Chapter 13
Design of Reinforced
Concrete Structures
N. Subramanian
Introduction
9A column or strut is defined as a compressive member whose effective
length exceeds three times the least lateral dimension.
9A structural element that is predominantly subjected to axial
compressive forces is termed a compression member.
9When a compression member is vertical, it is called a column, and
when it is horizontal or inclined, it is called a strut.
9Columns may carry a secondary bending moment about the major or
minor axis or about both the axes. These may produce tensile stresses
over some part of the cross section.
Design of Axially Loaded
Short Columns
Introduction
9However, still columns are referred to as the compression members
because they predominantly carry compressive forces.
9Columns transmit all the forces applied on them through floors and
beams of upper floors to the lower levels and then to the soil through
the foundations.
9Thus, they are very important for the proper functioning of the
building, as the failure of a column in a critical location may result in the
collapse of the entire building.
 Classification of Columns based on Cross
Introduction Section
9Upright compression members that support decks in bridges are often 1. Rectangular
called piers.
2. Square
9A short compression member, with a height less than three times its
least lateral dimension, placed at the base of columns to transfer the 3. Circular
load of columns to a footing, pile cap, or mat is called a pedestal or a
stub column.
4. Hexagonal
9Upright slender members mostly circular in shape and subjected to
dominant bending moment and nominal compression are called poles, 5. T, L, or + shapes
pillars, or posts.

Classification of Columns based on Type of

Classification of Columns Reinforcement
1. Tied columns: Columns reinforced with longitudinal reinforcement
and lateral (transverse) ties (see Fig. 13.1b). Tied columns are
applicable to all cross-sectional Shapes.

2. Spiral columns: Columns with longitudinal reinforcement tied by

continuous spiral reinforcement. Spiral reinforcement is used mainly
in columns Of circular cross section, though they can have
hexagonal, octagonal, or even square shapes.

3. Composite columns: Columns reinforced longitudinally with

structural steel sections, such as hollow tubes and I-sections, with or
without additional longitudinal reinforcement or transverse
Fig. 13.1 Classification of columns (a) Tall circular columns supporting a highway
in Pittsburgh, USA (b) Rectangular building columns in India
reinforcement.
Classification of Columns based on Types of Classification of Columns based on Types of
Loading Loading
1. Columns with concentrically applied loads: Such columns (see Fig.
13.2a) with zero bending moment are rare. In multi-storey frames,
as shown in Fig. 13.3, interior columns like A will be subjected to
axial compression and shear, under gravity loads.

2. Columns with uniaxial eccentricityex = 0, ey 0 or ex 0, ey = 0:

Edge columns such as B and D in Fig. 13.3 are subjected to uniaxial
bending moments (see Fig. 13.2b).

3. Columns with biaxial eccentricityex 0 and ey 0: Corner

columns like C in multi-storey buildings (see Fig. 13.3) are subjected
to biaxial bending moments in addition to the compressive force.
When subjected to lateral loads, most of the columns will be Fig. 13.2 Cross section of column with different types of loading (a) Concentric axial
subjected to uniaxial or biaxial bending moments (see Fig. 13.2c). loading (b) Loading with one axis eccentricity (c) Loading with biaxial eccentricities

Classification of Columns based on

Columns in Typical Multi-storey Buildings
Slenderness Ratio
9Columns, struts, beams, and ties are often slender members.

9Slenderness ratio of a member is defined as the ratio of the effective

length to the radius of gyration of the section.

9Based on the slenderness factor, columns can be classified as follows:

1. Short columns: These types of columns generally fail after
reaching the ultimate load carrying capacity of columns.

2. Slender columns: These types of columns generally fail suddenly

Fig. 13.3 Columns in typical multi-storey buildings (a) Section
through column (b) Part floor plan at relatively low compressive loads due to buckling.
 Unsupported and Effective Lengths
of Columns
Unsupported Length
9The unsupported length, L, of a compression member is taken as the
clear height of the column.
9Unsupported length for various types of constructions are defined as
follows:
1. In flat slab or flat plate construction, it is the clear distance
between the floor and the extremity of the slab, the drop panel,
or column capital, whichever is the minimum (see Figs 13.4ac).
2. In beam slab construction, it is taken as the clear distance
between the floor and the underside of the beam.
Unsupported Length of Columns
Fig. 13.4 Unsupported length of columns (a) Flat plate
(b) Flat slab (c) Column capital (d) Slab with beams
Unsupported and Effective Lengths
of Columns
3. In columns restrained laterally by intermediate struts, it should be
taken as the clear distance between consecutive struts in each
vertical plane.
4. In columns with haunches, it is taken as the clear distance between
the floor and lower edge of the haunch in the plane considered.
5. In columns with brackets, it is the clear distance between the floor
and lower edge of the bracket, provided the width of the bracket is
equal to at least half the width of the column.
Buckling of Columns and Effective Length
Columns, when concentrically loaded, may fail in one of the following
modes of failure, depending on the slenderness ratio:
1. Pure compression failure: Short columns, with Le/b ratio less than
12, will fail by the crushing of concrete without undergoing any
lateral deformation.
2. Buckling failure: Slender columns, with Le/b ratio greater than 30,
will become unstable even under small loads, well before the
materials reach their yield stresses. When such columns are loaded,
at a particular load, called the buckling load, the column undergoes
buckling with lateral deflection transverse to the applied load of
undefined magnitude as shown in Fig. 13.5.
 Combined Compression and Bending
Buckling Behaviour of Columns
Failure
9Most of the RC columns may be subjected to axial load and bending
moment due to eccentricity of load or from connecting beams or slabs.

9Such slender columns will undergo deflection along their length as

beam columns, and these deflections produce additional secondary
bending moments in the columns.

9When material failure is reached under the combined action of these

direct loads and bending moments, the failure is termed as combined
compression and bending failure.
Fig. 13.5 Buckling behaviour of columns (a) Column (b) Load vs
deflection curve

Effective Length Factor for Columns Effective Length of Columns

9The buckling loads of columns with different boundary conditions may

be considered by the concept of effective lengths.

9The effective length of a column in the considered plane may be

defined as the distance between the points of inflection (zero moment)
in the buckled configuration of the column in that plane (see Fig. 13.6).

9In a frame, when relative transverse displacement between the upper

and lower ends of a column is prevented, the frame is considered to be
braced against side sway.
Fig. 13.6 Effective length factor for columns (a) Hinged ends (b) Fixed ends (c) Partially restrained
ends (d) Cantilevered (e) One end fixed and the other end restrained against rotation but not held in
position (f) Partially restrained ends
 Combined Compression and Bending Effective length of Columns with
Failure Simple End-restraints
9Similarly, when relative transverse displacement between the upper
and lower ends of a column is not prevented, the frame is considered to
be unbraced against side sway.

9When there is relative transverse displacement between the upper

and lower ends of a column, the points of inflection may not lie within
the member.

9In such a case, they may be located by extending the deflection curve
beyond the column ends and by applying conditions of symmetry as
shown in Figs 13.6(d)(e).

Determination Of Effective Length Of

Slender Columns Columns In Frames
9End restraints of columns in building frames cannot be easily
categorized into the simple end restraints.

9Real columns have partially restrained ends and their effective length
depends on the ratio of the flexural stiffness of the column to the
summation of column stiffness and flexural stiffness of beams
connected to the ends.

9Different methods have been suggested to predict the effective length

of such columns.
Fig. 13.7 Piers of Millau Viaduct, France are the tallest in the World with heights in the
range of 77.5 to 245 m [Photo: Eiffage CEVM/Foster+Partners/D. Jamme]
 Determination Of Effective Length Of Effective Length Ratios for a Column in a
Columns In Frames Non-sway Frame
9Two sets of curves (one set for columns in non-sway frames and
another set for columns in sway frames) are provided in Annexure E of
IS 456:2000 and are based on the curves originally proposed by Wood
(1974) (see Figs 13.8 and 13.9).

9Woods curves are also used in IS 800:2007 for determining the

effective length of steel columns.

9The American code suggests the use of Jackson and Moreland

alignment charts (also called Julian and Lawrence nomograph)
developed in 1959 (see Fig. 13.10), which allow graphical determination
of the effective length factor, k, for a column of constant cross section in
a multi-bay frame.
Fig. 13.8 Effective length ratios for a column in a non-sway frame

Effective Length Ratios for a Column in a

Sway Frame

E = Ratio of (EI/Lc) of column to (EI/Lb) of flexural members in a plane at one end of column
Lb and Lc = Length of column and beam, respectively, measured centre to centre of joints
Fig. 13.9 Effective length ratios for a column in a sway frame Fig. 13.10 Jackson and Moreland alignment charts (a) Non-sway frames (b) Sway frames
 Sway and Non-sway Frames
9The effective lengths of sway and non-sway frames differ
considerably.
9A column may be assumed non-sway when the ratio of the total
lateral stiffness of the bracing elements to that of the columns in a
storey is considerable.
9Compression members are considered as braced against side sway
when bracing elements like shear walls have a total stiffness of at least
12 times the gross stiffness of all the columns in the storey.
Sway and Non-sway Frames
If not readily apparent by inspection, the following two different criteria
may be used:
1. A storey in a frame can be considered as non-sway if the increase
in the lateral load moments resulting from the P- effects does
not exceed five per cent of the first-order end moments.
2. The storey within a structure may be considered non-sway if the
computed stability index,Q, is less than 0.04.
Where

Fixity at Footing Fixity at Footing

9The usual assumption of full fixity at the column base may be valid
only for columns supported by a raft foundation, a thick pile cap, or an
individual footing on the rock.

9Individual footing supported on deformable soil may have

considerable rotational flexibility and offer only partial fixity.

9In such cases, there will be rotation in addition to settlement at the

base as shown in Fig. 13.11.

9The approximate relationship between allowable soil bearing pressure Fig. 13.11 Modelling of column base rotational stiffness
(a) Rotation and settlement of footing (b) Rotational spring
and coefficient of sub-grade reaction is provided in Fig. 13.12.
 Fixity at Footing Behaviour of Short Columns
9The actual stresses under service loads cannot be meaningfully
computed.

9When the load was increased, the steel reached the yield strength
before the concrete could reach its full strength.

9The column carried further load, because the steel sustained the yield
stress, while the deformations increased, until the concrete reached its
full strength.

9The criterion for failure is the limiting strain, and the columns are
deemed to have failed when the axial strain reaches a limit of 0.002.
Fig. 13.12 Approximate relationship between allowable soil
bearing pressure and coefficient of subgrade reaction, ks

Behaviour of Short Columns Behaviour of Short Columns

9The tests conducted in the USA revealed the enormous ductility of
columns with spiral reinforcement.

9Transverse reinforcements such as lateral ties or spirals are often

provided to prevent the buckling of longitudinal bars.

9As can be seen from Fig. 13.13(a), up to the load Pu, transverse steel
adds very little to the strength of the column and the behaviours of tied
and spiral columns are almost identical.

9Once the ultimate load is reached, a tied column with not very closely
spaced ties fails immediately, with an hourglass type of concrete failure Fig. 13.13 Behaviour of short columns (a) Load-deformation curve (b) Tied column
(c) Spiral column
and buckling of longitudinal bars between the ties (see Fig. 13.13b).
 Confining Reinforcement for Circular Confining Reinforcement for Circular
Columns Columns
9Assuming that the spirals are sufficiently close to apply a near-uniform
pressure, the confining pressure can be calculated from the hoop
tension developed by the spiral steel.

9The spiral steel is approximately twice as effective as the same volume

of longitudinal steel in contributing to the strength of the column.

9Spirals add little to strength prior to reaching yield, but they provide
ductility.
Fig. 13.14 Confinement of core concrete by spiral reinforcement

9The amount of confinement steel required for a given curvature As per Clause 7.4.7 of IS 13920: 1993
ductility factor is strongly dependent on the axial force level.
For large columns:

Practical Provisions on Reinforcement

Confining Reinforcement for
Detailing - Dimensions
Rectangular Columns 9The minimum dimension of column in earthquake zones should not be
less than 300 mm or 15 times the largest longitudinal bar diameter.
For rectangular columns, as per Clause 7.4.8
of IS 13920: 1993
9This limit is necessary because of two reasons as follows:
1. In smaller-size columns, the moment capacity of the column may
be low due to the smaller lever arm between the compression
For Larger columns and tension steel. Hence, the strong columnweak beam theory
cannot be fulfilled.
2. With smaller columns, the beam bars will not get enough
anchorage length in the column (see Fig. 13.15).
Recent research has shown that the required amount of
confinement steel is strongly dependent on the axial 9The ratio of the shortest cross-sectional dimension to the
force level also. perpendicular dimension should be greater than 0.4.
 Minimum Width Of Columns In
Earthquake Zones
Fig. 13.15 Minimum width of columns in earthquake zones
(a) Exterior column (b) Interior column
Practical Provisions on Reinforcement
Detailing - Longitudinal Reinforcement
1. The minimum and maximum percentages of longitudinal
reinforcement in columns should be 0.8 % and 6 % (preferable 4%),
respectively. The minimum limit is to provide resistance to bending
and to prevent failure due to the effect of creep and shrinkage under
sustained loading; the maximum limit is to provide proper clearance
between the bars.
2. In certain situations, larger column sizes than required by design
may have to be adopted due to architectural considerations, for
meeting local building regulations, or to use standard formworks or
moulds. In such cases, the code permits the use of minimum
percentage of longitudinal reinforcement based on the required
area of concrete instead of the actual area of concrete.
Practical Provisions on Reinforcement
Detailing - Concrete Cover
9Depending on the exposure conditions, we should adopt different
concrete grades and cover for columns.
9The nominal concrete cover for fire resistance is 40 mm.
9The nominal cover to the longitudinal reinforcement should not be
less than either 40 mm or the diameter of the bar.
9It is better to apply the minimum cover provision to the transverse
reinforcement of column and not to the main bars.
Practical Provisions on Reinforcement
Detailing - Longitudinal Reinforcement
3. A minimum of four longitudinal bars of 12 mm diameter for
rectangular columns and a minimum of six longitudinal bars of 12
mm diameter for circular columns should be provided. Columns with
helical reinforcement should also have at least six longitudinal bars
within and in contact with the helical Reinforcement. For sections
with several corners such as L, T, or + shapes, at least one bar should
be provided at each corner with proper transverse reinforcement.
4. Different types of reinforcing bars, such as plain bars and deformed
bars, of various grades should not be used side by side, as it may
lead to confusion and error. However, secondary reinforcement like
ties may be of mild steel throughout.
 Transverse Reinforcement
Transverse reinforcement serves several purposes such as the following:
1. To provide shear and torsional resistance to the member and to
avoid shear failure
2. To confine the concrete core and thereby increase the ultimate
strain of concrete and, in turn, to improve ductility
3. To provide lateral resistance against buckling to the longitudinal
(main) reinforcement
4. To prevent loss of bond strength within column bar splices
5. To help keep the longitudinal reinforcement in place during
construction
Requirements for Transverse
Reinforcement
1. Pitch and diameter of lateral ties:
9 The pitch or spacing of transverse reinforcement should not be
more than the least of the following:
(a) The least lateral dimension of column
(b) 16 times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal (main)
reinforcement
(c) 300 mm
9 Ties must be stiff enough to prevent lateral displacement of the
main bars during ultimate failure conditions. In such situations,
the stiffness governs rather than the strength. Hence, the size of
ties is independent of the type or grade of steel used.
Transverse Reinforcement
9Transverse reinforcement is provided in the form of rectangular or
polygonal links (lateral ties) with internal angles less than 135 or by
circular rings, which are capable of resisting circumferential tension.
9The ends of transverse reinforcement should be properly anchored.
9Anchorage of ties is considered to have been provided when the bar is
bent through an angle of at least 90 round a bar of at least its own
diameter and is continued beyond the end of the curve for a length of at
least eight times the diameter.
9If the bent angle is 135, it should be continued for a length of at least
eight times the diameter, and if the bent angle is 180, it should be
continued for at least four times the bar diameter.
Requirements for Transverse
Reinforcement
2. Pitch and diameter of helical reinforcement:
9 Helical reinforcement should be of regular formation with the
turns of the helix spaced evenly, and its ends should be anchored
properly by providing one and a half extra turns of the spiral bar.
9 The diameter of the helical reinforcement should also follow the
rules of lateral ties, as given in point 1.
9 In most rectangular sections, a single peripheral tie will not be
sufficient to confine the concrete properly or to provide lateral
restraint against buckling to longitudinal bars. Hence, an
arrangement of overlapping rectangular hoops or supplementary
cross-ties will be necessary (see Figs. 13.17a and 13.17b).

Fig. 13.16 Pitch and arrangement of transverse steel in column (a) Rectangular (b) Circular
Requirements for Transverse
Reinforcement
3. The unsupported length of transverse ties should not exceed 48
times the diameter of the tie in two directions nor 300 mm (see Figs
13.17b and c). In the case of large columns, more than one tie may
be used to provide adequate restraint to the longitudinal bar, as
shown in Figs 13.17(a) and (b). More ties in a single plane are also
necessary for L-, T-, and +-shaped columns (see Fig. 13.17d).
3. When the longitudinal reinforcement is placed in more than one
row, effective lateral support to the longitudinal reinforcement in
inner row is assumed only if transverse reinforcement is provided for
the outermost row and no bar of the inner row is closer to the
nearest compression face than three times the diameter of largest
bar on inner row (see Fig. 13.17e).
Fig. 13.17 Different types of arrangement of transverse reinforcement (a) Two overlapping hoops
(b) Two overlapping hoops (c) Single hoops plus two cross-ties bent around longitudinal bars
(d) T-shaped column (e) Longitudinal bars in more than one row (f) Grouping of longitudinal bars
Requirements for Transverse
Reinforcement
5. Longitudinal bars may also be grouped at each corner and each
group tied together with transverse reinforcement in accordance
with point 1, as shown in Fig. 13.17(f). In such a case, transverse
reinforcement for the column as a whole may be provided on the
assumption that each group is a single longitudinal bar for the
purpose of determining the pitch and diameter of transverse
reinforcement.
Some more arrangements of column ties are shown in Fig. 13.18.
Additional transverse reinforcement should be provided at splices of
longitudinal bars.
 Arrangements of Column Ties Columns in Multi-storey Frames
9In multi-storeyed buildings, since the column reinforcement cannot be
continuous over the entire height of the building, they are spliced at
each floor for ease of construction.

9In such cases, the bars from the footing or the lower floor, as the case
may be, form the starter bars for the column bars above that level. The
length of these starter bars (also known as dowel bars) should be equal
to at least the development length of the bars.

9When there is a small offset, the bars from the lower floor are cranked
into the column at the floor level so that the main bars are in proper
Fig. 13.18 Some more arrangements of column ties location (see Fig. 13.19a). Alternatively, the dowel bars may be left to
continue without cranking and the main bars can be cranked.

Columns in Multi-storey Frames

9When column vertical bars are bent, additional ties are to be provided
as shown in Fig. 13.19(a). They are required for the proper functioning
of the frame system while resisting the lateral loads.

9Construction workers often kink the longitudinal bars of columns for

better alignment at site, as shown in Fig. 13.19(b). This type of kinking
will lead to heavy local shear and bending moments and is dangerous
for the safety of columns; hence, such a practice should be discouraged.

9Splicing near the beam-column joint, as shown in Fig. 13.19(a) is not

suitable for earthquake zones, where the splicing should be located at
mid-height between floors. It is preferable to splice only less than 50 per
Fig. 13.19 Continuous columns (a) Small offset in continuous columns
cent of the vertical bars at a particular location.
(b) Kinking of bars (not recommended)
 Other Codal Provisions
Slenderness Limit: Columns should never be sized in such a way that
they fail by buckling under concentric loading or lateral torsional
buckling when subjected to axial force and bending. All columns should
be proportioned in such a way that they fail only by material failure. The
clear distance between restraints should never exceed 60 times the
least lateral dimension of the column.
Minimum Eccentricity: Real columns will have accidental eccentricities
caused by imperfections in construction, inaccuracy in loading, and
lateral deflection of column. Hence, the codes of practices always
prescribe some minimum eccentricities to be considered in the design
of columns. Where the calculated eccentricity is larger, the minimum
eccentricity should be ignored.
Steps in Design of Short Columns
1. Compute the load on the column.
2. Choose a suitable size for the column, based on either architectural
requirements or the size of the beam that will be placed on it. App.
size can be arrived using:
where , g = Asc/Ag may be initially chosen as 2%
3. Decide whether the column in the frame is a sway or non-sway
column by computing the stability index. If Q 0.04, then the
column can be considered as a non-sway column.
Minimum Eccentricity as per IS 456
9As per Clause 25.4 of IS 456
9When there is bi-axial bending, ensure that
eccentricity exceeds the minimum about one axis at
a time.
9For other shapes of cross-section, SP 24:1983
suggests a value of Lef/300
Steps in Design of Short Columns
4. Using Woods curves given in Annexure E of IS 456 (Figs. 13.8 and
13.9), determine the effective length of column; for idealized
conditions.
5. Compute the slenderness of the column about the principal axes.
The column can be considered as a short column only when the
value is less than 12; otherwise, the column has to be designed as a
long column.
 Steps in Design of Short Columns
6. Compute the area of steel using:
Check for minimum ( 0.8%) and maximum ( 34% to allow for
lapping and to reduce congestion) percentage of steel. If the
calculated area of steel is not within limits, repeat steps 46 by
changing the size of the column.
6. Detail longitudinal steel by choosing suitable size and numbers.
Adopt suitable cover to steel and also check the perimeter spacing
of bars.
8. Design and detail transverse steel by choosing suitable size, spacing,
and so on
Design of Pedestals
9Pedestal is a compression member, the effective length of which does
not exceed three times the least lateral dimension.
9RC pedestals can be designed as short columns.
9When the longitudinal reinforcement of a pedestal is not taken into
account in strength calculations, nominal longitudinal reinforcement of
not less than 0.15 per cent of the cross-sectional area should be
provided as per Clause 26.5.3.1(h) of IS 456.
9Pedestals can also be of plain concrete.
Design Aids
Chart 24 to 26 of SP 16 provide design aids for Fe
250, Fe 415 and Fe 500 steel, respectively.
There are two parts to these charts. If the cross-
section of column is known, from the value of Pu/Ag,
the reinforcement percentage can be directly read
from the lower chart.
Else, using upper sections of these charts, for the
value of Pu proceed horizontally till the Ag
corresponding to the size of column is reached, then
proceed vertically and read off the value of p for the
adopted value of fck.
Earthquake and Other Considerations
Strong ColumnWeak Beam Concept
9When buildings are subjected to earthquake loads, plastic hinges will
be formed at the ends of the members where there are heavy bending
moments, and subsequently the structure will fail when there are
enough plastic hinges to form a mechanism (see Fig. 13.20).
9The distribution of damage over the height of the building depends on
the distribution of lateral drift. If the building has weak columns or long
columns in a particular storey, the drift will concentrate in this storey
and may exceed the drift capacity of the column (see Figs 13.20a and
13.21).
 Strong ColumnWeak Beam Concept Failure Mechanisms of Multi-storey Frames

9Due to the failure of several buildings having soft storey columns, the
columns and beams of a soft storey should be designed for 2.5 times the
storey shears and moments calculated under seismic loads.

9On the other hand, if strong columns are provided throughout the
building height, drift will be more uniformly distributed (Fig. 13.20c) and
localized damage will be reduced.

9Buildings with columns having the same strength as beams may result
in an intermediate mechanism as shown in Fig.13.20(b).
Fig. 13.20 Different failure mechanisms of multi-storey frames (a) Storey mechanism (soft storey or
strong beamweak column design) (b) Intermediate mechanism (c) Beam mechanism (strong
columnweak beam design)

Strong ColumnWeak Beam Concept Strong ColumnWeak Beam Concept

9The columns in a given storey support the weight of the entire
building above those columns, whereas the beams support only the
gravity loads of the particular floor

9Hence, the failure of a column is of greater importance than that of a

beam, as column failure will result in the collapse of the entire building.

9Recognizing this fact, building codes often specify that columns should
be stronger than the beams that frame into them. This strong-column
weak-beam principle is fundamental to achieving safe behaviour of
Fig. 13.21 Typical building in urban areas of India with open ground-storey parking
frames during strong earthquake ground shaking. (a) Soft storey (b) Typical failure of a soft storey column in Bhuj earthquake of
26 January 2001 (Source: EERI, USA and NICEE, Kanpur)
 Strong ColumnWeak Beam Concept Strong ColumnWeak Beam Concept
9Buildings following this principle will fail in beamhinge mechanism
(beams yielding before the columns) and not in the storey mechanism
(columns yielding before the beams).

9An increase in the column to beam strength ratio increases (a) the
lateral load (base shear) capacity of the building and (b) the lateral
deformation and ductility capacity of the building (see Fig. 13.22).

9The sequence of hinge formation is critical in a building in addition to

its capacity curve and the location of plastic hinges in the building. It is
preferable that the hinges form in beams before they are formed in
Fig. 13.22 Increase in ductility with increase in column to beam strength
columns. (Source: Murty et al, 2012)

Detailing of Longitudinal Reinforcement Strong ColumnWeak Beam Concept

9 At a joint in a frame resisting earthquake forces, the sum of moment
of resistance of the column should be at least 1.1 times the sum of
moment of resistance of the beam along each principal plane of the
joint (see Fig. 13.23).

9 The moment of resistance of the column should be calculated

considering the factored axial forces on the column and should be
summed in such a way that the column moments oppose the beam
moments.

9 When determining the nominal flexural strength of a beam section

in negative bending (top in tension), longitudinal reinforcement
contained within the effective flange width of a top slab that acts Fig. 13.23 Strong columnWeak beam concept
monolithically with the beam increases the strength of beams.
 Detailing of Longitudinal Reinforcement
9 At least one intermediate bar should be
provided between the corner bars along each
column face-as per this clause, rectangular
columns in lateral load resisting frames should
have a minimum of eight bars.
9 Intermediate bars are required to ensure the
integrity of the beam-column joint and increase
confinement to the column core.
Detailing of Longitudinal Reinforcement
9 Seismic moments are the maximum in columns just above and just
below the beam. Hence, reinforcement must not be changed in
these locations.
9 Since the seismic moments are minimum away from the ends of
columns, it is preferable to provide lap splices only in the central half
of the columns, and the splicing should not extend into the plastic
hinge regions. when subjected to seismic forces, columns can
develop substantial reversible moments.
9 Hoops should be provided over the entire splice length at spacing
not exceeding 150 mm centre to centre. It is also preferable to splice
less than 50 per cent of the bars at one section.

Detailing of Longitudinal Reinforcement Detailing of Longitudinal Reinforcement

9 Even non-structural column extensions contribute to the stiffness of
the column. If the extensions are not properly tied with the column
core, earthquake forces may cause spalling of this portion, leading to
a sudden change in the stiffness of the column.

9 When this extra area has been considered in the strength

calculations, it should be provided with the minimum longitudinal
and transverse reinforcement. However, when this area is
considered as non-structural, minimum longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement must be provided (see Fig. 13.24).

9 Bars passing through a beam-column joint may create severe bond Fig. 13.24 Column with more than 100 mm projection beyond the core

stress demands on the joint hence beam bar sizes are restricted.
 Detailing of Transverse Reinforcement Detailing of Transverse Reinforcement
9 Transverse reinforcement for circular columns should consist of
spiral or circular hoops.
9 Usually, a minimum bar diameter is specified for
transverse reinforcement in columns to ensure minimum
9 In rectangular columns, rectangular hoops may be used. A
ductility and to prevent local buckling of longitudinal bars. rectangular hoop is a closed stirrup, having a 135 hook with a six
diameter extension (but not less than 65 mm) at each end, which is
embedded in the confined core (see Fig. 13.25a).

9 If cross-tie ends with 90 hooks are alternated, confinement will be

sufficient. Not all bars need to be laterally supported by a bend of a
transverse hoop or cross-tie, provided the bar is not spaced more
than 75 mm away from another fully restrained bar.

Detailing of Transverse Reinforcement

9 The parallel legs of a rectangular hoop should be spaced less than
300 mm centre to centre. If the length of any side of the hoop
exceeds 300 mm, it is necessary to provide a cross-tie, as shown in
Fig. 13.25(b).

9 Alternatively, a pair of overlapping hoops may be provided within

the column as shown in Fig. 13.25(c). It is important to ensure that
the hooks engage the peripheral longitudinal bars.

9 Consecutive cross-ties engaging the same longitudinal bars should

have their 90 hooks on the opposite sides of the column, as shown
Fig. 13.25 Transverse reinforcement in columns (a) Single hoop (b) Single hoop with a
in Fig. 13.25 (c).
cross-tie (c) Overlapping hoops with cross-ties
 Detailing of Transverse Reinforcement Alternative Tie Arrangements
9Closer spacing of hoops is desirable to ensure better seismic
performance.

9Ties, lap spliced in the cover concrete, as shown in Fig. 13.26(a)should

not be used. Similarly, lapped splices of circular hoops or spirals in the
cover concrete must be avoided.

9Sometimes, J-type intermediate ties, with 135 hook at one end and
90 hook at the other end, are preferred due to ease of construction
(see Fig. 13.26b)
Fig. 13.26 Alternative tie arrangements (a) Lap-splicing of ties near cover concrete (b) Alternating
J-type intermediate ties (c) Spliced tie inside the compression core (d) Splicing of plain ties (e) Lap
9A spliced tie, as shown in Fig. 13.26(c), may be used in the welding of spliced ties (f) Prefabricated hoops with butt-welds (g)(h) Double-headed studs as cross-ties

compression core only when ductility demand is restricted.

Detailing of Transverse Reinforcement Detailing of Transverse Reinforcement

9For plain bars, the splicing as shown in Fig. 13.26(d) may be more
effective.
9Based on the strong columnweak beam theory, the design shear
force for columns should be the maximum of the following:
9As ties are not subjected to alternating inelastic strains, lap welding as a) Calculated factored shear force as per analysis
shown in Fig. 13.26(e) is acceptable, provided good quality weld is
assured. b) A factored shear force as in Eqn. 13.27 on Page 530 of book

9Prefabricated hoops with proper butt welds, as shown in Fig. 13.26(f), 9The column shear is evaluated based on beam flexural yielding, with
may result in less congestion due to the elimination of hooks and their the assumption that yielding will occur in beams rather than in columns.
extensions.
9Welding of stirrups, ties, or inserts to longitudinal reinforcement is not
9Double-headed studs are also found suitable for use as cross-ties, with permitted
the conventional closed stirrups following the perimeter of the cross
section as shown in Figs. 13.26(g) and (h).
Calculation of Design Shear Force for
Column
Special Confining Reinforcement
9Ductile response requires that members yield in flexure and shear
failure is avoided. Shear failure, especially in columns, is relatively brittle
and can lead to rapid loss of lateral strength and axial load carrying
capacity.

9Column shear failure is the most common cause of concrete building

failure and collapse during the past earthquakes (see Fig. 13.28).

9The shear strength of concrete reduces considerably in plastic hinge

locations, which are often subjected to multiple stress reversals,
especially if the axial compressive loads are low.
Fig. 13.27 Calculation of design shear force for column

Shear Strength Degradation due to Cyclic

Shear Failure Loading
9When an RC member is subjected to load, flexural and shear cracks
develop as shown in Fig. 13.29(a).

9When the load is reversed, these cracks close and a new set of cracks
form. The crack pattern after several cycles of loading will be similar to
that shown in Fig. 13.29(b).

9The left end of the beam will resemble a series of blocks of concrete
held together by the reinforcement cage. The shear is now transferred
across the crack only by the dowel action of the longitudinal
reinforcement and grinding friction along the crack.
Fig. 13.28 Shear failure leading to a storey mechanism and
Subsequent collapse of building(Source: FEMA 451)
 Shear Strength Degradation due to Cyclic Shear Strength Degradation due to Cyclic
Loading Loading
9Potential plastic hinge zones are provided with special confining
reinforcement to enhance ductile behaviourto ensure adequate
rotational ductility of columns and to provide restraint against buckling
to the compression reinforcement.

9Such confining reinforcement needs to be provided unless a larger

amount of transverse reinforcement is required from shear strength
considerations.

Fig. 13.29 Shear strength degradation due to cyclic loads (a) Cracks due to load acting in one 9However, shear-dominated columns subjected to cyclic reversals at
direction (b) Cracks due to load acting in opposite direction
low temperatures (36C) exhibited an increase in flexural strength,
shear, and displacement capacity.

Confining Reinforcement as per Codes

1. Special confining reinforcement shall be provided over a length Lo
(length of plastic hinge) from each joint face, towards mid-span, and
on either side of any section, where flexural yielding may occur
under the effect of earthquake forces (see Fig. 13.30).

Factors influencing the length of plastic hinge are as follows:

a) Level of axial load
b) Moment gradient
c) Value of shear stress in the plastic hinge region
d) Amount and mechanical properties of longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement
e) Strength of concrete
f) Level of confinement provided in the potential plastic hinge zone Fig. 13.30 Columns and joint detailing as per IS 13920 & ACI 318
 Confining Reinforcement as per Codes Special Confining Reinforcement in Footing

2. The spacing of hoops used as special confining reinforcement should

not exceed one-fourth of the minimum member dimension or six
times the diameter of the longitudinal bar; the spacing need not be
less than 75 mm nor more than 100 mm to ensure proper
compaction of concrete (see Fig. 13.30).

3. During severe shaking, a plastic hinge may form at the bottom of a

column that terminates into a footing or raft foundation. Hence, Fig. 13.31 Special confining reinforcement in footing
special confining reinforcement of the column must be extended to
at least 300 mm into the foundation(see Fig. 13.31).

Confining Reinforcement as per Codes Special Confining Reinforcement

4. When the calculated point of contraflexure, under the effect of
gravity and earthquake loads, is not within the middle half of the
column, the zone of inelastic deformation may extend beyond the
region that is provided with closely spaced hoop reinforcement.
Special confining reinforcement should be provided over the full
height of the column.

5. Observations in past earthquakes indicate very poor performance of

buildings where a wall in the upper storey terminates on the
columns in the lower storeys. Hence, special confining
reinforcement must be provided over the full height in such columns
Fig. 13.32 Special confining reinforcement for columns supporting
(see Fig. 13.32). discontinued wall
 Confining Reinforcement as per Codes Columns with Variable Stiffness
6. Column stiffness is inversely proportional to the cube of the column
height. Hence, columns with significantly lesser height than other
columns in the same storey have much higher lateral stiffness and
consequently attract much greater seismic shear force.

Semi-basements require ventilators to be provided between

the soffit of beams and the top of the wall (see Fig. 13.33a). Another
example is a mezzanine floor or a loft, which results in the stiffening
of some of the columns while leaving other columns of the same
storey unbraced over their full height (see Fig. 13.33b).
FIG. 13.33 Columns with variable stiffness (a) Columns with partial in-filled panel
Hence, special confining reinforcement shall be provided over the (b) Columns supporting mezzanine floor or loft
full height in such columns to give them adequate confinement and
shear strength.

Parameters Affecting Confinement Parameters Affecting Confinement

Reinforcement Reinforcement
Axial Load Level
It has been well established that columns with low compressive axial Unconfined Cover Concrete Thickness
loads may require less confinement than those with high axial loads. As the load is increased, the unconfined concrete in the cover portion of
The momentcurvature response of members subjected to axial the column will begin to spall, when the compressive strain in concrete
tensions would be dominated by the behaviour of longitudinal reaches about 0.0030.005, resulting in loss of strength.
reinforcement; hence, columns with axial tension are not critical as they
will sustain large ultimate curvatures. This loss will be considerable when the area of unconfined concrete
cover is a larger proportion of the total concrete. Hence, this effect has
Effective Confining Pressure Or Ratio Of Concrete Strength To Tie to be included in the confinement provisions.
Strength
As the yield strength is increased, the quantity of the required confining
reinforcement will be reduced. As HSC is more brittle than NSC, it may
require more confining steel.
 Parameters Affecting Confinement
Reinforcement
Longitudinal Reinforcement and Spacing
9The amount and transverse support of longitudinal reinforcement will
also influence the confinement of concrete core (see Figs 13.34 and
13.35).

9When more longitudinal bars are restrained by hoops or cross-ties,

the effectiveness of confinement is improved, since the confined
concrete arches horizontally between the restrained longitudinal bars
(see Fig. 13.34).

9When the longitudinal reinforcement ratio is high, steel congestion

problems will arise, and hence a larger size of column is preferable in
such cases. The required confining reinforcement increases when
Fig. 13.34 Confinement of concrete in rectangular or square columns
flexural steel content decreases.

Confining Stresses Suggested Eqn. for Confinement

Reinforcement
Based on the foregoing discussions in the previous
slides, the following equation is proposed for
confining reinforcement (Elwood et al. 2009 and
Subramanian 2011):

Fig. 13.35 Confining stresses provided by different arrangements of transverse

reinforcement (a) Two overlapping hoops (b) Two overlapping hoops with one diamond
shaped (c) Circular column with spiral ties
Consideration of the Effect of Longitudinal
Rods in Confinement
Fig. 13.36 Consideration of the effect of longitudinal rods in confinement
Confinement Reinforcement in
Circular Columns
Based on the reasoning given earlier, the
following confinement equation is proposed
for circular columns (Elwood et al. 2009):
Where s is the volumetric ratio of transverse
reinforcement, kp = 0.8 Pu/Ag fck 0.2.
The term kn is not required for circular columns, as
spirals provide effective confinement than rectangular
hoops
Parameters Affecting Confinement
Reinforcement
Curvature Ductility Factor
9The quantity of confining reinforcement provided in the potential
plastic hinge zones of columns has a significant effect on the curvature
ductility factor.
9Columns are considered to have adequate ductility if they are able to
sustain a curvature ductility factor of approximately 20.
9The superiority of helical reinforcement in circular column over
rectangular links in square or rectangular columns in providing greater
ductility has been proved in several earthquakes.
Superiority of Helical reinforcement
Fig. 13.37 Damage to Olive View Hospital (a) A wing of the building showing approximately
600 mm drift in its first storey (b) Damaged spirally reinforced column in first storey still
carrying load (c) Completely collapsed tied rectangular corner column in the same storey
 Ductility of Columns THANK YOU!
9Very high-strength concrete is extremely brittle when not confined
adequately and the required confinement is greater than for NSC
columns. HSC can be made to behave in a ductile manner under high
levels of axial force.

9High-strength lightweight concrete columns were also found to have

high ductility under seismic loads. Self-consolidating concrete (SCC)
columns were found to have better structural performance and are
more ductile.

9Use of steel fibres was found to delay the spalling of concrete cover
and increase the strain capacity and ductility of columns.