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Content
Chapter No. Name Page No.
1 Introduction
1.1 Basic Idea
1.2 List of components used.
1.3 Block diagram
1.4 Circuit diagram
3 Sensors
3.1 Overview of sensor
3.2 Types of sensors
3.3 LDR sensors
3.4 Lm358 Comparator
5 Solar Panel
5.1 Electrical Specifications
5.2 Working Principle
6
Motors
6.1
Types of Motors
6.2
H-Bridge using L293D
7
Mechanical Specifications
7.1
Base for mounting Panel
7.2
Panel Mounting Plate
7.3
Pillar Rod
8
Result, Modification and Future Scope
Reference
Appendix- Data Sheets
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
2 LDR 1 - 2
11 Nut-Bolt Pair 1 -
12 Jumper Wire -
( Single Stand Wire)
13 IC Base ( 8,14,16,40 pin) 3 Black -
Multimeter
Solder Set
1.3 Circuit diagram:
555 TIMER
Feedback
7404 NOT GATE
(for reversing the
direction of movement of
panel)
H-BRIDGE L293D
DC GEARED
MOTOR
AND SOLAR
CHAPTER-2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
PANEL
2.13
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high
voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics
circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series
of blocks, each of which performs a particular function.
This AC mains voltage is the one that is coming to our houses for
commercial purposes. AC power supply is generally 220V or 230V .
All generators are AC. As the rotor passes through the magnetic field,
the voltage rises until it reaches the strongest part of the magnetic
field and then falls to zero as the field weakens, only to reverse
electrical polarity as the rotor passes through an area of the opposite
magnetic polarity..
The brushes in AC generators don't suffer that abrasive effects of
constantly hitting the little edges of the contact areas on a
commutator because slip-rings are smooth, and they don't spark
because they never reverse polartiy or open a circuit under load. As a
result, they require a bit less maintainance.
AC Generators don't require as much additional circuitry to regulate
the voltage fluctuations since AC voltage fluctuates by definition. DC
power is very unlean and requires a lot of filtering if you want to use it
in electronics.
AC is more efficient to transmit over long distances.
That is why we use this AC voltage to be converted to constant DC
voltage to drive our various electronic circuits.
II. Transformer
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little
loss of power.
Fig 2.2: Transformer
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains
electricity is AC.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the
secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead
they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core
of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol
represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to
the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio,
determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large
number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high
voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output)
coil to give a low output voltage.
III. Rectifier
INTRODUCTION:
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert
AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-
wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can also be made from just two
diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used now
that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only
uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying
DC.
TYPES OF RECTIFIERS:
There are two types of rectifier, namely half wave and full wave. Each type
can either be uncontrolled, half-controlled or fully controlled. An
uncontrolled rectifier uses diodes, while a full-controlled rectifier uses
thyristor or popularly known as Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR). A half
controlled is a mix of diodes and thyristors. The thyristors need to be turned
on using a special triggering circuit
Half-Wave Rectifier:
In practice, the half-wave rectifier is used most often in low-power
applications because the average current in the supply will not be zero. This
may cause problems in transformer performance. While practical
applications of half wave rectifier are limited, the analysis is important
because it will enable us to understand more complicated circuits such as
full wave-and three-phase rectifiers.
Full-Wave Rectifier:
Like half-wave, the objective of a full-wave rectifier is to produce a voltage
or current which is purely DC or has some specified dc component. While
the purpose of the fullwave rectifier is basically the same as that of the half-
wave rectifiers have some fundamental advantages. The average current in
the ac source is zero in the full-wave rectifier, thus avoiding problems
associated with nonzero average source currents. The average (dc) output
voltage is higher than half-wave. The output of the full-wave is inherently
less ripple that the half-wave rectifier
Bridge rectifier
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also
available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called
a full-wave rectifier because it uses the entire AC wave (both positive and
negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode
uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as
shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum
current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand
(this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can
withstand the peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details,
including pictures of bridge rectifiers.
IV. Smoothing:
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor (HERE
1000uF) connected across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying
current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is
falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the
smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the
varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output.
5 Io
Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C =
Vs f
1) Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are
made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver
and are then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance
values a single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors
have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively
high capacitances can be obtained in a small physical size. They exhibit
large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature and as a result
are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are also non-polarized
devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a few picofarads to
one or two microfarads but their voltage ratings are generally quite low.
Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their
body to identify their capacitance value. For example, 103 would indicate 10
x 103pF which is equivalent to 10,000 pF or 0.01F. Likewise, 104 would
indicate 10 x 104pF which is equivalent to 100,000 pF or 0.1F and so on.
Letter codes are sometimes used to indicate their tolerance value such as: J =
5%, K = 10% or M = 20% etc.
FIG.
2) Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance
values are required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for
one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly
or paste is used which serves as the second electrode (usually the cathode).
The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown electro-
chemically in production with the thickness of the film being less than ten
microns. This insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to make large
value capacitors of a small size. The majority of electrolytic types of
capacitors are Polarized, that is the voltage applied to the capacitor
terminals must be of the correct polarity as an incorrect polarization will
break down the insulating oxide layer and permanent damage may result.
Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs
are available with
fixed (typically 5, 12
and 15V) or variable
output voltages. They Voltage regulator
are also rated by the Photograph Rapid Electronics
maximum current
they can pass.
Negative voltage
regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators
include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload
protection') and overheating ('thermal protection').
Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power
transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They
include a hole for attaching a heatsink if necessary.
Please see the Electronics in Meccano website for more information about voltage
regulator ICs.
78xx ICs have three terminals and are most commonly found in the TO220
form factor, although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are
also available from some manufacturers. These devices typically support an
input voltage which can be anywhere from a couple of volts over the
intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 or 40 volts, and can
typically provide up to around 1 or 1.5 amps of current (though smaller or
larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating).
The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC
motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier
and a smoothing capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier
The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It
is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing
capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic
circuits.
The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all
electronic circuits.
3.1 SENSORS
3.1 Overview of Sensor ?
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a
signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a
mercury thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and
contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A
thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read
by a voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors need to be calibrated against known
standards.
2 .Automotive, transportation
3 .Chemical
5 .Environment, weather
6 .Flow
8 .Navigation instruments
11. Pressure,force,density,level
14 .Sensor technology
Fig.1 shows LDR's with greater surface area, Fig.2 shows the LDR's
which are available about Rs.5, which is commonly used. Greater surface
area, better the sensing will be. The sensing material is made of
Cadmium Sulphide.
Resistance: 400ohm to 400Kohm
Normal resistance variation: 1Kohm to 10Kohm (in the robots which I
used for line following for identifying black and white strips)
Sensitivity: about 3msec(Sensitivity is defined as the time taken for
output to change when input changes, i got this reading by verifying with
ADC interfaced with parallel port, sensitivity of LDR's is in milliseconds.
This is the best sensitivity obtained to me).
Voltage ratings: I used it on 3V, 5V and 12V
Practical application in Line follower Robots:
LED's are used with LDR which will act as a source of light for LDR
because we are placing the LDR below the robot where light is not
present. If we want to identify Black and White strips we add a light
source with LDR and the white strip reflects light while black won't
reflect light.
Detailed description of this topic is given the the chapter of line follower
robot.
Above figure shows how LED is placed with LDR. Here LDR is covered
because we want light reflections from ground only, not from sides of
LED. Also cover the LED so that the light will move pointed, so that
reflection will directly go to LDR. When you attach LED and LDR to the
body of the robot, use tape to paste the sensors. Remember if you robot
body is of aluminum, and then some short circuit or current flow can
occurs through the body. So apply tape perfectly so that no short circuit
problems occur. Remember that LDR is a resistor and have no polarity
while all other sensors have.
3.6 IC 555:
The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and
multivibrator applications. Depending on the manufacturer, it includes over 20 transistors
2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package
(DIP-8)
Also available are ultra-low power versions of the 555 such as the 7555 and TLC555. [4]
The 7555 requires slightly different wiring using fewer external components and less
power.
which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply voltage. See RC
circuit for an explanation
In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values
of R1, R2 and C:
a) Wind power
b) Hydropower
c) Solar energy
d) Biomass
e) Biofuel
f) Tidal Energy
g) Geothermal Energy
Fig: Scout_moor_gearbox,_rotor_shaft_and_brake_assembly.jpg
Although fossil fuels have their origin in ancient biomass, they are not
considered biomass by the generally accepted definition because they
contain carbon that has been "out" of the carbon cycle for a very long time.
Their combustion therefore disturbs the carbon dioxide content in the
atmosphere.
Plastics from biomass, like some recently developed to dissolve in seawater,
are made the same way as petroleum-based plastics. These plastics are
actually cheaper to manufacture and meet or exceed most performance
standards, but they lack the same water resistance or longevity as
conventional plastics.
In general there are two main approaches to using plants for energy
production: growing plants specifically for energy use, and using the
residues from plants that are used for other things. The best approaches vary
from region to region according to climate, soils and geography.
( E ) BIOFUEL:
( F ) GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:
Geothermal energy is energy obtained by tapping the heat of the earth itself,
both from kilometers deep into the Earth's crust in some places of the globe
or from some meters in geothermal heat pump in all the places of the planet.
It is expensive to build a power station but operating costs are low resulting
in low energy costs for suitable sites. Ultimately, this energy derives from
heat in the Earth's core.
Three types of power plants are used to generate power from geothermal
energy: dry steam, flash, and binary. Dry steam plants take steam out of
fractures in the ground and use it to directly drive a turbine that spins a
generator. Flash plants take hot water, usually at temperatures over 200 C,
out of the ground, and allows it to boil as it rises to the surface then
separates the steam phase in steam/water separators and then runs the steam
through a turbine. In binary plants, the hot water flows through heat
exchangers, boiling an organic fluid that spins the turbine. The condensed
steam and remaining geothermal fluid from all three types of plants are
injected back into the hot rock to pick up more heat.
The geothermal energy from the core of the Earth is closer to the surface in
some areas than in others. Where hot underground steam or water can be
tapped and brought to the surface it may be used to generate electricity.
Such geothermal power sources exist in certain geologically unstable parts
of the world such as Chile, Iceland, New Zealand, United States, the
Philippines and Italy. The two most prominent areas for this in the United
States are in the Yellowstone basin and in
northern California. Iceland produced 170 MW geothermal power and
heated 86% of all houses in the year 2000 through geothermal energy. Some
8000 MW of capacity is operational in total.
There is also the potential to generate geothermal energy from hot dry rocks.
Holes at least 3 km deep are drilled into the earth. Some of these holes pump
water into the earth, while other holes pump hot water out. The heat resource
consists of hot underground radiogenic granite rocks, which heat up when
there is enough sediment between the rock and the earths surface. Several
companies in Australia are exploring this technology.
Fig: GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP
Like a refrigerator or air conditioner, these systems use a heat pump to force
the transfer of heat. Heat pumps can transfer heat from a cool space to a
warm space, against the natural direction of flow, or they can enhance the
natural flow of heat from a warm area to a cool one. The core of the heat
pump is a loop of refrigerant pumped through a vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle that moves heat. Heat pumps are always more efficient at
heating than pure electric heaters, even when extracting heat from cold
winter air. But unlike an air-source heat pump, which transfers heat to or
from the outside air, a ground source heat pump exchanges heat with the
ground. This is much more energy-efficient because underground
temperatures are more stable than air temperatures through the year.
Seasonal variations drop off with depth and disappear below seven meters
due to thermal inertia.[2] Like a cave, the shallow ground temperature is
warmer than the air above during the winter and cooler than the air in the
summer. A ground source heat pump extracts ground heat in the winter (for
heating) and transfers heat back into the ground in the summer (for cooling).
Some systems are designed to operate in one mode only, heating or cooling,
depending on climate.
The setup costs are higher than for conventional systems, but the difference
is usually returned in energy savings in 3 to 10 years. System life is
estimated at 25 years for inside components and 50+ years for the ground
loop.[3] As of 2004, there are over a million units installed worldwide
providing 12 GW of thermal capacity, with an annual growth rate of 10%.
(G) TIDAL ENERGY : Tidal power, sometimes also called tidal energy, is
a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity or
other useful forms of power. The first large-scale tidal power plant
(theRance Tidal Power Station) started operation in 1966.
I OWN ALL RIGHTS B and a inC LAlthough not yet widely used, tidal
power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more
predictable than wind energy and solar power.
Fig: The world's first commercial axial turbine tidal stream generator
SeaGen in Strangford Lough. The strong wake shows the power in the tidal
current.
Historically, tide mills have been used, both in Europe and on the Atlantic
coast of North America. The earliest occurrences date from the Middle Ages,
or even from Roman times.
CHAPTER-5 SOLAR CELL / PANEL
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Solar cells can also be applied to other electronics devices to make it self-
power sustainable in the sun. There are solar cell phone chargers, solar bike
light and solar camping lanterns that people can adopt for daily use
Simple explanation
When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:
1. the photon can pass straight through the silicon this (generally)
happens for lower energy photons,
2. the photon can reflect off the surface,
3. the photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if the photon energy is
higher than the silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-
hole pair and sometimes heat, depending on the band structure.
A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band gap in order to
excite an electron from the valence band into the conduction band. However,
the solar frequency spectrum approximates a black body spectrum at ~6000
K, and as such, much of the solar radiation reaching the Earth is composed
of photons with energies greater than the band gap of silicon. These higher
energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell, but the difference in
energy between these photons and the silicon band gap is converted into heat
(via lattice vibrations called phonons) rather than into usable electrical
energy.
There are two main modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell:
In the widely used p-n junction solar cells, the dominant mode of charge
carrier separation is by drift. However, in non-p-n-junction solar cells
(typical of the third generation solar cell research such as dye and polymer
solar cells), a general electrostatic field has been confirmed to be absent, and
the dominant mode of separation is via charge carrier diffusion.
Ohmic metal-semiconductor contacts are made to both the n-type and p-type
sides of the solar cell, and the electrodes connected to an external load.
Electrons that are created on the n-type side, or have been "collected" by the
junction and swept onto the n-type side, may travel through the wire, power
the load, and continue through the wire until they reach the p-type
semiconductor-metal contact. Here, they recombine with a hole that was
either created as an electron-hole pair on the p-type side of the solar cell, or
a hole that was swept across the junction from the n-type side after being
created there.
The voltage measured is equal to the difference in the quasi Fermi levels of
the minority carriers, i.e. electrons in the p-type portion and holes in the n-
type portion.
Equivalent circuit of a solar cell
6.1 Result
After complete designing and manufacturing the project Solar Sun Seeker
we have finally designed a mechanism on which we have further made
number of experiments.
We found that complete system was properly working and solar cell
interfaced is properly working, and many operations on this panel can be
monitored very easily without any difficulty.
7.2 Modification:
This could be further implemented as a major part of renewable resources
management industry.
Further, the mechanical design installed in this system could be used in
mechanical industries and household for cooling purposes without using any
kind of exhaustible source of energy.
7. 3 Future scope: