Part-11

Motivation for Fourier Series

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 Fourier Series & Fourier Transform

Representation in terms of frequency components

signals can be built from sinusoids

How can we use sinusoids to build periodic signals?

How can we use sinusoids to build more-general non-periodic signals?

LTI System
Q: Why all this attention to sinusoids?
A: Recall sinusoidal analysis in RLC circuits:
Fundamental Result: Sinusoid In Sinusoid Out

And it is easy to find out how sinusoids go through an LTI system

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Why Study Response to Sinusoids
LTI: Linear, Time-Invariant

Q: How does a sinusoid go through an LTI System?

Consider: x (t ) = A cos(0t + ) y (t ) = ?
h(t)

To make this easier to answer (yes this makes it easier!!) we use Eulers
Formula:
x (t ) = A cos(0t + ) = 2A e j (0t + ) + 2A e j (0t + )
The input is now viewed as the sum of two
parts By linearity of the system we can find
the response to each part and then add them
together.

So we now re-form our question

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Q: How does a complex sinusoid go through an LTI System?
Consider: x1 (t ) = 2A e j (0t + ) y (t ) = ?
h(t)

With convolution as a tool we can now easily answer this question:

y (t ) = x (t ) * h (t ) = x (t )h( )d Plug in our input for x(t-)

h ( )d =
j [o ( t ) + ]
= A
e A
e j [ot + ]e jo h( )d
2 2

j [ o t + ]
jo
= A
e h ( ) e d Use rules for exponentials

 
2

 

= H ( o ) Evaluates to some
complex number that
Pull out part that does depends on h(t) and o
not depend on variable
of integration So the output is just this complex
Note that it is just x1(t)
sinusoidal input multiplied by some
complex number!!!
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 So y (t ) = H (o ) 2A e j (ot + )
Complex-valued

Lets work this equation a bit more to get a more useful, but equivalent form

Because it is complex we can write H (o ) = H (o ) e jH (o )

So using this gives: (

y (t ) = H (o ) e jH (o ) ) A
2 e j (ot + )

= ( H (o ) A
2 )e j ( o t + + H ( o ))

y (t ) = H (o ) 2A e j (ot + +H (o ))
System changes
System changes
the phase
the amplitude

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 Now we can re-visit our first question
Q: How does a sinusoid go through an LTI System?
Consider: x (t ) = A cos(0t + ) y (t ) = ?
h(t)

This is equivalent to:

x (t ) = 2A e j (0t + ) + 2A e j (0t + ) y (t ) = ?
h(t)
And due to linearity and the previous result used twice we have:

y (t ) = H (o ) 2A e j (ot + +H (o )) + H ( o ) 2A e j ( ot +H ( o ))

Later well see that H (o ) = H ( o ) H ( o ) = H (o )

So we get: [
y (t ) = H (o ) A 12 e j (ot + +H (o )) + 12 e j (ot + +H (o ))
 

]
cos(o t + + H ( o ))
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So How does a sinusoid go through an LTI System?
Consider: x (t ) = A cos(0t + ) y (t ) = A H (o ) cos(ot + + H (o ))
h(t)

The only thing an LTI system does to a sinusoid is

change its amplitude and its phase!!!!

But what about when we have more complicated input signals???

Weve already seen that we have to do convolution to solve that
case!!!
But if we have a signal that is a sum of sinusoids then we could
use this easy result because of linearity and superposition!!!
x (t ) = A1 cos(1t + 1 ) y (t ) = A1 H (1 ) cos(1t + 1 + H (1 ))
h(t) + A2 H (2 ) cos(2t + 2 + H (2 ))
+ A2 cos(2t + 2 )
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So breaking a signal into sinusoidal parts makes our job EASY!!
(As long we know what the H() function looks like

What we look at now is

What kind of signals can we use this trick on?
Or in other words What kinds of signals can we build by adding
together sinusoids??!!!

Nowback to previous knowledge!

Let 0 be some given fundamental frequency
Q: What can I build from building blocks that looks like:

Ak cos(k0 + k ) ?
Only frequencies that are integer multiples of 0
Ex.: 0 = 30 rad/sec then consider 0, 30 60, 90,
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Ex. (Motivation to answer this question!)
A little experiment:

x(t ) = A1 cos(t ) + A4 cos(4t + ) + A8 cos(8t + )
3 2
0 = 1 40 80

A1 = 0.5
A4 = 1
A8 = 0.5

A1 = 1
A4 = 0.5
A8 = 0.5

A1 = 1
A4 = 1
A8 = 1

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Q: How can we easily convey the information about this signal model?
A: Give a plot that shows the amplitude and phase at each frequency!
Amplitude Spectra Phase Spectra
All three cases are the same

Book uses degrees although it is

more correct to plot radians
Radians is what you must use
in this course

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So we can write this sum of sinusoids like this:
N
x(t ) = Ak cos(k0t + k ) (Ak Real)
k =1

Also: k = k

So Ive got a given set of frequency components and my model

consists of setting the amplitudes and phases to desired values

What if we also let k = 0, then we get: A0 cos(0 + 0 )

Its frequency is 0 rad/sec (0 Hz) = constant, so just use
It is a DC term A0 & 0 = 0

N
This is called
x(t ) = A0 + Ak cos(k0t + k ) Trigonometric Form
k =1 (Later well let it have
an infinite # of terms)
DC offset (A0 & Ak Real)
Adding a DC Offset term just moves the whole signal up or down
12/18
 Trigonometric Form makes the most physical sense but mathematically we
often prefer the equivalent complex exponential form
N jk0t N jk0t
x (t ) = c0 + ck e + ck e
k =1 k = 1
c0 is Real
Positive freq. terms Negative freq. terms
ck is Complex

N
x(t ) = k
c e
k = N
jk0t This is called
Complex Exponential
Form

Q: How do we get the Complex Exponential Form from the Trigonometric Form?
A: Eulers Formula!
Each Term in the Trigonometric Form gives
Two Terms in the Complex Exponential Form (Except the A0 term)
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The details on how to get the Complex Exponential Form:
From direct application of Eulers Formula to each term in the Trigonometric Form
of the Fourier Series we get:

Ak e j ( k0t +k ) + Ak e j ( k0t +k )
Ak cos(k0t + k ) = k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2 0 > 0

Ak jk jk0t Ak jk jk0t
= e e + e e
2 2

Ak jk jk0t Ak jk jk ( 0 ) t
= e e + e e
2 2

Positive-Frequency Term Negative-Frequency Term

Every physical sinusoid consists of

one positive-frequency term and one negative-frequency term.
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So for this complex exponential form we need a slightly different spectrum plot.
Must show both positive and negative frequencies
Called Double-Sided Spectrum
Example: Consider x (t ) = cos(t ) + 0.5 cos( 4t + / 3) + cos(8t + / 2)
which is already in Trigonometric Form of the Fourier Series with 0 = 1 :
A1 = 1 A4 = 0.5 A8 = 1 (all others are 0)
1 = 0 4 = /3 8 = /2
Using the results in the previous slides we can re-write this in Complex
Exponential Form of the FS as:

[ ] [
x (t ) = 0.5e jt + 0.5e jt + 0.25e j / 3e j 4 t + 0.25e j / 3e j 4 t ]
+ [0.5e j / 2
e j 8t + 0.5e j / 2 e j 8t ]
c1 = 0.5 c4 = 0.25e j/3 c8 = 0.5e j/2
c-1 = 0.5 c-4 = 0.25e-j/3 c-8 = 0.5e -j/2 (all others are 0)

Both Forms Tell Us the Same Information sometimes one

or the other is more convenient 15/18
 Single-Sided Spectra for Trigonometric Form of FS
Ak
Amplitude 1
0.5 etc.
Spectrum
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
frequency (rad/sec)
k
Phase /2
Spectrum /3 etc.

x (t ) = cos(t ) + 0.5 cos(4t + / 3) + cos(8t + / 2) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

frequency (rad/sec)

Double-Sided Spectra for Complex Exp. Form of FS

|ck|
Amplitude 1
Spectrum 0.5 etc.
0.25
Phase -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Spectrum frequency (rad/sec)
ck
[
x (t ) = 0.5e jt + 0.5e jt ] /2
/3 etc.
+ [0.25e j / 3
e j 4t
+ 0.25e j / 3 j 4 t
e ]
-/3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
+ [0.5e j / 2
e j 8t
+ 0.5e j / 2 j 8 t
e ] -/2 frequency (rad/sec) 16/18
What do these complex exponential terms look like?
Well at any fixed time t the function ejt is a complex number with unit
amplitude and angle t so we can view it a a vector in the complex plane:

Im j t
e
t Re

Now if we let the time variable flow then this vector will rotate:

Im If > 0 then this vector rotates counter-clockwise

j t
e
If < 0 then this vector rotates clockwise

Re controls the angular rate

it has units of rad/sec

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Visualizing Rotating Phasors

We know for Eulers Formula that

e jt = cos(t ) + j sin(t )
Thus the real part of a rotating phasor is a cosine wave.
The following Web Demo shows this:

Link to Web Demo for Rotating Phasor

1. Open the web page
2. Click on the box at the top labeled One

What youll see:

1. An Orange phasor rotating around the unit circle
2. The projected Real Part (the cosine) is shown in Red
3. At the bottom youll see a vertical axis that represents a time
axis and youll see the Red Real Part repeated and youll see it
tracing out the cosine wave in orange

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