WhatisSpeechCommunication?

Speechcommunicationisthestudyofhowandwhypeoplecommunicate.It
includesbothspokenlanguageandnonverbalmessages.Communicationinthis
senseisbothanindependentprofessionandanimportantpartofmanyother
professions.Forexample,goodcommunicationskillsareessentialinlaw,
business,advertising,publicrelations,andsales
(fromLatin"communis",meaningtoshare)
isdefinedasaprocessbywhichweassignandconveymeaninginanattemptto
createsharedunderstanding.Thisprocessrequiresavastrepertoireofskillsin
intrapersonalandinterpersonalprocessing,listening,observing,speaking,
questioning,analyzing,andevaluating.Useoftheseprocessesisdevelopmental
andtransferstoallareasoflife:home,school,community,work,andbeyond.Itis
throughcommunicationthatcollaborationandcooperationoccur.

7CsofEffectiveCommunication
1.Clarity:Simplicity&Organization
Clarityisbestachievedthroughshort,simpleandfluentsentencesand
paragraphs.Eachparagraphshoulddescribeonlyoneidea,andparagraphs
shouldbeorganizedfromthebigpictureatthebeginningtogreaterdetail
towardstheend.Thelastsentenceinaparagraphshouldindicatetheinformation
inthenextparagraph.Appropriateideaflowensuresthatthereadersare
exposedtorightinformationattherighttime,especiallyiftheyarenotfromyour
immediatescientificfield.
Clarityisinterconnectedwiththeprincipleofcompletenessandconcreteness.

2.Conciseness:GettothePoint
Concisenessmeansformingyourmessagewithminimumnumberofwords
possiblewithoutinvalidatingtheother6Cs.Avoidwordiness,repetition,and
fillerwordsorphrases,suchasinshort,asstatedbefore,duetothefact
that,thisisthefirststudy,etc.Thisisparticularlyimportantinproject
proposalsorresearchpaperswithstrictwordlimits.Concisemessageisalsomore
appealingandcomprehensible,andwillsavetimebothtoyouandyouraudience.
Concisenessisinterconnectedwiththeprinciples
ofconcretenessandconsideration.
3.Concreteness:SpecificsInsteadofGeneralizations
Concretemessageislikeafactsheetputtowords.Forexample,itismuchbetter
tosayInthereviewoftheperiodfrom2010to2015,A&B(2016)foundthat75
%ofpublicationsfromtheresearchareaofXreportedonthephenomenonofY
thanThephenomenonofYhasbecomeincreasinglyrecognizedintherecent
years.Avoidalsovaguewordsandwordswithmultiplemeanings,suchasin
thefuture,several,quickly,etc.Concretenessdiminishestheneedtoguess
themeaningandthepossibilityofmisinterpretation.
Concretenessisinterconnectedwiththeprinciples
ofclarity,concisenessandconsideration.


4.Completeness:NoNecessaryInformationisMissing
Acompletemessageshouldconveyallfactsrequiredbytheaudience.In
interdisciplinaryresearch,forexample,yourreviewersmightbefromanother
scientificfield.Itisthereforewisetoincludemoregeneralinformationthanyou
normallywouldifyouwroteapaperwithinyournarrowexpertise.Ontheother
hand,thereisnopossibilityforcorrectionsorfollowupintherevisionprocessof
projectproposals.Youthusneedtoensurethatreviewershaveallthefactsat
handifyouwishthatyourprojectisconvincing.
Completenessisinterconnectedwiththeprinciplesofclarityandcourtesy.
5.Correctness:Facts&Proofreading
Correctnessreferstobothfactualandlinguisticaccuracy.Alltheinformationyou
provideneedstostemfromvalid,reliable,andcrediblesourcesthatcanbe
located.ThisisthereasonwhyWikipediaisnotacceptedasaninformation
sourceforscientificpublications.Correctnessisfundamentalinresearchpaper
discussions,whereyourclaimsneedtobesupportedwithfactsandfiguresfrom
yourresults.Finally,youshouldalwayscheckyourwritingfortyping,spelling,and
grammaticalerrors.IfEnglishisnotyourmothertongue,itiswisetoconsult
professionallanguageeditingservices.
Correctnessisinterconnectedwiththeprincipleofconsideration.
6.Courtesy:SteppingIntoAudiencesShoes
Courteousmessageiswrittenfromtheviewpointoftheaudience.Ifyouprepare
aseminaraboutyourlatestdiscovery,youwillneedtoprovidebackground
informationforyourstudents,butyoucanskipthoseandgetrighttothedetails
foryourcoworkers.Messagesforgeneralpublicshouldalwayshighlightthe
societalbenefitsofyourresearch.Courtesyrequiressomethinkingaboutwhat
theaudienceknowsordoesntknowandformingthemessageaccordingly.
However,itisalsoawayofshowingrespect.
Courtesyisinterconnectedwiththeprincipleofcompleteness.
7.Consideration:ScientistsarePeople,Too
Justbecausescientistsareabletodealwithcomplexideasandtonsof
information,itdoesntmeanthattheyareabletodealwithafloodof
unformattedtext.Whateverdocumentyouarepreparing,beconsiderateand
usevisualdesigntomakethemainmessagesstandout.Figures,paragraphs,
headings,bulletedlists,andhighlightsaretoolsyoucanusetomakeyourpaper,
poster,orprojectproposalmoreappealingandcomprehensible.Consideration
alsoentailsgoodlanguage.Visuallyorlinguistically,yourmessageshouldntlook
asifitwaspreparedinahurry!
Considerationisinterconnectedwiththeprincipleofcorrectness.
DifferentTypesofCommunication
1) Verbalcommunication
Verbalcommunicationisatypeofcommunicationwheretheinformationflows
throughverbalmediumlikewords,speeches,presentationsetc.Inverbal
communicationthesendershareshis/herthoughtsintheformofwords.In
organizations,individualscommunicateverballyamongeachotherintheformof
dialogues,speech,presentations,discussionstonameafew.Thetoneofthe
speaker,thepitchandthequalityofwordsplayacrucialroleinverbal
communication.Thespeakerhastobeloudandclearandthecontenthastobe
properlydefined.Haphazardandunorganizedthoughtsonlyleadtoconfusions
andmisunderstandingsamongindividuals.Inverbalcommunication,anindividual
mustunderstandtheimportanceofwordsandhowtoputthemacross.
Whilespeakingthepitchoughttobehighandclearforeveryonetounderstand
andthecontentmustbedesignedkeepingthetargetaudienceinmind.Inverbal
communicationitistheresponsibilityofthesendertocrosscheckwiththe
receiverwhetherhehasdownloadedthecorrectinformationornotandthe
sendermustgivetherequiredresponse.
SarahtokenIwantaglassofwaterisanexampleofverbalcommunication.
2) Verbalcommunication
Imagineyourselfinasituation,whereyoucantspeakbuthavetocommunicate
anurgentinformationtotheotherpersonorforthatmatter,youaresittinginan
importantmeetingandyouwanttoexpressyourdispleasureorpleasuretoyour
colleaguewithoututteringevenaword.Herenonverbalmodeofcommunication
comesintopicture.Facialexpressions,gestures,handandhairmovements,body
posturesallconstitutenonverbalcommunication.Anycommunicationmade
betweentwopeoplewithoutwordsandsimplythroughfacialmovements,
gesturesorhandmovementsiscalledasnonverbalcommunication.Inother
words,itisaspeechlesscommunicationwherecontentisnotputintowordsbut
simplyexpressedthroughexpressionsIfonehasaheadache,onewouldputhis
handonhisforeheadtocommunicatehisdiscomfortaformofnonverbal
communication.Nonverbalcommunicationsarevitalinoffices,meetingsand
eveninromanticchats

3) VisualCommunication
Beforeplanninganyoutingortour,Sandraalwaysreferstothemapofthatplace.
Throughthemap,shetriestofindoutmoreabouttheplace,theroutetoreach
thatplace,hotels,shoppingjointsetc.Themapisactuallypassinginformation
abouttheplacetoSandraorcommunicatingwithSandra.Thismodeof
communicationiscalledvisualcommunication.Invisualcommunication,the
recipientreceivesinformationfromsignboards,displays,hoardings,banners,
mapsetc.ThesignboardofMcDonaldsorKFCindicateseatingjointsaformof
visualcommunication.ThesignboardofNoParkingZonecommunicatestothe
individualsthatanyvehiclemustnotbeparkedinthevicinityagainamodeof
visualcommunication.Visionplaysaveryimportantroleinvisualcommunication
anditdependsontherecipienthowtointerpretthemessage.
ORALCOMMUNICATION
istheabilitytotalkwithotherstogiveandexchangeinformation&ideas,such
as:askquestions,givedirections,coordinateworktasks,explain&persuadeby
usingthewordsofmouth.
Howweusethisskill?
Greetingpeopleandtakingmessages
Reassuringcomfortingorpersuading
Seekinginformation&resolvingconflicts
 Facilitatingorleadingagroup

TYPESOFSPEECHDELIVERY
1. ImpromptuSpeeches
Thisisaspeechthathasnoadvancedplanningorpractice.Reflectingbackon
yourspeech,youareprobablythinkingaboutwhatyoucouldhavedone
better.Yourblackeyemayverywellbethecatalystforyourregretinmaking
thosewordchoices
2. Extemporaneousspeech
Theextemporaneousspeechisaperfectbalance.Thisspeechinvolvesthe
speaker'suseofnotesandsomeembellishmenttodeliveraspeech.Toclear
thisup,aspeakerwhousesthismethodwouldhavenotecardsorprompts
thatguidehimfrompointtopoint,butheuseshisownwordsashegoes
along.Whatmakesthisdifferentthananimpromptuspeechisthathehasa
looseguidelineforhisspeech.Hedidnotmemorizeanything;hejustused
cuestoknowwheretogonext.
3. ManuscriptSpeeches
Inamanuscriptspeech,thespeakerreadseverywordfromaprewrittenspeech.
Thisseemseasyenough.Well,ifyouraudienceenjoysabedtimestory,itmay
work.Readingdirectlyfromthepagesofascripthasitsbenefits.Youwon'tmissa
singlewordorimportantfact.Thedownside?Itcanbeboring.Withouteye
contact,animationormovementonstage,theaudiencemaybecome
disinterested.Thisisespeciallytrueifthespeechisaboutadrabtopic.
4. MemorizedSpeeches
Memorizedspeakingistheroterecitationofawrittenmessagethatthespeaker
hascommittedtomemory.Actors,ofcourse,recitefrommemorywheneverthey
performfromascriptinastageplay,televisionprogram,ormoviescene.Whenit
comestospeeches,memorizationcanbeusefulwhenthemessageneedstobe
exactandthespeakerdoesntwanttobeconfinedbynotes.

TypesofSpeechCommunication
1) Intrapersonalcommunication
Intrapersonalcommunicationisthecommunicationthatoccurswithinan
individual.Anindividualusesthistypeofcommunicationforvariouspurposes
suchasanalyzingsituations,clarifyingconcepts,andreflectinguponphenomena.
Therearethreeelementsthatgovernintrapersonalcommunication,namelyself
concept,perceptionandexpectation.Anindividualemployscertainmethodsto
communicatewithinthemselvesandtheseareinternaldiscoursewherethinking,
concentrationandanalyzingoccur,solovocalcommunicationwhichinvolves
speakingoutaloudtooneself,andsolowrittencommunicationthatencompasses
writingnotintendedforothe
2) OneonOneorDyadicCommunication
InDyadiccommunication,twopersonsareinvolvedinthiscommunication
process.HeretheSourcebecomesareceiverandreceiverbecomeSource
becauseofdynamiccommunicationprocesswerethefeedbacksareshared
betweenSourceandthereceiver
3) SmallGroupCommunication
Morethantwomembersinvolvedincommunicationprocesswillbecomeagroup
communication.Ifleastnumberofpersonsisinvolvedinthegroup
communicationiscalledassmallgroupcommunication.Inthiscommunication
process,everyonebecomesaSourceaswellasreceiverthroughsharing
informationandgivesfeedbacktoanother.
4) PublicCommunication
Inpubliccommunication,Sourceormessagesfromasinglepersonwillreachor
receivedbyhugenumberofaudience.Butinthiscommunicationthereisno
mutualfeedbacksbetweensourceandreceiverlikesmallgroupcommunication
anditsonlyfocusedonSpeaker.
5) MassCommunication
Inmasscommunication,basicallyhavealargenumberofaudienceandtheyare
allcantgroupedtogetherinoneplacesoweneedcertaintoolortechnologyfor
communicationprocess.Butinmasscommunication,thereisnodirectaccess
withreceiver.So,forthattheyneedmedialikenewspaper,radio,televisionand
internet.Heretheaudiencefeedbackisverylessordelayed.

TYPESOFSPEECHSTYLE
Languagehasapotentialityformakingcommunicationsuccessfulandestablishing
socialtogethernessifitisusedwell.Ifnot,itwillbeahandicapforsuccessful
communicationandinteraction.
DescriptionofFiveLanguageStylesMartinJoosdifferentiatedfivelevelsof
formalityinlanguageuse.
1) FrozenstyleorOratoricalstyleFrozenstyle(Oratoricalstyle)
Definedasthemostformalstyleandelegantvarietythatreservedforvery
importantorsymbolicmoments.Itisusuallyusedinthesituationwhichis
celebratedwithrespectandlegitimateorformalceremonies.Joosinhisbook
FiveClocks(1967:153155)statesthatanoratoricalstyleisusedinpublic
speakingbeforealargeaudience;wordingiscarefullyplannedinadvance,
intonationissomewhatexaggerated,andnumerousrhetoricaldevicesare
appropriate.Manyoflinguisticsunitsfixedandthereisnovariationinit.Certain
fixedexpressionsarerequired,forexample;YesYourHonor,YesmyLord,I
object,andsoon.Notonlythesentencesarecarefullyconstructedindividually,
butalsosequencesofsentencesareintricatelyrelated.Obviously,itmustbevery
carefullyplannedandtodowellbyrequiringhighskill.Thatiswhythisstyleis
calledFrozenstyleorOratoricalstyle.Thepeoplewhoattendonthatoccasion
areoftenthepersonofhighlevelorimportantfigures.Theoccasionitselfisnot
anordinaryoccasion.Itmeansthattheoccasionseemstogiveprecedenceand
respectoverthehearersandthespeakers.Thus,almostexclusivelyspecially
professionalorators,lawyers,andpreachersusethisstyle.Inspiteofthefact,
ordinarycitizenswhoattendinthecourt,religiousservicesmaydemandfrozen
languagebecauseitisnotanordinaryoccasionanditmayberecognizedfor
achievementintheiremployment.Furthermore,astoryorproverbialmessage
usedthisstyle.Constitutethatlanguagesareimmutable,andsignalalinguistic
eventintheculturethatisoutsideordinarylanguageuse.Itmustnotbealtered
inanyway.UniversitasSumateraUtara13Frozenstyleusuallytendstobe
monolog,buttherearesomeexpressionsforthiscase.Italsocanbeinvolvedin
conversationifeachmemberoftheinteractionhascertainoffixverbalroletobe
played.Forexample,incourt,therearejudges,witnesses,juries,andsoon.The
exampleofthisstyleis:Participantsshouldremainseatedthroughoutthe
ceremony.
2) FormalstyleorDeliberativestyle
JoosinhisbookFiveClocks(1967)statesthatadeliberativestyleisalsousedin
addressingaudiences,usuallyaudiencestoolargetopermiteffectively
interchangebetweenspeakersandhearers,thoughtheformsarenormallynotas
polishedasthoseinanoratoricalstylesuchinatypicaluniversityclassroom
lectureisoftencarriedoutinadeliberativestyle.Formalstyleisdefinedasthe
styleoflanguagethatbeusedforimportantorserioussituation.Atthatlevel,
thereisnosymbolicorlastingvalueinthissituation.Itisalsousedinaddressing
audience,usuallyaudiencestoolargetopermiteffectiveinterchangebetween
speakersandhearers,thoughtheformsarenormallynotaspolishedasthosein
anoratoricalstyle.Formalstyleisusuallyasingletopicorientedanditisrelated
tothefactthatformalwritingistechnical.Thus,mostscholarortechnicalreports
usethisstyle.Formalstylemayalsobeusedinspeakingtoasinglehearer.Todo
so,however,indicatesthatthespeakerfellslittlemutuallywiththehearer.When
usedinasituationwherecasualisexpected,itindicatestrainedrelationship.The
exampleforthisstyleis:Thosetakingpartshouldsitduringtheproceedings.
UniversitasSumateraUtara14

3) Consultativestyle
JoosinhisbookFiveClocksstatesthataconsultativestyleistypicallya
dialogue,thoughformalenoughthatwordsarechosenwithsomecare.Business
transaction,doctorpatientconversation,andthelikeareusuallyconsultativein
nature.Consultativestyleusedinthemostorallyconductedeverydaybusiness
transactions,particularlybetweenchanceacquaintances.Itistheusualformof
speechinsmallgroupsexceptamongclosefriends.Thetypicaloccurrenceof
consultativespeechisbetweentwopersons.Whileoneisspeaking,atintervals
theothersgiveshortresponses,mostlydrawnfromasmallinventoryofstandard
signals.Therearebasicpartsofthesystem,essentialtoitsoperation.Among
themare:Yes,No,Uhhuh,Mmm,Huh,Thatsright,Ithinkso.A
numberofthemareaberrantenoughinphonologythattheycannotbe
representedwellinspelling.Consultativeisthestylemostopentogiveandtake
ofeverydayconversationdiscussedsofar.Thatiswhyitistypicallyadialogue,at
thelevelwherethewordsstillhavetobechosenwithsomecare.Wemake
routinerequest.Forinformationwhereprovideanswerstosuchrequestin
consultative,forexample,sellerbuyerconversation,doctorpatientconversation,
andsoon.Theexampleis:Wouldyoupleasestayinyourseats?
4) Casualstyle
JoosinhisbookFiveClocksstatesthatacasualconversationarebetween
friendsorcolleaguesorsometimesmembersofafamily;inthiscontextwords
needtobeguardedandsocialbarriersaremoderatelylow.UniversitasSumatera
Utara15Casualstyleisalsosimplydefinedasastylethatisusedforthe
conversationinourrelaxedornormalsituationthatappropriatetothe
conversationwithourfriends,thebackgroundinformationsofreelyinsertedinto
casualconversation.Positively,casualstyleischaracterizedbytheuseofthefirst
nameorevennicknameratherthanalittlenameandlastnameinaddressingone
another.Thepronunciationisrapidandoftenslurred,besidesthattheuseof
slang.Thisisaprimeindicationofingrouprelationship.Itisusedonlywith
insiders,andonlymembersofthegroupassumeittoknown,forexample,to
teenagersortosomecliqueamongadolescents.Anothercharacteristicfeatureof
casualspeechistheomissionsofunstressedwords,particularlyatthebeginning
ofsentences.Theremostinvolvedarearticles,pronouns,auxiliaries,andbe.
Anybodyhome?,Carbrokedown.Gotamatch?,Needhelp?.Such
expressionsareahighlydiagnosticfeatureofthecasualstyle;theywillgenerally
beinterpretedassignalinginformality.However,mostspeakersarenotaware
eitherofthephenomenonorofitssignificances.Thatis,theydonotknowwhatis
aboutanutterancethatgivesthemtheimpressionofinformality.Theexample
forthisstyleis:Dontgetup!
 5) Intimatestyle
JoosinhisbookFiveClocksstatesthatanintimatestyleisonecharacterizedby
completeabsenceofsocialinhibitions.Talkwithfamily,belovedones,andvery
closefriends,whereyoutendtorevealyourinnerself,itisusuallyinanintimate
style.UniversitasSumateraUtara16Intimatestyleisalsoacompletelyprivate
languagedevelopedwithinfamilies,lovers,andtheclosestoffriends.Itmight
embarrasssomefornongroupmemberstohearthemingroupintimate
language.Thewordthatgenerallysignalintimacysuchas,dear,darling,and
evenhoneyorhonmightbeusedinthissituation.Ontheothernames,
nicknamesmightregularlyproveembarrassingtoheareraswellasspeakers
outsideofintimatesituations.Furthermore,intimatelanguageisalso
characterizedbyellipsis,deletion,rapid,slurred,pronunciation,nonverbal
communication,andprivatecodecharacteristics.Itisoftenunintelligibleoutside
thesmallestsocialunits.Theexampleforthisstyleis:Heydarling,howareyou?
TYPESOFSPEECH
1) InformativeSpeaking
Informativespeakinggenerallycentersontalkingaboutpeople,events,
processes,places,orthings.Informinganaudienceaboutoneofthesesubjects
withoutbeingpersuasiveisoftenadifficulttasktocomplete.Forexample,a
speechinforminganaudienceaboutgrowingpeaceliliesashouseplantsmight
ultimatelypersuadetheaudiencetobuyandgrowpeacelilies.Allspeechhasan
effectthatmightenableindividualstoselfpersuadethemselves.Thelinewalked
duringaninformativespeech,asopposedtoapersuasivespeech,istonotmake
persuasionanexplicitandobviousgoal.Aninformativespeechonpeacelilies
mightcoverboththeadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthesehouseplants;a
persuasivespeechwouldtakeafirmpositiononthevirtuesofpeacelilies.
Tipsforinformativespeaking:
Analyzetheaudience.Whatcantheaudiencebereasonablyexpectedtoknow?If
talkingtoafieldofmedicalprofessionalaboutcloning,theylikelyknowthebasics
ofDNA.Anaudienceoflaypeoplemightnotbesofluentinthelanguageof
biomedicalengineering,andsobasicconceptslikethiswillhavetobeexplained.
Neverpresumethatanaudiencehasathoroughbackgroundinthesubject.
Useappropriatelanguage.Whatarethenormsforspeakingstyleforthe
audience?Iftheyexpectlotsofjargonandspecializedlanguage,thespeech
shouldbepepperedwithsuchlanguageorelsetheaudiencewillfeelliketheyare
beingtalkeddownto.Iftheaudienceisunfamiliarwiththesetechnicalterms,
avoidusingthemorintroducethemwithanexplanationofwhattheymean.
Explaintheimportanceofthetopic.Whyshouldtheaudiencelisten?Willthis
informationimprovetheirlivesinsomemeaningfulway?Especiallywitha
captiveinvoluntaryaudience,aspeakermustestablishaconnectionbetween
theirtopicandtheinterestsoftheaudience.
Expressinterestinthesubjectmaterial.Whyshouldanaudiencelistenifthe
speakerseemsjustasboredastheydo?Aspeakerwhoconfessestheirown
interestinthetopicmightactivatetheaudiencetoshareasimilarinterest.
Show,don'ttell.Don'tmostpeoplelearnthroughdoingorseeing?Beingtold
aboutaprocess,likecloning,couldbeinformative,butprobablynothaveasgreat
animpactasbeingshowntheprocesswithpicturesorperhapsevenlab
equipment.Informativespeechesoftenbenefitfromademonstrationorvisual
aid.Technologycanassist"showing"whenthesubjectisnoteasilybrought
physicallyintotheroom(imaginethetroublesofaninformativespeechonthe
sunifapropwasrequired!)
Bespecific.Informativespeechesthriveondetail,anddiveongeneralities.If
speakingaboutbasketweaving,carefullynotewhattypesofweavingmaterials
workanddonotworkforbasketmaking.Audiencesareoftenimpressedby
detail,butbecarefulnottobecomesodetailorientedthatthebigpictureofthe
speechislost(missingtheforestforthetrees).

2) PersuasiveSpeaking
Persuasivespeakingisthetypeofspeakingthatmostpeopleengageinthemost.
Thistypeofspeechcaninvolveeverythingfromarguingaboutpoliticstotalking
aboutwhattoeatfordinner.Persuasivespeakingisveryconnectedtothe
audience,asthespeakermust,inasense,meettheaudiencehalfway.
Persuasion,obviously,isnotentirelycontrolledbythespeakerpersuasionoccurs
whenanaudienceassentstowhataspeakersays.Consequently,persuasive
speakingrequiresextraattentiontoaudienceanalysis.
Traditionally,persuasioninvolvesethos(credibility),logos(logic),andpathos
(emotion).Byperformingthesethreeelementscompetently,aspeakercan
enhancetheirpersuasivepower.

TipsforPersuasiveSpeaking
Recognizethattheaudienceisconstantlyprocessingwhatthespeakerissaying.
Nonverbalreactionsarecommonforanaudiencelisteningtoapersuasive
speechafurrowedbrow,noddinghead,orrollingeyescanbesignalsfrom
audiencemembersthattheyeitherlikeordislikewhatthespeakerissaying.
Acknowledgingthesenonverbalreactionscanhelpaspeakerexplainmorein
detailcertainpoints.
Identifythetargetaudience.Inalmostanypersuasivespeakingsituation,there
willbeasubsetoftheaudiencethatagrees,thatdisagrees,andthatare
undecidedaboutthetopic.Preachingtothechoirspeakingtopersuadethose
thatalreadybelievethespeakermightconsolidatetheaudiences'beliefsbuthas
littlebenefitbeyondthat.Tryingtopersuadethesegmentoftheaudiencethat
adamantlydisagreeswiththeperspectivevoicedisgenerallyunlikely(thoughnot
unheardof).Therefore,aspeakeroughttofocusonthepartoftheaudiencethat
isundecidedontheissue.Speakingmoredirectlytothisgroupofundecideds
allowsaspeakertotailortheirspeechmoretowardstheirconcerns.
Preemptcommonobjections.Manyaudiencemembersmightbeskepticalofthe
viewpointadvancedbyapresenter.Consequently,anoratoroughtto
acknowledgeandrespondtotheseobjectionswithinthespeech.Thisapproach
mightanswersomeofthequestionsthataudiencemembersmightbeaskingof
themselves.
Mostpersuasivespeechesconcernquestionsoffact,value,orpolicy.Issuesof
factaresimilartoinformativespeechesinthattheyreviewfindings.The
differenceisthatpersuasivespeechesmakejudgmentsaboutwhichfindingsare
accurate.Issuesofvaluetacklethetimehonoredquestionsofwhatisgood,right,
orbeautiful.Valuescanbeeitherindividually,communally,ornationallyheld,and
arethuscontentiousandoftenclashing.Issuesofpolicyconcernwhatactions
shouldbetakentoresolveaparticularproblem.Policyquestionspositaproblem
andasolution.
Articulatethegoalsofthespeech.Doesthespeakerwanttheaudiencetosigna
petition,writetheirlegislator,boycottaproduct,talktotheirfriends,buya
certainproduct,ortakesomeothertangibleaction?Oftentimes,theconclusion
enablesaspeakertomakeacalltoactionthatistheculminationofapersuasive
speech.
3) CommemorativeSpeaking
Commemorativespeechesaresometimesknownas"ceremonial"or"epideictic"
speeches.Atthemostbasiclevel,commemorativespeechespaytributeorpraise
aperson,aninstitution,anevent,idea,orplace.TheirfocusisonVALUES.All
societiesholdcertainvaluescentraltohumanexistence:beauty,loyalty,wisdom,
kindness,tradition,success,innocence,experience,andcourage,forexample.
Thecommemorativespeechwillcelebratethesevalues.Typesofcommemorative
speechesincludetheeulogy,thespeechofnomination,thespeechofgoodwill,
theweddingtoast,andtheawardacceptancespeech.
Pleasenotethatthecommemorativespeechisnotjustinformative.Thus,a
speakerwouldnotjustgiveabiographyofGhandi,butratherwouldcelebrate
whohewas,whyhewasworthyofpraise,andencouragetheaudienceto
celebratethosevalues.
Often,theinspiringcommemorativespeechgoesbeyondcelebratingpastor
presentaccomplishmentstogivetheaudiencehopeforthefuture.Forexample,
in1986,whenRonaldReagangavehisnowfamouseulogyfortheChallenger
astronauts,henotonlypraisedChristaMacAuliffeandthedeceasedastronauts,
hegavethepeopleoftheUnitedStatesamessageofhopeforthefutureofthe
spaceprogramthatitwouldnotdiewiththismission,butwouldcontinueto
thrive.Considerhowthespeakercanlinkpast,present,andfutureina
commemorativespeech.
Notethatitisdifficulttopaytributetotrivialtopics.Therefore,acommemorative
speechon,say,tailgatingpartieswouldnotbeappropriate.Thisspeechisabout
whatismostimportanttosocietyhonor,trust,gentleness,etc.
SPEECHACT
Inlinguisticsandthephilosophyoflanguageisanutterancethathasperformative
functioninlanguageandcommunication.AccordingtoKentBach,"almostany
speechactisreallytheperformanceofseveralactsatonce,distinguishedby
differentaspectsofthespeaker'sintention:thereistheactofsayingsomething,
whatonedoesinsayingit,suchasrequestingorpromising,andhowoneistrying
toaffectone'saudience."
ThecontemporaryuseofthetermgoesbacktoJ.L.Austin'sdevelopment
ofperformativeutterancesandhistheoryoflocutionary,illocutionary,
andperlocutionaryacts.Speechactsarecommonlytakentoincludesuchactsas
promising,ordering,greeting,warning,invitingandcongratulating.
SPEECHACTTHEORYBYJOHNAUSTIN
FelicityCondition
Inorderto"dothingswithwords",certainthingsmustbetrueofthecontextin
whichspeechactsareuttered.Inotherwords,asentencemustnotonly
begrammaticaltobecorrectlyperformed,itmustalsobefelicitous.Thereare
generallyconsideredtobethreetypesoffelicityconditions:
Preparatoryconditions,suchasthatthepersonperformingthespeechacthas
theauthoritytodoso,thattheparticipantsareinthecorrectstatetohavethat
actperformedonthem,andsoonthemarriageperformedbyanutterancelike
(l)cannothappenunlesstheparticipantsareofage,andnotalreadymarried,and
unlessthepersonwhosaysthewordshastheauthoritytomarrypeople.
Conditionsonthemannerofexecutionofthespeechact,suchastouchingthe
newknightonbothshoulderswiththeflatbladeofaswordwhileintoningthe
wordsin(n);and
Sincerityconditions,obviouslynecessaryinthecaseofverbs
likeapologizeandpromise

Felicityconditionsareconventionsthatspeakersandaddresseesuseasacodeto
produceandrecognizeactions.Speakersusethefelicityconditionsforactionsas
adeviceforencodingtheiractionsintosentenceswithaparticularlinguistic
structurethatspeakersthenutter(i.e.theyproducethe
appropriateutteranceunit).Hearers,inturn,usethesamesetoffelicity
conditionsforactionsasadevicefordecodingthespeaker'sactionsfromthe
linguisticstructureofthesentencesthespeakerproduced(i.e.fromthespeaker's
utteranceunits)."
TheLocutionary,IllocutionaryandPerlocutionaryActs
Thelocutionary,illocutionaryandperlocutionaryactsare,infact,threebasic
componentswiththehelpofwhichaspeechactisformed.Leech(Leech,1983:
199)brieflydefinesthemlikethis:
locutionaryact:performinganactofsayingsomething
illocutionaryact:performinganactinsayingsomething
perlocutionaryact:performinganactbysayingsomething
Thelocutionaryactcanbeviewedasamereutteringofsomewordsincertain
language,whiletheillocutionaryandperlocutionaryactsconveyamore
complicatedmessageforthehearer.Anillocutionaryactcommunicatesthe
speakersintentionsbehindthelocutionandaperlocutionaryactrevealsthe
effectthespeakerwantstoexerciseoverthehearer.Thiscanbedemonstrated
onasimpleexample:
4.Wouldyouclosethedoor,please?
Thesurfaceform,andalsothelocutionaryact,ofthisutteranceisaquestionwith
aclearcontent(Closethedoor.)Theillocutionaryactconveysarequestfromthe
partofthespeakerandtheperlocutionaryactexpressesthespeakersdesirethat
thehearershouldgoandclosethedoor.
Buttheindividualelementscannotbealwaysseparatedthateasily.Bachand
Harnishsaythattheyareintimatelyrelatedinalargemeasure(BachandHarnish,
1979:3).However,forbetterunderstandingoftheirfunctionwithinaspeechact,
Iamgoingtotreatthemindividuallyfirst
LocutionaryActs
Thiscomponentofthespeechactisprobablytheleastambiguous.Bachand
Harnish(BachandHarnish1979:19),commentingonAustinswork,pointout
thatAustindistinguishesthreeaspectsofthelocutionaryact.Austinclaimsthat
tosayanythingis:
A.alwaystoperformtheactofutteringcertainnoises(aphoneticact)
B.alwaystoperformtheactofutteringcertainvocablesorwords(aphaticact)
C.generallytoperformtheactofusingthat[sentence]oritsconstituentswitha
certainmoreorlessdefinitesenseandamoreorlessdefinitereference,which
togetherareequivalenttomeaning(rheticact)
Fromthisdivisionitfollowsthatthelocutionaryactcomprisesotherthree
subacts:phonetic,phaticandrhetic.Thisdistinctionaswellasthenotionof
locutionaryactingeneralwasoftencriticizedbyAustinsfollowers.Searleeven
completelyrejectsAustinsdivisionandproposeshisowninstead(Searle,1968:
405).Searle(Searle,1968:412)warnsthatAustinsrheticactisnothingelsebuta
reformulateddescriptionoftheillocutionaryactandhethereforesuggests
anotherterm,thesocalledpropositionalactwhichexpressestheproposition(a
neutralphrasewithoutillocutionaryforce).Inotherwords,apropositionisthe
contentoftheutterance.
Wardhaughoffersthisexplanation.Propositionalactsarethosemattershaving
todowithreferringandpredicating:weuselanguagetorefertomattersinthe
worldandtomakepredictionsaboutsuchmatters(Wardhaugh,1992:285).
Propositionalactscannotoccuralonesincethespeechactwouldnotbe
complete.Thepropositionisthusexpressedintheperformanceofan
illocutionaryact.Whatisessentialtonotehereisthatnotallillocutionaryacts
mustnecessarilyhaveaproposition(utterancesexpressingstatessuchasOuch!
orDamn!arepropositionlessasSearleobserves(Searle1976:30)).Having
definedthepropositionandpropositionalacts,SearlemodifiesAustinsideasand
statesthatthereareutteranceacts(utteranceactsaresimilarto13Austins
phoneticandphaticsubacts,Searle(1976:24)definesthemasmereuttering
morphemes,wordsandsentences),propositionalactsandillocutionaryacts.
Utteranceactstogetherwithpropositionalactsareaninherentpartofthetheory
ofspeechactsbutwhatlinguistsconcentrateonthemostisundoubtedlythe
issueofillocutionaryacts.
IllocutionaryActs
Illocutionaryactsareconsideredthecoreofthetheoryofspeechacts.Asalready
suggestedabove,anillocutionaryactistheactionperformedbythespeakerin
producingagivenutterance.Theillocutionaryactiscloselyconnectedwith
speakersintentions,e.g.stating,questioning,promising,requesting,giving
commands,threateningandmanyothers.AsYule(Yule,1996:48)claims,the
illocutionaryactisthusperformedviathecommunicativeforceofanutterance
whichisalsogenerallyknownasillocutionaryforceoftheutterance.Basically,the
illocutionaryactindicateshowthewholeutteranceistobetakeninthe
conversation.
Sometimesitisnoteasytodeterminewhatkindofillocutionaryactthespeaker
performs.Tohinthisintentionsandtoshowhowthepropositionshouldbetaken
thespeakerusesmanyindications,rangingfromthemostobviousones,suchas
unambiguousperformativeverbs,tothemoreopaqueones,amongwhichmainly
variousparalinguisticfeatures(stress,timbreandintonation)andwordorder
shouldbementioned.Allthesehintsorletssayfactorsinfluencingthemeaning
oftheutterancearecalledIllocutionaryForceIndicatingDevices,orIFIDasYule,
referringtopreviousSearleswork,callsthem(Yule,1996:49).
Inordertocorrectlydecodetheillocutionaryactperformedbythespeaker,itis
alsonecessaryforthehearertobeacquaintedwiththecontextthespeechact
occursin.Mey(Mey,1993:139)saysthatoneshouldnotbelieveaspeechactto
betakingplace,beforeonehasconsidered,orpossiblycreated,theappropriate
context.
Anotherimportantthing,whichshouldnotbeforgottenwhileencodingor
decodingspeechacts,isthatcertainspeechactscanbeculturespecificandthat
iswhytheycannotbeemployeduniversally.MeyshowsthisonFrenchand
Americanconventions.HeusesaFrenchsentencetodemonstratethecultural
differences.14
5.Maisvousnecomperenezpas!(literally,Butyoudontunderstand!)
WhileaFrenchmanconsidersthissentencefullyacceptable,anAmericancould
beoffendedifaddressedinsimilarwayashecouldtakeitasatauntaimedatthe
levelofhiscomprehensionorintelligence(Mey,1993:133).Theinterpretationof
speechactsdiffersthroughouttheculturesandtheillocutionaryactperformedby
thespeakercanbeeasilymisinterpretedbyamemberofdifferentcultural
background.
Fromthisitalsofollowsthattheillocutionaryspeechactiscommunicatively
successfulonlyifthespeakersillocutionaryintentionisrecognizedbythehearer.
Theseintentionsareessentiallycommunicativebecausethefulfillementof
illocutionaryintentionsconsistsinhearersunderstanding.Notonlyaresuch
intentionsreflexive.Theirfulfillmentconsistsintheirrecognition(Bachand
Harnish,1979:15).
Nevertheless,asalreadypointedoutinthepreviousexample,therearecases
whenthehearerfailstorecognizethespeakersintentionsandhetherefore
wronglyinterpretsthespeakersutterance.Thismisunderstandingmayleadto
funnysituationsandhenceitisoftenanunfailingsourceforvariousjokes
Ihavechosenoneillustrativeexampletocommentonabitmore.
Talbot(1998:140)declaresthatmenandwomenhappentohavedifferent
interactionalstylesandmisunderstandingsoccurbecausetheyarenotawareof
them.Sheevencomparesthedifferencesinthewaymenandwomentalkto
alreadydiscussedcrossculturaldifferences.Andthusitispossibletoseethis
exampleasananalogytothatFrenchAmericaninterpretationoftheMaisvous
necomperenezpas!case.Thewomanisasiffromdifferentculturalmilieuand
shethereforemisinterpretsthemansquestion.
Itshouldbeclearbynowthattheissueofillocutionaryactsissometimesquite
complicatedbecauseoneandthesameutterancecanhavemoreillocutionary
forces(meanings)dependingontheIFIDs,thecontext,theconventionsandother
factors.6.Thedooristhere.
Thissimpledeclarativesentence(6)intheformofstatementcanbeinterpreted
inatleasttwoways.Itcanbeeitherunderstoodliterallyasareplytothequestion
Whereisthewayout?orpossiblyWhereisthedoor?oritcanbetakenasan
indirectrequesttoasksomebodytoleave.Thesentencehasthustwo
illocutionaryforceswhich,eveniftheyaredifferent,haveacommonproposition
(content).Theformercaseiscalledadirectspeechact,thelatteranindirect
speechact.Itdependsonthespeakerandonthecontextualsituationwhichone
hewillchoosetoconveyinhisspeech.
Similarly,oneillocutionaryactcanhavemoreutteranceacts(orlocutionaryacts
accordingtoAustin)asin:
7.a.Canyouclosethedoor?
b.Willyouclosethedoor?
c.Couldyouclosethedoor?
d.Wouldyouclosethedoor?
e.Cantyouclosethedoor?
f.Wontyouclosethedoor?(Hernandez,2002:262)Alltheutterancesin(7)are
indirectrequests,theyallhaveacommonillocutionaryforce,thatofrequesting.
Therearehundredsorthousandsofillocutionaryactsandthatiswhy,forbetter
understandingandorientation,somelinguistsproposedtheirclassification.The
classificationwhichisthemostcitedinthelinguisticliteratureisthatofSearle
whodividesillocutionary(speech)actsintofivemajorcategories(todefinethem,
IwilluseLevinsonsexplanations(Levinson,)):
Representativesaresuchutteranceswhichcommitthehearertothetruthofthe
expressedproposition(e.g.asserting,concluding)
8.ThenameoftheBritishqueenisElizabeth.
Directivesareattemptsbythespeakertogettheaddresseetodosomething(e.g.
ordering,requesting)
9.Wouldyoumakemeacupoftea?
Commissivescommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction(e.g.promising,
offering)
10.Ipromisetocomeateightandcookanicedinnerforyou.
Expressivesexpressapsychologicalstate(e.g.thanking,congratulating)
11.Thankyouforyourkindoffer.
Declarationseffectimmediatechangesintheinstitutionalstateofaffairsand
whichtendtorelyonelaborateextralinguisticinstitutions(e.g.christening,
declaringwar)
12.Ibequeathallmypropertytomybelovedfiancee.
SearlesclassificationisnotexhaustiveandaccordingtoLevinson(Levinson,
1983:240),itlacksaprincipledbasis.Yet,Searlesclassificationhelpedtobecome
awareofbasictypesofillocutionaryactsandtheirpotentialperlocutionaryeffect
onthehearer.
PerlocutionaryActs
Perlocutionaryacts,Austinslastelementinthethreefolddefinitionofspeech
acts,areperformedwiththeintentionofproducingafurthereffectonthe
hearer.Sometimesitmayseemthatperlocutionaryactsdonotdifferfrom
illocutionaryactsverymuch,yetthereisoneimportantfeaturewhichtellsthem
apart.Therearetwolevelsofsuccessinperformingillocutionaryand
perlocutionaryactswhichcanbebestexplainedonasimpleexample.
13.Wouldyouclosethedoor?
Consideredmerelyasanillocutionaryact(arequestinthiscase),theactis
successfulifthehearerrecognizesthatheshouldclosethedoor,butasa
perlocutionaryactitsucceedsonlyifheactuallyclosesit.
Therearemanyutteranceswiththepurposetoeffectthehearerinsomewayor
other,someconveytheinformationdirectly,othersaremorecarefulorpolite
andtheyuseindirectnesstotransmitthemessage.

 LagunaStatePolytechnicUniversity
Sta.CruzLaguna,MainCampus
CollegeofBusinessManagementandAccountancy

CommunicationArtsII







Ma.AnaReginaL.Mercado
BSOA1C
Ms.RachelAnneValois