05 Hmee5013 Topic 1

Topic Systems
1 Approach to
School
Organisation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of theory and its relationship with science, reality,
research and practice;
2. Identify different perspectives of systems approach in an organisation;
3. Examine the key properties of an open system;
4. Describe the characteristics of a social systems model;
5. Investigate the key elements of a school social system; and
6. Discuss school as a learning organisation.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2 TOPIC 1 SYSTEMS APPROACH TO SCHOOL ORGANISATION
INTRODUCTION
The secret of education lies in respecting the students

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)
You cant teach a person anything, you can help him find it within
himself
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Schools should be places to learn, not to teach

Don Tapscott (1947)
These are three interesting quotations about what a school is and how an education should
be. Indeed, school is a learning organisation which develops young minds, equipping the
student with knowledge and uncovering his ability to change the world. Undoubtedly, the
school and teachers play very important roles in facilitating a childs learning and
developing his skills and talents in the school system.
Thus, it is important for us to learn in-depth what a school system is, what the school
comprises of and the role of each individual in the school system. Hence, this topic
discusses the school as a learning organisation, its structure and roles of teachers and
school leaders in ensuring the success of students.
ACTIVITY 1.1
What does a systems approach mean to you?

TOPIC 1 SYSTEMS APPROACH TO SCHOOL ORGANISATION
3
1.1 THEORY
In social sciences, especially educational administration, theories are formulated just like
in other disciplines. Hoy and Miskel (2013) have discussed the importance of theory in
providing a general explanation to guide research and practice in their book Educational
Administration: Theory, Research, and Practice. Organisational Theory has been
defined as a set of interrelated concepts, assumptions and generalisations to describe and
explain behaviour in an organisation. Before we explore the Systems Approach relating
to a school organisation, let us begin with the investigation of the concepts and its
interrelationships between theory, science, reality, research and practice.
ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Why is theory so important in the explanation of the phenomenon in

research? What will happen if the theory is absent?
2. What are the differences between theories of social science and science?
1.1.1 Components of Theory

As described in Subtopic 1.1, theory has three main components which are (see Figure
1.1): Concepts, assumptions and generalisations. Concepts refer to abstract terms that act
as a theorys building blocks while assumptions refer to something that you assume to be
the case, even without proof. Finally, generalisations refer to a statement that shows the
relationship between two or more concepts.
Figure 1.1: Three components of theory

1.1.2 Theory and Science

Organisational science attempts to describe and explain the expected behaviour of
individuals and groups in organisations (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). It can be proven through
scientific methods. Science is a dynamic process of developing an interconnected set of
propositions. Scientific knowledge refers to propositions supported by scientific
research. The purpose of science is to test theories and to provide reliable explanations.
As a common practice, scientists will conduct an experiment to observe a phenomenon
that interests them and draw a conclusion based on what they discover. Later on, through
experimentations, a theory may develop. Thus, we can conclude that the basic principle of
science is to find a general explanation, which is theory. However, theory in science has a
wide range of definitions.
Willower (1975) describes theory as a body of interrelated, consistent generalisations that

serves to explain any phenomenon. However, Hoy and Miskel (2013) explained theory as
a set of interrelated concept, assumptions and generalisations that systematically
describes and explains the regularities in behaviour in educational organisations.
Obviously, the theory consists of concepts, assumptions and generalisations. Table 1.1
depicts what are concepts and generalisations.
Table 1.1: The Definition of Concept and Generalisation
Term Definition
Concept Abstract terms that act as a theorys
building blocks.
Generalisation A statement that shows the relationship
between two or more concepts.
There is no true or false theory, but they are either useful or not. Hoy and Miskel (2013)
also explained that theories are useful when they generate accurate explanations and
expectations of events and help us understand and influence behaviour in organisations.
1.1.3 Theory and Reality

Everybody has different perceptions and interpretations of reality, and our knowledge
relies on our own theories (Hoy and Miskel, 2013) that will affect the interpretation of
events in reality. An actual organisation is much more complex than any organisation
depicted in books or pictures on pages. For example, an organisation as described in a
book is simplified as it only shows some features

5
omitting others. This is not real. However, theories are needed to guide us in our
understanding of the organisation in reality. Some theories are implicit and others are
explicit. In fact, many of our personal implicit theories are formal ones that have been
internalised (Hoy and Miskel, 2013). Like Mintzberg (1989) states, reality is not in our
head, no head is that big. Instead, we carry the impression of reality and we use theory to
explain this reality.
1.1.4 Theory and Research

Theory and research are inevitably interrelated. Research is guided by hypotheses in a
systematic and controlled way; and the results are opened for critical analyses (Hoy and
Miskel, 2013). Research methods, for instance, survey and ethnographic studies are
commonly used to collect data to test the hypotheses and assumptions and lead to the
development of theory in the study.
The hypothesis is a speculative statement that indicates a relationship between at least

two variables. It is used to test theories and guide research. According to Hoy and Miskel
(2008), there are three assumptions to be relied on when hypotheses are made (refer to
Figure 1.2):
Figure 1.2: Three assumptions to be relied on when making hypothesis

Source: Hoy and Miskel (2013)

The hypotheses have benefits as they bridge the gap between theory and research and
they provide a mean to test the theory against observed reality (Hoy and Miskel, 2008).
However, the hypothesis made is usually biased in terms of the researchers view on the
matter. The researcher tends to assume the hypothesis will be supported by data in a
certain way if it is deduced from a particular theory.
1.1.5 Theory and Practice

According to Hoy and Miskel (2013), there are three ways to relate theory and practice
(see Figure 1.3):
Figure 1.3: Three ways to relate theory and practice
From Figure 1.3, we can assume that theory and practice have a close relationship.
Understanding the relationship between theory and practice will lead the administrators,
for example the principal, to more informed decision making when they have the access
to the information needed at their workplace.
SELF CHECK 1.1
1. Discuss the relationship between theory, science, reality, research and

practice.
2. Explain the uses of the theory in a social science research.

7
1.2 A SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE

Significant expansion in the analysis of organisational behaviour has formulated a
distinction between open and closed systems. In the early analysis of the school as a
closed system, there was little or no attention given to the external factors in the
environment. Over recent years, some modern theorists have accepted that external
environment can interfere in organisations. There are three different competing systems
have been identified to explain the interacting factors on an organisation (refer to Figure
1.4). They are relatively distinct, yet they are also partly overlapping, partly
complementary, partly conflicting and each has its antecedents in earlier organisational
studies.
Figure 1.4: Three different competing systems to explain the interacting factors on an organisation
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Identify condition(s) that can permit a school to act as a closed system.
2. Discuss the reasons why all the schools in the 21st century must perform
as an open system.

1.2.1 Rational System

The rational system, or aptly known as the machine model, explains organisations as
formal instruments designed to achieve specific organisational goals. It is called the
rational system as it refers to the extent to which a set of actions is organised and
implemented to achieve predetermined goals with high efficiency (Scott, 1992). The
rational system approach can be explained under the scientific management and
contemporary rational systems. The following are some explanations of these systems:
(a) Scientific Management
(i) Frederic Taylor was the pioneer who found ways to use people effectively
in industrial organisations by understanding their physiological needs (time
and motion study).
(ii) Aptly known as a machine model organisation can be directed according
to a blueprint.
(iii) Employees work in most efficient ways to complete tasks when they are
systematically studying a work task and managing time efficiently (formed
purposeful, disciplined and rational employee).
(iv) Postulates seven administrative procedures: planning, organising, staffing,
directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting (refer to Henry Fayols
six functions of management: Forecasting, planning, organising,
commanding, coordinating and controlling).
(v) Key principles: division of labour, span of control, principle of
homogeneity, clientele, location (refer to Henry Fayols 14 principles of
management).
(vi) Division of labour: Specialisation of task to perform work effectively.
Breaking tasks into components allows for routinised performance
(standardisation of work).
(vii) Span of control: Number of workers supervised directly. Supervise each
work unit and coordinate it with other units. Effective span of control
should contain five to 10 employees.
(viii) Seven steps in the administrative process: POSDCORB proposed by Luther
Gullick and Lyndall Urwick. The acronym stands for Planning, Organising,
Staffing, Directing, Co-Ordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.

9
(ix) Principle of homogeneity: positions that can be grouped in any of four

different ways (major purpose, major process, clientele (material group) or
location):
Major purpose: A group of people who share a common goal.
Major process: People with similar skills or technology.
Clientele: A group of people who deal with similar client or materials.
Location: Geographic area which has people working together

regardless of function.
(x) Weakness of the system: the neglection of individuals idiosyncrasies and

social dynamics of people.
(b) Contemporary Rational System
(i) Aim: Goal specificity and formalisation for the crucial contributions to the
rationality and efficiency of organisations (Scott, 1998).
(ii) Key principles: Goal, division of labour, specialisation, standardisation,
formalisation, hierarchy, span of control, exception principle, coordination,
formal organisation.
(iii) Goals: The main aim of organisation. In order to achieve goals, the
organisation may set specific formal structures, specify tasks, specify
allocation of resources, govern designed decisions and direct decision
making.
(iv) Coordination: For administrative effectiveness.
(v) Specialisation: The specific task components that yield expertise.
(vi) Standardisation: Come together with specialisation, they promote efficient

and effective responses to routine tasks.
(vii) Span of control: For effective supervision.
(viii) Formalisation: The level of rules and job codification. Formalisation leads to
standardisation and regulation of work performance. It makes the behaviour
of workers expectable under specific conditions.
(ix) Exception principle: Postulates that leaders respond in exceptional situations
not covered in the rules, and to free superiors from routine.

(x) Hierarchy of authority: To coordinate and control organisational behaviours

by giving a unity of command that promotes disciplined compliance to
administrative directives.
(xi) Formal organisational: The official blueprint of the structure and the key to
organisational effectiveness.
1.2.2 Natural System Models

This type of organisation is contrasted with the rational system perspective. It is aptly
known as an organic model and has been developed as a reaction to scientific
management and perceives the inadequacies in the rational system model. Two different
models will be used to describe the natural system models, which are (see Figure 1.5):
Figure 1.5: Two different models used to describe the Natural System Models
The human relation model was discovered by Mary Parker Follet who argued that the
fundamental problem in all organisations was developing and maintaining a dynamic and
harmonious relationship (Hoy and Miskel, 2013). The Hawthorne studies further
investigate the human relation approach. After a series of experiments, the Hawthorne
studies concluded that the workers behaviour did not conform to the official job
specifications. The informal organisation emerged then, that affected work performance.
An informal organisation is referred to as an unofficial social structure. It has informal
leaders and informal norms, values, sentiments and communication patterns (Hoy and
Miskel, 2013).

TOPIC 1 SYSTEMS APPROACH TO SCHOOL ORGANISATION 11
In fact, organisations have conflicting values and interests; and source of alienation and
human satisfaction (organisations are not happy families).There are informal
organisations, and informal norms do exist. Hence, management should use the human
relation movement as a tool or strategy to manipulate subordinates. However, one clear
conclusion was captured which is that the human relation approach tempered the
scientific managers concentration on organisational structure with an emphasis on
employees motivation, satisfaction and morale (Hoy and Miskel, 2008).
The Hawthorne studies on schools created impact on democratic administration.

Democratic in the human relation approach means optimal condition that allows an
appropriate individuals behaviour in organisation.
The other model of natural system is the contemporary natural system which viewed
human factors as resources. The scholars agreed that organisations were not merely
characterised by goal specificity and formalisation, but other attributes also have its
significance on organisations. Organisations have strived to survive and maintain its
equilibrium. In addition, this striving condition may continue even after goals are
achieved (Gouldner, 1959). Hence, formal organisation is not only for achieving the
specific goals but also to satisfy human needs.
People are the crucial human resources for organisations. Scholars agree that formal
structures of organisation do exist, but behaviour in organisations is influenced by
informal structures that later transforms the formal system. Informal norms and not
formal rules are critical to performance. Informal communication is more efficient and
open than formal communication. Informal structures are more important than formal
ones just as informal leaders are more influential than formal ones.
In fact, the informal organisation is the key to effectiveness. Hence, the natural systems
perspective emphasises informal organisational rather than formal, people rather than
structure, and human needs rather than organisational demands (Hoy and Miskel, 2008).
Individuals join the organisation and bring along their own needs, beliefs, values and
motivations. Furthermore, employees interact with each other and generate informal
norms, status structures, power, communication and working arrangements (Scott, 1992).

SELF-CHECK 1.2
Identify the differences between rational system and natural system.
Figure 1.6 summarises the growth and development of organisational thought of the
closed and open systems, from scientific management to rational system and then human
relations model to natural system, before the formation of the open system approach.

Figure 1.6: Growth and development of organisational theory and thought
Source: Hoy & Miskel (2013)
13

1.3 OPEN SYSTEM: AN INTEGRATION

INFLUENCE AND DEPENDENCE
ON ENVIRONMENT
The open system was a burst from the unrealistic speculation that organisational
behaviour could be isolated from external forces. In fact, an open system is not only
affected by environment factors (such as competition, resources and political pressure)
but also depends on them to function. Figure 1.7 exhibits the integration of environment
factors in an open system.
Figure 1.7: Open system with feedback loop

Based on Figure 1.7, we can say that a school is a social system that takes resources from
environments (such as labour, students and money) and uses these inputs into an
educational transformation process to produce literate and educated citizens.
ACTIVITY 1.5
Discuss the interaction between input, transformation process and output in a
school system.

1.3.1 Key Properties of an Open System

Both structure and process make up the open system in an organisation. The dynamic
movement of an open system permits it to become stable and flexible with both tight and
loose structural relationships. To ensure its survival, the organisations must change, and
adapt to the corresponding environments. There are nine central concepts of key
properties and processes that characterise most open social systems (refer to Figure 1.8):
Figure 1.8: Nine central concepts of key properties and processes that characterise most open
social systems

Now let us look in-depth at these nine central concepts (refer to Table 1.2):
Table 1.2: Nine Central Concepts of Key Properties and Processes that Characterise
Most Open Social Systems
Concept Explanation Example

Input Interacting of outside elements People, resources (raw
makes up the input for an open materials), information,
system. money, books, computers,
students, teachers and
educational materials.
Transformation To process the inputs and change Policies affecting teaching and
process it to become useful values learning processes such as
(output). NKRA (National Key Result
Area), Malaysian Blueprint
2013-2025, PEMANDU, 1
student 1 sport, etc.
Output Products of the transformed Product, service, employee
process that will be exported back satisfaction and educated
into the environment. students.
Feedback Information about the systems Formal communication,
that enable it to correct itself. advisory councils and
informal political contacts.
Boundaries The borderline of systems that can Parents and teachers are parts
be differentiated from the of the school system. For
systems environment. example: Parent-Teacher
Association (PTA), Board of
Directors.
Environment Anything outside the boundaries School policies, central
of the systems or external to the administrators, other school
organisation is considered as buildings and the community.
environment.
Homeostasis The process to maintain a steady The acts or responses of

state (the balance administrators or teachers to
state/equilibrium) among the disruptive stresses (truancy,
system components. turnover, low achievement)
and attempts to correct it
(restore equilibrium).

Entropy The tendency of any system to New programme/course to

run-down and cease to exist. An maintain the school and
organisation can overcome improvement of facilities.
entropy by importing energy from
the environment.
Equifinality The system can have the same The variety of technologies or
desired end regardless of its methodologies of pedagogy to
different initial positions and improve students critical
different paths. thinking.
Equilibrium and stability are crucial for a system to survive and move towards a steady
state. However, Hoy and Miskel (2013) project the need for disequilibrium so that
systems demonstrate a dynamic growth. The disequilibrium leads to open discussions,
emergence of difference, and thus a qualitative stance on issues that may lead to new
forms comprised of a combination of the opposing perspectives (Mahfouz, 2012).
1.4 SOCIAL SYSTEMS MODEL:

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
The school is a system of social integration and is an organised whole consisting of
interacting personalities bound together in an organic relationship (Waller, 1932). As a
social system, the school is distinguished by an interdependence of parts, a clearly
defined population, differentiation from its environment, a complex network of social
relationship and its own unique culture. Here are several explicit and implicit assumptions
of school as a social system:
(a) Open Systems

Schools as social systems are open systems and, thus, are affected by state
mandates, politics, history and other environmental forces.
(b) Interdependent Parts

Apart from interdependent parts, social systems are also influenced by
characteristics and activities that contribute to and that which is received from the
whole. Example: A demand of new courses by parents will affect the decision of
the principal, teachers and students in a school.
(c) People
Social systems are peopled. Example: The teachers act based on their needs,
beliefs and goals as well as their roles.

(d) Goal-oriented
The social systems are driven by predetermined goals. Example: School to
achieve high performance as set by the Ministry of Education.
(e) Structural
Schools as social systems that have division of labour (for example, English and
Chemistry teachers), specialisation (teachers, guidance counsellors and
administrators) and hierarchy (principal, assistant principal and teachers).
(f) Normative
As a social system, schools have formal rules and regulations as well as informal
norms that prescribe appropriate behaviour.
(g) Sanction Bearing

Schools have formal mechanisms such as expulsion, suspension, termination,
tenure and promotion. Apart from that, schools also have informal sanctions such
as the use of sarcasm, ostracism and ridicule.
(i) Political
Schools have different groups of teachers with different power relations that
inevitably affect school administrators and teachers activities.
(j) Distinctive Culture Schools

Have dominant set of shared values that influence behaviour.
(k) Conceptual and Relative

For one purpose, a classroom can be considered a social system, but for another
purpose, the school itself might be viewed as a social system.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. What is the most important assumption of a social system model?
2. Explain the concept of a school as a social system.

1.5 KEY ELEMENTS OF SCHOOL

SOCIAL SYSTEM
A formal organisation is one that is specifically designed to coordinate activities and to
endow incentives in order to attain certain goals. The main concern is to view the school
social system as a formal organisation. Figure 1.9 depicts the major elements
(subsystems) of a social system.
Figure 1.9: Internal elements of the social sytem

In this social system, we will look into four of the internal elements which influence the
behaviour of individuals in a formal organisation, which are:

Figure 1.10: Four the internal elements which influence the behaviour of individuals in a formal
organisation
The socio-economic status of the environment and the four internal elements of the
school systems are used to describe the two sets of school outcomes, namely student
achievement and teachers assessment that can be considered as the overall effectiveness
of the school (Tarter & Hoy, 2004). On balance, the formal organisation must solve the
basic problems of adaptation, goal achievement, integration and latency for the survival
and continuous improvement of an organisation. However, Mahfouz (2012) stated that
social systems can also be creative and individualistic, and innovative ideas from within
the school could also affect its structure, values and even transmit such original thoughts
to the outside environment. The next subtopic will discuss further on the four internal
elements of the system.

ACTIVITY 1.6
1. Investigate the cultural system in a highly effective school in your district
or state.
2. Compare and contrast the structural, individual, cultural and political
elements between an urban school and a rural school in a social system.
1.5.1 Structure
An organisations structure is designed and organised to accomplish its goals.
Generally, the structure of a school comprises these elements:
(a) Formal Bureaucratic Roles and Expectations

The bureaucratic roles are combined into positions and offices (hierarchy) in the
organisation. Some formal expectations are critical and mandatory, while others
are more flexible. The expectations are wide ranging when the roles are not
precisely stipulated. This, however, gives freedom to teachers with quite different
personalities to perform the same roles without undue conflict (Parsons & Shils,
1951). However, only a few general bureaucratic expectations that are aligned
with organisationals goal are selected and then formalised, codified and adopted
as official rules and regulations. In such a way, teachers are expected to behave
suitably based on the schools rules and the expertise demanded by the
instructional job.
(b) Hierarchy of Office and Positions

The bureaucratic expectations specify the proper behaviour for a specific role or
position. The principal and teachers work as colleagues while retaining their
distinctive roles. For example, a teacher is responsible in planning meaningful
learning experiences for students and to engage students in a pedagogically
effective manner in the classroom. In fact, the roles of hierarchy and rules are
means to ensure that reluctant, incompetent and irresponsible teachers will do
what they must do in the organisation (Tarter & Hoy, 2004).
(c) Rules and Regulations

The rules and regulations are used to direct decision making and enhance
organisational rationality, so that labour can be divided into individuals that
specialise in certain tasks efficiently in an organisation.

(d) Specialisation
The school principal as a school leader has the role of managing the school as
stated in federal rules and regulations. In fact, certain decisions must be made by
the school principal to ensure that teachers teach the subjects according to their
specialisation areas, for example, employing English teachers to teach English
and Chemistry teachers to teach Chemistry. Besides, a school might also have
administrators to facilitate the school management.
Figure 1.11: The formal structures of a school
1.5.2 Individual
The term individual refers to a personal aspect of the system that consists of
individual needs, beliefs and cognitive understandings of jobs. Individuals here refer to
both teachers and students. Needs, goals, beliefs and cognitions are the most important
individual facets that will determine an individuals behaviour in an organisation. Among
them, work motivation is the most relevant set of needs for employees in a formal
organisation as the individual puts great effort to control the events that affect their lives
and, teachers on the other hand, are no exception (Tarter & Hoy, 2004). However, not all
individual needs are relevant to the organisational performance.

The ratio of bureaucratic expectations to individual needs will vary according to three
elements namely the type of organisation, the specific job and specific person involved.
Figure 1.11 depicts how the interaction between bureaucratic expectations and an
individual need occurs in an opposite direction. It also indicates that the higher the
bureaucratic expectations set by the organisation, the lower the individual needs will be
taken care of by the organisation. Hence, for example, Line A represents a more
bureaucratic control organisation (military school), while Line B represents a free and
open organisation (creative art school).
Figure 1.12: Interaction of bureaucratic expectations and individual elements affecting

behaviour
1.5.3 Cognition
Cognition is the individuals use of mentality to understand the job in terms of
perception, knowledge and expected behaviour. Employees learn the nature of the job by
monitoring and checking their own behaviour in an organisation. For example, teachers
needs, beliefs, goals and previous experiences serve as bases for constructing
organisational reality and interpreting the work in the classroom and school. Hence,
teachers motivation and cognition are influenced by factors such as beliefs about control
and competence, individual goals, personal expectations for failure and success, and work
motives in the teaching and learning process in the classroom and school.

1.5.4 Culture
As the members of the organisation interact with each other, the shared values, norms,
beliefs and ways of thinking will emerge. These shared orientations form the
organisational culture and provide members with a sense of organisational identity.
Shared orientations in an organisation will help individuals in an organisation to sustain
the consistency and feelings of personal integrity, self-respect and belonging in an
organisation. In fact, culture provides members with a commitment to beliefs and values
beyond themselves. As people bring their values into the workplace, the organisations
tend to develop their own unique cultures. If the culture is strong enough, it will influence
the members inside the organisation. Hence, Hoy and Miskel set culture as a distinct
element that will affect the school and its interactions.
Clearly, behaviour in formal organisations is influenced not only by structural and

individual elements, but also by values and shared orientations of the work group. In
brief, organisational culture, together with its group norms, values and beliefs, are
additional potent forces that shape the organisational behaviour. It is the collective
dimension of the system that blends the formal organisation with the personal values to
construct a system of shared beliefs. Therefore, Mahfouz (2012) believes that the school
culture is an integral part of the organisational system dictated by bureaucracy and the
individual simultaneously. The school culture is also the integration of the schools
vision, beliefs, mission, values, structure and common shared language that are developed
and performed by the members of the school.
1.5.5 Politics
The political dimension of the system spawns the informal power relations that emerge,
often to resist other systems of legitimate control (Hoy & Miskel, 2008). Politics is
typically informal, often clandestine, typically divisive and above all frequently
illegitimate, and it sanctions by neither structure nor expertise (Hoy and Miskel, 2008).
Normally, politics is defined as the decision-making process and allocation of resources
in a context of competition and scarcity (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
Hence, politics is also behaviour usually used to benefit the individual or group at the
expense of the organisation. Obviously, politics is a part of organisational life and there
are always those people who seize power for their own personal advantages. Power
relations can be described in a variety of ways such as political tactics and games,
bargaining and conflict resolution. Members of organisations are invariably forced to play
the power game of politics. Despite

being informal, divisive and illegitimate, politics is an important force influencing

organisational behaviour.
1.5.6 Technical Core

Technical core in any organisation is referred to as the major mission of the social system.
In a school system, the technical core is the teaching and learning process. All other
activities are considered secondary to the basic mission of teaching-learning, which
determine administrative decisions in schools. Learning is a complex cognitive process
and it occurs in a stable change in an individuals knowledge or behaviour. Different
theories of learning have different implications for teaching, depending on what needs to
be learned. Hence, the teaching and learning activities happening in schools will
influence the decision making in a school.
1.5.7 Environment
The environment is defined as everything external of the organisation. As the social
systems are open, hence, the boundaries are much more ambiguous and the environment
more intrusive. Hence, the environment is critical to the organisational functioning and
the systems source of energy of the schools. Besides that, the environment provides
resources, values, technology, demands and history, all of which place constraints as well
as opportunities on organisational actions.
In fact, environment factors from larger social, legal, economic, political,

demographic and technological trends have a potentially powerful impact on
schools. Other than that, interested constituencies and stakeholders such as
parents, taxpayers, unions, policy makers, colleges and universities, state
legislatures, accrediting agencies and educational associations also have
immediate and direct effects on schools.
1.5.8 Outcomes
The outcomes are the end-product (output) of the organisation that can be evaluated in a
variety of ways. The organisational behaviour is resulted from the interaction of a set of
internal elements individual, structural, cultural and political as constrained by
environmental forces. The outcomes are best explained by the six pairs of interactions
among the elements in terms of congruence postulate (see Table 1.3). When other things
are equal, the greater

the degree of congruence among the elements of the system, the more effective the
system will be to achieve organisation goals (Hoy & Miskel, 2008).
Table 1.3: Congruence between Pairs of Key Elements

Source: Hoy and Miskel (2013)
Congruence Relationships Crucial Questions

To what extent do individual work needs enhance
Individual Structural
bureaucratic expectations?
To what extent are shared orientations of
Individual Cultural organisational culture consistent with individual
work needs?
To what extent do power relations conflict with
Individual Politics
individual work needs?
To what extent do the bureaucratic expectations
Structural Cultural reinforce the shared orientations of the cultural
system?
To what extent do the power relations undermine
Structural Political
bureaucratic expectations?
To what extent does the power relations conflict
Political Culture with and undermine the shared orientations of the
culture
Table 1.3 posits the example of critical questions concerning the congruence of each pair
of key elements, for example, the better the individual motivation, the more effective the
performance of the organisation.
Since performance outcomes are indicators of goal achievement and can be classified as
achievement, job satisfaction, absenteeism and overall quality performance in an
organisation, hence we can conclude that the organisational effectiveness is the degree to
which actual outcomes are consistent with the expected outcomes. The model assumes
that the effective achievement of these behavioural outcomes is a function of the degrees
of congruence among the system elements.
1.5.9 Internal Feedback Loop

Feedback informs individuals on how bureaucratic structure and the informal
organisational view their behaviour. Both the formal school structure and informal groups
have internal feedback loops (Hoy & Miskel, 2008). An appropriate behaviour is
expected to go with the relevant positions because the

bureaucratic structure has established the incentive pattern for it. Positive rewards are
granted to positive individual behaviour. Likewise, negative rewards are for those with
negative behaviour. Besides that, the informal group norms do influence organisational
behaviour. In the school, norms exist within and among all formal and informal peer
groups.
1.5.10 External Feedback Loop

The culture of the community provides environmental constraints that directly influence
bureaucratic expectations, group norms and organisational goals; and indirectly influence
a persons needs. Albeit a school attempts to isolate itself, it is still open to community,
state and national forces. In fact, social behaviour in a school is affected directly by four
internal elements which have been discussed in subtopic 1.5, namely:
(a) Structure;
(b) Individual;
(c) Culture; and
(d) Politics.
When the expected and actual outcomes do not meet, the feedback loops will inform
individuals and groups inside and outside the system.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
1. Explain the technical core of the school in a social system.
2. Compare and contrast the behavioural, cognitive and constructivist

perspectives to teaching and learning.

1.6 THE SCHOOL AS A

LEARNING ORGANISATION
Organisational life is complex because it is part of the intricate network of a social
relationship. As a service organisation that is committed to contribute to teaching and
learning, the schools aim at the enhancement of student learning and academic
achievement. In the context of school as a learning organisation, the participants are
constantly developing their capacities to create and achieve where novel pattern of
thinking is encouraged, collective aspirations are nurtured, participants learn together and
where the organisations expand its capacity for innovation and problem solving.
1.6.1 Organisational Learning

The concept of treating the school as a learning organisation has emerged as a response to
the needs of producing a school environment where people are learning how to learn
together. The learning organisation, hence, is classified as a place where individuals learn,
adapt to change, detect and correct errors; and constantly improve. There are four
concepts describing a learning organisation namely (refer to Figure 1.13):
Figure 1.13: Four concepts describing a learning organisation

Source: Marks et al., (2000)

There are three conditions that drive the emergence of organisational learning (see Figure
1.14):
Figure 1.14: Three conditions that drive the emergence of organisational learning
Source: Probst & Buchel (1997)
1.6.2 Six Dimensions of School as a

Learning Organisation
There are six dimensions of a schools capacity that characterise it as a learning
organisation (see Figure 1.15):

Figure 1.15: Six dimensions of schools capacity that characterise it as a learning organisation
However, traditional schools structural arrangements have hampered changes and

collective learning that are required for continual improvement. Besides that, the elements
that contributed to this are reduced resources, isolation and discrimination of staff, time
constraints, lack of coordination and interdependence, increased community involvement,
non-participatory decision-making process, and increasing size and complexity of schools
have compounded the difficulties.
1.6.3 Characteristics of School as a

Learning Organisation
Organisational learning, or sometimes referred to as collective teacher efficacy, was
discovered to be the vital intervening variable between leadership, teacher work and
student outcomes (Silins & Mufford, 2002). In fact, participatory decision making and
teacher empowerment promote organisational learning. Enhancement of student
achievement requires teacher empowerment to be associated with collective efforts to
improve instruction and assessment that challenge and involve students intellectually.
Shared commitment and school wide collaborative activity are critical in enhancing the
capacity for organisation learning (Silins & Mufford, 2002). Hence, four characteristics of
school as a learning organisation have been identified as follows (see Figure 1.16):

Figure 1.16: Four characteristics of school as a learning organisation
1.6.4 Principals Transformational Practices

Many studies have shown that transformational leadership is the most influential school
leadership by principals as perceived by teachers (Leithwood, 1994; Leithwood & Jantzi,
1996). Learning is enhanced when the work of teachers is recognised and their
contribution is valued. Hence, higher levels of teacher-learning and leadership are more
likely to occur where there is transformational leadership (Silin & Mulford, 2002). The
following are the identified principals transformational practices (see Figure 1.17):

Figure 1.17: Identified principals transformational practices
Studies by Silin and Mulford (2002) and Leithwood and Jantzi (1996) have shown that
leadership with a strong managerial focus does not produce improved students outcome.
However, effective principals facilitate continuous learning, meeting the challenges of
aligning the staff values and school vision, and emphasing learning as a priority to both
teachers and students.
1.6.5 Teacher Leadership and Learning

Teachers play a key role in embedding organisational learning into the school culture.
Professionalisation in the work of teachers is essential so that enquiry and the social
processing of information will turn into an integral part of the teachers practice.
Empowerment of teachers and professional support are two important factors in a
learning organisation to encourage teachers growth and success. Here are three factors
describing teachers perception of the administrative functioning in the school (see
Figure 1.18):

Figure 1.18: Three factors describing teachers perception of the administrative

functioning in the school
Source: Mulford, Kendall & Kendall (2004)
1.6.6 Student Engagement with School and Learning

The primary goal of educational reform is improved student learning (Silins & Mulford,
2002). Therefore, improved student learning is indicated in improved academic
achievement. Student participation and engagement in school are two imperative factors
in determining student academic and social success at school. Furthermore, the
engagement with school has become a forecast of student performance and is vital for
learning to occur.
1.6.7 The Relationship between Organisation,

Teacher and Student Learning
Students achievements have become one of the schools missions in terms of success in
schools. Therefore, school communities especially school leaders, teachers and
administrators strive to give their best for the success of students. If a school is committed
for student success, the students performance will be
increased and teachers satisfaction and school recognition will be improved. But, if
teachers are not committed, and the school does not facilitate growth of students, then the
students achievement will drop. Hence, it is important to analyse the relationship
between school as a formal organisation and roles of teachers and students. The path
model explains this relationship well (Silins & Mulford, 2002).
The Path Model

The path model represents the concept and interrelations among the organisation, teacher
and students. It was developed to investigate the influence of a range of factors on
organisations, teacher and student learning. In this model, three categories of variables
were presented. The elaborations of the variables are stated as follows (Silins & Mulford,
2002):
(a) School context variables

Students social class backgrounds and school size were identified as the factors
that influence student learning and achievement.
(b) Internal school variables

Eight internal school variables were employed namely, resources, staff valued,
leader, leadership satisfaction, community focus, teacher learning/leadership,
organisational learning and teachers work.
(c) Student outcome variables

Two variables were measured, namely, the students participation (such as
absences, joining extracurricular activities, preparedness to do extra schoolwork,
involvement in classroom or school decisions, setting learning goals, giving
opinions in class) and student engagement (such as perception of the way
teachers relate to them, relationship with peers, perception on usefulness of their
schoolwork in later life and their identification to school)
The study by Silins and Mulford (2002) shows that organisational learning has
significantly increased teachers workload in the classroom, however, the organisational
learning is also a significant mediator of principals leadership which has affected
teachers work on student participation and engagement in the school (Silins & Mulford,
2002). Teacher-learning is a system factor that enhances organisational learning and
contributes to student learning. Silin and Mulford (2002)s model indicated that the
learning organisation is characterised by four dimensions, namely trusting and
collaborative environment; teacher empowerment; regular and critical monitoring; and
continuous learning. Hence, we can conclude that organisational learning is more likely to
emerge in schools where staff are giving opportunities to increase their knowledge,
improve their

skills and provided with sufficient resources, as well as time to develop themselves
professionally.
SELF-CHECK 1.5
1. Do you agree that all the schools are learning organisations?
2. Compare your current school with an excellent school to identify the

elements that your school is lacking.
Theory is not simply idealistic speculation and common sense. It is a set of

interrelated concepts, assumptions and generalisations to describe and explain
behaviour.
Organisational theory provides framework and functions in the same way theory does
in natural science and other social sciences. It provides an explanatory system to
connect unrelated information, and provides meaningful description.
Even though the hypothesis is a bias of the researcher, it indeed bridges the gap
between theory and research, and provides a means to test theory against observed
reality.
Rational system perspective (machine model) views organisations as formal tools

designed to achieve goals and the organisational structure is the most important
feature. It was developed from scientific management.
Natural system perspective views organisations as typical social groups which

attempt to maintain its survival and emphasises human aspects.
Open system perspective is a more complete perspective as it combines the rational

and natural elements.
Social system model uses contemporary theory and is comprised of elements such as
structure, individual, climate and culture, politics, teaching and learning, environment
and feedback loops.

The school is an open system and a social system based on the key properties,
elements and assumptions of open systems that determine the organisational
behaviour of the school.
Key administrative processes are employed to influence the interaction among these
social system elements.
The concept of the school as a learning organisation is explained through the

identifying and correcting of problems within the organisation; learning from the past
experience, acquiring new knowledge by processing issues at organisational level and
changing the organisation towards betterment.
The principals transformational leadership encourages participation of teachers in

decision making, and school governance has led to the enhancement of the learning
organisation.
Teachers are the most important system factors in facilitating learning of the
organisation, contributing significantly to students learning.
Contemporary rational system Scientific management

Hypothesis Input
Key elements of school social system Output
Learning organisation Bureaucratic expectations
Rational-systems models Political system
Natural system models Individual system
Open system Cultural system
Theory and practice Structural system
Machine model Technical core
Rational system Internal feedback loops
Research External feedback loops
Systems approach Path model
Social system Teacher leadership
Theory Science

Bolman, L. G. & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing organization: artistry, choice and

leadership (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Gouldner, A. (1959). Organizational analysis. In Merton, R. K., Broom, L., & Cottrell, L.
S. (Eds.), Sociology today: Problems and prospects (pp. 400-428). New York, NY:
Harper/Basic Books.
Hoy, W. K. & Miskel, C. G. (2008). Educational administration: Theory, research

and practice (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Hoy, W. K. & Miskel, C. G. (2013). Educational administration: Theory, research

and practice (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Leithwood, K. (1994). Leadership for school restructuring. Educational Administration

Quarterly, 30(4), 498-518.
Leithwood, K. & Jantzi, D. (2000). The effect of transformational leadership on

orgnaizational conditions and student engagement with school. Journal of
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Marks, H.M., Louis, K.S. & Printy, S. (2000). The capacity for organisational learning. In
Leithwood, K. (Ed.), Understanding schools as intelligent systems (pp. 239-265).
Stamford, CT: JAI Press,
Mahfouz, J. (2012). Reflections on Hoy and Miskel's "The school as a social

system". Retrieved from
www.personal.psu.edu/jxm1093/blogs/julia_mahfouz
/2012/05/reflections-on-hoy-and-miskels-the-school-as-a-social-
system.html
Mintzberg, H. (1983). Power in and around organisations. New Jersey, NJ:

Prentice-Hall.
Mulford, B., Kendall, L. & Kendall, D. (2004). Administrative practice and high school
students perceptions of their school, teachers and performance. Journal of
Educational Administration, 42(1), 78-97.
Parson, T. & Shils, E.A. (Eds.). (1951). Toward a general theory of action.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Probst, G.J.B. & Buchel, B.S.T. (1997). Organisational learning: The competitive
advantage of the future. London, England: Prentice-Hall.
Scott, W.R. (1992). Organizations: Rational, natural, and open system. (3rd ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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teacher and student learning. Journal of Educational Administration, 40(5), 425-
446.
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Willower, D. J. (1975). Theory in educational management. Journal of Educational

Management, 13(1), 77-91.

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Topic Systems

3. Examine the key properties of an open system;

4. Describe the characteristics of a social systems model;

5. Investigate the key elements of a school social system; and

6. Discuss school as a learning organisation.

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The secret of education lies in respecting the students

Schools should be places to learn, not to teach

What does a systems approach mean to you?

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1. Why is theory so important in the explanation of the phenomenon in

1.1.1 Components of Theory

Figure 1.1: Three components of theory

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1.1.2 Theory and Science

Willower (1975) describes theory as a body of interrelated, consistent generalisations that

Table 1.1: The Definition of Concept and Generalisation

1.1.3 Theory and Reality

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1.1.4 Theory and Research

The hypothesis is a speculative statement that indicates a relationship between at least

Figure 1.2: Three assumptions to be relied on when making hypothesis

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1.1.5 Theory and Practice

Figure 1.3: Three ways to relate theory and practice

SELF CHECK 1.1

1. Discuss the relationship between theory, science, reality, research and

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1.2 A SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE

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1.2.1 Rational System

(a) Scientific Management

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(ix) Principle of homogeneity: positions that can be grouped in any of four

Major process: People with similar skills or technology.

Clientele: A group of people who deal with similar client or materials.

Location: Geographic area which has people working together

(x) Weakness of the system: the neglection of individuals idiosyncrasies and

(b) Contemporary Rational System

(v) Specialisation: The specific task components that yield expertise.

(vi) Standardisation: Come together with specialisation, they promote efficient

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(x) Hierarchy of authority: To coordinate and control organisational behaviours

1.2.2 Natural System Models

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The Hawthorne studies on schools created impact on democratic administration.

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Identify the differences between rational system and natural system.

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1.3 OPEN SYSTEM: AN INTEGRATION

Figure 1.7: Open system with feedback loop

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1.3.1 Key Properties of an Open System

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Concept Explanation Example

Homeostasis The process to maintain a steady The acts or responses of

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Entropy The tendency of any system to New programme/course to

1.4 SOCIAL SYSTEMS MODEL:

(a) Open Systems

(b) Interdependent Parts

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(g) Sanction Bearing

(j) Distinctive Culture Schools