ASSOCIATION FRANAISE DES TUNNELS

ET DE LESPACE SOUTERRAIN

Organization member of the AFTES

www.aftes.asso.fr

AFTES
Recommendations

The design, sizing and

construction of precast
concrete segments
installed at the rear of a
tunnel boring machine (TBM)
GT18R1A1
 AFTES
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

THE DESIGN, SIZING AND CONSTRUCTION

OF PRECAST CONCRETE SEGMENTS
INSTALLED AT THE REAR OF A
TUNNEL BORING MACHINE (TBM)
A.F.T.E.S. will be pleased to receive any suggestions concerning these recommendations

Version 1 - 1997 - approved by the Technical Committee on 13/11/1997 Translated in 1999

Text presented by
M. Pascal GUEDON, SIMECSOL
Working Group leader,
with the collaboration of :
Messrs. AUTUORI Philippe, BOUYGUES - BACHTANIK Bruno, MINISTERE DE L'EQUIPEMENT,
BARTHES Henri, A.F.T.E.S. - BERNARD Simon - BONNA - BILLANGEON Rmi, SPIE BATIGNOLLES
BOCHON Alain, SNCF - CHANTRON Laurent, CETu - CHARDIN Daniel, SOGEA - DARDARD Bruno, SNCF
HUEBER Jean, SETEC - LABONNE Hubert, INDUSTRIELLE DU BETON - LEOGANE Jean Paul, RATP
PETIT Franois, CAMPENON BERNARD SGE - SAMAMA Laurent, SCETAUROUTE - TAQUET Bernard, EDF - CNEH
VAN DUC Tri, CAMPENON BERNARD SGE
A.F.T.E.S. reading panel :
Messrs. GUILLAUME Jean, RAZEL - LAUNAY Jean, DUMEZ - GTM - LECA Eric, SCETAUROUTE
MAUROY Fabien, SYSTRA - NIQUET Jean-Jacques, SOCIETE DU CANAL DE PROVENCE
SCHWENZFEIER Andr, CETu

CONTENTS
Pages Pages
1 - GENERAL 210 3.5.4 - Waterproofing gaskets 219
1.1 - Purpose of recommendations 210 3.5.5 - Segment assembly systems 220
1.2 - Scope of application of recommendations 210 3.5.6 - Connector inserts, pockets 222
2 - HISTORICAL REMINDER 211 3.5.7 - Gaskets for distributing loads at segment
contact joints 222
3 - TUNNEL LINING DESIGN 3.5.8 - Back grouting behind ring extrados 222
3.1 - Introduction 211 3.6 - Lining installed outside the area occupied by
3.2 - Basic data required to design a tunnel lining 211 the TBM 223
3.3 - Lining functions 211 3.6.1 - Ring design principle 223
3.3.1 - Functions associated with operating constraints 211 3.6.2 - Advantages and drawbacks 223
3.3.2 - Functions associated with construction 3.7 - Specific aspects of water conveyance pressure
constraints 212 tunnels 224
3.4 - Description of the concept 212 3.7.1 - Hydrogeological reminders 224
3.4.1 - General 212 3.7.2 - Tunnel lining structural behaviour 224
3.4.2 - General aspects of tunnel lining design 212 3.7.3 - Roughness of segment-lined tunnels 224
3.4.3 - Tapering of rings 212 3.8 - Construction tolerances 224
3.4.4 - Length of rings 213 3.8.1 - Specification 224
3.4.5 - Composition of a lining ring 213 3.8.2 - Identification of main criteria contributing to
3.4.6 - Segment geometry 213 tolerance specification 224
3.4.7 - Nature of lining materials 213 3.8.3 - Accuracy 225
3.5 - Lining installed within the area enclosing 3.9 - Durability 225
the TBM 214 3.9.1 - Segment concrete 225
3.5.1 - Ring design principle 214 3.9.2 - Steel reinforcing bars 225
3.5.2 - Composition of rings 214 3.9.3 - Waterproofing gaskets 226
3.5.3 - Contact surfaces 216 3.9.4 - Connector inserts 226

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209
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
Pages Pages
3.10 - Economic considerations 226 5 - DESIGN OF ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS 236
4 - TUNNEL LINING DESIGN 226 5.1 - Design assumptions for bolts and anchor bolts 236
4.1 - Main parameters influencing sizing 226 5.1.1 - Regulations 236
4.1.1 - Implementation conditions 226 5.1.2 - Nature of actions and loadings 236
4.1.2 - Parameters for analysing ring stresses 227 5.1.3 - Combined actions - Design stresses 236
4.2 - Design assumptions 227
5.2 - Proof of assembly and pick-up components
4.2.1 - Regulations and references 227
using materials other than steel 236
4.2.2 - Material properties 229
4.2.3 - Nature of actions and loadings 229 5.2.1 - Introduction 236
4.2.4 - Combined actions 230 5.2.2 - Actions to be considered 236
4.2.5 - Sizing criteria 231 5.2.3 - Combined actions - Stresses 237
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

4.3 - Determination of stresses in the tunnel lining 232 5.2.4 - Behaviour of materials and assemblies - Tests 237
4.3.1 - Introduction 232 5.2.5 - Conclusions 237
4.3.2 - Hyperstatic reaction method 232 6 - TRANSITION AND ANCILLARY WORKS 237
4.3.3 - Composite solid method 232 6.1 - Design of ancillary works 237
4.3.4 - Adaptation of analysis methods to a segments 6.2 - Construction of transition and ancillary works 237
lining and to TBM-based excavation 233 7 - INSTRUMENTATION 238
4.3.5 - Parameters which can be integrated in the
7.1 - Aims 238
different methods of analysis 233
4.4 - Proof of concrete and reinforcement 235 7.2 - Monitoring methods 238
4.4.1 - Choice of segment wall thickness 235 REFERENCES 239
4.4.2 - Circumferential reinforcement (hoops) 235 ANNEX : 239
4.4.3 - Longitudinal reinforcing bars (arranged parallel TUNNEL LINING CONSTRUCTION -
to the tunnel axis) 235 PRECASTING AND INSTALLATION 239

FOREWORD

T he present text is aimed first and foremost at the different active parties (Owners, Owner's Representatives and Engineers, Consulting
Engineers, Contractors) working in the field of TBM-based mechanized tunnel driving.
The prime aim of the present document is not only to avoid certain past mistakes in the design, sizing and construction of precast concrete
segmental linings installed at the rear of a TBM, but also to contribute to extending know-how in these areas based on the experience gained
over the last decades by the various parties practising of this technique.
It is hoped that this text will stimulate the wish of all those concerned to make progress in relation to the technical aspect of this type of lining
and technology involved.

I - GENERAL 1.2 - Scope of application concrete tunnel linings, these recommenda-

1.1 - Purpose of recommenda-
tions
The aim of the present recommendations is
to provide guidelines for the design, sizing
and construction of precast concrete seg-
ments linings installed at the rear of a TBM.
In par ticular, they are intended to update
and complement past recommendations
presented by A.F.T.E.S. Working Group 7
(Tunnel Suppor t and Lining) entitled
"rcommandations sur les revtements pr-
fabriqus des tunnels circulaires creuss au
tunnelier" (recommendations for prefabri-
cated linings of TBM-driven circular tunnels)
(Tunnels et Ouvrages Souterrains (T.O.S.)
Special Issue 05-88).
They are also based on other past recom-
mendations published by A.F.T.E.S.
of recommendations
The present recommendations deal exclusi-
vely with the case of precast concrete seg-
ments linings.
Thus, tunnel lining designs based on using
other materials, such as cast iron or steel, or
having recourse to a mix of these materials
do not fall within the scope of these recom-
mendations and call for a specific recom-
mendation drafting project.
On the other hand, the expression "installed
at the rear of a TBM" does not limit the
scope of application of this text to only
linings installed within the TBM shield tail; it
also includes linings installed outside the
area occupied by the shield tail, such as
linings formed from expanded segments.
Thus, following a brief historical reminder
describing the emergence of precast
tions recall in a section covering design:
the functions which linings must fulfil,
the different elements forming tunnel
linings and their roles,
stressing, in particular, the important points
to be complied with to ensure satisfactory
behaviour of the structure during construc-
tion and throughout its life.
The document subsequently reports on the
sizing aspect of linings in relation to which it
is impor tant to recall immediately the
essential osmosis, in the general sense
(design, analysis, construction) of the word,
which must prevail between TBM and lining
designers. This process will result in the
avoidance of many sources of malfunction
liable to lead, in some cases, to cer tain
design inconsistencies at times detrimental
to the long-term performance of the struc-
ture.

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

210
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
Thus, the following aspects will be addres-
sed in this section of the recommendations:
the main parameters influencing sizing;
design assumptions (regulations and
recommendations, types of materials,
actions and combined actions, sizing crite-
ria);
methods available to the design engineer
for analysing soil-str ucture interacting
stresses and where the refinement of the
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
calculations should be adapted to:
- the design levels implemented (prelimi-
nar y studies, design studies, construction
studies),
- the nature of the problems encountered
(sensitivity of the site to ground deforma-
tions, closeness of other structures, etc.);
cation of the different structural elements
forming the lining.
Moreover, the recommendations draw
attention to the essential control of certain
unusual design aspects, such as transition
between the lining and different types of
underground structures (stations, terminals,
addits, shafts, pipes, etc.), often causing pro-
blems which are awkward to deal with.
Finally, consideration is given to the particu-
lar aspects of monitoring and instrumenta-
tion of this type of structure.
An annex specific to tunnel lining construc-
tion provides a review of the recommenda-
tions advocated to ensure total conformity
between the structure engineered at design
stage and the implemented finished product
from segment casting stage to segment
erection within the tunnel.
This summary of the content of the recom-
mendations reveals the full range of the
areas affecting the design and construction
of precast concrete segments linings instal-
led at the rear of a TBM. It also highlights the
special care which must be applied to every
stage of the project when working towards
completion of a quality finished structure
whilst complying with production- and
automation/robotization-related demands
imposed by a concept of this type.
2 - HISTORICAL REMINDER
Up to 1930, TBM-driven tunnels were
mainly lined using cast iron segments.
Thereafter, precast concrete segments tun-
nel linings started to appear, mainly in Great
Britain, for small diameter tunnels (1.5 to 3
m) driven in London clay for use as sewers.
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
Since that period, several hundred kilo-
metres of generally small diameter tunnels
driven in the London area have been lined
with concrete segments of various shapes
and types; they are often ribbed, in other
words their shape stems from that of cast
iron segments. It should be noted that, most
of the time, these underground structures
were built in very low permeability ground
in which the excavated periphery offered
short-term stability (London clay).
In time, British manufacturers offered a
whole range of standard off-the-shelf tunnel
lining segments covering a wide range of
diameters (1.5 to 6 m internal diameters).
One of the significant features of these seg-
ments was their small size and reduced
weight (100 to 400 kg per segment), which
resulted in a large number of ring elements
for the largest diameter tunnels (12 seg-
ments per ring for a diameter of the order
of 6 m).
Since 1965, major development in the use
of concrete segments linings in Europe
(Germany, Belgium, Austria, France) and
Japan is notewor thy, in parallel with the
development of TBMs for excavating large
diameter tunnels (approximately 5 to 10 m)
in soft and water-bearing ground.
Specifically, mechanized erectors, larger size
segments with ver y low precasting tole-
rances and elastomeric gaskets capable of
guaranteeing lining water tightness even in
heavily water-bearing ground, have appea-
red.
3 - TUNNEL LINING DESIGN
3.1 - Introduction
It is essential to state that there is no unique
design for a segmental lining.
Very often, its design is based on the expe-
rience and skill acquired by Consulting
Engineers and Contractors on past projects.
Consequently, the purpose of this section is
to review the main factors entering into the
design of this type of lining and to draw
attention to cer tain vital engineering
aspects, of which a perfect command is
required. It cannot recommend a single type
of lining design to reader because too many
interdependent factors come into play.
On the contrary, over-precise recommen-
dations, which do not integrate all the para-
meters, could prejudice construction of a
quality structure.
211
3.2 - Basic data required to
design a tunnel lining
Prior to designing any tunnel lining, it is
essential that Owner s, Owner's
Representatives and Engineers specify the
aims and constraints which the planned tun-
nel structure must satisfy:
its function(s): rail or road transpor t,
water or air conveyance, power or data
conveyance, storage, etc.;
its operating life;
the operating constraints:
- geometrical criteria (clearance, route,
construction tolerances, etc.),
- type and location of all permanent facili-
ties (benches, inver t slab, wall recesses,
branches, hangers, connector inser ts, wall
pockets, suppor t systems for intermediate
floors and ventilation ducts, etc.),
- roughness criteria for the permanent
works compatible with projected water or
air flows (precast lining possibly combined
with and internal cast-in-place lining),
- water tightness criteria (acceptable see-
page flows both from outside to inside and
conversely for water conveyance tunnels),
- fire resistance criteria,
- possible requirements in relation to steel
reinforcement equipotential;
environmental constraints:
- geology, hydrogeology,
- aggressivity of surrounding ground,
- site urbanization (limitation of ground
settlements, etc.),
- presence of nearby underground struc-
tures (existing or future, if known),
- seismicity;
structural sizing criteria resulting espe-
cially from the above-mentioned
constraints:
- regulations, standards and recommenda-
tions to be applied,
- actions and combined actions to be consi-
dered.
3.3 - Lining functions
3.3.1 - Functions associated with
operating constraints
During tunnel operation, the segmental
lining may be required to fulfil the following
functions, which depend entirely on the
pre-established aims of the Owner, the
Owner's Representative and the Engineer :
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
To act as permanent tunnel lining/support
compatible with the various environmental
constraints;
To act as an envelope intended to ensure
permanent compliance with tunnel opera-
ting clearance(s);
To ensure imperviousness with respect to:
- water inflows from the enclosing ground,
- possible fluids flowing freely or under
pressure within the structure.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
It should be recalled that structural imper-
viousness depends on the ability of the
lining elements to oppose the passage of a
fluid (water, etc.), both from outside to
inside and conversely, within the leakage
flow limits specified for its operation;
To ensure air or water conveyance depen-
ding on whether the structure is likely to
have to ensure the flow of air (piston relief)
or water respectively;
To provide support for permanent service
mobile and fixed equipment.
3.3.2 - Functions associated with
construction constraints
During the construction phase of the tun-
nel, the segmental lining may be required to
fulfil some of the following functions resul-
ting from both construction and environ-
mental requirements:
To provide to the tunnel:
- either immediate suppor t, mainly when
drawing in the TBM shield tail in soft ground,
- or deferred support, when the lining is ins-
talled outside the TBM shield tail; the per-
ipher y of the excavation is stable in the
shor t-term within an enclosing soil-rock
mass of sufficiently low permeability to
allow work to be carried out in satisfactory
conditions, without having recour se to
immediate continuous support;
To provide protection against water
inflows, when tunnel driving is undertaken
in water-bearing ground;
To provide longitudinal support allowing
the TBM to:
- penetrate the ground,
- if necessary, exert confinement pressure at
the excavation face to ensure its stability
and that the hydrostatic pressure applied to
the TBM cutterhead is taken up;
To support the back-up equipment and
construction plant required for carrying out
the work;
To ensure evacuation of drainage water.
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
3.4 - Description of the Segment
concept
3.4.1 - General
An impor tant criterion for tunnel lining
design lies in the requirement or not to
interface driving and lining installation func-
tions for the purpose of ensuring throu-
ghout the tunnelling period:
Ri
ng
total continuity of tunnel support;
total control of water inflows.
Figure 1 : Lining comprising precast segment rings
Continuity is thus initially provided by the
TBM shell itself (the shield tail with its rear either parallel plane surfaces, as in the
seal) and thereafter by the lining, incorpora- case of so-called straight rings;
ting its water tight gaskets, installed inside
or out-of-parallel plane surfaces, as in the
the shield tail.
case of so-called tapered rings.
It goes without saying that these design
Depending on the arrangement retained,
options depend entirely on the geological
the latter ring geometry allows the lining to
and hydrogeological conditions of the sur-
rounding hydrogeological environment best adapt itself to curvature in the hori-
through which the tunnel passes. zontal and vertical alignments of the tunnel
or to correct accidental deviations caused
3.4.2 - General aspects of tunnel by the TBM.
lining design
3.4.3 - Tapering of rings
A precast concrete lining for a TBM-driven
tunnel generally comprises a sequence of Ring taper "p" is defined as the difference
rings placed side-by-side.These rings are divi- between the maximum and the minimum
ded into sectors and each of these elemen- lengths of the ring and must be dimensio-
tary units is called a segment (see figure 1). ned to ensure that design curves are com-
plied with and to allow TBM deviations to
The transverse faces of the rings (see figure be taken up. It can attain several centi-
2) can be formed by: metres (see figure 2).
Straight Curved
Straight ring Plan view
Left or right tapered
trapezoidal ring
Straight Curved
Universal tapered ring Plan view
Figure 2 : Sequence of rings
212
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
Development of techniques (control of
supply to the workface) tends to favour the
use of the universal tapered ring.
3.4.4 - Length of rings
The ring length may depend on:
operation-linked criteria:
- tunnel diameter
- alignment design (horizontal and vertical
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
radii of curvature),
- limitation of the length of gasket sealing
material and thus of the risk of a defect in
tunnel watertightness;
construction-based criteria:
- optimization of driving (mucking) and
lining installation cycles,
- size of rings (impact on design of TBM
thrust mechanisms: stroke of thrust cylin-
ders, etc.),
- weight of ring segments (impact on yard-
and tunnel-based segment handling equip-
ment).
Ring length is generally between 0.60 m and
2.00 m.
3.4.5 - Composition of a lining ring
The number of segments comprising a ring
varies widely from one tunnel project to
another and is subject to the following
constraints:
operating constraints:
- limitation of the number of segment
contact joints, therefore of the risk of a
defect in tunnel watertightness,
- limitation of head losses due to seepage of
internal fluids;
construction constraints:
- weight of segments (impact on formwork
stripping operations, handling, yard storage,
ring erection using erector arm),
- size of ring elements (transport from pre-
cast yard, supply to the workface),
- impacts on concreting conditions (curva-
ture),
- segment behaviour under TBM thr ust
(limitation of risk that cracks will appear
under temporar y stresses resulting from
bearing defects between rings),
- positioning of TBM thrust mechanisms.
- ring-to-ring assembly constraints (layout
of ring assembly devices).
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
Segment
Figure 3 : Typical cross-section of a ring
3.4.6 - Segment geometry
The geometr y of a segment is essentially
linked to the type of ring assembly system
retained.
The following shapes can be distinguished:
"Solid" segments:
These are the most frequently used today;
almost their full wall thickness contributes
to the strength of the ring.They incorporate
small size pockets allowing assembly of the
different parts of the ring (by anchor bolts,
cur ved bolts, plugs, etc.; see 3.5.5 -
Segment assembly systems);
"Hollow" or "ribbed" segments:
Figure 5 : "Hollow" and "ribbed" segments (Caracas
Underground - Lines 1 and 2)
213
Although often used in the past, today their
use is almost exclusively confined to struc-
tures such as shafts. They require an larger
excavation diameter than solid segments for
the same sectional area and inertia.The size
of the hollows allows implementation of an
assembly system based on straight bolts,
which requires greater rearward clearance
during erection than other assembly sys-
tems.
3.4.7 - Nature of lining materials
The main constituent materials of a tunnel
lining are:
concrete, containing:
- cement,
- aggregates,
- admixtures
reinforcing steel.
3.4.7.1 - Cement
Preference should be given to using addi-
tive-free rapid-hardening cements, whose
durability is unaffected or little affected by
steam curing.
For this type of application, use of standard
CPA-CEM I-type cement is therefore pre-
ferred to the following cement types:
- CPJ - CEM II
- CLC - CEM V
- CLK - CEM III
- CHF - CEM III.
However, the latter types can be considered
for tunnel linings in aggressive ground
Figure 4 : "Solid" segments
(Lille Underground - lines 1 bis - section B)
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
Lining wall thickness (cm)
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
Lining internal diameter (m)
final lining - open face TBM
final lining - compressed air TBM
final lining - slurry pressure TBM
final lining - earth pressure TBM
Figure 6 gives an idea of the increase in segmental lining wall thickness with respect to the tunnel internal diameter.
conditions based on special mix design and
production if necessary.
Use of CPA - PMES-type cement may be
recommended for certain applications.
3.4.7.2 - Aggregates
In general, the nature of fine and coarse
aggregates used depends on the available
quarries in the area where the tunnel is to
be built.
Aggregate sizes must suit perfectly the geo-
metrical accuracy of the segments, form-
work recesses, reinforcement arrangements
and possible connector inserts.
The proper ties of these materials will be
specified on the basis of physical and chemi-
cal analyses and examinations. In particular,
aggregates will be sought which are frost-
resistant, unreactive, sound, free of fines,
non-absorbent, non-brittle and hard. Sands
should preferably contain (mineral) filler.
Continuous aggregate grading should be
specified to ensure good workability when
placing the fresh concrete in the moulds.
3.4.7.3 - Admixtures
In cases in which aggregates lack fines, use of
additional fly-ash or fillers (e.g. limestone-
based materials) are recommended. The
origin of such products should of course be
checked.
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
temporary lining - open face TBM
temporary lining - compressed air TBM
temporary lining - slurry pressure TBM
temporary lining - earth pressure TBM
The use of standardized water-reducing
superplasticizers is recommended to obtain
increased workability to achieve higher
strength.
N.B. In France, studies are being conducted
on the fire resistance of silica fumes within
the framework of the BHP 2000 national
project.
3.4.7.4 - Reinforcement
Grades of steel used for segment reinfor-
cing cages must comply with applicable
standards.
The most commonly used steels are wel-
dable hot-rolled or cold-worked Fe E 500
and Fe E 235 grades.
Should hot-rolled steel, generally featuring a
large quantity of mill scale, be used, care
must be taken to remove this scale before
welding (during straightening of coiled steel
or by shot blasting steel bars).
3.4.7.5 - Reinforcing fibres
Use of metal fibres, exclusively or in addi-
tion to conventional reinforcement, has
been experimented in cer tain works. In
France, studies are in progress for the pur-
pose drawing up relevant design r ules,
within the framework of the national metal
fibre reinforced concrete project (BEFIM).
214
3.5 - Lining installed within
the area enclosing the TBM
The various operating and environmental
constraints referred to above ver y often
impose erection of the lining rings under
cover of the TBM in the rear par t of its
shield tail.
Different points entering into the design of
this type of lining are enlarged upon in the
following sections.
3.5.1 - Ring design principle
As already referred to above in Section 3.4,
this lining design can require the adoption
of:
either straight rings to be used for the
straight sections and tapered rings (or tape-
red wedges) to be used specially for curved
sections of the tunnel route and/or for cor-
recting TBM deviations.
or universal tapered rings to be used on a
systematic basis, including for straight sec-
tions of the tunnel route; the tapers of one
ring compensate for those of another ring,
thereby cancelling out the overall tapering
effect.
It should be noted that this second type of
design, besides being the most frequently
used, implies fabricating specific moulds for
each segment (the amount of taper being
different from one segment to the another).
3.5.2 - Composition of rings
In general, division of a lining ring into seg-
ments depends on the ring erection tech-
nology retained.
3.5.2.1 - Rectangular and trapezoidal
segments
This design does not generally allow the
excavation cycle to be restar ted until the
ring has been completely erected.
The gap available between the extrados of
the ring being erected and the intrados of
the shield tail is usually small and ring clo-
sure is very often ensured by a longitudinal
key, which requires additional forward space
to allow insertion of this final segment.
To partially satisfy this constraint, use of a
key segment of "trapezoidal shape" in plan
(see figure 7) is very often resorted to.
Consequently, the geometr y of the seg-
ments adjacent to this ring part will have to
be special to suit that of the key: these adja-
cent elements are called counter segments.
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

Key

SECTION AA

Direction
Key
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

of advance

Figure 7 : Longitudinally inserted key segment

Figure 8 : Rectangular and trapezoidal segments - perspective view

Thus, in this type of design, a lining ring
generally comprises:
rectangular virtually identical (apart from
possible taper) standard segments, whose DIRECTION OF TBM ADVANCE
number can vary from one project to ano-
ther (see figure 8);
Key segment
two counter segments;
Standard segment Counter segment
one key segment.
Assembly of these ring elements is often
under taken by means of bolts or anchor
bolts (see 3.5.5 - Segment assembly sys-
tems).
In general, contact faces between segments Segments are numbered in accordance with their order of placement
are offset longitudinally both to prevent
defects in watertightness at the corners and Figure 9 : Rectangular and trapezoidal segments -
to maintain a certain pressure on the seg- longitudinal offsetting of contact faces between segments
ments previously placed to prevent them
from loosening completely when the TBM
thrust cylinders are retracted (see figure 9).
In some cases, these contact faces can be DIRECTION OF TBM ADVANCE
aligned (see figure 10); this configuration
can be adopted in particular : Key segment
at future openings (entrances to cross- Standard segment Counter segment
tunnels, etc.) to be provided in the lining;
in areas in which alignment corrections
are made essential (special care must then
be taken in relation to measures to be
adopted to guarantee water tightness at
segment corners);
Segments are numbered in accordance with their order of placement
if defects in water tightness at segment
corners are not a concern (systematic align- Figure 10 : Rectangular and trapezoidal segments -
ment of contact faces). longitudinal alignment of contact faces between segments

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

215
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
Two different ring designs can be conside-
red with this type of rectangular or trape-
zoidal segment:
Universal segment
As its name suggests, this design requires
only one set of rings.
The key segment can then be erected in any
angular position.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
Key segment at Key segment at
bottom of ring top of ring
Figure 11 : Sequence of universal rings
"Left" and "right" rings
This type of design necessitates resorting to
two sets of rings, to which the following
constraints apply:
- ring taper,
- key and counter segments with specific
geometry,
- key positions limited to the upper semi-
circumference of the ring.
If necessary, "left" and "right" rings can be
transformed into universal rings (correction
of tunnel alignment deviations, etc.).
Figure 12 : Sequence of "left" and "right" rings - key sys-
tematically positioned above the horizontal diameter
Contractors' final choice of one or the
other type of rings is very often based on
practices tested at length on different pro-
jects.
3.5.2.2 - Parallelogrammic and trape-
zoidal segments
This ring design is associated with the use of
plugs incorporated in the lining wall at the
contact face between successive rings
(transverse contact face) (see 3.5.5 -
Segment assembly systems).
When erected, segments are fitted with
these projecting plugs, which are lined up in
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
front of the existing pockets in the pre-
viously erected ring in order that they can
then be driven in hard.
The segment being erected is pushed longi-
tudinally on the projecting section without
any real oppor tunity for crosswise move-
ment. For this reason and for the purpose of
maintaining gradual transverse compression
of the radial gasket section (between seg-
ments) whilst sliding the segment longitudi-
nally, standard segment geometr y is desi-
gned in the shape of a parallelogram.
Thus, this type of lining ring usually com-
prises (see figure 13):
parallelogrammic standard segments ,
whose number varies from one project to
another ;
one reversed key segment;
one key segment.
Configuration 1, shown in figure 14, requires
segments to be erected in the same order
of placement from one ring to another.
Under the pressure exerted by the longitu-
dinally oriented waterproofing gaskets (bet-
ween segments of the same ring), the rings
can be gradually subjected to disruptive
rotation in the absence of transverse bolts.
In time, this rotation can lead to a discre-
pancy of several centimetres between the
position of the rings and that of the TBM
thrust cylinder ram pads.
To overcome this gradual rotation, a solu-
tion based on alternate segment erection
with respect to the first ring part placed is
recommended (see figure 15).
3.5.2.3 - Trapezoidal segments
This ring design may allow tunnel excava-
tion and lining erection operations to be
Figure 13 : Parallelogrammic and trapezoidal segments - Perspective view
216
carried out simultaneously (stroke of thrust
cylinders adapted to two ring lengths).
In general, a ring is broken down into an
even number of trapezoidal segments. Half
the segments are "counter" type, i.e. wider
on the side of the previously placed ring.
The other half are "key" type, i.e. narrower
on the side of the previously placed ring
(see figure 16).
Once in place, the counter segments pro-
vide suppor t for the thrust cylinders, the-
reby allowing the TBM to advance again.
During this time, ring erection can continue
with the key segments, as long as the shield
tail seal is not crossed. Subsequently, rear
support for the thrust cylinders is transfer-
red to the key segments without halting
TBM penetration.
This continuous penetration method
requires the following problems to be over-
come:
placement of "key" segments between the
"counter" segments;
total thrust can be mobilized using only
some of the thrust cylinders or continuous
penetration is limited to certain favourable
ground conditions requiring reduced thrust;
more difficult guidance.
3.5.3 - Contact surfaces
3.5.3.1 - Circumferential or trans-
verse contact joints
Contact joints between adjacent rings can
be required to bear :
compressive (possibly eccentric) loads
resulting from the longitudinal thrust of the
TBM;
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

shear forces due to differential deforma-

tions between adjacent rings associated DIRECTION OF TBM ADVANCE
with:
- offsetting of contact faces between rings Reverse key type segment Key type segment
(see figure 9), shear being transmitted by
permanent ring assembly systems (bolts,
anchor bolts, plugs, tenons, etc.),
- non-uniform load distributions resulting
from the ground or from neighbouring
structures. Segments are numbered in accordance with their order of placement
Obviously, assembly systems offer different
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

capacities for opposing potential displace- Figure 14 : Parallelogrammic and trapezoidal segments - Configuration 1
ment of the ring parts with respect to each
other (out-of-flushness). DIRECTION OF TBM ADVANCE
The final geometry of these contact joints
and their possible additional equipment
must be selected in relation to the purpose Key type segment Reverse key type segment
of the tunnel (wastewater collector, water
conveyance, rail or road tunnel, etc.) and
must be compatible with the out-of-flush-
ness tolerance.
forces resulting from segments overhan-
ging (accidentally or otherwise) during ring Segments are numbered in accordance with their order of placement
assembly.
These contact joints usually fall under one Figure 15 : Parallelogrammic and trapezoidal segments - Configuration 2
of the following types:
a) plane contact joints DIRECTION OF TBM ADVANCE
This contact principle is shown diagramma-
tically in figure 17.
Key type segment Reverse key type segment
Depending on the relative intensity of the
forces described above, radial slippage can
occur leading to out-of-flushness of one
segment with respect to an adjacent one.
Addition of mechanical systems (see
3.5.5.) can help to limit the extent of this
Segments are numbered in accordance with their order of placement
phenomenon.
Out-of-flushness can be acceptable or
Figure 16 : Trapezoidal segments
unacceptable depending on the purpose of
the tunnel (temporary or permanent, air or
water conveyance function to be fulfilled). b) combined geometry contact
When it is unacceptable, it may be possible excavation
joints
to turn to combined geometr y contact
joints of a form allowing transfer of shear This type of contact joint, shown back grouting

forces. in figure 18, is less common than

extrados
waterproofing
excavation gasket

back grouting

extrados boss
waterproofing gasket intrados

plane contact joint

intrados
boss

Figure 17 : Plane contact joint Figure 18 : Example of combined geometry contact joint

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

217
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

excavation excavation

back grouting back grouting

extrados waterproofing gasket extrados waterproofing gasket

convex face concave face

plane contact joint

intrados intrados
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

Figure 19 : Example of plane contact joint Figure 20 : Example of concave-convex cylindrical contact joint

the one above because it is difficult to
reconcile erection tolerances with the load
transfer efficiency which could be assumed
from such a system.
Moreover, there is a danger that very high
local stresses will develop in the load trans-
fer zones (boss, tenon and mor tise, etc.)
and reinforcement of these zones, by means
of reinforcing bars, is often delicate simply
because of the contact joint geometry. In
this type of design, it is thus essential to
study carefully the geometr y of such
contact joints.
Finally, normal loads are necessarily concen-
trated on reduced surfaces which must be
capable of sustaining such loads.
3.5.3.2 - Radial or longitudinal contact
joints
The effects of both the surrounding ground
conditions and back grouting cause these
contact joints between segments of the
same ring to be subjected to:
compressive loads;
bending forces:
It should be noted that bending forces are
reduced in the immediate vicinity of the
radial contact joint. The inertia of this zone
is effectively lowered with respect to that of
the standard section;
transverse shear forces.
The final geometry of these contact joints
must therefore be guided by the following
aims:
to allow correct centring of stresses;
to limit the danger of segment out-of-flu-
shness, which both generates disruptive
loads and can be detrimental to the pur-
pose of the tunnel (e.g. air or water
conveyance).
These contact joints are usually one of the
following types:
a) Plane contact joints
This type of contact joint, shown in figure
19, is the most commonly used because, in
general, it is sufficient for transferring the
forces applied to the rings.
A mechanical assembly system is generally
incorporated; it contributes to maintaining
erection accuracy by preventing, in particu-
lar, gradual drift in both segment alignment
and intersegment contact.
b) Cylindrical contact joints
When ring stresses are too high to consider
plane contact surfaces, joints are often desi-
gned with cylindrical surfaces.
Through plasticizing the concrete, the
contact surface widens gradually in relation
to the load and centres it.
These contact joints can be of different
types:
concave-convex cylindrical contact joints
(see figure 20):
The radius of curvature of the concave sur-
face may be greater than that of the convex
surface in cases when rotation of ring parts
in contact is expected or, conversely, these
radii of cur vature can be essentially the
same (the system is then intended to pro-
vide shear strength only);
convex-convex cylindrical contact sur-
faces (see figure 21).
c) Other contact joints (see figure 22).
Incorporation of a guide rod can be adop-
ted in some cases.
3.5.3.3 - Flanks
Given the intensity of compressive stresses
often applied to the contact surfaces, whe-
ther they be transverse or longitudinal,
experience gained from past projects leads
to the recommendation that ver y special
care should be taken in designing segment
flanks in order to limit breakage at their
edges to a minimum.
It should be borne in mind that these frac-
tures, which are often observed in the seg-
ment intrados and repaired by simply resto-
ring, can also affect the extrados of lining
ring par ts and can lead to local damage
which is difficult to repair and is prejudicial

excavation excavation

back grouting
back grouting

extrados extrados waterproofing gasket

convex face convex face guide rod

intrados intrados

Figure 21 : Example of convex-convex cylindrical contact joint Figure 22 : Example of contact joint incorporating a guide rod

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

218
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
Figure 23 : Spalling and cracking of concrete cover
to the durability of the wor ks (water
ingress, corrosion of reinforcement, etc.).
Whilst it is advantageous to provide relative
large flanks in the contact zones in order to
overcome the above problems, it should be
ensured that the stresses acting on the
contact surfaces remain acceptable, inclu-
ding under unfavourable construction confi-
gurations (eccentricity of load from thrust
cylinders especially in cur ved alignments,
erection tolerances, etc.).
Detailed geometrical design of these flanks
should be undertaken in parallel with that
of the reinforcement in order to guarantee
the highest possible strength at these parti-
cularly highly stressed segment sections.
Similarly, in cases in which lining waterproo-
fing is to be provided by means of compres-
sible gasket sections, it should be ensured
that the groove receiving the gasket is posi-
tioned sufficiently far away from the extra-
dos to avoid the segment edges breaking off
when the system is compressed under load.
Moreover, whilst it has been the practice to
provide a chamfer around the extrados
edges of both transverse and longitudinal
contact joints, this may give rise to certain
drawbacks such as:
- risk of defective imper viousness of the
TBM tail seal with respect to the back grou-
ting product, water in the surrounding
ground or slurry from the forward chamber
(in cases involving hydraulic confinement);
Figure 24 : Examples of compressible waterproofing gaskets
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
- risk of accident to personnel in charge of
segment mould-based operations (sharp
projecting edges for forming chamfers).
To avoid these risks, it is preferable to pro-
vide either sharp edges or, if this chamfer is
retained, to incorporate a foam rubber (or
similar) seal over its full length; this
construction-based provision will thereby
solve the first problem but not the second.
3.5.4 - Waterproofing gaskets
It should be recalled that, when an water-
proofing function is sought from a segmen-
tal lining, this can be fulfilled by:
the segments themselves, for which it is
important to limit in particular :
- the mass porosity,
- cracking associated with temporar y or
permanent stresses,
- defects involving formation of the groove
receiving the waterproofing gasket;
waterproofing gasket positioned between
the segments.
Properties of the latter are described in the
"recommandations pour les profils d'tan-
chit entre voussoirs" (recommendations
for intersegment waterproofing gasket)
presented by A.F.T.E.S. Working Group 9
(see T.O.S. Issue 116, March-April 1993).
The remainder of this description applies to
so-called "conventional" waterproofing gas-
kets retained for the design of standard tun-
nel projects involving low to medium over-
burden.
N.B. These imper vious systems are not
transposable to other tunnel projects invol-
ving very high overburden (e.g. major Alpine
crossings). Research work (International
Eureka Contun) is in fact being conducted
concerning the design of TBMs and tunnel
linings suited to the special constraints
imposed by such projects. On account of
the very high pressures liable to be exerted
on these linings (loads induced by both
ground and water), thoughts are very natu-
rally tending towards seeking a reduction in
their rigidity by incorporating a degree of
deformability in par ticular at their water-
proofing gaskets.
Figure 25 : Examples of water-expansive waterproofing gasket
219
3.5.4.1 - Compressible gasket sections
a) Properties
It should be recalled that these are elasto-
meric gaskets, which have been designed
and manufactured for fitting to precast
concrete lining segments (see figure 24).
Watertigntness is ensured by compressing
them during erection and maintaining this
compression throughout the life of the
structure.
During construction, the compressive load
is applied by the TBM thrust cylinders or
segment erector and is temporarily maintai-
ned by the ring building system.
Watertigntness of gasket sections is guaran-
teed for a permanent hydrostatic pressure
laid down in the project specifications.
b) Construction configurations
In general, the gasket is fitted into a groove
formed in the segment faces; it is positioned
several centimetres from the segment
extrados and fitted around the full perime-
ter of the segment.
Gasket section dimensions must be compa-
tible with erection tolerances and take into
account ring out-of-roundness.
In the specific case of water conveyance
pressure tunnels, combined behaviour of
the ground / lining must be analysed before
possibly modifying the position of the
imper vious gasket within the lining wall
(conventional well tested approach).
3.5.4.2 - Water-expansive gasket
a) Properties
It is recalled that these are elastomeric
waterproofing gasket with water-expansive
properties, i.e. they swell in the presence of
water.These cycles can alternate during the
life of the works.
If necessar y, initial water tigntness can be
achieved by compression. The presence of
water then triggers swelling of the water-
expansive material, which allows the applied
hydrostatic pressure to be resisted.
Watertightness of gasket is guaranteed for a
permanent hydrostatic pressure laid down
in the project specifications.
Water-expansive parts
Neutral parts
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
In some cases, these gasket can be reinfor-
ced by "neutral" (non water-expansive)
parts (see figure 25).
b) Construction configurations
The gasket is positioned on the segment
sides several centimetres from its extrados.
There are two types of construction confi-
guration (see figure 26).
In the double thickness system, gasket are
fitted around the full perimeter of each seg-
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
ment.
In the single thickness system, gasket are fit-
ted around half the segment perimeter with
a return of several centimetres at diagonally
opposing corners.
As in the case of compressible sections,
waterproofing gasket dimensions must be
compatible with erection tolerances and
take into account ring out-of-roundness.
3.5.4.3 - Combined gaskets
a) Principle
These are products which combine both
types of gaskets described above.
The compressible gasket represents the
basic component and the water-expansive
gasket is usually fitted into the groove for-
med in the former (see figure 27).
This composite product allows the water-
proofing system offered by either the com-
pressible or the water-expansive gasket to
be complemented.
b) Construction configurations
As in the case of the compressible gasket,
Removal of strip forming
the groove
State of compressible section
whilst "stripping" the groove
"Dovetailed" water-expansive section
Final state with "dovetailed"
water-expansive section
Figure 27 : Example of combined waterproofing gaskets
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
Double thickness gasket system
Direction of advance
Figure 26 : Layout principle for waterproofing gaskets
the combined section is fitted around the
full perimeter of each segment and positio-
ned several centimetres from its extrados.
3.5.5 - Segment assembly systems
3.5.5.1 - Purpose of assembly systems
Assembly mechanisms implemented at cir-
cumferential (transverse) and radial (longi-
tudinal) contact joints are aimed at:
maintaining sufficient erection accuracy by
preventing gradual cumulative out-of-flush-
ness between segments and gaps at contact
joints;
keeping waterproofing gasket compressed
in the short-term, during construction, and
even in the long-term, during tunnel opera-
tion, especially in the vicinity of stations;
ensuring segment stability at ring building
stage, even when there no load is exerted
by the TBM thrust cylinders. However, mea-
sures might be adopted to ensure this stabi-
lity without necessarily resorting to the use
of assembly systems (e.g. a thrust cylinder
anti-retract system);
ensuring segments are kept in their rela-
tive positions (guidance role) in the specific
case of water conveyance tunnels, for which
linings are required to "breathe" during tun-
nel filling and emptying cycles.
In general, longitudinal assembly systems are
regular ly spaced along each transver se
contact joint (between consecutive rings).
Their number varies from one project to
another depending on:
the forces to be balanced;
the desired possibilities for relative rota-
tion of a ring with respect to the last one
installed (considering the constraints impo-
sed by the design, such as offsetting of longi-
tudinal contact joints, small deviations in ali-
gnment, etc.).
220
Single thickness gasket system
When they exist, assembly systems bet-
ween segments in the same ring generally
comprise between one and three units.
In standard rings, longitudinal and trans-
verse assembly systems are usually only
essential during construction (except when
wanting to take advantage of the contribu-
tion to rigidity of adjacent rings whose
radial contact joints are then combined).
As a general rule therefore, these assembly
systems can be removed when the TBM is
more than 200 metres away and all additio-
nal grouting operations have been comple-
ted.
In the vicinity of stations, longitudinal assem-
bly systems are usually necessar y during
tunnel operation to keep the waterproofing
gaskets compressed. They are therefore
kept in place over a minimum tunnel length
of two or three diameters.
The durability of all permanent assembly
systems must be the same as that of the
structure itself.
3.5.5.2 - Bolted assemblies
Bolts or threaded rods are fixed from poc-
kets provided on the intrados side of the
lining.
These bolts are generally of two types:
straight bolts fixed from hollows formed
in the intrados of segments:
- bearing directly on the concrete (see
figures 28 and 29),
- bearing on steel plates inserted in the seg-
ments (see figure 30);
curved bolts allowing the volume of the
hollows to be significantly reduced (see
figure 31).
3.5.5.3 - Inclined socket bolted assem-
blies
This assembly system allows a reduction in
the number of pockets in the intrados of
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

Washer
Extrados Extrados

Intrados
Nut
Bolt Pocket
Washer Washer Pocket Intrados
Washer Threaded Nut
Nut
Pocket rod
Figure 28 : Example of removable assembly using straight bolts Figure 29 : Example of permanent assembly (straight bolts previously inserted into one
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

of the segments before placing the adjacent segment)

Pocket
Steel plate 3.5.5.4 - Assemblies using plugs, studs Plug
Extrados or other derivatives
Back grouting
Compared with the assemblies described Extrados
Excavation
above, such systems (see figures 33 and 34)
can offer a number of advantages such as:
no pockets in the intrados of segments, Plug
thereby providing the lining with improved
Intrados Connector insert air or water conveyance properties;
Nut
Washer Bolt reinforcement of ring par ts is often Intrados

Figure 30 : Example of steel plate assembly using short bolts

easier ; Pockets
Segment being placed Ring erected
simplified ring erection operations;

Curved bolt
good centring of rings with respect to
each other (reduced out-of-flushness); Plug
Extrados
high shear strength (with some types of
Back grouting
plug); Excavation
Extrados
greater safety of personnel (no human
intervention inside the ring).
Intrados Nut Apar t from the fact that most of these
Washer Pocket Bolt head
devices cannot be removed, they can fur-
Segment being placed Ring erected thermore inhibit cer tain degrees of free-
dom, which may result in excessive lining Intrados
Figure 31 : Example of assembly using curved bolts stresses. Pockets
When designing and sizing these assem- Segment being placed Ring erected
Socket blies, it is therefore essential to evaluate as
Extrados Figure 33 : Examples of assembly using plugs
closely as possible all the loads to which
such connections are likely to be subjected
(e.g. dissymmetry of thrust cylinder loads,
overhanging of segments, differential ring

Back grouting

Intrados
Pocket
Socket
bolt Anchor bolt Excavation
Segment being Washer head Extrados
placed Ring erected

Figure 32 : Example of assembly using inclined socket bolts

the segments.This design also allows tighte-

ning up operations to be carried out under Intrados
cover of a fully erected ring and no longer
under segments only held in place by the Segment
erector arm and the TBM thrust cylinders; being placed Ring erected
this system thereby ensures increased safety
of personnel (see figure 32). Figure 34 : Examples of assembly using pins

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

221
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
out-of-roundness, waterproofing gasket
crushing and distortion loads, local stresses
capable of reducing the assembly capacity
of the system, tendency for key ejection,
etc.) in order to prevent the appearance of
disturbances concentrated at these connec-
tions, which could adverse affect the durabi-
lity of the structure.
3.5.6 - Connector inserts, pockets
Pockets, as well as most connector inserts
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
fitted to lining segments, represent sources
of reduced strength of the reinforced
concrete ring elements. Their potential
impact on segment structural behaviour
(including during construction stages prece-
ding ring erection) as well as on the pur-
pose of the tunnel must, therefore, be clo-
sely examined.
3.5.6.1 - Connector inserts
In general, connector inserts can fulfil two
sets of functions:
temporary functions :
- handling, erection (socket for segment
pick-up bolts, etc.),
- adjustment,
- assembly (sockets for bolts, etc.),
- mating (pre-grouted sockets, etc.)
- grouting;
permanent functions:
- traceability (identification of characteristic
zones, etc.),
- fixing (pre-grouted sockets for supporting
service equipment or floors, etc.),
- mating, connection,
- instrumentation (vibrating wire extenso-
meters, total pressure measuring cells, etc.),
- inspection.
It should be stressed that their positioning
within the segments sometimes calls for
alterations in segment reinforcement detai-
ling in order to:
comply with concrete coverage require-
ments;
avoid zones occupied by the connector
inserts;
reinforce the concrete immediately in
contact with these connector inserts (local
stresses, pulling out, etc.).
3.5.6.2 - Pockets
In general, pockets can fulfil two sets of
functions:
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
temporary functions:
- handling, erection (e.g. for picking up units
using "grippers" or "pins"),
- assembly (holes and boxes for inserting or
fixing assembly mechanisms, etc.),
- grouting (holes through the segment wall),
- precutting (e.g. to facilitate later formation
of openings at in-line structures).
permanent functions
- traceability (recess for identification of
characteristic zones),
- building in of specific equipment,
- instrumentation (concrete control blocks,
etc.).
These pockets can sometimes lead to struc-
tural weakening of the segments concerned
and very often complicated detailing of ring
par t reinforcement (local discontinuity of
reinforcing bars, etc.). It is thus important to
limit their number and size to a minimum.
Moreover, in the case of designs involving
high air- and water conveyance-based
constraints, their presence on the segment
intrados requires the adoption of often
costly special measures (sealing of "boxes",
internal second lining, etc.).
3.5.7 - Stuffings for distributing
loads at segment contact joints
Incorporation of stuffings may be called for
to distribute TBM thrust loads over ring
interfaces (circumferential or transverse
contact joints), whilst "smoothing out" as
much as possible inaccuracies resulting from
both segment precasting tolerances (often
ver y low) and erection tolerances during
ring building, or to "channel" these loads
towards specially reinforced sections of the
segments.
These millimetre thick stuffings must pro-
vide sufficient surface area to fulfil their
function and, on the contrary, must not be a
source of "load concentration" through
Figure 35 : Example of distribution of stuffings for spreading TBM thrust loads over a segment flank
222
dimensional underestimation (see figure 35)
or an unsuitable layout.
Materials used can be very different depen-
ding on design philosophies retained. They
can be of low stiffness and even behave like
"flowing" (e.g. bitumen-based) materials or,
on the other hand, they can be relatively
stiff (e.g. hard Isorel).
3.5.8 - Back grouting behind ring
extrados
3.5.8.1 - Purpose of back grouting
The purpose of these grouting operations is
to fill the annular gap between the lining
extrados and the TBM-excavated ground
profile.
The grouting material therefore fulfils seve-
ral functions:
in the short term:
- it ensures efficient blocking of the lining
against the enclosing ground to reduce the
danger of ring displacement especially
during TBM thrusting and passage of the
back-up equipment, when support is essen-
tial,
- it minimizes surrounding ground deforma-
tions likely to cause disorders both above
and below ground (especially in urban
and/or sensitive environments),
- in the case of pressurized face TBMs, it
provides good control of confinement pres-
sure (especially when using compressed air)
by ensuring imperviousness at the back of
the machine;
in the long term:
- it ensures the most uniform bond bet-
ween the lining and the ground and there-
fore offers effective distribution of confine-
ment loads at this interface; an essential
condition for guaranteeing the durability of
the structure, especially when it is a pres-
sure tunnel at operating stage,
- in cer tain ver y special cases, it fulfils a
"drainage" function (granular matrix).
Stuffings for distributing loads
in contact with segments
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

3.5.8.2 - Nature of infilling material grouting through the lining by means of

Except for materials with a granular matrix,
the composition of an infilling material will
determine:
its rheology:
the infilling material must, on the one hand,
be sufficiently fluid to facilitate its placement
and to fill completely the annular gap and,
on the other hand, be sufficiently firm to
avoid leakage through the shield tail seals
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
holes incorporated in the segment struc-
ture (grouting operation generally not
controlled by the TBM);
continuous grouting at the rear end of the
shield tail through integrated grout pipes
arranged longitudinally within the tail (grou-
ting operation controlled by TBM).
In general, the latter process provides grea-
ter control of ground deformations.
Grouting pressures to be implemented are

and segment waterproofing gaskets, as well

as to avoid seepage flows along the shield
tail towards the front of the TBM.
Moreover, its setting time must suit the
construction conditions;
its short- and long-term structural proper-
ties:
the infilling material must suit the ground
and construction conditions (convergence
of ground, rate of penetration, etc.); its
modulus of deformation and compressive
strength must be sufficient to prevent lining
out-of-roundness.
There are currently two main types of grou-
ting material:
active material:
cement-based grout to which fly-ash, sand,
filler, bentonite, lime and admixtures such as
water-reducing plasticizer, retarder or acce-
lerator may be added;
inert material:
cement-free material comprising a mixture
of bentonite, polymers, filler and sand with
the possible addition of a plasticizer. The
material will be termed "semi-inert" if lime
or fly-ash is added.
In the case of sufficiently stable enclosing
ground, infilling can be carried out in two
stages:
primary infilling with a fine gravel "matrix"
to ensure blocking of the lining in step with
TBM penetration;
secondary grouting to improve bond bet-
ween the lining and the ground, which is
often deferred and independent from TBM
penetration.
3.5.8.3 - Back grouting implementa-
tion
As detailed in Section 3.5.8.1, back grouting
is carried out in step with TBM advance for
reasons of efficiency.
Two implementation processes are com-
monly used:
determined in relation to the type of infilling
material, geological and hydrogeological
conditions (ground loads and stiffnesses,
hydrostatic pressure), lining strength and
construction aims sought (formation of
ground-based suppor t, control of ground
deformations, etc.).
During constr uction, it is impor tant to
monitor continuously the grouting pres-
sures as well as the volume of material back
grouted.
3.5.8.4 - Additional grouting
Should the primar y back grouting prove
insufficient for the purpose of the structure,
resorting to additional grouting through the
lining may be contemplated.
3.5.8.5 - Grouting quality control
In general, grouting quality control is prefe-
rable to damaging the lining by taking core
samples. However, the latter do allow the
quality of annular gap infilling to be ascertai-
ned, although they should obviously be limi-
ted to a minimum.
3.6 - Lining installed outsi-
de the area occupied by
the TBM
It may be advantageous to erect segments
outside the area enclosing the TBM when
ground stability permits and water inflows
are naturally low.
3.6.1 - Ring design principle
In this case, the ring is built outside the
shield tail after placing the invert segment;
ring stability is only ensured after longitudi-
nal driving in of the key segment which, due
to its trapezoidal shape, expands the ring
thereby pushing the segments against the
surrounding ground.
The length of the key in the longitudinal
direction of the tunnel is less than the
length of the ring enabling it to be driven in
to a maximum between the two counter
Figure 36 : Example of expanded ring
segments; the longitudinal travel of this key
can vary slightly depending on the ground
and the erected configuration of the first
segments.
2 to 3 cm thick pads feature on the extra-
dos of the segments allowing both a good
bond with the surrounding ground and the
possibility of light back grouting.
Other ring closure systems have also been
implemented on some projects: double key,
spring line jacking system.
3.6.2 - Advantages and draw-
backs
The advantages of this expended ring solu-
tion are:
straightforwardness of implementation;
the simplicity of the structure (no water-
proofing gaskets);
speed of progress in good ground, when
very regular excavation can be maintained;
segment erection is very regular and fol-
lows the excavated profile because segment
contact surfaces are cylindrical;
saving due to no intersegment bolting.
However, there are also quite a number of
drawbacks to this solution:
ring building and the TBM guiding system
are not interrelated (no rear cylinders);
ring geometry does not allow them to be
deviated one way or the other ; shims have
to be slipped between rings to follow cor-
rectly the excavation;
"Wingdings" contact faces between rings
are no impervious and it is impossible to
undertake pressure back grouting to fill in
properly the gap left around the extrados
pads;

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

223
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
nothing at all can be done to ensure any
degree of water tightness if water inflows
are incompatible with tunnel operation; in
this case, a waterproofing membrane and a
cast in-situ lining should be implemented if
possible;
segment erection becomes highly proble-
matical when the ground becomes unstable
during excavation or under the action of
the grippers (overbreak and block falls);
a void at the crown must be mortar-filled
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
because the key segment is shorter than the
ring length in the longitudinal direction.
This solution can be advantageous as long
as, using the same TBM, it allows segment
erection inside the shield tail when difficult
ground is to be penetrated or water inflows
occur.
3.7 - Specific aspects of
water conveyance pressure
tunnels
3.7.1 - Hydrogeological reminders
Knowledge of groundwater pressures
within the soil-rock mass is important when
a tunnel is to be pressurized. This involves,
not only very conventional installation and
reading at regular intervals of piezometers,
but also monitoring the regime of surroun-
ding springs. The reader is referred to the
text entitled "recommandations pour le choix
des paramtres et essais gotechniques utiles
la conception, au dimensionnement et
l'excution des ouvrages creuss en souter-
rain" (recommendations for the design, the
sizing and the construction of underground
excavated str uctures) presented by
A.F.T.E.S. Working Group 7 in T.O.S. Issue
123, June 1994.
Once the pre-excavation hydrogeological
conditions have been established, the
influence of tunnel excavation on behaviour
of the groundwater table(s) must be deter-
mined. Tunnel-driving in fact often causes a
collapse of piezometer levels and therefore
alter s significantly the hydrogeological
conditions in the vicinity of the works.
3.7.2 - Tunnel lining structural
behaviour
3.7.2.1 - Geotechnical aspects
Behaviour of a segment ring therefore
depends on the state of equilibrium of the
following forces, the first two tending to
close intersegment contact joints and the
third tending to open them:
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
confinement pressure;
external hydrostatic pressure;
internal fluid pressure (including hydraulic
transient pressures, in some cases).
It should be noted that the geotechnical
parameters (E, c, CARSPECIAUX 102 \f
"Symbol" ) of the surrounding ground play a
preponderant role in the relevant states of
equilibrium and, as a result, they must be
known for each geological formation cros-
sed.
In general, cases of adverse loading with
respect to opening of intersegment contact
joints are obtained for moderate overbur-
den associated with low geotechnical para-
meters.
Analysis of overall structural behaviour
must also take into account the presence of
back grouting which blocks the lining rings
within the surrounding ground.
3.7.2.2 - Functional aspects
When the zones which will tend to open
the lining rings have been localized, the
hydromechanical behaviour of the tunnel
lining structure will then depend on:
the presence of bolting and its sizing;
the degree of contact joint opening with
respect to compression of the incorporated
waterproofing gaskets.
In general, take-up of tensile loads by bolts
can only be justified in the shor t-term,
except if suitable anti-corrosive material or
protection is provided.
Consequently, elimination of bolting in a
tunnel subject to a tendency for its lining
contact joints to open would appear desi-
rable. Structural waterproofing is only then
ensured if the lining gaskets open only par-
tially with respect to their compressive
strain. A factor of safety of 2 is desirable to
allow possible self-adjustment of the seg-
ment rings during loading / unloading (tun-
nel pressurizing / depressurizing) cycles.
If such conditions cannot be ensured and
total watertightness is required, an additio-
nal waterproofing system is then necessary
(cast-in-place concrete ring, membrane or
any other suitable process).
3.7.3 - Roughness of segment-
lined tunnels
Relatively few loss of head measurements
have been taken on segment-lined waste-
water collectors due to the complex nature
of the means to be implemented.
224
However, tests carried out have allowed the
following main results to be brought to
light:
application of the Colebrook formula is
possible with a segments lining;
loss of head can therefore be calculated
from an equivalent roughness Ks;
equivalent roughness can be related to
the absolute value (s) for the average out-
of-flushness between segment rings;
for 0.60 m long rings and for tunnels with
diameters less than 3.60 m, the following
formula has been established:
Ks (mm) = 0.3 + 60 X (lsl)2/1
where s (positive or negative "step") and l
(length of unit) are expressed in mm.
N.B.: it is advisable to use this formula with
care because it has been established from a
limited number of cases and for 0.60 m long
concrete segments of various types
(smooth or incorporating pockets);
Unlike the behaviour of cast-in-place tun-
nel linings, smoothing by deposits of the
many out-of-flush locations will tend to
reduce the equivalent roughness of a seg-
ment-lined tunnel. However, estimating not
only this reduction but also that of bore
sectional area associated with the presence
of these deposits (reduction in conveyance)
remains a delicate task for the engineer.
3.8 - Construction tole-
rances
3.8.1 - Specification
Construction tolerances for segments for-
ming the permanent lining of an under-
ground structure must be specified on the
basis of general service criteria and must be
laid down in the project specifications.
Moreover, they can vary depending on the
lining design retained (expanded segments,
bolted segments, etc.).
Very often, these tunnel operation-related
tolerances are complemented by other
tolerances, in this case associated with lining
implementation to ensure correct structu-
ral behaviour, as well as the required quality
of finish and imperviousness.
3.8.2 - Identification of main crite-
ria contributing to tolerance speci-
fication
3.8.2.1 - Criteria related to tunnel
function
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
Function-related criteria essentially com-
prise:
tunnel internal sectional area
The accuracy sought must satisfy the gene-
ral profile of the tunnel bore over its whole
route;
operating clearances
For this and for the last point, these criteria
influence specification of tolerances concer-
ning the tunnel construction axis with res-
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
pect to the design theoretical axis;
water and air conveyance flows
It is important that project specifications lay
down geometrical criteria (surface rough-
ness, out-of-flushness, etc.) allowing accep-
table structural head losses;
layout of equipment fixings or pockets.
3.8.2.2 - Tolerances associated with
segment implementation
These tolerances can be broken down in
terms of the following two construction
stages:
casting:
- mould geometry,
- bending and fixing of reinforcing steel;
installation:
- ring building,
- lining deformation under the action of
back grouting and surrounding ground.
3.8.3 - Accuracy
All criteria defined above must be conside-
red in order to specify tolerances in the
construction axis with respect to the struc-
tural design axis.
The required means should then be imple-
mented to ensure compliance with tole-
rances for the segments forming the rele-
vant ring. Successive combinations of these
tolerances mean that dimensions must be
kept within small variations at mould strip-
ping. Geometrical proper ties foreseen at
construction study stage should be repro-
duced to obtain contact faces between seg-
ments or rings which are capable of trans-
ferring loads between ring par ts and
ensuring proper watertightness.
It is therefore essential to identify clearly
the segments sections requiring par ticular
levels of geometrical accuracy and to quan-
tify them.
The main criteria to be examined are:
general dimensions of the assembled ring;
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
ring length (taking into account its pos-
sible taper);
flatness of intersegment contact surfaces
within the same ring and between rings;
roughness;
layout and geometry of pockets provided
(waterproofing gasket grooves, recesses for
plugs or pins, etc.);
layout of connector inserts (pick-up soc-
kets, bolts, connectors, etc.);
clearances allowed for assembly devices;
dimensions of reinforcing cages and
layout of the different reinforcing bars to
ensure:
- suitable corrosion protection,
- proper operation of parts with respect to
contact pressures,
- efficient edge reinforcement.
It is very difficult to recommend the exact
tolerance values to be complied with on a
finished product because they depend on
numerous parameters such as the overall
dimensions of the structure to be built, the
method of erecting segments and their
shape.
To achieve the levels of accuracy sought, it is
clear that concrete shrinkage and tempera-
ture are parameters which must be consi-
dered, especially during segment inspection
at the precast plant.
3.9 - Durability
3.9.1 - Segment concrete
Segment concrete durability depends on
the purpose of the tunnel and may be asso-
ciated with the following criteria:
compactness of concrete mixes;
concrete mix proportions:
- fine aggregate,
- coarse aggregate,
- cement,
- admixtures,
- water,
all require physical chemical analysis of their
constituent materials;
active alkaline balance;
permeability;
environment-related internal and exter-
nal forms of attack:
- temperature,
225
- hydrocarbons,
- aggressive chemical agents contained in
the ground, in the groundwater and in the
liquid conveyed,
- micro-organisms,
- sulphate,
- condensation,
- frost,
- salts,
- fire, etc.
The use of admixtures influencing the
strength of concrete mixes must be chec-
ked to ensure satisfactory performance in
relation to the various forms of attack men-
tioned above.
Selection criteria referred above must take
into account the requirements of both the
contract specifications and current stan-
dards.
Specific impervious treatment (mineraliza-
tion, impregnation, etc.) can be applied to
the extrados of segments to provide pro-
tection against particular forms of attack.
3.9.2 - Steel reinforcing bars
Durability of steel bars used for segment
reinforcement cages is related to the per-
meability of the encasing concrete and
depth of concrete cover, as well as to the
internal and external aggressive environ-
ments mentioned above.
The choice of cement types and their
contents influence passivation of steel rein-
forcing bars.
Chemical composition and surface condi-
tion of these steel bars must ensure good
weldability for reinforcing cage fabrication.
Depth of concrete cover to reinforcement
must be specified with respect to conditions
of structural exposure laid down in the pro-
ject specifications. It may vary depending on
application zone for the stresses encounte-
red and the level of protection sought in
relation to the relevant forms of attack
(intrados fire resistance, inter segment
contact, TBM thrust cylinder bearing sur-
face, etc.).
In general, these depths of concrete cover
can vary from approximately 20 mm (iron-
banded reinforced zones) to approximately
30 mm (standard intrados and extrados
zones).
In some cases, steel protection systems can
be applied:
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
painting;
metallization (galvanization, cataphoresis,
metal-coating);
epoxy-coating;
cathodic protection (electrical links).
3.9.3 - Waterproofing gaskets
In material terms, durability in gasket water-
tightness is associated with the same crite-
ria as those listed above for short- or long-
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
term concrete attack.
Once these criteria have been checked, the
rate of long-term relaxation of the water-
proofing system should be ensured.
Gluing of gaskets is only carried out to
ensure that they remain in their grooves
during segment handling, storage and erec-
tion. Adhesive used must be compatible
with the type of gasket.
3.9.4 - Connector inserts
Connector inser ts must be durable and
neutral with respect to their environment.
In all cases, they must comply with safety
standards in force.
They must be positioned in accordance
with values of concrete cover to reinforce-
ment.
They must cause neither structural weak-
nesses nor preferential water seepage or
electrical flux paths.
3.10 - Economic considera-
tions
Right from the start of the project, tunnel
lining design must integrate construction
methods and take into account factor s
involving its adaptation to the tunnel
construction location (influence on mate-
rials, labour, management and supervision,
etc.) with both engineering optimization
and cost-saving in mind.
From the beginning, it is important to deter-
mine the type of ring best suited to the pro-
ject (universal or "left"/"right" rings), the
most appropriate ring length, the taper and
the number of types of ring required for the
project.
In general, the universal ring is the most
economical from the segment fabrication
point of view (less moulds required, smaller
precast plant area, less types of segment
reinforcing cage).
Analysis of the tightest curves on a project
alignment compared with the straight sec-
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
tions must allow standardization in favour of
one or two possible ring lengths. Creation
of several ring lengths on a project effecti-
vely multiplies the number of mould and
reinforcing cage types, leading to more
complicated and therefore more expensive
precasting, control and handling.
These considerations are also linked to the
type of TBM used (existing machine possibly
modified for the project, new TBM designed
and built for the project).
Reuse of TBMs and segment moulds
undoubtedly provides substantial savings on
similar projects, even if servicing, adaptation
and overhaul is always required.
Thus, on projects such as:
mass transit railway tunnels, especially for
the Val system;
rail and high-speed rail tunnels;
road tunnels;
wastewater collectors, etc.,
it would appear desirable to retain geome-
trical and equipment standards on a project
basis at national level.This would allow pro-
duction capacities to be increased and costs
to be reduced. These standards could be
based on the "rcommandations sur la stan-
dardisation des profils des tunnels circu-
laires" (Recommendations for the standar-
dization of circular tunnel profiles)
presented by A.F.T.E.S. Working Group 11
(see T.O.S. Issue 88, July-August 1988): this
principle is already in hand in several
European Community countries and in
those under Anglo-saxon influence.
4 - TUNNEL LINING DESIGN
4.1 - Main parameters
influencing sizing
4.1.1 - Implementation conditions
4.1.1.1. - From segment precasting to
workface supply
Between casting in the precast plant and
supply to the tunnel workface in view of
erection at the TBM, segments are subjected
to a series of operations which can induce
appreciable stresses in some.
Whilst it is difficult to describe all these
operations, which depend on a process
varying from one project to another, a large
number of operations never theless recur
on a systematic basis. For example, this is
the case for the segment turning stages
226
after mould stripping (both when casting
horizontally - cf. conditions annexed to the
present recommendations - and vertically),
for the handling stages from precast plant to
preliminary storage then storage areas (e.g.
using a lifting beam fitted with grippers, suc-
tion pads or slings, etc.), for the storage
stages involving segment stacking and inser-
tion of timber blocks between units, for the
stages of removal from storage and unloa-
ding on site, or for the stage involving seg-
ment supply to the workface (by trailer or
railcar).
The impact of each of these stages must be
subjected to a reinforced concrete design
check in terms of internal stresses induced
in the segments. These design calculations
must consider not only the possible dyna-
mic effects of handling (e.g. placing a seg-
ment on a stack during lifting or storage
stages) and implementation tolerances (e.g.
accuracy of intersegment block positioning
at the storage area), but also the true age of
the concrete (and thus its characteristic
strength) when carr ying out the relevant
operation.
In most cases, the process only involves
design checking because the sectional areas
of reinforcement and concrete proper ties
for the segments are most often designed
for tunnel service or TBM-excavation stages
(thrust cylinder applied loads). However,
certain cases can become dimensionally cri-
tical and lead to either improving shor t-
term concrete proper ties or increasing
reinforcement sectional areas, or to more
suitable redesigning of cer tain process
stages.
4.1.1.2 - Ring building (erection and
bolting)
Assembly of segments behind the TBM is
carried out using an erector. During erec-
tion, segments are subjected to a number of
loads such as:
the load applied by the segment pick-up
and lifting system (dead weight of the seg-
ments modified by a dynamic coefficient);
loads applied to compress waterproofing
gaskets;
possible bumping impact loads;
loads associated with accidental impacts
during approach;
loads applied by the assembly systems
retained (bolts, anchor bolts or plugs).
Although impact loads are very difficult to
estimate and thus to integrate in the lining
design, the segments must nevertheless be
designed to withstand other types of load.
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
Special care must be given to checking sec-
tions near connector inserts (unsupported
thrusts, local stresses, risks of bursting),
which often result in special construction
requirements or local additional reinforce-
ment.
4.1.2 - Parameters for analysing
ring stresses
Reference may usefully be made to the
summary table provided under 4.3.5.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
4.1.2.1 - Parameters associated with
the surrounding ground
The main parameters concerning the sur-
rounding ground, which can come into play
in terms of analysing the behaviour of a pre-
cast concrete segmental tunnel lining, are
recalled hereunder on the basis of the
A.F.T.E.S. recommendations entitled "le
choix des paramtres et essais gotech-
niques utiles la conception, au dimension-
nement et l'excution des ouvrages creu-
ss en souterrain" (the choice of
geotechnical parameters and tests of use in
the design and constr uction of under-
ground excavated structures).
a) Parameter s associated with natural
constraints
The geological history of the soil-rock mass
must be known; it may have been influenced
by tectonics, consolidation or erosion.
The basic parameters are:
intensity of principal stresses (in particu-
lar, evaluation of the term
Ho
Ko = ( );
Vo
direction of stresses (effects of slope and
dipping of ground layers, etc.).
b) Physical parameters
It is essential to have good knowledge of
parameters such as:
the swelling potential;
the aggressivity of the surrounding envi-
ronment;
the interfaces between ground layers,
anomalies such as discontinuities, non-uni-
formities (voids, blocks, faults, etc.).
c) Engineering parameters
Two types of engineering parameter are
usually characteristic of the soil-rock mass:
strength parameters:
- soil shear strength properties (Cu, ', C')
- direct compressive strength and tensile
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
strength, rock mass characteristic parame-
ters;
deformation capacity parameters:
- Young's modulus E(x, t),
- Poisson's ratio .
In surrounding rock, a reduced value of
Young's modulus, compared with labora-
tory-measured values, should be considered
to take into account the potential deforma-
tion capacity of discontinuities influencing
the rock matrix.
Good command of this parameter is of
prime importance for the design of struc-
tures such as water conveyance internal
pressure tunnels (danger of intersegment
contact joints opening);
seismicity
Evaluation of the surrounding ground dyna-
mic characteristics may be necessary in high
seismic risk areas.
d) Hydrogeological parameters
Knowledge of groundwater pressures
within the soil-rock mass is essential in
ever y underground structure project. In
particular, it is necessary to determine the
influence of tunnel driving on the behaviour
of the groundwater table(s) (drainage, bar-
rier effect, danger of a collapse in ground-
water pressures, etc.).
e) Ground characteristic curves
Ground behaviour can be represented by
shor t- and long-term convergence curves
based on the geological, hydrogeological
and geotechnical parameter s identified
above.
4.1.2.2 - Parameters associated with
TBM characteristics
The table below reveals the main functions
of each TBM structural parameter and its
potential impact on stress analysis.
4.1.2.3 - Lining structural properties
The tunnel lining is discontinuous and its
structural proper ties depend on those of
the segments and contact joints between
lining parts.
a) Segment structural properties:
sectional area, inertia
The inclusion of more or less large pockets
needs to be taken into consideration in the
evaluation of these parameters;
modulus of deformation
This depends essentially on concrete
strength and parameters such as creep, rela-
227
tive humidity and shrinkage;
Poisson's ratio.
b) Intersegment contact joint structural
properties:
sectional area, inertia
These properties allow the capacity for load
transfer between contact joint sectional
areas to be deduced;
ring composition
The discontinuous nature of a ring (an
assembly of elementary segments) leads to
a reduction in its stiffness in bending, whilst
its stiffness in compression is, in general,
only slightly affected by the presence of
intersegment contact joints.
On the other hand, installation of adjacent
rings incorporating combined radial contact
joints, associated with rigid assembly sys-
tems between rings, such as plugs, enables
this effect of reduced ring stiffness in ben-
ding to be limited.
4.1.2.4 - Soil - structure interaction
The main parameters influencing behaviour
of the tunnel lining in contact with the
ground are:
lining/back grouting material and ground/
back grouting material contact conditions.
These can vary between total slippage and
total adherence; however, they tend
towards total adherence with the use of
mortars grouted under good conditions.
Under cer tain ground and groundwater
pressure configurations, the idea of separa-
tion can complement these conditions (lack
of contact between lining and surrounding
ground).
environment
- nearness of existing or planned structures
underground or at the surface (buildings,
utilities, existing tunnels or shafts, deep
foundations, etc.),
- superimposed loads (traffic, buildings
foundations, etc.).
4.2 - Design assumptions
4.2.1 - Regulations and references
4.2.1.1 - Foreword
It should be recalled that limit states analysis
allows checking of both the structure's fac-
tor of safety with respect to failure and its
satisfactory behaviour with respect to servi-
ceability.
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

Impact on stress analysis The main characteristics of the two limit

Parameters Main functions states are recalled in the following table.

a) Confinement pressure 4.2.1.2 - Applicable regulations and

- to ensure excavation face sta-
bility,
- to limit ground deformations.
b) Overcut
- to reduce pressure on TBM
shield tail and lining, especially
when advancing in a curve,
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
- increase in ground deconfine-
ment at lining installation,
decrease in ground loads on
lining.
- augmentation du dconfinement
du terrain la pose du revtement
diminution des charges de ter-
recommendations
The following regulations or recommenda-
tions apply to limit state analyses of reinfor-
ced concrete lining segments:
"Fascicule n 62 Titre I section 1 - Rgles
techniques de conception et de calcul des
ouvrages et constructions en bton arm

rain sur le revtement

c) Shield tail conicality - to allow a degree of ground
convergence over the length of
TBM shield tail to reduce fric-
tion (especially in expansive
ground)
d) TBM length - to reserve space for fitting
different mechanical equipment
from head to thrust mecha-
nisms.
e) TBM thrust - to ensure longitudinal advan-
ce,
- to ensure a reaction to the
confinement pressure,
- to guarantee temporary stabi-
lity of lining segments,
- to ensure compression of
impervious gaskets between
rings prior to installing assem-
bly system,
- to ensure key segment can be
driven in.
f) Back grouting - to ensure blocking between
lining and ground,
- to limit ground deformations.
Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state
Failure of a section due to crushing of concrete Excessive opening of cracks (infiltration, corrosion)
Excessive deformation of steel Excessive compression of concrete causing micro-
Instability of shape (buckling, bulging) cracking
Excessive ring deformations
Loss of static equilibrium at ring erection
- increase in ground deconfine-
ment at lining installation
decrease in ground loads on
lining.
- when ground is not in conti-
nuous contact with the TBM
shield tail extrados, ground loads
on the lining are increasingly
reduced as the shield tail length is
increased,
- conversely, ground convergence
is limited to the annular gap bet-
ween excavation and shield tail
extrados.
- depends on thrust loads imple-
mented and thrust cylinder ram
pad/segment contact conditions
(eccentricities due to installation
tolerances, curved alignment,
buoyancy, localized loads) and
ring/ring contact conditions (geo-
metrical defect in segments,
eccentricities due to installation
tolerances, localized loads).
- local pumping thrust, grouting
pressure, strength properties of
back grouting material (modulus,
Rc, etc.),
- reduction in ground deconfine-
ment,
increase in ground loads on
lining.
suivant la mthode des tats limites (Rgles
BAEL 91)" (Engineering rules for limit state
design and analysis of str uctural and
constructional reinforced concrete based)
(French reinforced concrete code of prac-
tice).
Eurocode 2, published and annotated by
AFNOR (French Standards Institute) in
December 1992;
"Instruction technique sur les Directives
Communes relatives au calcul des construc-
tions" (Engineering guide to Common
Directives covering str uctural design)
(French Govt. Circular n 79-25 of 13th
March 1979);
CEB-FIP International Recommendations,
1990;
NCF (French national railway company)
"Livret 2.01" covering railway loadings and
reinforced concrete design rules;
CPC Fascicule n 61 Titre II covering road
imposed loadings (French code of practice);
AFTES Recommendations currently in
force;
and, in some cases:
"CCTG Fascicule n 62 Titre V - Rgles
techniques de conception et de calcul des
fondations des ouvrages de gnie civil"
(Engineering rules for design and analysis of
civil engineering structures) (French code of
practice);
"Rcommandations provisoires relatives
la modification des rgles de prise en
compte de la fissuration et l'emploi des
btons hautes performances" (Provisional
recommendations for the amendment of
rules for considering cracking and for the
use of high-strength concrete), edited and
circulated by SETRA (French national high-
way engineering agency) in June 1997;
"DTU n 14.1 - Travaux de cuvelage"
(French unified code of practice - Lining and
tanking work), October 1987.
The project specification must detail the
regulator y documents applicable to the
contract, as well as their priority of applica-
tion.

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

228
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
4.2.2 - Material properties
4.2.2.1 - Lining concrete
Reinforced concrete properties to be intro-
duced in design analyses are those specified
by the BAEL and Eurocode rules in force,
i.e.:
the characteristic compressive strength
Fcj;
the characteristic tensile strength Ftj;
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
longitudinal instantaneous and long-term
moduli of deformation;
stress-strain diagrams;
Poisson's ration, which is usually taken as
0.20.
4.2.2.2 - Steel for passive reinforce-
ment
Steel properties to be introduced in design
analyses are those specified by the BAEL
and Eurocode rules in force, i.e.:
the guaranteed elastic limit Fe;
the modulus of longitudinal elasticity,
which is taken as 200,000 MPa;
stress-strain diagrams.
4.2.3 - Nature of actions and loa-
dings
4.2.3.1 - Permanent actions (G)
Permanent actions include the following
loads:
a) Dead weight of the structure and weight
of fixed equipment,
b) Surrounding ground loads.
The convergence-confinement method
evaluates ground actions on the lining. This
method has already been described in seve-
ral publications. Recommendations on the
use of this method, presented by A.F.T.E.S.
Wor king Group 7 in T.O.S. Issue 59 of
September-October 1983, will be updated
in the near future.
Moreover, in the case of shallow soils and
structures, various authors have proposed
semi-empirical formulae, derived from
theor y or experience, for calculating the
vertical load exerted by the ground on the
lining in terms of the density, cohesion and
angle of internal friction of the soils, the
excavation radius and the depth of overbur-
den above the crown (notably the TERZA-
GHI, PROTODIAKONOV and LAUFFER
methods).
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
These methods and their conditions of
application are described in detail in "texte
des rflexions sur les mthodes usuelles de
calcul du revtement des souterrains"
(recorded thoughts on the usual design
methods for tunnel linings) presented by
A.F.T.E.S.Working Group 7 in T.O.S. Issue 14,
March-April 1976.
Actions thus determined are then used to
analyse lining stresses by the different
methods reviewed in Section 4.3 below.
c) Loads induced by neighbouring struc-
tures
These loads are determined from drawings
of neighbouring structures (foundation dra-
wings, etc.) passed on by the Owner.
d) Hydrostatic and hydraulic pressures
With regard to the external hydrostatic
pressure exer ted by the hydrogeological
environment, this will be determined on the
basis of maximum and minimum water
levels.
In this connection, the potential impact of
buoyancy on the lining and its assembly
mechanisms, especially during construction
at ring break-away from the TBM, should be
recalled.
In the special case of water conveyance tun-
nels, the contract must detail values repre-
senting internal fluid loads to be considered
and how they should be taken into account.
e) Annular gap back grouting pressures
If back grouting pressures exer ted on the
lining extrados are higher than the ground
pressure, they should be considered when
sizing the segments.
4.2.3.2 - Variable actions (Q)
Variable actions include
EXAMPLE OF ECCENTRIC PLANE TRANSVERSE CONTACT JOINT
the following loads:
a) Operating loads inside
the tunnel
When these are wheel-
induced rolling loads
applied directly to the half lining wall
thickness
tunnel inver t slab, their
influence is usually ver y
modest and they can the-
refore be neglected in
the design of the lining
cross-section.
On the other hand, when half lining wall
these loads are applied thickness
to a road pavement or
rail trackbed suppor ted
by a slab bearing or built
into the tunnel lining,
229
they must be considered when sizing the
segments.
For example, in the case of water
conveyance tunnels, the contract should
specify, if necessary, the value representing
the variation in internal hydraulic pressure
to be considered and the manner in which
it is to be taken into account.
b) Loads applied to the ground surface
Most frequently, these are pedestrian or
vehicle loads.
c) Loads applied during construction
Loads induced from precasting to ring
building
The sizing of each tunnel segment should be
checked in relation to the different
construction stages: segment handling, pos-
sible turning, storage, transpor t, loading
onto cars, unloading, pick-up by erector and
installation.
Loads induced by TBM penetration
TBM thrust cylinder loads represent longi-
tudinal forces applied to the lining segments
through the load distribution pads.
Each thrust load distribution pad is acted
upon by one or more cylinder s, whose
resultant thrust is eccentrically exerted.This
eccentricity, which is measured with respect
to the centre of gravity of the ram pad bea-
ring surface, comprises a known structural
component and an additional random com-
ponent. It should be recalled that when the
TBM follows a curved alignment (horizontal
or ver tical), the structural eccentricity of
the resultant thrust from the cylinder(s)
with respect to the ram pad bearing surface
is often increased and must consequently
be integrated in the analysis.
extrados
peripheral groove extrados side
width of transverse contact joint
Centre of gravity of thrust cylinder
ram pad bearing surface
eccentricity resultant load exerted by a
of thrust thrust cylinder group
peripheral groove intrados side
intrados
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
The load exerted by each group of thrust
cylinders and its eccentricity are two para-
meters for which rated working and excep-
tional values must be specified.
In a basic combination, the values of these
two parameters to be considered are the
rated working values.
In an accidental combination, only one of
these parameters reaches its exceptional
value, the other parameter maintains its
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
rated value. It is acknowledged that both
parameters cannot reach their exceptional
value at the same time.
Whilst it is rare for the rated thrust to be
reached simultaneously by all cylinders, it is
frequently so for each group of cylinders.
Those data are used to prove the strength
of the concrete and reinforcement, in parti-
cular under the localized loads exerted by
each group of thrust cylinders.
Fur thermore, segment sizing must also be
checked under the loads exer ted by the
passage of the TBM back-up equipment.
Loads induced by the grouting material
when filling the annular gap between the
lining and the surrounding ground
These transient-type loads result from a
localized increase in grouting pressure
("local pumping thrust") directly behind the
segment grouting holes.
In certain special cases, where total control
of this phenomenon is essential, the impact
of these actions on the lining should be
checked. Data is then required on the grou-
ting system incorporated in the TBM (num-
ber of grouting points, grouting process,
etc.) and on the procedure for implemen-
ting these grouting operations retained by
the contractor.
d) Climatic temperature-induced actions
(t)
Uniform temperature variations
In general, uniform temperature variations
do not require consideration.
Note:
In the case of certain structures (very deep
tunnels, energy conveyance tunnels, etc.),
uniform temperature variations must be
considered; the contract shall detail values
representative of the corresponding actions
and how they should be taken into account.
Temperature gradients ()
In general, temperature gradients do not
require consideration.
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
Note:
In the case of certain structures, for which
temperature gradient-based effects must be
considered, the contract shall detail values
representative of the corresponding actions
and how they should be taken into account.
4.2.3.3 - Accidental actions (FA)
In the case of certain structures, for which
accidental actions (e.g. earthquakes, explo-
sions, vehicle impacts or "waterhammer" in
water conveyance tunnels) must be consi-
dered, the contract shall detail values repre-
sentative of the corresponding actions and
how they should be taken into account.
4.2.4 - Combined actions
4.2.4.1 - Design stresses with respect
to strength ultimate limit states
a) Foreword
In the case of models which introduce a
non-elastic law in terms of ground beha-
viour (occurrence of zones in a plastic
state), soil-structure analysis should be car-
ried out, without uplifting the actions invol-
ved, and the ultimate limit state weighting
coefficients detailed below should be
applied to the resulting forces.
b) Basic combined action put forward by
BAEL 91 and Eurocode 2
1,35Gmax + Gmin + Q1 Q1 + Qi Oi Qi
Gmax : total unfavourable permanent
actions (e.g. lining dead weight, ground pres-
sure);
Gmin : total favourable permanent actions; in
some cases, water pressure can be favou-
rable and should then be weighted by 1 ; in
other cases, it should be weighted by 1.35;
Q I : basic variable action; in the present
case, such actions would be road, rail or
water conveyance operating loads or loads
applied during construction;
Q1 is equal to 1.5 in general, except for rail-
way loads (1.45).
Qi OiQ i are the accompanying variable
actions.
The basic combined action can therefore be
expressed as:
1,35Gground + 1,35(ou l)Gwater + 1,50Q1
The largest contributor y factors in this
expression are obviously the actions on the
lining due to water and ground.
Because the action due to the ground is
only weighted by 1.35 (e.g. for permanent
230
dead weight loads), it is very important to
ensure the validity of both the ground engi-
neering properties taken into account and
the stress analysis method. The non-unifor-
mity, anisotropy, jointing and fissuration of
the soil-rock materials and the difficulty in
forecasting their long-term behaviour must
also be considered.
The 1979 Common Directives are ver y
clear on this subject: Section 4.1.3 states
that "the maximum and minimum characte-
ristic values of actions corresponding to
ear th pressures shall be evaluated taking
into account the uncer tainties resulting
from their method of calculation".
However, when detailed analysis is not
required or when a calculation process
does not allow the effects of the ground
and water to be separated, the following
combined actions shall be retained:
1,35xS{Gground + Gwater + (1,50/1,35)xQ1}
obtained by multiplying the infrequent com-
bined action by 1.35:
S{Gground + Gwater + (1,50/1,35)xQ1}
For checking the lining under construction,
the basic combined action is expressed as:
1.35Glining dead weight + 1.35QI
QI : TBM thrust cylinder load, back grouting
pressure or weight of back-up train.
c) Basic combined action derived from
1979 Common Directives
A combined action more directly derived
from 7.2.1 of the 1979 Common
Directives and featuring in BAEL 91
Fascicule n 62 - Titre V "Rgles techniques
de conception et de calcul des fondations"
(engineering rules for the design and analy-
sis of foundations) can also be put forward.
Characteristic values of actions are increa-
sed by two coefficients F3 et F1 :
F3S{ F1GmaxGmax+ F1Gmini Gmini
+ F1Q1Q1 + F1Q1OiQi }
- the coefficient F3 must enable one to
take into account the uncer tainty of the
stress calculations and the simplifications
resulting from the models and diagrams; its
value usually lies between 1.125 and 1.15;
- the coefficient F1 must allow one to take
into account the risk of exceeding the cha-
racteristic value of the action; it can take a
value very close to 1 for the action due to
water if, for example, it represents a hydro-
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
static pressure corresponding to an accura-
tely known water level and can never be
exceeded; but, for the action due to the
ground, it can attain values near to 1.2, and
even higher if the ground investigation is
limited and risky.
The resulting combined action can be
expressed as:
1,35*Gground + 1,15Gwater + 1,50Q1
* this coefficient can be higher if the action
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
due to the ground is difficult to estimate.
This type of combined action must be laid
down in the project specification.
d) Accidental combined action put forward
by BAEL 91 and Eurocode 2
Gmax + Gmin +FA +11Q1 + 2iQi
FA : nominal value of accidental action;
Qi : variable accompanying actions.
The maximum capacity of the TBM thrust
cylinders is to be considered as an acciden-
tal action.
In the case of an earthquake or explosion:
Gground + water + Earthquake (or explosion)
+ 0.6QI
Notes :
Another type of stress, comparable to an
accidental stress, can be provided in the
project specifications.
This is the total overburden load and is
usually considered for shallow tunnels
(overburden of 1 to 2 diameters) or deeper
tunnels likely to be subjected to long-term
effects which are difficult to predict in
ground surveys (creep, swelling, etc.).
This action is therefore considered with a
coefficient of 1:
Goverburden weight + 0.6QI
In this combined action, accompanying
actions are usually neglected and the action
due to the ground is often assumed to be
uniformly distributed over the lining.
This combined action has no geotechnical
significance but it has the merit of testing
the factor of safety associated with the
lining bearing capacity with respect to the
weight of overburden.
It does not apply to very deep tunnels in
ground with a high modulus of deformation
(e.g. Alpine tunnels).
Finally, in the case of impervious jointless
precast concrete lining installation, project
specifications can suggest considering an
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
accident-related situation corresponding to
loss of lining permeability; the check will
then be carried out using the following acci-
dental combined action:
Gwithout water ground + Gtotal water pressure
+ 0.6QI
4.2.4.2 - Design stresses with respect
to serviceability limit state
Gmax + Gmin +Q1 +oiQi
When the tunnel is in operation, this combi-
ned action is expressed as:
Gground + Gwater + QI
or
Gground + Gwater
4.2.5 - Sizing criteria
4.2.5.1 - Strength ultimate limit state
Design stresses derived from basic or acci-
dent-related combined actions must not
exceed the ultimate limit capacities for rein-
forced concrete sections specified by
A.4.3 of the BAEL 91 rules or Eurocode 2
and resulting from the following limiting
strains established for the relevant mate-
rials:
10 x 10-3 for the elongation of reinforcing
bars;
3.5 x 10-3for the shortening of partially
compressed sections comprising concrete
with a strength fcj of less than 60 MPa; for
high-strength concrete (fcj 60 MPa), the
limit for shortening is given by the relation:
(4.5 - 0.025fcj) x 10-3 ;
2x 10-3
for the shortening of concrete in
a fully compressed section.
Material design stresses are obtained by
applying the following coefficients to their
characteristic strengths:
s = 1.15 for steel under basic combined
action;
s = 1 for steel under accidental combined
action;
b = 1.5 for concrete under basic combined
action;
b = 1.15 for concrete under accidental
combined action.
Because segments are concreted in a pre-
cast plant, coefficient b can be reduced
(only in strength ultimate limit state analy-
sis) to 1.3 under basic combined action as
long as quality inspections comply with an
ISO system; these special provisions must
be laid down in the project specifications.
231
4.2.5.2 - Shape stability ultimate limit
state
This involves proving the strength of the
segment ring with respect to the ultimate
states without neglecting so-called second
order effects such as buckling, bulging, etc.
This proof is only to be considered for very
thin linings installed in ground with very low
moduli of deformation.
4.2.5.3 - Static equilibrium limit state
In some cases, non-buoyancy checking
should be anticipated.
Nominal permanent downward ver tical
loads associated with permanent actions
must be at least 1.05 x the water-induced
upward loads resulting from exceptional
water level conditions. Possible time-depen-
dent variations in structural overburden
(e.g. sinking of a riverbed, etc.) must also be
taken into account.
4.2.5.4 - Ser viceability limit states
with respect to structural durability
a) Crack opening limit state
Because concrete is highly alkaline (pH 12),
reinforcing steel is normally protected by
passivation (formation of Fe(OH) 2 at the
surface of the reinforcing bar).
However, care must be taken to ensure that:
cracks are not excessively open;
concrete cover is sufficient in relation to
the environment;
the concrete mix is satisfactory.
The r ules specify conditions governing
concrete cover and cracking.
In accordance with the new recommenda-
tions amending Section A.5.3. of BAEL 91,
reinforcement tensile stresses are limited as
follows:
for detrimental cracking (lining in the pre-
sence of moderately aggressive water):
s=sup[240MPa,110ftj]
: cracking coefficient equal to 1.6 for high-
tensile deformed bars ( > 6 mm), 1.3 for
high-tensile deformed (high bond) bars (
6 mm) and 1 for plain (hot-rolled) reinfor-
cing bars;
for highly detrimental cracking (lining in
highly aggressive environment):
s=sup[200MPa,90ftj]
In addition to the above limiting tensile
stresses, Section A.4.5. of BAEL 91 specifies
the maximum diameters and spacings for
reinforcing bars.
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
b) Concrete compression limit state
In accordance with Section A.4.5.2. of BAEL
91, the concrete compressive stress at the
serviceability ultimate limit state is limited
to 0.6 fcj.
4.2.5.5 - Fire resistance
Project specification requirements in rela-
tion to fire resistance must state the level of
fire stability for the lining and this must be
justified by the organization and emergency
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
facilities in the event of fire in the tunnel(s).
4.3 - Determination of
stresses in the tunnel lining
4.3.1 - Introduction
Given the circular shape of the tunnel lining,
several methods of analysis are possible for
determining the stresses due to interaction
of the soil and the structure.
The two main methods are:
the hyperstatic reaction method
the composite solid method.
4.3.2 - Hyperstatic reaction
method
The hyperstatic reaction method studies
the behaviour of the lining alone by likening
the action of the ground to external loads. It
therefore favours the role of the lining. As a
result, it should preferably be applied to a
rigid lining located at shallow depth and in
enclosing ground comprising weak soils or
very closely fractured rocks.
The drawback of this method is that it does
not take into account:
the behaviour of the ground after failure
and with respect to time;
the deformation the surrounding ground
has already reached when the lining is instal-
led;
the different excavation stages.
However, a number of specific assumptions
made for modelling the structure and the
external loads enable the principles of the
composite solid method to be approached
(e.g. maintaining of "springs" in tension)
when conditions of application are satisfied.
Stresses and strains are calculated using a
numerical resolution method usually based
on a 2-dimensional model made up of wire-
frame elements with straight or cur ved
members.
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
Moreover, this method of analysis remains
equally applicable in the following situations:
tunnel located at shallow depth;
non-uniform surrounding ground (several
different formations);
dissymmetrical external loads (dissym-
metrical existing structures, load transfers
due to excavation of nearby structures,
etc.);
dissymmetrical lining (dissymmetrical dis-
tribution of radial joints).
The main simplifying assumptions associa-
ted with this type of model are as follows:
ground behaves elastically;
"springs" modelling the surrounding
ground are mutually independent.
Because this method is quick, it is used for
the selection of critical sections and for
impact studies of certain parameters, espe-
cially when the analytical resolution method
cannot be applied. It is used at preliminary
design, design or construction study stage.
Naturally, this method does not allow pos-
sible surface settlements to be tackled.
4.3.3 - Composite solid method
This method enables the behaviour of the
ground-structure system to be studied.
It considers the surrounding soil-rock mass
as a continuous medium (basic assumption
often made).
4.3.3.1 - Analytical solutions
Based on soil and rock mechanics theories
for continuous media, analytical solutions
allow the lining forces (normal forces, shear
forces, bending moments) and elastic line to
be determined.
Standard assumptions are as follows:
lining geometry is circular and uniform
(joints not directly considered);
loads are uniform isotropic or anisotropic
(Ko 1); they can be derived using the
convergence-confinement method or take
into account the total stress exer ted
(Erdmann formula);
the assumed single layer of ground
behaves elastically;
contact between the lining and the
ground can either be considered as in total
adherence or as in total slippage.
Convergence-confinement method
The convergence-confinement method
allows, on the one hand, the loading and, on
the other hand, the ring radial displacement
232
to be determined. The normal force can be
directly derived from this.
In this case, initial stresses are considered
uniform and isotropic, but the surrounding
ground can be considered as obeying a law
of elastic-plastic behaviour.
Characteristic of soil-structure interaction
and contributing to the application of this
method, the impor tant parameter is the
deconfinement ratio CARSPECIAUX 108
\f "Symbol" . Among its current methods of
determination, we find those of:
Panet;
Corbetta;
Bernaud;
Minh-Guo.
The last two methods allow the stiffness of
the support to be considered.
Because of the simplifying assumptions
referred to above, analytical solutions are
not valid in the following situations:
tunnel located at shallow depth;
non-uniform surrounding ground (several
different formations);
dissymmetrical external loads (dissym-
metrical existing structures, load transfers
due to excavation of nearby structures,
etc.);
dissymmetrical lining (dissymmetrical dis-
tribution of radial joints).
However, because these methods are very
quick, they are often applied for the selec-
tion of critical sections and for impact stu-
dies of certain parameters.
4.3.3.2 - Numerical resolution
Based on the use of finite element, or some-
times finite difference, numerical models,
this method allows 2- and 3-dimensional
problems to be tackled. It favours neither
the role of the lining nor that of the sur-
rounding ground. As a result, it applies to a
lining of any stiffness located at any depth in
uniform or non-uniform surrounding
ground comprising several different forma-
tions and in the presence of symmetrical or
dissymmetrical existing structures.
This method of analysis has the advantage
of taking into account:
the deformability of the ground and, in
par ticular, its behaviour after failure and
with respect to time;
the redistribution of loads resulting from
lining deformation;
the 3-dimensional nature of the excava-
tion associated with the presence of a cut-
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

ting face, through the concept of a deconfi-
nement ratio C ARSPECIAUX 108 \f
"Symbol" introduced either in the 2-dimen-
sional model or directly in a 3-dimensional
model;
the excavation stages.
In standard cases analysis is limited to 2-
dimensional modelling in which the
influence of the cutting face is considered
by applying the convergence-confinement
method referred to in the above section.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
estimation methods, which are easy to
implement but for which the area of appli-
cation is limited to situations considered
through the feedback of experience on
which they depend (cf. Recommandations
relatives aux tassements lis au creusement
des ouvrages en souterrain
Recommendations concerning settlements
associated with the excavation of under-
ground str uctures - T.O.S. Issue 132,
November-December 1995), numerical
resolution is the only method of analysis
Impacts of specific structural characteristics
on design assumptions are as follows:
installation of lining at a certain distance
from the excavation face: lining sustains loa-
ding from par t of the ground deconfine-
ment, from the back grouting pressure and
-
from delayed effects;
the lining is not monolithic: reduced iner-
tia at the contact joints is reflected in redu-
ced lining flexural stiffness. This phenome-
non can be taken into account either by

This numerical resolution method of analy-
sis is also valid for non-uniform and aniso-
tropic initial stresses, i.e. even when a dis-
symmetrical feature is present in the
structure (dissymmetrical distribution of
radial intersegment contact joints), in the
surrounding ground (several different for-
mations, etc.) or in the external loads
(nearby existing structures, etc.).
Several types of ground behaviour can be
modelled: elastic, fully elastic-plastic, elastic-
brittle with softening (uncommon), aniso-
tropic with respect to deformation and/or
strength, etc..
The simplifying assumptions remain as fol-
lows:
initial deformation after lining installation
is neglected;
every segment is not usually considered
individually;
segment blocking tolerances are not
taken into account;
the lining is installed behind the cutting
face and becomes effective at a certain dis-
tance from it;
concrete shrinkage is neglected.
In general, this more elaborate method is
restricted to the final design of a few critical
sections. Apar t from empirical settlement
valid for approaching surface settlements.
4.3.4 - Adaptation of analysis
methods to a segments lining and
to TBM-based excavation
The specific nature of designing a tunnel
lining to be installed behind a TBM arises, on
the one hand, from the tunnelling method
and, on the other hand, from the nature of
the structure.
When it allows confinement of the excava-
tion face, the tunnelling method can be
reflected in the analyses by:
either using a deconfinement cur ve,
based on a (0 - ps) stress condition, combi-
ned with the application of a pressure p s
representing the confinement pressure
applied at the workface;
or adopting an extension in space of the
deconfinement curve behind the excavation
face; thus, the deconfinement ratio taken
into account at a certain distance from the
workface (i.e. at the last ring installed) is
much lower than the value used in the
conventional method (or when tunnelling
using a TBM in open face conditions).
Moreover, confinement can result in addi-
tional excess porewater pressures in the
surrounding ground.
modelling contact joints directly or by desi-
gning an equivalent ring with a smaller iner-
tia (Muir-Wood formula); however, it should
be noted that this behavioural assumption is
no longer borne out in the case of adjacent
rings incorporating combined radial contact
joints in association with rigid assembly sys-
tems between rings (e.g. plugs or tenon-
and-mortises) nor in the presence of very
soft ground.
4.3.5 - Parameters which can be
integrated in the different methods
of analysis
Based on the design stage and the context
of the project, the following table shows the
possible status of taking into account para-
meter s for the different considered
approaches to analysis.
These modes of parametric consideration
are identified by the following coding:
0 not necessary
1 desirable
2 necessary
I indirect consideration
D direct consideration
N not considered

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

233
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

Project stage / context Methods of analysis

Preliminary Design Construc- Urban Hyper- Composite Composite

Parameters Studies tion / static solid solid Comments
studies Sensitive reaction method. method.
method. Analytical Numerical
solutions resolution

- Definition of loading and/

or actions
* Initial constraints
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

- levels of ground layers 1 2 2 2 I I D

- groundwater level
minimum groundwater level 0 1 2 2 I I D
maximum groundwater level 2 2 2 2 I I D
- dry unit weight 2 2 2 2 I I D
- Ko 2 2 2 2 D D D - Ko obeys Jaky's law for sands and
normally consolidated clays;
- Ko depends on tectonics, consolidation
and erosion for rocks and overconsolidated soils.
- superimposed load:
uniform superimposed load 1 2 2 2 D I D
linear superimposed load
(Bc truck, load-bearing wall), 0 1 2 2 D N D
surface superimposed load
- direction of principal stresses 1 2 2 2 D D D - slope effect
- dip effect (ground layers)
- continuous medium assumption:
continuous medium 2 2 2 2 D I D
fissured medium 0 1 2 2 D N D

* Loading:
- segment installation distance 2 2 2 2 I I I in 2-d. Shield tail effect only to be considered in
D in 3-D. very soft ground and in an urban/sensitive context
- confinement pressure - max. value for stress calculations;
- min. value for settlement calculations.

considered as artificial support 2 2 2 2 I I I

considered by means of equivalents 0 0 0 1 D D D
stress condition
- back grouting pressure 0 1 2 2 D I D
- overcutting, shield tail conicality 0 0 0 2 I I I Effect only to be considered in very soft ground
and in an urban/sensitive context
- ground deconfinement law:
convergence-confinement method 2 2 2 2 I I I in 2-d.
D in 3-d.
method of similarities (Corbettas law) 0 0 0 1 I I I in 2-d.
D in 3-d.
- ground convergence curve:
unsupported (elastic-plastic behaviour) 2 2 2 2 I I I in 2-d.
D in 3-d.
supported (Bernauds law) 0 0 0 1 I I I en bi-dim
D in 3-d.
- delayed effects (behaviour law):
E(x,t) 1 2 2 2 I I Iin 2-d.
D in 3-d.
long-term shear parameters 1 2 2 2 I N D
effective stress analysis (excluding 2 2 2 2 D D D
porewater pressures)
physical chemical swelling 1 2 2 2 I I I
- change of groundwater pressure
drainage 1 2 2 2 D D D

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

234
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

Paramtres Phase / Contexte Mthodes de calcul Commentaires

Etudes Projet Excut Urbain Mthode Mthode Mthode
Prlim / des du solide du solide
Sensib ractions composite composite
hyperst. Solutions Rsolution
analytiques numrique

restoration of hydrostatic pressure 2 2 2 2 D D D Application of pressure:

- to ground and to lining;
- to lining only;
II - Structure disign
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

- overall structural design (possible 1 2 2 2 I I I Ring inertia is reduced by applying the Muir-Wood
consideration of contact joints, etc.) formula, except in the case of combined contact
joints in very soft ground or rigid assembly systems
between rings
- section and inertia of segments 2 2 2 2 D D D
- properties of each contact joint 0 0 0 1 D N D
- moduli:
short-term modulus >< long-term 1 2 2 2 N N D
lmodulus
use of average modulus 1 1 1 1 D D D
- back grouting material (model) 0 0 1 1 N N D

III - Soil-structure contact conditions

- adhrence 2 2 2 2 I D D
- slipping 1 1 1 2 I D D
- friction (Coulombs law) 0 1 1 2 I N D
- separation 0 1 2 2 I N D

IV - Environnment
- nearness of other underground 1 2 2 2 I I D
structures
- existence of transition structures 1 1 2 2 I N I in 2-d.
D in 3-d.

4.4 - Proof of concrete and
reinforcement
4.4.1 - Choice of segment wall
thickness
Segment wall thickness must satisfy several
criteria:
the segment strength capacity with res-
pect to combined circumferential bending
must be sufficient when the percentage of
longitudinal reinforcing bars contributing to
this strength is less than 1 % and is generally
close to the minimum percentage; if seg-
ment wall thickness is constant throughout
the tunnel alignment, an economic study
shall be conducted to examine whether it
would be preferable to vary the concrete
strength (new mix design, alteration of
mixing plant parameter s, feasibility of
increasing strength) or, on the other hand,
the percentage of steel in order to satisfy
the calculated stress variations along the
tunnel;
the minimum segment wall thickness
must satisfy the conditions imposed by the
contact joints between units: bearing sur-
face area, installation of waterproofing gas-
ket, chamfers, etc.;
the minimum segment wall thickness
must be compatible with the bearing sur-
face area of TBM longitudinal thrust cylin-
ders.
4.4.2 - Circumferential reinforce-
ment (hoops)
The sectional area of circumferential rein-
forcing bars arranged behind the internal
and external segment faces shall be derived
from:
analysis of combined bending (normal
load - bending moment interaction dia-
gram) in relation to anticipated loadings in
ultimate limit state and serviceability limit
state combinations. If bending moments are
low compared with the normal force, the
sectional area can be justified in "simple
compression" (BAEL 91, Section B.8);
analysis of simple bending during handling
and storage of segments. It should also be
noted that the loading case involving thrust
of the TBM main cylinders on the lining seg-
ments can be dimensionally critical (burs-
ting forces due to spreading of this thrust);
minimum percentage of reinforcing steel
considerations:
- for units in compression (BAEL 91, Section
A.8.1,21),
- for units in bending: especially under the
action of TBM main cylinder thrust (BAEL
91, Section A.4.2.).
Hoop diameter s and arrangement
(concrete cover and spacing) must be deri-
ved in accordance with Section A.8.1,22 for
units in compression, Section A.7.1. for
concrete cover protection of reinforcing
bars and Section A.4.5,3 for cracking. It
should be noted that the use of high-
strength concrete mixes of very high com-
pactness allows the concrete covers pres-
cribed by Section A.7.1. to be reduced.
4.4.3 - Longitudinal reinforcing
bars (arranged parallel to the tun-
nel axis)
Outside segment end zones subjected to
localized loads requiring iron-banding rein-
forcement, these longitudinal bars must

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

235
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
satisfy both the requirement of BAEL 91
Section A.5 concerning shear force if this is
large in relation to the accompanying nor-
mal force ( u >0,07f cj / b ) and Section
A.8.1.3. concerning transverse reinforcing
links for units in compression.
It is perfectly acceptable not to incorporate
transverse reinforcing links around circum-
ferential bars with a diameter less than 20
mm, which are not in corners and not taken
into account in the relevant strength calcu-
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
lations (i.e. only derived from minimum per-
centages of reinforcing steel).
In some rather exceptional cases, such as
fire resistance checking, stirrups must also
be checked in relation to their potential
role in preventing unsuppor ted thrust of
cur ved bar s under tension (BAEL 91,
Section A.7.4,2).
Finally, correctly designed longitudinal rein-
forcing bars contribute to balancing the
shear force resulting from the TBM cylinders
thrust loads.
At unit ends, the loads transferred from one
segment to another through each localized
reduced bearing zone are spread through
the total thickness of the segment. Surface
and bursting reinforcement must be provi-
ded in these bearing zones. These can be
designed in accordance with the recom-
mendations provided in BAEL 91, Annex E.8
(not taking into account the minimum sec-
tional area of bursting reinforcement under
TBM thrust cylinder temporar y loading).
Reinforcement can comprise small diameter
bars bent into coils or welded bars ( 5.25
of Eurocode 2).
5 - DESIGN OF ASSEMBLY
SYSTEMS
5.1 - Design assumptions
for bolts and socket bolts
5.1.1 - Regulations
The following regulations or standards apply
to the design of steel bolts or anchor bolts:
Design rules for structural steelwork or
CM 66 design rules for steel buildings;
Additional Clause 80, which takes into
account the concepts of plasticity and limit
states;
CPC Fascicule n 61 Titre V "Conception
et calcul de ponts et constructions mtal-
liques en acier" (Design and analysis of
bridges and str uctural steelwor k) for
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
bridges and civil engineering structures;
French standards NF P 22-430 and NF P
22-431 for non-prestressed (plain) bolted
assemblies;
French standards NF P 22-460 and NF P
22-469 for control-tightened bolted assem-
blies;
Eurocode 3 "Design of steel structures"
adopted by the European Standardization
Committee in 1992.
5.1.2 - Nature of actions and loa-
dings
5.1.2.1 - Permanent actions (G)
These actions are associated with keeping
the waterproofing gaskets compressed and
are to be considered especially near sta-
tions.
They will be determined from crushing
force - deformation curves provided by the
waterproofing gasket supplier.
5.1.2.2 - Variable actions (Q)
These are represented by loads applied
during construction. In par ticular, those
associated with:
- crushing of waterproofing gaskets,
- segments overhanging from the previously
installed ring during erection, when a thrust
ring is used for TBM penetration (rare),
- action resulting from the erector arm
(possible).
5.1.2.3 - Accidental actions (FA)
Possible accidental actions will be detailed
in the project specifications.
It should be recalled that a commonly retai-
ned accidental loading case is that associa-
ted with overhanging of a segment espe-
cially following a hydraulic failure in the TBM
thrust cylinders.
This loading case must also be combined
with possible action resulting from the
waterproofing gaskets.
5.1.3 - Combined actions - Design
stresses
a) Basic combined action put forward by
the CM 66 rules
4/3 Gmax + Gmin + 3/2 Q
stresses which are difficult to quantify:
b) Basic combined action put forward by
Eurocode 3
1.35 Gmax + Gmin + 1.5 Q
236
c) Accidental combined action put forward
by the CM 66 rules and Eurocode 3
Gmax + Gmin + FA
5.2 - Proof of assembly
and pick-up components
using materials other than
steel
5.2.1 - Introduction
Amongst the assembly systems most often
used can be mentioned sockets for bolts
and pick-up bolts or plugs positioned bet-
ween consecutive rings.
Although the design and analysis of steel
assembly systems is based on regulator y
documents and standards, the use of diffe-
rent materials is not necessarily included in
an engineering regulation framework cove-
ring the behaviour of the components
concerned.
The forces likely to be imposed by such
components must therefore be surveyed,
then factors of safety to be applied to the
inherent strength of these elements as well
as their behaviour under service conditions
must be evaluated on the basis of suitable
mechanical tests.
It should be recalled that, because of the
actions applied, these different segment-
inser ted components transmit often high
local stresses to the concrete. Additional
reinforcement may be required to balance
these stresses and ensure concrete integrity.
5.2.2 - Actions to be considered
The same type of actions as for steel assem-
bly systems (cf. 5.1) are found in relation
to bolt sockets and plugs.
Attention should be drawn to the following
specific characteristics associated with the
use of plugs in relation to the actions
already referred to:
high local pressures around interlock poc-
kets when installing segments;
structural continuity of the lining between
consecutive rings ensuring greater longitu-
dinal rigidity (limited relative mutual displa-
cement of components);
systematic permanent presence.
Structural continuity may be the cause of
Thus, when an inert or semi-inert grout is
used for back grouting behind the segments
at the rear end of the shield tail, overriding
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
buoyancy with respect to the lining weight
can induce significant loads in assembly sys-
tems;
It should also be noted that in small
radius cur ves, thrust cylinder action can
induce large forces resulting from the trans-
verse component of thrust.
Most of these actions occur in the shor t-
term. One should also mention long-term
actions which can be associated with, for
example, local defects or losses of contact
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
between lining and surrounding ground due
to par ticular geological conditions (dissol-
ving of gypsum, presence of karsts, etc.) or
resulting from the construction of later
structures.
5.2.3 - Combined actions - Stresses
The different combined actions must be
quantified on the basis of project data.
If no regulation applies, a factor of safety of
one is applied to each action. Stresses
applied to assemblies are then evaluated by
considering models and simple behaviour.
5.2.4 - Behaviour of materials and
assemblies - Tests
In practice, actual material and assembly
behaviour can only be fully understood
through static and dynamic testing (shear,
tension, etc.). These types of test can go as
far as testing the capacity of the whole
assembly chain including the surrounding
concrete (with its design strength), as well
as the reinforcement measures adopted
around the connector inserts.
In general, test stresses differ from actual
stresses; consideration of factors of safety
which are adequate with respect to test
results and conditions particular to the pro-
ject therefore appears necessary.
5.2.5 - Conclusions
Tests on anchor and pick-up sockets, for
example, fall within the scope of conventio-
nal testing. On the other hand, because the
plug system is relatively recent, experiments
should be pursued to define more accura-
tely the sizing problems and advantage
should be taken of experience feedback
from different projects in order to extend
knowledge in relation to the operation of
this intersegment connection system.
However manufacturers must supply a full
engineering file covering whatever systems
are adopted.
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
This file will focus specifically on:
a description of tests carried out;
the statistically aspect of the results;
technical data-sheets for the products
used.
6 - TRANSITION AND
ANCILLARY WORKS
Design of underground works is not limited
to designing just the running tunnel; civil
works for an underground project usually
comprise:
tunnels, which are continuous structures
allowing circulation of trains, vehicles, fluids
or transmission of energy;
transition works:
- with the surface: specific examples are sta-
tions, ventilation shafts, emergency shafts,
inspection shafts and galleries, etc.,
- between tunnels: specific examples are
branches providing communication, piston
relief, ventilation, rolling stock depot and
turning galleries, etc.;
ancillary works: specific examples are
- ventilated refuges or collection areas,
- safety recesses,
- fire recesses,
- plantrooms,
- vehicle turning galleries,
- sand traps,
which are essential for the operation of the
structure.
The present section is simply aimed at dra-
wing attention to a number of design and
construction aspects of these transition and
ancillary works, which commonly represent
unusual points in terms of precast concrete
segmental lining design. Moreover, they
represent a major burden on the project in
terms of cost and time.
6.1 - Design of ancillary
works
Design of ancillary works is closely depen-
dent on their functions.
In particular, functions resulting in extensive
geometry can involve:
transfer and safety of the public;
ventilation (with respect to its twin
aspects of health-related ventilation and fire
safety);
237
refuges for vehicles;
wastewater drainage;
collection and discharge of groundwater ;
maintenance of the structures.
Internal sizing and spacing of in-line works is
often codified under reference documents.
Thus, in France, the following documents
apply:
the Dossier Pilote des Tunnels (guidelines
for tunnels) published by CETu and the
latest circulars in force covering road and
motorway tunnels (and, by extension, all
roads);
Owner-published (SNCF, RATP, etc.) rules
for rail tunnels;
the Instruction technique relative aux
rseaux d'assainissement des agglomra-
tions (Engineering directive covering waste-
water systems for urban areas) (Circular n
77.284 INT of 22 June 1977).
6.2 - Construction of transi-
tion and ancillary works
Communication between transition ans
ancillary works and the running tunnel inva-
riable requires the construction of various
size openings in the running tunnel lining.
For example, construction of a transverse
opening from inside the running tunnel
usually involves the following operations:
special spacing of the lining rings;
temporary support of rings to be cut into
by propping or bolting;
possible treatment of ground around the
future opening;
in one or several stages, cutting out and
removal of segments in front of the opening
under construction;
in one or several stages, excavation and
concreting of the final reinforced concrete
lining of the strengthening structure around
the opening;
removal of temporary support.
Construction of in-line works must be fore-
seen as early as possible; consequently, their
geometrical proper ties and method of
construction must be fully defined by the
Engineer and Owner's Representative right
from design stage.
Their construction stage must have a mini-
mum impact on progress of TBM-excavated
construction of the main works.
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
7 - INSTRUMENTATION
7.1 - Aims
Precast concrete segments lining instru-
mentation and monitoring schemes must
satisfy several aims:
to check that lining actual behaviour com-
plies with forecasts resulting from planned
theoretical sizing and, in turn, to verify the
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
level of safety of the structure in terms of
forces and deformations;
to gain greater knowledge of:
- the intensity and distribution of external
actions impacting on the lining during the
different stages construction progress (TBM
thrust, annular gap back grouting, short- and
long-term pressures exer ted by the sur-
rounding ground),
- the intensity and distribution of segment
internal loads, especially:
resulting from TBM thrust (presence or
absence of defects in bearing between diffe-
rent elements, evaluation of TBM length
influencing the lining),
resulting from successive actions involving
back grouting and the surrounding ground
under par tial cutter section confinement
and showing, for example, possible load
redistribution due to alternation of radial
contact joints over a succession of rings.
In any case, Owners and contractors should
be made aware that these instrumentation
schemes do not originate from the research
field but must be regarded as a driving fac-
tor in terms of fur thering the technical
nature of this type of lining and allowing
both acquisition of quantifiable reference
data, concerning the quality of the comple-
ted tunnel, and advantage to be gained from
analysing information fed back in order to
refine the actual behaviour of this form of
discontinuous lining.
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
7.2 - Monitoring methods
To achieve the above aims, the principal
effects to be measured are as follows:
stresses and pressures:
- measurement of pressures exerted by the
back grouting material and ground on the
lining extrados,
- measurement of pressures exerted at seg-
ment contact joints.
These measurements are often disrupted
by the effect of sensor interaction (total
pressure cells) with the medium in which it
has been installed. Results should always be
subjected to careful analysis;
segment deformations:
These are often measured using vibrating
wire tensometers embedded in the seg-
ments and arranged:
- in a longitudinal direction, with a view to
analysing stresses induced by TBM main
cylinder thrust,
- in a radial direction, with a view to analy-
sing stresses induced by back grouting, the
surrounding ground and possible disruptive
effects associated with TBM thrust.
A concrete control block fitted with sensors
is often provided as a reference, although its
behaviour is somewhat different of that of
the lining segments.
convergences:
- Invar wire or optical convergence measu-
rement, with a view to evaluating short- and
long-term deformations withstood by lining
rings.
Temperature probes and relative humidity
sensors must also be implemented at ins-
trumented sections in order to comple-
ment effectively the data collected.
Whilst tunnel lining monitoring has, until
now, been carried out conventionally by a
technician, this method is now being chal-
lenged by automatic data acquisition, which
offers many advantages such as:
238
rapid and virtually simultaneous measure-
ments; data acquisition from a large number
of sensors therefore provides an "instanta-
neous picture" compared with TBM pene-
tration rates;
scheduled frequency of measurement sui-
ted to both the nature or variability of
actions concerned and data sought during
different construction stages;
data acquisition facilitated, in par ticular,
when instrumented rings are within the
area enclosing the TBM back-up equipment.
Conversely, several drawbacks inherent in
the use of automatic data acquisition should
be mentioned:
danger of a systematic loss of data due to
defective installation or malfunction of a
component after fixing (closely supervised
installation then periodic checking to be
carried out by body in charge of measure-
ment);
compatibility of recording box spatial
requirements with respect to clearances to
be provided temporarily for shor t-term
(erector arm, segments being erected, tem-
porary equipment, back-up equipment, etc.)
and long-term (rolling stock, permanent
equipment, etc.);
possible problem of energy supply and
independence; depending on the quantity of
data to be collected, various options can be
envisaged: large-capacity batteries, sophisti-
cated power plant controlled by energy-
saving electronics).
In particular, all monitoring schedules must
specify who is responsible for interpreting
results, the timescale and the data transmis-
sion chain. The validity of the monitoring
system must be questioned if this often
neglected interpretation stage does not
exist.
In general, reference should be made to
A.F.T.E.S. "Auscultation" (Monitoring)
Working Group n 19 recommendations on
tunnel monitoring measurements.
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

REFERENCES

TERZAGHI K. - Rock defects and loads on tunnel support - Rock Tunnelling with Steel Supports, Commercial Shearing Co - Youngstown,
Ohio, pp. 15-99, 1946.
PROTODIAKONOV M.M. - Klassifikacija Gornych Porod - Tunnels et Ouvrages Souterrains I, pp. 31-34, 1974.
LAUFFER H. - Gebirgsklassifizierung fr den Stollenbau - Geologie Bauwesen, 74, pp. 46-51, 1958.
DUDDECK H., ERDMANN J. - On structural Design Models for Tunnels in Soft Soil - Underground Space,Vol 9, pp. 246-259, 1985.
CORBETTA F., BERNAUD D., NGUYEN-MINH D. - Contribution la mthode convergence-confinement par le principe de la
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.

similitude. Revue Franaise de Gotechnique n 54, pp. 5-12, 1991.

BERNAUD D., ROUSSET G. - La nouvelle mthode implicite pour l'tude du dimensionnement des tunnels - Revue Franaise de
Gotechnique n 60, 3e trim., pp. 5-26, 1992.
PANET M. - Le calcul des tunnels par la mthode convergence-confinement - Presses de l'Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausses, 1995.
NGUYEN-MINH D., GUO C. - Sur un principe d'interaction massif-soutnement des tunnels en avancement stationnaire - Eurok'93,
Lisbon, Portugal, 1993.
NGUYEN-MINH D., GUO C. - Tunnels creuss en milieu viscoplastique - Gotechnique et Environnement, Colloque Franco -Polonais,
Nancy, 1993.
MUIR WOOD A.M. - The circular tunnel in elastic ground - Geotechnique 25, n 1, 1975.
HOEK E., KAISER P.K., BAWDEN W.F. - Support of Underground Excavations in Hard Rock - A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Brookfield,
1995.

ANNEX : impervious seals of the mould are then cor-
rectly positioned.
TUNNEL LINING CONSTRUC- Concrete contact surfaces are spray-lubri-
TION - PRECASTING AND INS- cated with a release agent.
TALLATION 2.1.2 - Reassembly of mould ele-
ments
2.2.1 - Cage preparation
Each reinforcing cage will be fitted with spa-
cers designed to ensure its accurate positio-
ning in the mould and, thus, compliance with
specified concrete cover to the reinforcing
bars.

1 - GENERAL
The aim of the present section is to des-
cribe the main tunnel lining construction
stages in such a way that actions applied to
the segments during constr uction are
recorded.
In general, these operations are covered by
construction procedures describing general
and specific requirements for production
organization and which are consolidated
under a single more general document: the
project Quality Assurance Plan (Q.A.P.).
2 - DESCRIPTION OF SEG-
MENT PRECASTING
2.1 - Mould preparation
2.1.1 - Cleaning
Careful brush-cleaning of the peripheral
ends and flanks (especially their bearing
faces) and mould bottom is under taken
with the mould in an open position. The
The mould will be reclosed in accordance
with the specified flank and end closing
order.
2.1.3 - Self-inspection
After closing the mould, the operator will
ensure proper closure of the mould by kee-
ping a watch on alignment of flank and end
reference marks and by undertaking other
checks detailed in the Q.A.P..
The operator will then examine visually
each mould; these operations will be ente-
red on the compliance inspection record
specified in the Q.A.P..
2.2 - Placement of reinfor-
cing cages
With respect to the logical sequence of
precasting operations, it is assumed that
reinforcing cage production has followed its
own fabrication Q.A.P., incorporating all
joint contracting and subcontracting fabri-
cation Q.A.Ps. as well as all the supply items
entering into the composition of a cage.
2.2.2 - Self-inspection and placing
of the reinforcing cage
Before placing the cage in the mould, the
operator will ensure, in accordance with the
reinforcing cage production Q.A.P., that this
cage:
is not deformed in any way;
corresponds perfectly with the mould for
which it is intended;
is fitted with all the designed spacers, both
in number and in position.
After placement of the reinforcing cage in
the mould, the operator will ensure that the
cage is correctly centred with respect to the
mould and will then fill in the compliance
inspection record.
2.3 - Mounting of connector
inserts and accessories
Whatever the systems selected, they will be
positioned generally after installing the rein-
forcing cage in the mould.They usually /
com-
prise:

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005

239
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
a pick-up device;
sockets and pins for implementing socket
bolts or any other connection system;
a system for possible grouting behind seg-
ments, etc..
As in other fabrication operations, self-ins-
pection will be carried out by the operator,
who will check the correct positioning of all
these connector inser ts and accessories
before filling the compliance inspection
record.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
2.4 - Concreting
The concrete Q.A.P. or CONCRETE FILE
specifies the type of concrete, its proper-
ties, constituent materials and, in particular :
the concrete mix;
the physical chemical analysis of consti-
tuent materials: fine aggregate, coar se
aggregate, cement, water ;
the active alkali balance;
admixture engineering data sheet(s);
test results for trial mixes produced for
design and suitability purposes;
the Q.A.P. for the approved testing labora-
tory.
2.4.1 - Concrete production and
preliminary checks
At the star t of each concreting shift, the
operator will check proper operation of:
the concrete plant PLC-controlled system
for weighing and accurately recording the
weights of constituent materials;
the water, admixture, plasticizer, accelera-
tor, etc., regulation system;
the mixing time control system.
2.4.2 - Concrete placement
Continuous uniform placement in the
mould of the segment concrete volume will
be ensured.
2.4.3 - Finishing of extrados or
non-shuttered surfaces
On completion of concreting, the free sur-
face of the concrete will be floated as accu-
rately as possible.
After waiting for the initial set of the
concrete (approximately 20 - 40 minutes),
final trowelling of the top of the segment
will be carried out to eliminate bug holes
and unevenness.
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
2.4.4 - Heat treatment, preheating
of concrete
Depending on the type of concrete thermal
maturing selected, several methods can be
envisaged:
hot water mixing of concrete (maximum
water temperature 80 C);
heating of mould underside;
steam curing under controlled tempera-
ture and relative humidity.
2.5 - Mould stripping -
Handling - Pre-storage
Unbolting and removal of connector insert
and accessory supports;
Release of lock-bolts for opening flanks and
ends of mould;
Positioning of lifting beam fitted with suc-
tion pads, or other gripper- or sling-based
handling system.
After mould stripping, segments will be set
down and stacked on suppor ts located in
prepared sections of the pre-storage
(curing) area inside the precasting shop or
outside under suitable protection. Timber
blocks will be placed between segments
taking care that they are aligned with the
supports. Curing time will be approximately
8 hours and in general imposed by the
sequencing of mould stripping, storing,
gluing, turning, packing and then loading-out
operations.
Self-inspection
The operator will then carry out the neces-
sary inspections and fill in the relevant com-
pliance inspection report.
2.6 - Inspections
Moulds for the same lining ring must be
fabricated and inspected from every angle
in relation to the ring. Similarly, in the case
of several ring moulds, the type of mould
must be identical irrespective of the ring it
forms.
The following inspections are usually car-
ried out:
Prior to starting mass production of seg-
ments
- inspection of mould fabrication,
- inspection of ring geometry and assembly
using reinforced concrete segments from
initial precast shop casting,
- inspection of moulds on delivery to pre-
cast plant,
240
- inspection of first reinforcing cages fabri-
cated in accordance with mass production
procedures.
During production
Segment precasting involves mass produc-
tion, therefore procedures specifying details
of inspections to be carried out at regular
intervals throughout the production period
should be established to ensure that tole-
rances for moulds, segments and reinforcing
cages, as well as concerning reinforcing cage
assembly quality, always remain less than the
initially established values.
- inspection of moulds approximately every
50 casting operations,
- same frequency inspection of correspon-
ding segments at line output and correction
of mould adjustment if deviations are
observed.
These inspections are essentially based on:
overall dimensions of the assembled ring;
lengths of segments generating ring taper ;
segment wall thickness;
flatness of ring/ring contact surfaces;
roughness;
geometry of designed pockets and their
layout (impervious gasket grooves, etc.);
positioning of connector inserts (pick-up
socket, connection system, etc.);
geometry of reinforcing bars, quality of
reinforcing cages and their position in the
moulds.
2.7 - Repairs
A repair report, which will be attached to
the relevant compliance inspection report,
will be drawn up for every repair.
The Q.A.P. will specify repair procedures
and materials to be used for the different
cases encountered:
honeycombing;
bubbles in waterproofing gasket grooves;
spalling at edges, etc.
Self-inspection after repair
inspection of waterproofing gasket groove
surface condition;
inspection of extrados surface condition;
inspection of bearing surfaces.
2.8 - Installation of water-
proofing gasket
In the case of a glued waterproofing gasket
section, gluing will be carried out using an
adhesive payer recommended by the sup-
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
plier of the gasket and installed in accor-
dance with his instructions and procedures.
2.9 - Packing and marking
In general, segments of the same ring will be
packed together on timber blocks.
Timber blocks between segments must be
perfectly aligned.
Each segment will be marked according to
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
instructions given on the contract drawings
(intrados bearing face), to enable it to be
identified and cross-referenced with the
relevant inspection record (traceability).
2.10 - Internal preshipment
inspection
The segment loading supervisor will indi-
cate the transported ring number, as well as
the precasting date of its component seg-
ments, on the preshipment inspection
report.
He will check that connector inser ts and
accessories are clean and protected, that
there is no concrete spalling, that water-
proofing gaskets and possibly pads are pro-
perly glued.
He will also check segment packing, align-
ment of timber blocks and the size of the
pack.
A copy of the inspection report will be sent
to site along with the delivery note.
3 - STORAGE AT PRECAST
PLANT YARD
Special care is required in relation to sto-
rage and possible thermal protection condi-
tions to prevent segment concrete micro-
cracking at the precast plant storage yard.
Handling will be undertaken using a lifting
beam fitted with either suction pads or
slings, which allows a pack of several seg-
ments to be picked up.
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
Segments will be positioned at the precast
plant storage yard to avoid a segment tur-
ning operation between yard storage and
pick-up by the segment erector, whose suc-
tion pads or handling mechanisms pick up
the segment from the intrados side.
When the erector is supplied in the upper
section of the TBM, segments are stored
intrados lowermost.
When the erector is supplied in the lower
section of the TBM, segments are stored
intrados uppermost and, in this case, a seg-
ment turning machine enables this opera-
tion to be carried out at the precast plant.
In its storage position, the segment rests on
two timber blocks of the same length as the
segment itself and positioned directly in line
with the longitudinal assembly systems.
Segments are stored by stacking each set of
segments comprising a ring.
Segments must be stored after precasting
and can only be installed if their strength
exceeds or is equal to that required by the
project specifications.
4 - SEGMENT COLLECTION,
TRANSPORT AND ACCEP-
TANCE ON SITE
In principle, the precast plant loading super-
visor is responsible for collecting segments
from the plant storage yard and the haulage
contractor is responsible for transport.
Segments are picked up at the precast plant
storage yard by lifting beam fitted with suc-
tion pads, grippers or slings and they are
then loaded onto lorries or another means
of transport.
On-site segment inspection for acceptance
purposes will be conducted on the lorry or
other means of transpor t. Prior to unloa-
ding, the site representative will sign and
make any written remarks on the delivery
note.
Detailed observations will be included on
the pre-unloading inspection report and a
241
copy will be returned to the segment manu-
facturer.
5 - SEGMENT SUPPLY TO
THE WORKFACE
After segment acceptance, unloading and
storage in an area near the tunnel access
(shaft, adit, etc.), supply to the workface
usually depends on the area available and it
represents a minimum stock.
Storage can be organized by:
segment;
by segment pair ;
by rings palletized on steel frames.
Storage design is therefore based on the
selected transport methods within the tun-
nel and to the TBM, where the segments are
unloaded, then placed on a belt or roller
feed conveyor which delivers them to the
front where they are picked up by the seg-
ment erector.
6 - LINING RING BUILDING
Section 3.5.5 "Segment assembly systems"
of the present recommendations specifies
and describes:
the different assembly systems;
the aims sought under construction and
service conditions.
The following table complements this infor-
mation by considering an example of buil-
ding a lining ring comprising rectangular-
(standard) and trapezoidal-shaped (key and
counter) segments. It details:
the successive segment erection stages;
recommendations associated with the
operating environment for each erection
stage;
A few remarks of a general nature comple-
ment the table.
 The design, sizing and construction of precast concrete segments
installed at the rear of a tunnel boring machine (TBM)
SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS
1) Supply of first segment to erector.
2) First segment pick-up.
3) Retraction of thrust cylinders corresponding
to placement of first segment.
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
4) Positioning of first segment by
rotating erector.
5) Radial approach of first segment.
6) Final approach with rotational, longitudinal and
transverse balance adjustment.
7) Holding of first segment on ring.
8) Fixing of first segment
9) Installation and fixing of standard segments.
10) Installation of counter segments.
11) Key segment installation.
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS HORS-SERIE N 1 2005
RECOMMENDATIONS
Detailed analysis of loads in each pick-up system
position and of indirect loads on segments.
Control of approach speeds by selection of
proportioning hydraulic controls.
Pads of other thrust cylinders remain under pressure
in contact with other segments to safely ensure:
- segments holding and assembly,
- compression of waterproofing gaskets and
prevention of their decompression,
- stability of the machine under the confinement p
ressure.
see 3.5.5 "Segment assembly systems"
Same recommendation as for the first segment.
Provide alternate installation of segments in each
ring to minimize tube roll effects.
Use of template to calibrate gap between
counter segments.
Use of template prevents:
- tearing of waterproofing gaskets,
- concrete chipping.
- greasing of waterproofing gaskets.
242
REMARKS
Supply possible from:
- upper level;
- lower level.
Pick-up possible using suction pads, grippers, bolts.
Light ray guidance systems can facilitate
approach and final positioning of segment.
TBM main cylinder thrust on the other segments
must prevent any forward displacement of
the machine.
At this time, the segment is simultaneously held by
the erector and the thrust from the main cylinders.
By ring/ring (longitudinal), segment/segment
(transverse) connection.
ame remark as for the first segment.
Same remark as for first segment.
It should be noted that on completion of erection,
the ring is stabilized by the prestress between the
erection jacks and the previously installed ring.
The only contact between the shield tail and
the segmental lining is the shield tail seal.
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