering point should not be so great as to prevent the contour of the
component connections remaining visible in the solder. The angle between a droplet of liquid solder and the base
material is referred to as the wetting angle. A wetting angle of 0 to 30 is classified as "completely to adequately
wetted", from 30 to 90 as "partially wetted" and more than 90 as "not wetted". The wetting angle should always
be less than 30. Another feature that determines quality is the cleanliness of the soldering points: For example,
there should not be any solder residues outside the soldering points. The soldering points should be clean and
even, which also applies to the vias (plated through-holes).
A particularly dreaded phenomenon during soldering in the electronics sector concerns the cold soldered connec-
tion (cold junction). In a cold soldered connection, there is no metallic connection between the solder and what it is
joined to. Cold soldered connections are often difficult to detect. In contrast to correct soldered joints, they may
have a dull appearance (solders containing lead solidify with a high gloss whereas lead-free solders are generally
matt), or else they may have a lumpy surface. Furthermore, the absence of a meniscus from good wetting is an-

other indication of a faulty soldered joint. The mechanical and electrical properties of a cold soldered connection
are defective. Cold soldered joints are typical causes of reliability problems in electronic subassemblies.
There can be many different causes of cold soldered connections:

During manual soldering, a solder with a wide temperature range between its liquidus and solidus temperatures
was used. The solder has a pasty consistency within this temperature range, and even slight impacts can make it
likely for a cold soldered connection to form.
As a result, it is recommended for manual soldering to be conducted with a solder that has a narrow gap between
its solidus and liquidus temperatures, such as L-Sn63PbAg with 178 C.
The soldering temperature was too low the soldering point was too cold (cold soldered joint). No or incomplete
wetting.
The soldering temperature was too high. The flux decomposed or evaporated too quickly before a deoxidising ef-
fect could take place. The high temperature leads to rapid oxidation of the areas to be soldered.
When a soldered connection was cooling, not enough care was taken to ensure that the entire soldered area was
protected again shocks between the liquidus and solidus temperature.
The surfaces to be wetted can no longer be wetted because of oxidation or obstruction (formation of the intermetal-
lic phase), as a result of which the solder tends to form a kind of force-locking "bracketing" connection. Cold sol-
dered joints often do not result in an electrical discontinuity immediately. However, a cold soldered joint will often
only withstand slight mechanical loads. As a result of this, even slight vibrations or shocks on the soldered joint, as
well as expansion effects due to warming, can lead to malfunctions. Vibrations occur on conductor paths, for
example: At the beginning, the conductor path or the connection wire is still "firmly" incorporated in the cold sol-
dered joint, but vibration in the conductor wire can soon cause movement within the soldered joint and the wire can
then move inside it. Now, relative movement can occur inside the contact point, small contact discontinuities occur
and arcs (sparking voltages) can also be struck when powerful electrical currents are involved. In electronic
devices and subassemblies, contact discontinuities and lack of security lead to malfunctions. The arcs that can
possibly be created can generate burns within the soldered joint. These points will then be covered by a soot or
oxide layer. This further impairs the electrical contact. Often, it is difficult to locate cold soldered joints, because
they may continue to provide a contact initially when exposed to mechanical movement. Localisation can be facili-
tated by applying targeted mechanical shocks or using freeze spray. Possibly, several soldered joints that appear
"suspect" may have to be resoldered.

2363740_V01-Basic electrics
10. Other electrical values
10.1 Electrical potential
Terms such as potential difference, potential drop, potential equalisation, zero potential, etc. are often encountered
in electrical engineering. The term potential is highly important in electrical engineering, and therefore it should be
explained here.
Scenario 1
Electrons are taken from a suspended metal ball that is isolated from the earth. This gives the ball a positive
charge. There is a difference in charge between the ball and the earth (also referred to as ground). The electrical
voltage caused by this difference in charge can be measured.
Scenario 2
Electrons are added to a suspended metal ball that is isolated from the earth. This gives the ball a negative charge.
There is a difference in charge between the ball and the earth (also referred to as ground). The electrical voltage
caused by this difference in charge can be measured.
REMEMBER! Potential is the difference in charge between an electrically charged body and the earth (ground),
or another defined reference point. Potential always has a sign, and its unit is the volt (V). The po-
tential of the earth (ground) is always 0 V.
The electrical voltage between two points is referred to as the potential difference. Introducing the term potential
offers the advantage that potential values can be specified at certain points in electrical circuits by means of a sign
and a numerical value. When potential values are used in electrical circuits, the reference point of the electrical
circuit must also be indicated with a value in the circuit.
+5V -3V
Potential Potential Potential Potential

-5V +5V +3V -3V
0V GND 0V GND
Potentialmessung
Potential measuring Potentialmessung
Potential measuring
Positive
Positive Ladung zurearth
load to the Erde Negative Ladung
negative load zurearth
to the Erde
(Masse, GND) und umgekehrt! (Masse, GND) und umgekehrt!
Chapter 10 Further electrical values X 83 / 89

+4V -2V
Potential Potential Potential Potential

-7V +7V +4V -4V
-3V +2V
Potentialmessung
Potential measuring
Potentialmessung
Potential measuring
Positive
Positive Ladung zur Negative
load to negative load Negative Ladung
negative load zur Positive
to positive load
Ladung und umgekehrt! Ladung und umgekehrt!
REMEMBER! The sign for the potential difference (electrical voltage) depends on the reference point. If the
reference point has a higher value than the measuring point, the potential difference has a negative
sign. If the reference point has a lower value than the measuring point, the potential difference has
a positive sign. Refer to the drawings above concerning potential measurement for more
information.
10.2 Electrical power
In mechanical systems, power specifies how much mechanical work is undertaken within a particular time period.
Work can also be undertaken in the field of electricity: For example, an electric motor can lift a load. Electricity is
required for this, so it is said that the motor has an electrical power.
Remember! The electrical power Pel of a device specifies how much

electrical work at the device undertakes in a particular period of time.

10.2.1 Relationship between power, voltage and current intensity
A series of tests is intended to investigate the dependency between electrical power and electrical voltage and
electrical current intensity. Bulbs of the same type are used for comparing the power. If the bulbs have the same
brightness, then they each have the same power.

Analysis
The test shows that the power increases

when the current intensity increases at constant voltage and
when the voltage increases at constant current intensity.
Further investigations show that there is a proportional relationship between electrical power and current intensity,
as well as voltage.
Remember! The electrical power of a device is proportional to

current intensity and proportional to the applied voltage.
P: Voltage on the electrical device (in V)

P el =U I I: Current intensity that flows through the device (in A)
Pel: Electrical power of the device (in W)
The equation allows the watt unit of measurement to be defined more precisely in the field of electricity:
[P ] [U ] [I ] 1 W 1 V A el = = =
One watt corresponds to one volt-ampere or one joule per second.
When a domestic bulb is operated at a voltage of U = 230 V, the current flowing is I =

0.435 A. Its electrical power is:
P = U I = 230 V 0.435 A = 100 W

10.3 Electrical frequency
The frequency (f) is the number of complete oscillations of a periodic signal per unit of time, generally per second.
The oscillation shape is irrelevant in this case. The frequency is specified in Hertz (Hz), and for larger values it is
provided with a prefix for kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz), gigahertz (GHz) and terahertz (THz). One hertz means
that one complete oscillation cycle takes place in one second. The frequency is the reciprocal value of the period
duration.

10.4 Frequency converter
A frequency converter is a current converter that takes an alternating current voltage and, from it, generates an
alternating current voltage with variable frequency and amplitude, for the purpose of directly supplying electrical
machinery such as three-phase motors. Nominal values for frequency and amplitude of the output alternating
current voltage depend on the requirements of the electrical machine and its momentary load. Many frequency
converters additionally have sensor inputs in order to record status parameters of the electrical machine, such as
speed of rotation or momentary angle position of the rotor. Depending on the type of electrical machine, frequency
converters can work both with single-phase alternating current voltage and three-phase alternating current voltage,
as well as being able to convert single-phase alternating current voltage into three-phase alternating current
voltage for supplying three-phase motors. Frequency changers have a similar electrical structure, but are not used
for controlling and supplying an electric motor; instead, they normally work with a fixed frequency and voltage
amplitude at the output for supplying several different loads. Frequency converters and frequency changers are
electronic devices without mechanically moved components. In contrast to this, a motor-generator is a rotating
electrical machine as used in railway substations, for example.
In principle, the indirect, static frequency converter comprises a rectifier which feeds a direct current voltage link
circuit, and a power inverter that is supplied from this link circuit. The link circuit comprises a capacitor for smooth-
ing the direct current voltage and inductors for interference suppression. It is also conceivable to have a link circuit
with direct current (not voltage), although frequency changers of this kind are rather rare nowadays. There are also
direct frequency changers (also referred to as matrix converters) which do not use a link circuit. These must have a
continuous energy supply, which is in practice three-phase current, whereas types with a link circuit can also be
supplied with single-phase alternating voltage (such as railway current). The storage element in the link circuit
bridges the gaps in the energy supply. Several power inverters can be connected to the link circuit, as a result of
which this type of frequency converter is very frequently encountered in machine tools. Both non-controlled and
controlled bridges are used as rectifiers. When a controlled bridge is used, the link circuit can also be supplied with
active power factor correction (PFC).
The power inverter exclusively operates with power electronics switches (controlled bridges). Amongst other things,
these can be transistors such as metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFET), insulated gate bipo-
lar transistors (IGBT) or integrated gate commutated thyristors (IGCT). A variable voltage is generated by pulse-
width modulation (PWM). The magnitude of the resulting output voltage and its frequency can be controlled within
broad limits. To permit braking, simple frequency converters have what is referred to as a brake chopper which
channels the surplus energy from the link circuit to a breaking resistor where it is converted into heat. Otherwise,

the link circuit voltage would rise and destroy the capacitors. The chopper is pulse width-controlled for quasi-analog
control of the heating power. More complicated frequency converters with regeneration capability are used for
braking powers of 1 kW or more although the limit is not fixed. Their advantage in financial terms comes less
from the reduction in energy costs and more from the ability to do without the braking resistor and its cooling
system. Its input circuit ("before" the link circuit) is very similar to the output circuit, it is only that the frequency is
specified on the mains side and with reactive power minimisation. A direct frequency changer with thyristors can
only generate output frequencies less than the input frequency. Link circuit frequency changers and direct
requency changers with IGBTs, on the other hand, can also generate output frequencies above the input frequency
(up to several hundred hertz). Direct frequency changers are always capable of regeneration. Another advantage
of direct frequency changers is that they work with hardly any losses if the input and output frequencies are the
same and there are no switching procedures (bridge operation). As a result, they are particularly suitable for heavy
or soft-starting of drives which otherwise run evenly (such as elevators).
Technical background
If asynchronous motors are operated directly from the alternating voltage system, they have a fixed rotation speed,
the nominal speed, which depends on the number of poles and the mains frequency. During starting, there are high
peak currents and the torque is low. Conventionally, various methods are employed to counteract this. These
include a star/delta circuit, KUSA circuit, autotransformer and thyristor starter with phase-angle control. In this way,
however, it is not possible to achieve a higher torque below the rated speed; neither is operation above rated
speed possible.

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TRAINING DOCUMENT

Wirtgen GmbH 2014

Document name Handout _ Basic electrics_2363740_V01_en

Module ELE 1 Basic electrics

Date of first issue 16.01.2014

Date of amendment 23.04.2014

Copyright Wirtgen GmbH 2014

Wirtgen GmbH 2014

1. Electrical hazards .................................................................................................................................................. 3

7.11 Fixed voltage regulator ..............................................................................................................................60

International symbol for electrical hazards

Chapter 1 Electrical hazards I 3 / 89

1.2 Measures when working on electrical systems

1.2.2 Securing to prevent switching back on

1.2.3 Establishing absence of voltage

Chapter 1 Electrical hazards I 4 / 89

1.2.4 Earthing and short-circuiting

1.2.5 Covering/cordoning off adjacent live parts

Chapter 1 Electrical hazards I 5 / 89

2.2 Digital multimeters

FLUKE 85 III TRUE RMS MULTIMETER

MIN MAX RANGE HOLD

Chapter 2 The multimeter II 6 / 89

2.3 Analog multimeters

Chapter 2 The multimeter II 7 / 89

3. Basic electrical values

Fig. 1 a: Structure of an atom with electron

Chapter 3 Basic electric values I I I 8 / 89

Fig. 1 b: Atom with elliptical orbits

Fig. 1 c: Structure of a copper atom

Chapter 3 Basic electric values I I I 9 / 89

Fig. 1 d: Receiving or donating electrons

Chapter 3 Basic electric values I I I 10 / 89

3.2 Electrical voltage

overrun of electrons deficit of electrons

Fig. 2.1 a: Striving to achieve a balance between different charges

The following statements can be made about electrical voltage:

Chapter 3 Basic electrical values III 11 / 89

REMEMBER! Symbol for electrical voltage in formulas U

3.2.1 Direct current voltage

Chapter 3 Basic electrical values III 12 / 89

3.2.2 Alternating current voltage

Nominal value (for the special case of mains voltage)

Root mean square value

Chapter 3 Basic electrical values III 13 / 89

Alternating current voltage

Chapter 3 Basic electrical values III 14 / 89

3.2.3 Voltage generation

Generating voltage by friction

Fig. 2.1.1 a: Generating voltage by friction

Generating voltage by chemical processes

Fig. 2.1.1 b: Generating voltage by chemical processes

Chapter 3 Basic electrical values III 15 / 89

Generating voltage by induction

Chapter 3 Basic electrical values III 16 / 89

Generating voltage by heat

Generating voltage by light

Fig. 2.1.1 d: Generating voltage by exposure to light

Chapter 3 Basic electrical values III 17 / 89

Generating voltage by pressure

aluminium foil aluminium

Fig. 2.1.1 d: Generating voltage by pressure

3.2.4 Measuring electrical voltage

Chapter 3 Basic electrical values III 18 / 89