Tree pruning: a modern approach

In a second article on tree pruning1, HUGH MORRIS focuses on

arboriculture management practices, which will be discussed together
with the physiological processes to which the tree is subjected in
response to such treatments.
We pruned trees historically for purposes other than appearances or
aesthetics. We viewed trees for our gain and survival, rather than for long-

our psyche. As Alex Shigo, the father of modern arboriculture, said, many
of the tree care practices that were developed centuries ago have changed
little over the years. It has been a take relationship without any due
consideration for the trees health. Shigo further stated that practices are
deep-rooted in attitudes. From the time of the early settlers, wood has shaped

1 IDS Yearbook 2010, pp. 217-225.

Above, The Preston Twins, located in Preston Park, Brighton, are claimed to be the oldest pair
of English elms in the world, both being approximately 400 years old. To increase their
longevity
the Brighton and Hove City Council arboricultural team, managed by Bob Greenland, prune the
trees when they feel it is necessary (every three to ve years) in order to reduce and thin the sail
area of the crown. According to Bob, this is not retrenchment, as these would not be classied as
veteran trees, owing to their healthy crowns. Reducing the sail area of the crown makes the trees
branches less prone to failure from wind, as the branch attachments have weakened with age.
photograph Hugh Morris
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the wheel to bridges, and from transport to weaponry. It has been the most
important of substances, surpassed by no other. The British Empire felled
oaks (and in many cases topped them for their bows) on a colossal scale for
shipbuilding, an exercise that reaped dividends during the Napoleonic wars
Along with this, the coal mines that depended
on timber pit props for their internal support set the stage for the industrial
revolution. So, our relationship with trees has been one-sided. While such
practices as topping were eminently practical in agriculture and some forestry

ends. However, we have carried past practices through time and across
disciplines. For instance, when forestry on large scale declined, foresters
turned to urban tree management for employment and carried their practices
over to arboriculture. The origins of early arboriculture were deep-rooted in

cavities, all now considered maltreatments after

and science of arboriculture has changed the emphasis to tree management for

are now concerned for the planet, and trees have the most valuable place in our
protects our trees, increasing their appearance, longevity, and resistance to
pests and diseases.
Within the discipline of arboriculture the reasons for pruning trees include:
for peoples safety in high usage areas removal of dead, dying, or diseased
parts; for aesthetics; for clearance of lower limbs along roadsides, streets, and
peoples homes; to create vistas in arboreta, gardens, and parks; to lighten
the load on trees in order to reduce wind damage; to correct a trees habit,
especially while young; to remove defects that may result in failure of part of
the tree; to provide more light for understory plants in established gardens
and arboreta; and, of course, for the trees health. Trees, for our pleasure
and health, have been taken from their natural environment (among other
trees) so, in compensat
landscape. To achieve this, the way we prune trees is critical.
This paper is a sequel to the one I wrote for the IDS Yearbook in 2010,
entitled, A history of tree pruning, which focused on the history of the pruning
method, and the general adoption of natural target pruning particularly within
the arboricultural industry. The focus will be on arboriculture management
practices, notably six principal techniques: pollarding, crown-reduction,
crown-lifting, crown-thinning, dead-wooding, and formative-pruning. The
practices will be discussed, together with the physiological processes to which
the tree is subjected in response to such treatments.
Pollarding is an ancient agricultural practice in both Europe and the British
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Isles. It involves the removal of the upper scaffold branches to promote a
head of small diameter shoots and foliage. We pollard trees to regulate size
and shape, so it can be a solution when selecting long-lived normally large
species of trees for our streets, such as plane (Platanus spp.) and lime (Tilia

the impact of decay-causing fungi by allowing the tree to develop what are
termed knuckles, club-shaped swellings impenetrable to fungi by their
very anatomy. A frame-work is developed during a trees formative years,
where each year, all branches are pruned back to the same points, allowing
the knuckle, or pollard head, as it is sometimes called, to develop. Professor
Ed Gilman of the University of Florida, an advocate of correct pruning, has
largely taken over the mantle for this special treatment from the renowned Dr
Alex Shigo. He has recommended, if necessary, leaving one or two inches of
illustration J R Shepherd www.inkyleaves.com
Topping exposes the wood to decay-causing pathogens, that eventually results in a dysfunctional
column of decay. This affects the long term health of the tree, and its physical stability,
especially for
those species with a poor inherited ability to compartmentalise effectively.
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stub to ensure that there will be buds to initiate next years sprouts. Welfare of
the newly formed starch-rich knuckle, a mass of buds and callus, then becomes
the principal concern for the arborist when re-pollarding.
Pruning of a similar fashion in mature trees is referred to as topping, a
malpractice that has its roots in pollarding, a perfectly acceptable method in
built-up environments. Topping is a form of tree mutilation, where after the
treatment, the sealing process around the open wounds is slow. In the majority
of cases, a knuckle is never formed, meaning that an open wound remains,
allowing a large column of dysfunctional wood to develop, as decay moves

Shigos theory on tree defence a

One of the primary concerns with topping is the production of epicormic shoots, as the tree tries
to compensate for loss of leaves. These shoots grow rapidly and are much weaker than normal
branch-stem attachments owing to both a weak attachment and the rapid growth. This often
results in failure, a major safety concern.
TREE PRUNING
illustration J R Shepherd www.inkyleaves.com
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breached in this instance, the weakest of four walls that act as dynamic and/
or static barriers against the movement of fungal hyphae. This dysfunctional
column eventually results in hollowing out, where the core of the limbs and/
or stem disintegrates. It is the new wood, developed after the barrier zone is in
place (wall 4 of the CODIT model) that is the foundation for new growth. This
new growth is often weak, and its failure is a likelihood making the practice of
topping ever the more problematic. In the case of pollarded trees, these issues
do not arise, as one does not breach the swollen knuckles. This situation is
often exacerbated as topped trees are often unattended for years. To rectify
this problem a cyclical pruning regime should be enforced in an attempt to
redeem what might be a recoverable situation, although topping is a practice
Coppicing, a method of woodland management, was practised extensively in Britain for the
valuable new shoots in a variety of applications such as fuel for charcoal iron production, house
building, cart-making, etc. After a gradual wane, we are beginning to see a return of the ancient
practice with biofuels now being used as an alternative to oil.
illustration J R Shepherd www.inkyleaves.com
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that must be abolished and consigned to the past. Topping large trees is not
pollarding, it is a crime against nature (Shigo, 2008). An interesting legalistic
attitude was expressed in Germany by Otto the Great, the founder of the Holy
Roman Empire (936 to 973), where the law stated, whoever beheads a tree
shall himself likewise be beheaded. This excessive law was not in place only
to maintain tree health, but to ensure trees were allowed to grow straight for
their valuable timber. Figures for how many people actually were beheaded
are lost in antiquity, though I suspect only a few.
Internal responses by the tree to topping are corrective adjustments to the
root: shoot ratio. Under normal circumstances, when there is a functional
relationship betw
to six times heavier than the latter. Upsetting this sensitive balance changes
the interactions between the three primary components: leaves, absorbing
roots, and connective tissue (and the transporting xylem and phloem, along
with mechanical tissues). According to Dr Kim Coder of the University of

functional balance between the shoots and roots. By the act of topping, a large
percentage of leaves will also be removed which dramatically reduces a trees
ability to photosynthesise. Because of this, sugars become unavailable to the
roots causing their starvation and subsequent death. Of course, no true balance
can ever be met; it is just an ideal state, as the system is always dynamic.
Coppicing is a similar treatment to pollarding, and is a traditional
woodland management technique. The tree or shrub is cut back near ground
level, which in encourages rejuvenation resulting in new stems from dormant
buds at the base. Not all species have a capacity for rejuvenation, though
a number of species show it very strongly, such as: Acer pensylvanicum
Erythrocladum, beech (Fagus spp.), birch (Betula spp.) dogwoods (especially
those for ornamental purposes such as Cornus sanguinea Midwinter Fire,
gum trees (Eucalyptus gunnii), foxglove tree (Paulownia spp.), hazel (Corylus
spp.), hornbeam (Carpinus spp.), Indian bean tree (Catalpa), Judas tree (Cercis
spp.), sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima),
and willow (Salix alba var. vitellia Britzensis). Conifers tend not to have the
ability, though a few do, such as the coastal redwood (Sequoia sempervirens),
Japanese -cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), Chinese- r (Cunninghamia lanceolata),
Californian nutmeg (Torreya californica) and pitch pine (Pinus rigida) and
P. leiophylla. Although yew (Taxus baccata) can tolerate heavy pruning, and,
in its hedge form, can be coppiced; however, a mature yew when taken back
to ground level will not recover. Coppiced trees are maintained in a state of
juvenility, so, like trees that are pollarded, are the Peter Pans of the tree world,
where old age is always in the far distance.
Crown-reduction is an arboricultural operation that results in the overall
reduction in the height and spread of the trees crown by means of shortening
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branches to an appropriate nodal point or branch union (where branches
diverge). Pruning at a nodal point should be to reduce a branch to a side
lateral no less than one-third the size of its original girth. This is essential, as
the side branch must be of an appropriate size to take over the role of leader
for the entire limb. Failure to do so would increase opportunities for decay-
causing fungi to enter the increased wound surface areas, and can also result

of removing branches to an inadequate nodal point or stub is referred to as

tipping. Tipping is a common malpractice, even by professional arborists,
and can cause trees serious harm. Arborists often do this when there are no
A well respected and sound practice among practitioners, crown reduction is a method that can
reduce tree size appreciably when there is a strong argument in favour of it. Of critical
importance
is the position of the offensive branches that are reduced. They must be reduced to a nodal point
usually of no less than one third the size of the diameter of the branch being reduced. There are
few exceptions to this.
illustration J R Shepherd www.inkyleaves.com
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suitable side branches to prune back to. However, in this situation it is better
to remove the branch completely. Tipping encourages sprouts that are weakly
attached, and leads to decay, often spreading into the main trunk. According
to Shigo (2008), tipped branches can live for many years, though usually less,
and can then become a hazard. During routine tree care, another observation

ntimetres in diameter
in poor compartmentalisers, and 10cm in strong compartmentalisers. At a
junction between a principal and lateral branch, there is no Branch Protection
Zone, where there lies a specialised mesh of interwoven cells that inhibit
inward progression of fungi. A good crown-reduction will appear natural
and as though the tree has not been pruned. The shape of the tree should be
conserved, and the side branches, which take over the role as leaders around
the periphery of the tree, should hide any otherwise noticeable pruning
wounds. Well performed this is both an art and a science.
So why reduce the crown? In most cases trees are reduced owing to a fear
about their size. People react when they become aware of the danger of a large
tree, though as cited by the protagonist Ishmael in the classic novel, Moby
Dick, ignorance is the parent of all fear. It is hard to bring clarity to the
subject when we are overburdened by a litigious society bringing with it an
otect both property and people. Trees fail by their very
nature, being living organisms. They can fail for no obvious reason (known
as an Act of God), though in most cases fail owing to an obvious defect that
TREE PRUNING
The large cavity in the lower bole of this half
of the Preston twins, Brighton, shows why it
is necessary to carry out crown thinning and
reduction. Apart from old trees not being
able to conjure up the energy to transport
nutrients upwards to any great height, a low
stature tree is also more wind resistant. The
bole thickens to an extent unusual among
unpruned trees, as carbohydrate reserves
target a reduced area.
photograph Hugh Morris
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would be observed by the professional arborist. A crown-reduction is carried
out to reduce the sail area of the tree, thereby easing the mechanical stresses
on a tree of weak disposition. For example, a tree with advanced decay within
the main trunk, but too important to remove, is reduced in size to lessen the
likelihood of failure and to increase its longevity. This is especially important
illustration J R Shepherd www.inkyleaves.com
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if the tree is a specimen of a high amenity value. Among other reasons to carry
out crown-reduction would for instance be in situations where a mature tree
has weak co-dominant stems (the stems may also be braced) or where a tree
is underneath a utility line. Other reductions may be restricted to one side of
the crown, such as when pruning a street tree back from shop windows, or a
house, etc.
There is another situation where crown-reduction is appropriate, and this
is in the case of veteran trees. A veteran tree is one of exceptional merit, both
from a cultural and conservation standpoint, owing to such factors as age,
condition, and/or rarity. Veteran trees or those approaching such status, often
develop twin crowns, with a second developing inside the outer crown. This
is in response to the sheer size and age of the tree, when transport of nutrients

condition the outer crown gradually becomes sparser, while the inner crown
becomes lusher, owing to an increase in bud production. Dr Claus Mattheck, a
professor of biomechanics at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany, has
observed the nature of trees for decades. He says that in order to prolong the
life of an ancient tree, one must prune the outer crown in order to consolidate
the canopy to compensate for decreasing root function. He maintains that when
the upper crown becomes visibly distinct from the lower this is an indication
to the professional arborist for the crown to be reduced accordingly. This kind
of crown reduction is referred to as retrenchment pruning, and should be a
gradual exercise (over a period of years) that keeps pace with the decline of
the tree.
The amount of live tissue that can be removed at any one time depends
on the size, condition, age, and the species of tree being pruned. As a general
rule of thumb, the British Standards 3998 recommend pruning no more

Betula spp.), beech (Fagus spp.), honey

locust (Gleditsia spp.), walnut (Juglans spp.), Japanese pagoda (Styphnolobium
japonicum), Laburnum spp., pear (Pyrus spp), and Prunus spp. are poor
compartmentalisers (i.e. with less ability to wall-off decay), so large scale
reductions on more mature specimens should be avoided in order to maintain
both tree health and safety. This is especially the case if there are no suitable
nodes to prune back to. Oak (Quercus spp.), lime (Tilia spp.), plane (Platanus
spp.), poplar (Populus spp.), maple (Acer spp.), willow (Salix spp.), yew (Taxus
spp.), ash (Fraxinus spp.), tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), mountain ash
(Sorbus), horse chestnut (Aesculus spp.), and alder (Alnus spp.) can tolerate
heavy pruning, partly because of
wood, and their ability to compartmentalise decay (Cutler and Richardson,
1989). However, both poplar and willow are poor compartmentalisers, so
careful assessment should be made on such genera in the pruning for the
commencing year. A great practical knowledge of trees is required to enable
TREE PRUNING
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The removal of lower branches is a solution to many tree related issues, whether the tree is too
close to a house, blocking a vista in an arboretum, or making contact with vehicles and passers
by
along a street.
the arborist to estimate what an individual tree can tolerate, and this know-
ledge is only gained after years of experience and schooling.
Crown-lifting operations involve the removal of the principal lower lateral
branches of a tree, thus achieving a desired vertical clearance. This commonly
undertaken operation is carried out most usually on street and roadside trees to
provide the minimum satisfactory clearance for vehicles and/or passers-by. It
is also undertaken in arboreta and woodland gardens to create vistas and to
provide more light to plants underneath the canopy layer. In arboreta it would
be referred to as stem clearance rather than height clearance, the latter being

illustration J R Shepherd www.inkyleaves.com

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on mature trees, where major scaffold limbs (those arising from the trunk) are
only removed as a last resort. However, in mature trees that have grown tall in
response to light, principal lower limbs are often not of great diameter, so some
can be removed with due care and attention. The preferred time to crown-
lift a tree is at the tree nursery, while a tree is young. This is referred to as a
standard tree, where the lower branches are removed to a height of 1.8m. This
formative pruning is cheaper and easier (and carried out with a secateurs),
with the tree responding favourably to such mild treatment. As advocated by
Shigo (2008) and Gilman (2011), it also stimulates a stronger central leader on
a young tree by removing auxin coming from lateral branches. This hormone
TREE PRUNING
The Jersey Elm (Ulmus minor subsp. sarniensis was once commonly planted on streets
throughout
the UK for its strong apical dominance (ability to retain a central leader). This splendid attribute
meant it could grow tall, with branches being kept duly subordinated. Such tall trees can be
crown-
lifted above vehicles and passers-by without any compromise to tree health. These trees are still
evident throughout Brighton and Hove, where Dutch elm disease has been kept under control.
photograph Hugh Morris
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produced in branch tips stimulates apical but suppresses lateral growth.
In nature lower branches are often shed owing to lack of light, as seen in
conifers, a particularly good example being the monkey-puzzle tree (Araucaria
araucana). However, in most deciduous trees lower branches are retained, often
drooping downwards until contact is made with the ground. Lower branches
are the trees best insurance in its old age (Mattheck, pers.com., 2010). Lower
branches, especially in mature specimens in open spaces, should be removed
only for valid reasons. In many cases crown lifting encourages mowers and
strimmers to cut too close to the trunk and cause damage to the bark (both outer
and inner bark, with the latter including the phloem, a key component of the
trees circulatory system). This is among the major causes of death of young
trees. In one event I know of, the offender had ploughed into a mature birch
tree, causing large sections of bark to detach. I inspected the tree upon noticing
dieback in the crown, where I observed to my astonishment bark secured
back in its rightful place by numerous small nails! One should take care not
to remove too many branches: a clearance along one third of the main trunk
should be the maximum permitted from the overall crown, and preferably
carried out over a number of seasons. Removing lower branches changes the
balance of stress throughout the tree, and this is particularly harmful when
pruning is excessive. Carbohydrate distribution alters radically, changing the
taper of the stem as the lower trunk becomes depleted of energy. This also
hinders the pathway of carbohydrates and auxin to the roots, both essential for
root function. In response to this alteration in structural biomechanics, a tree
will often grow stress-induced epicormic shoots associated with increased light
levels and auxin production. Sun-scorch is also often a possibility in exposed
thinner barks of some species, such as beech (Fagus spp.); however recent
information may cast doubt over a beech trees vulnerability to exposure, with
some workers suggesting anecdotally that oak may be more susceptible.
In some species, notably conifers such as the bald cypress (Taxodium
distichum) and the dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides), crown lifting
should be avoided purely for aesthetic reasons. Their beauty, particularly in
autumn, should be admired from the ground upwards.
Crown-thinning is the selective removal of branches from within the crown
to increase air movement and light penetration. Generally it involves the
removal of live tissue (including diseased material), although it can also be an
opportunity to remove deadwood. Collectively the process is termed a crown
clean. The removal of crossing branches, diseased and defective wood should
be considered before any other branches are removed. By allowing light to
penetrate the crown through selective removal of branches, one attempts to help
the remaining branches survive and increase in diameter. This prerequisite
also allows one to stand back and consider the next move. Like a chess player,
one doesnt want to move too soon, as a better selection may lie ahead. One
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must also know when enough is enough. Like painting a masterpiece, one
must know when to walk away.
Crown-thinning is the selective pruning of small diameter branches back
to suitable nodes, with the majority of the work being carried out in the
outer third of the crown. Adjustments to the amount of live tissue removed
depend on the species and age of the tree being worked on, and this should
be estimated only by an experienced arborist. For instance, it may state in
guidelines that no more than one quarter of foliage should be removed during
a single treatment, and there is a danger that inexperienced and/or unschooled
TREE PRUNING
A highly debated pruning method, crown thinning is certainly of benet to a small number of
species with dense unruly crowns, such as Prunus cerasifera Pissardii (along with other
cultivars of
purple plum), Prunus serrula, and Tilia species. while young. A crown clean, similar to a crown
thin,
includes the removal of deadwood.
illustration J R Shepherd www.inkyleaves.com
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arborists may look at this as being the percentage to target rather than the
uppermost limit. Over-thinning is a common event that often results in lion
tailing. This malpractice all too commonly involves the excessive removal of
lateral branches along the lower principal (or scaffold) limb. It shifts the load-
bearing capacity of the limb to the upper regions, placing the entire limb under
great stress; just as excessive crown-lifting does to the trunk. Retaining lower
branches maintains branch taper from the base of the limb towards its tip, so
the removal of branches reduces this necessary taper, thus producing greater
overall stress. This is due to the re-allocation of sugars to the uppermost
This is a practice that is frowned upon in the industry, though does not appear harmful to the
amateur. The removal of side branches along the inner scaffold limb leaves the branch exposed
to potential failure when its mechanics are manipulated. It may also be an entrance point for
pathogens. Epicormic growth (water sprouts from adventitious buds) is an unsightly response by
the tree to such malpractice.
illustration J R Shepherd www.inkyleaves.com
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parts. Decay is also a likely consequence, and many pruning wounds in close
proximity may lead to large decay pockets. These factors could easily result
in failure because of weak lateral branches. Excessive epicormic growth and
sun scorch, due to too much reduction of shade, are among the many concerns
caused by this practice.
The aesthetics of the tree can be enhanced by emphasising individual
limbs, rather than leaving a great mass of unkempt foliage and interwoven

(Prunus cerasifera Pissardii), Tibetan Cherry (Prunus serrula), olive (Olea

europaea), dogwood (Cornus spp.), and Ginkgo biloba, all of which tend to
develop overcrowded crown structures. Limes (Tilia spp.
from this practice, especially in young trees.
Recent research carried out by Gilman (2008) showed that thinning in
mature trees was largely a pointless exercise, as new growth, stimulated by
the greater penetration of light, quickly grows back. However, during the
period between the thinning operation and subsequent regrowth, the trees
were shown to be more wind tolerant (Gilman, 2011). Where crown-thinning
is required in mature trees it shows that little or no structural pruning was
carried out during the trees formative years. Young trees respond much more
favourably to selective branch removal, though structural pruning would
be a welcome alternative to crown-thinning in mature trees, as advocated
by Gilman. Structural-pruning is the removal of live branches and stems to

and ultimate size of branches and stems (Gilman, 2011). Shigo, on his online
website, assigns crown-thinning as a practice of the past by theorising that the
inner crown has a function in throwing wind off course, as do the fronds on a

by Gilman (2008) demonstrated that this seems not to be the case. However,
crown-thinning might become a practice of times gone if the advent of
structural pruning takes hold in modern arboriculture.
Deadwooding is the removal of dead and diseased wood from within the trees
crown. It is removed by Natural Target Pruning, the prescribed pruning
method as advocated by Shigo that keeps the branch collar intact, thus limiting
the entry of decay. This swollen area of live tissue is more pronounced around

the deadwood in t
it should be treated as such. The principal reason deadwood is removed is
due to the fact that it can pose a safety threat. This is a concern when dead
branches overhang a footpath, highway, buildings, or amenity areas However,
as expressed by Mattheck (pers. Com., 2010), deadwood is not necessarily
weak, in fact, as a result of its low moisture state, it is stronger than live-wood
when decay is not advanced. Also deadwood does not have the additional
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weight of foliage to carry. The species of tree is of course another factor, as for
instance oak (Quercus spp.) deadwood can remain on the tree for long lengths
of time, whereas that of poplar (Populus spp.) and willow (Salix spp.) may
break away quite rapidly, owing to the wood type and its susceptibility to
fungal rot. Whether it is a hardwood or softwood must also be considered, as
the former, with some exceptions tends to decay more rapidly and therefore
break away sooner.
Aesthetics must also be considered in specimen trees, those that provide
high amenity value, whether in a park, arboretum or along a street. Removal
of deadwood in these instances should be recommended, as it can be
unsightly. Also, as Shigo has acknowledged, the removal of deadwood as trees
age, is a health precaution, because the deadwood is an energy source for
fungi. His analogy likened the tree to a business stating that, as your business
grows and ages; you must take care to recognise deadwood among employees
and non-living things. The faster you discard deadwood, the healthier your
business will be. Fungi can invade living tissue of a tree beyond the branch
collar via deadwood. If the deadwood is removed by Natural Target Pruning,
then the spread of decay-causing fungi will be restricted.
Where trees are at distance from built-up environments, arboreta,
gardens etc., they should, where possible, be left to their own devices, since
deadwood forms a very valuable component of the natural ecosystem. Where
aesthetics and tree health would be of concern in trees of high amenity value
in the landscape, such clinically treated trees would be out of place, e.g.
in the countryside, woodlands, or in conservation areas such as national
parks. Design of public access routes around trees with retained deadwood
may be necessary to reduce risk. Neville Fay, a British arboricultural
consultant, is an advocate of Coronet Pruning, a natural fracture technique
carried out to mimic the effects of natural breakage in storms. This technique
combines safety concerns with wildlife objectives, and is a popular practice
in large countryside parks, such as Knepp Park, Sussex. Unfortunately, this
skilled chainsaw-honed sculpting does not have a place where amenity and
tree health are priorities, as it quite simply encourages microbial rot.
Formative-pruning is used on young trees. It is a form of structural-pruning,
though the latter term includes trees of all ages. As a mild treatment in
young trees, it allows the development of a good and sound crown structure
that prepares the tree for its future. This pre-emptive approach prevents
development of weaknesses by removing suspect branches. One of the
principal weaknesses that can occur in young trees is the development of
co-dominant stems, which are, in many cases, mechanically weak unions
resulting from bark-to-bark contact. This can be as a result of the genetic
constitution of the tree, or, as is most often the case, the way it develops when
growing in a human-made environment. It occurs when there is a scramble for
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dominance between competing branches. Formative pruning is carried out in
the tree nursery as a matter of course, though it is dangerous to assume that
this has been done. Also, if trees are purchased as seedlings, or raised from
seed, the task lies with the grower. A leader must be selected by removing or
subordinating (reducing in size at least by one quarter) potential takeover
branches, together with the removal of branches with poor unions. Gilman
(2011) also recommends the subordination (reducing by pruning back) of
lower branches with a high aspect ratio (diameter of branch to trunk ratio) by
as much as 30 to 60%, as anything less apparently makes little difference. The
auxin is then redistributed resulting in greater terminal growth (i.e. at the top
of the tree), as once-competing stems are now restricted.
Shigo (2008) refers to a young tree as a tree of 100% dynamic mass (no
heartwood or ripewood). This means that a young tree is composed of living
cells throughout its cross-section. A young tree can therefore have living
tissue removed without serious detriment, as there is enough remaining
energy to maintain order in the system. Such energy can only be stored in
living parenchyma cells in the form of starch, which is readily converted into
glucose when required for growth processes. As a tree matures, the ratio of
living to dead tissue changes, dead tissue being static and living tissue being
dynamic. Shigo calls this the core-skin hypothesis, where a skin of dynamic
TREE PRUNING
Formative pruning, a type of structural pruning, reduces the necessity to prune in later years.
Defects develop in trees from a young age and it is at this time that they should be removed.
Defects include co-dominant stems with included bark, where a lateral branch competes with
the leader for dominance often resulting in compression forks.
illustration J R Shepherd www.inkyleaves.com
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STUDY DAYS
mass (annual growth) is formed over the aging core (later to become heartwood

tree ages we must remove less live tissue, as it becomes increasingly required
for the continued functioning of the tree. What I mean here is that as the tree
ages and gets larger, more energy is required by the tree, so more needs to
be produced a reserve of potential energy (stored energy) is necessary to

Shigo has changed the way we view and work with trees. The message is
simple: prune trees while young to avoid having to do it when older.
When to prune trees
There is no stipulated time to prune, as pruning can be carried out all year
around, though whether or not certain times of the year are more acceptable
depends on the severity of the pruning and the species of tree concerned. When
pruning, it is important to consider phenology, i.e. the timing of occurrences,
such as bud- -fall, and how these affect
carbohydrate (energy) availability. The level of parasites such as fungi,
insects, and micro-organisms should also be taken into account. So when
we prune we must take these relationships into consideration. For instance,
fungal spores are most abundant in autumn, when trees happen to be at their
weakest. Also, because of the advent of dormancy in trees (particularly in
deciduous trees), active glucose is transferred to starch for storage over the
winter. So the tree lacks an active defence, and this is especially serious when
pruned. CODIT (Compartmentilisation of Decay in Trees) is an active process
and does not work in dormant trees. Another concern is that wood moisture
levels are at their lowest point in the dormant part of the phenological calendar,
a position that is most favourable for the germination of hyphae from fungal
spores. My advice would be to avoid pruning at this time, unless it is very
mild pruning on younger trees. Winter is a better time to prune, as although
the tree is inactive micro-organisms and insects tend to also be inactive owing
to the lower temperatures. However, this is changing with warmer winter
temperatures brought about by Climate Change. As a result of this climatic
factor, micro-organisms and insects are becoming more active during winter,
which is a worrying trend. Also, extreme low temperatures can induce cracks
and dieback from pruning wounds during the winter months. The approach
is to be cautious at this time by not making large pruning wounds, thus leaving
the tree more susceptible. The branching network of deciduous trees is more
visible at this time, so it is certainly more enticing for the arborist or amateur
to prune. Apple growers carry out pruning during mid-to-late winter by way
their fruit-harvesting schedule. So the approach one
takes to pruning involves critical judgement and consideration of a number of
variable factors.
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INTERNATIONAL DENDROLOGY SOCIETY
To conclude: the management of trees when you consider the complex
nature of their growth and the plethora of physiological differences between
species, should be carried out by an experienced climbing arborist, and often
only after consultation with an academic or consulting arborist. Trees and
their management is a specialist subject in the realm of arboriculture, the
discipline devoted to the management and cultivation of trees, shrubs, and
woody climbers. Much poor pruning practice is evident throughout arboreta,
parks, and estates owing to the lack of arboricultural expertise among those
who carry out the work. We have taken a backward step over recent decades,
where the arborist has been epitomised as one who only cuts trees down, or
prunes trees, often badly. This is, of course, true, though we must recognise
the difference between a tree surgeon, and an arborist, where the latter term
should only be used for those with excellent tree pruning skills and a sound
knowledge of how the tree functions. An academic arborist (or arboriculturist),
one who is educated to at least degree level in the science of arboriculture, is
highly knowledgeable in matters related to woody plants. Through science,
they can make sound judgements with regards to their pruning whereby the
practitioner of arboriculture will be informed of any advancement. Charles

Massachusetts, referred to himself in the preface of Des Cars famous text,

A treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees, as Professor of Arboriculture,

was not only an academic arborist, but also an excellent botanist.

management of their correct pruning especially in their formative years can

fewer opportunities to fail; they become healthier having fewer entrances for
decay-causing fungi to inhabit; trees become more beautiful as less deleterious
pruning is required in later life; and they live longer. Trees cannot adapt to
our mistreatment of them. As Shigo stated, the danger is that our insults and
assaults are coming faster than the system can adjust or adapt. Trees are long-
lived organisms with fewer opportunities for rapid evolutionary adaptation,
so we must consider this and treat them with dignity.
I will end this on a quote by the famous dramatist Anton Pavlovich Chekhov
written in 1888, A tree is beautiful, but whats more, it has a right to life; like
water, the sun and the stars, it is essential. Life on earth is inconceivable

and so on and so forth. There can be neither civilization nor happiness if

forests crash down under the axe, if the climate is harsh and severe, if people
are also harsh and severe. ... What a terrible future!.
I would like to extend particular thanks to Dr Jim Ratter for reading the article and making
useful suggestions. A special thanks to Jessica Rosemary Shepherd for her valuable artistic
contribution to this work. Her illustratory work can be found at: http://inkyleaves.com
TREE PRUNING
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