The impact of early education as a

strategy in countering socio-economic

disadvantage

Research paper for Ofsteds Access and achievement in

education 2013 review
Professor Chris Pascal and Professor Tony Bertram

UK Research Team:
Sean Delaney, Selma Manjee, Marjory Perkins and Manja Plehn

International Research Team:

Alice Bennett, Carol Nelson, Sarina Razzak and Maureen Saunders

Centre for Research in Early Childhood (CREC)

 Centre for Research in Early Childhood (CREC) 2013

The views expressed in this report are the authors and do not necessarily reflect
those of Ofsted.

Any enquiries regarding this publication should be sent to Elizabeth Boulton at

publishing@ofsted.gov.uk or Aviation House, 125 Kingsway, London WC2 6SE

This publication is available at www.ofsted.gov.uk/accessandachievement.

No. 130155-RR-005


InJune2012,SirMichaelWilshaw,HMCI,statedhisdeterminationtoaddresstheissueof
narrowingthegapofeducationalachievementbetweendisadvantagedpupilsandothers.To
supportthisintention,TheCentreforResearchinEarlyChildhoodhasbeencommissionedby
OfSTEDtoconductareviewlookingattheimpactofEarlyChildhoodEducation(ECE)initiativesto
combatsocialandeconomicdisadvantage,bothintheUKandinternationally.

Thispaper:

ExaminestheimpactofnationalandinternationalinitiativesinECEoverthelast10yearsonthe
attainmentofsocioeconomicdisadvantagedchildrenandyoungpeople
Setsoutrecommendationsforactionandfurtherinnovation

 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

Theimpactofearlyeducationasastrategyincounteringsocioeconomicdisadvantagehasbeen
welldocumentedintheresearchliterature.However,whatparticularcharacteristicsofearly
educationhavemoreimpactandhowthesefactorsoperatetoinfluencethelongerterm
educationalachievementofthedisadvantagedisnotyetwellunderstood.Therearekey
questionswhichneedfurtherexploration.Howfarandinwhatwayscanearlyeducationcounter
socioeconomicdisadvantage?Whatparticularaspectsofearlyeducationarecriticalinimproving
educationaloutcomesforthedisadvantaged?Howdotheyoperatetocountersocioeconomic
disadvantage?Howmightearlyeducationprogrammesadoptthesesuccessfulstrategies?What
aspectsofearlyeducationrequiremoresupportingevidence?Thisreviewlooksparticularlyat
theemergingevidencebaseinrelationtotheseandotherrelatedquestions.

Thisreview:

Setsoutkeyevidencefromthelast10yearsonhowearlyeducationcounterssocioeconomic
disadvantagebyenhancingeducationaloutcomesofunderachievinggroups
Drawsoutthelessonsforenhancingearlyeducationpracticefromkeynationalprojectsand
otherinitiatives,nationalandinternational
Setsoutarangeofpossiblefurtheractionstosupportsustainedimprovementindeliveringearly
educationintheareasofpoorestperformance.

 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

TableofContents

ExecutiveSummary 3

Introduction 5

1.Whatistheextentandnatureofthechallenge? 7

1.1Thegrowingextentofchildpoverty,inequalityandsocialimmobility 7
1.2Theextentandnatureofearlychildhoodinequality 11
1.3Thepotentialforactionintheearlyyears 12

2.Howfarandinwhatwayscanearlyeducationcountersocioeconomicdisadvantage? 17

2.1 Maternalhealth,healthrelatedbehavioursandchildhealth 18
2.2 Parenting 18
2.3 Earlyeducation 19

3.Whichearlychildhoodprogrammesareparticularlyeffectiveincounteringsocioeconomic
disadvantage? 21

3.1 Programmesthatprovidesupporttoparentsduringpregnancyandearlychildhood 22
3.2 Programmesthatcombineparentsupportandearlyeducationandcareforchildren02
years 23
3.3 Earlyeducationandcareprogrammesforchildren02years 24
3.4 Earlyeducationprogrammesforchildren34years 24

4.Whatparticularaspectsofearlyeducationarecriticalinimprovingeducationaloutcomesforthe
disadvantagedandhowdothesefactorsoperatetocountersocioeconomicdisadvantage? 25

4.1Systemicfactors 25
4.2 Structuralfactors 27
4.3 Processfactors 31

5.Howmightearlyeducationprogrammesbetteradoptthesesuccessfulstrategies?
Recommendationsforactionandfurtherinnovation 33

5.1Systemdevelopments 34
5.2 Structuraldevelopments 34
5.3 Processfactors 35

6.Whataspectsofearlyeducationrequiremoresupportingevidence? 36

Bibliography 37
Appendices 44

 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

ExecutiveSummary

Itis10yearssinceDavidBellasHMCIreleasedareportonAccessandAchievementinUrban
Education:10yearson.In2013,OfSTEDislaunchingamajorprojectwhichaimstoprompt
furtheractiononnarrowingthegapofeducationalachievementbetweendisadvantagedpupils
andotherswhichtheyclaimremainsoneofthedefininganddisturbingfeaturesoftheEnglish
educationsystem.OfSTEDstatesthatactionoverthelast20yearshasnotsuccessfullylifted
theseboats.SofaritisevidentthatthefocushasbeenonschoolbasedinitiativesbutSir
MichaelWilshawhasacknowledgedthatearlyyearsneedstofeatureinthisprojectmorehighly.
TobetterinformthisworkOfSTEDhascommissionedthisreviewoftheimpactofearlyeducation
asastrategyincounteringsocioeconomicdisadvantage,whichaimsto:

1. Summariseandevaluatesignificantresearchinthisareaconductedoverthelast10years;
2. Summarisekeyinterventionsandactionsoverthelast10yearsandevaluativeevidenceonwhat
hasworked;
3. Identifycurrentissuesandchangessince2000inpolicyandpracticeinearlyeducation;
4. Highlightkeyfindingswhichwillinformfurtheraction.

Thereviewevidencehasrevealedthegrowingextentofchildpoverty,inequalityandsocial
immobilityandthewideningextentandnatureofearlychildhoodinequalityintheUK.However,
italsopointstothepotentialforactionintheearlyyears.Drawingonbestavailableevidencewe
canidentifyanarrayofearlychildhoodpolicyschemesthatofferthepotentialtoclosethese
earlygaps.Researchontheseinitiativespinpointsthreecoreareasforactionintheearlyyears.
Theseareasinclude:

Maternalhealth,healthrelatedbehavioursandchildhealth;
Parenting;
Earlyeducation.

Judgedbytheevidence,thecorecharacteristicsanddeliveryfeaturesofprogrammesthathave
successfullyboostedthelearninganddevelopmentofdisadvantagedchildrencanbegrouped
intofourtypes:
1. Programmesthatprovidesupporttoparentsduringpregnancyandearlychildhood;
2. Programmesthatcombineparentsupportandearlyeducationandcareforchildren02years;
3. Earlyeducationandcareprogrammesforchildren02years;
4. Earlyeducationprogrammesforchildren34years.

Ouranalysisofrecentresearchandevaluativeevidenceprovidesstrongandconvincingevidence
ofthequalitiesandfeaturesofsuccessfulearlyinterventionprogrammes,andinparticular,
effectiveearlyeducationprogrammes.Thisevidenceprovidesusefulguidanceforthefurther
developmentofearlyeducationprogrammestoenhancetheircapacitytoboostearly
achievementforlessadvantagedchildren.Wehavedividedthesefactorsintothree,interrelated
aspectsofearlyyearspolicyandprovisionwhichdemandcontinuedattention:

 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

Systemicfactors:factorswhichareshapedbythewidersysteminwhichearlyeducationis
placed;
Structuralfactors:factorswhichshapethenature,scopeandcapacityofearlyeducation
programmes;
Processfactors:factorswhichdeterminehowearlyeducationisexperiencedbythoseinvolved.

Thelast10yearshaveseenthecreationofasignificantinternationalandnationalknowledge
baseaboutthefactorsthatareassociatedwithearlydisadvantageandhowearlyeducation
programmesmightworkmoreeffectively,bothsystemicallyandstructurally,topromotebetter
qualityearlylearningprocessestoclosegapsinachievement,especiallyforthesocially
disadvantaged.

Thereisnowlittledoubtthatearlyeducationforlowincomeandethnicminoritychildrencan
contributeimportantlytocombatingeducationaldisadvantagesifcertaincriteriaaremet.
Evaluationevidenceindicatesthatthedesignofprogrammesandtheapproachtopedagogyand
curriculumiscrucialtosuccess.Lowintensive,lowdose,latestarting,monosystemic
approachesarelesseffectiveoverall.Adidacticoracademicapproachinanegativesocio
emotionalclimatemaydomoreharmthangood.Earlystarting,intensive,multisystemic
approachesthatincludecentrebasededucationandtheinvolvementoftrainedprofessionalsasa
coreactivityaresuperior,withimpressivelongtermresultsandveryfavourablecostbenefit
ratios.Itisnowclearthatinvestinginaccessible,highquality,earlystartingandintensivecare
andeducationprovisionsforyoungchildrenissociallyandeconomicallyveryprofitable(EACEA
2009P38)

Theproblemisthatmanytargetedearlyeducationprogrammesdonotmeetthecriteriaof
qualityandefficiencyandmanyprogrammesareoftentemporaryprojectsandvulnerableto
economictrends.Theycanalsoreinforcesocialandethnicsegregationinthesystemwhich
transferstoprimaryschools,whereweseeaconcentrationofchildrenwithdisadvantagesin
particularschools.Recentevidenceshowsthatpreprimaryschoolswithamoremixedincome
populationhavebetterresultsfordisadvantagedchildren,probablybecausemoreablechildren
supportlessablechildrenintheirdevelopment(Schechter&Bye,2007citedinEACEA2009).The
policychallengeistorebuildthecurrentsystemssothattheymeetthecrucialdesignfeatures;
providehighearlyqualityeducationandcareforallchildren;areintegrated,attractiveand
affordabletoallfamiliesregardlessofsocialclassorminoritystatus;yet,aresensitivetodiffering
educationalneeds,workinginachildandfamilycentredwayandabletocompensateforearly
educationaldisadvantages.Therearekeyareasofearlyeducationpolicyandpracticewhichthe
evidenceshowswouldbenefitfromfurtherattentionanddevelopment:systemic,structuraland
processelementsallneedattentionbuttheevidenceisconvincingthatthisattentionwillbring
significantdividendsforthelessadvantagedinoursociety.

4

 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio
Economic Disadvantage

Introduction
Itis10yearssinceDavidBellasHMCIreleasedareportonAccessandAchievementinUrban
Education:10yearson.InJunethisyearinamajorspeechattheNationalCollege,thenew
HMCI,SirMichaelWilshaw,statedhisdeterminationtoreturntothesethemes10furtheryears
on(20yearssince1993).TodosoOfSTEDislaunchingamajorprojectwhichaimstoprompt
furtheractiononnarrowingthegapofeducationalachievementbetweendisadvantagedpupils
andotherswhichtheyclaimremainsoneofthedefininganddisturbingfeaturesoftheEnglish
educationsystem.OfSTEDstatethatactionoverthelast20yearshasnotsuccessfullylifted
theseboats.SofaritisevidentthatthefocushasbeenonschoolbasedinitiativesbutSir
MichaelWilshawhasacknowledgedthatearlyyearsneedstofeatureinthisprojectmorehighly.
TobetterinformthisworkOfSTEDhascommissionedthisreviewoftheimpactofearlyeducation
asastrategyincounteringsocioeconomicdisadvantage.

Theaimofthisreviewisto:

1 Summariseandevaluatesignificantresearchinthisareaconductedoverthelast10years;
2 Summarisekeyinterventionsandactionsoverthelast10yearsandevaluativeevidenceonwhat
hasworked;
3 Identifycurrentissuesandchangessince2000inpolicyandpracticeinearlyeducation;
4 Highlightkeyfindingswhichwillinformfurtheraction;

Thisreviewsummariseskeymessagesfromtheresearchanddevelopmentinitiativesdetailedin
thebibliographyandtheappendices.Inparticularhowever,thefollowingcoredocumentsand
textswereusedtoinformthisreport:

Allen,G.(2011)EarlyIntervention:TheNextSteps.AnIndependentReporttoHMGovernment.
London:CabinetOffice

Corak,M.,Waldfogel,J.,Washbrook,L.,Ermisch,J.,Vignoles,A.,Jerrim,J.,Vignoles,A.andJerrim
J.(2012)SocialMobilityandEducationGapsintheFourMajorAnglophoneCountries:Research
FindingsfortheSocialMobilitySummit,ProceedingsheldatRoyalSociety,London2122Mayof
researchsponsoredbySuttonTrust&CarnegieCorporationofNewYorkpublishedonlineby
SuttonTrust,Londonavailableon6thDecember2012at:
http://www.suttontrust.com/research/socialmobilitysummitresearchfindings/.

EURYDICE(2009)TacklingSocialandCulturalInequalitiesthroughEarlyChildhoodEducationand
CareinEurope,EuropeanCommission:Education,Audiovisual&CultureExecutiveAgency
(EACEA),Brussels,retrievedon6thDecember2012from:
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/about/eurydice/documents/098_en_v2.pdf

Field,F.(2010)TheFoundationYears:PreventingPoorChildrenBecomingPoorAdults.TheReport
oftheIndependentReviewonPovertyandLifeChances.London:CabinetOffice.

 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

Karoly,L.A.,Kilburn,M.R.,andCannon,J.S(2005)EarlyChildhoodInterventions:ProvenResults
FuturePromise,RANDCorporation,SantaMonica,CA.

Sylva,K.,Meluish,E.,Simmons,P.,SirajBlatchford,I.andTaggart,B.,Eds.,(2010)EarlyChildhood
Matters:EvidencefromtheEffectivePreschoolandPrimaryEducationProject,Routledge,
Abingdon.

UNICEFInnocentiResearchCentre(2012),MeasuringChildPoverty:Newleaguetablesofchild
povertyintheworldsrichcountries,InnocentiReportCard10,UNICEFInnocentiResearch
Centre,Florence.

 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

1. Whatistheextentandnatureofthechallenge?
Acentralaimofthisreviewistoanalyserecentevidencewhichmightsupportabetter
understandingoftheextentandnatureofthegapineducationalachievementforsocially
disadvantagedchildren.Thisunderstandingisessentialifwearetoidentifyhowfarandinwhat
waysearlyeducation,asapolicytool,canfunctionmoreeffectivelytocountersocioeconomic
disadvantage.Aseriesofnationalandinternationalreportsoverthelastfiveyearsprovidesa
starkpictureofthegrowingextentofpoverty,inequalityandsocialdisadvantageinUKsociety
andtheimpactofthisontheeducationalattainment,lifechances,healthandsocialcontribution
ofmanyofourchildrenwhoaregrowingupinpoor,sociallydisadvantagedfamiliesand
communities.Collectively,thesereportsalsoidentifysomeofthecriticalfactorsthatcontribute
totheloweducationalattainmentofthesechildren.Theevidencepresentedpointstothe
definitiveimpactofexperiencesintheearlyyearsoflifetolongtermprogress,andthustothe
potentialandtimelinessofearlychildhoodinterventions,includingearlyeducation,tomakinga
significantdifference.

Thefollowingemergentthemesareusedtoframethissectionofourreport:

thegrowingextentofchildpoverty,inequalityandsocialimmobility;
theextentandnatureofearlychildhoodinequality;
thepotentialforactionintheearlyyears.

1.1Thegrowingextentofchildpoverty,inequalityandsocialimmobility

ThelatestreportfromUNICEF,MeasuringChildPoverty(2012),acknowledgesthatthereis
almostnointernationallycomparabledataavailableontheeffectoftherecenteconomic
downturnonchildpoverty.However,itisevidenteverywherethatfrontlineservicesintheUK
areunderstrainasausteritymeasuresincreasethenumbersinneedwhiledepletingtheservices
available.TheUNICEFreportpointsoutthatworseistocomeandyoungchildrencanbe
particularlyvulnerableintimesofrecession.Itdemonstratesthatthereisalwaysatimelag
betweentheonsetofaneconomiccrisisandthefullextentofitsimpact.Itscurrentanalyses
revealthatintheUKtheeconomiccrisisisalreadybeginningtothreatensocialprotection
programmes.Childbenefitshavebeenfrozenforthreeyearsandchildtaxcreditsandother
programmesdesignedtoprotectthepoorestchildrenhavebeencutbackorreshaped.The
reportstatesthatthesechangesarelikelytothrowintoreversetheprogressmadeonchild
povertyinrecentyears.Althoughcurrentlystableatabout20%,withacommitmenttoachieve
10%by2020undertheChildPovertyAct(2010),thechildpovertyrateintheUKispredictedto
beginrisingagainin2013andtoreach24%(relative)and23%(absolute)by2020/21.Thiswould
meanareturntotherelativechildpovertylevelsoftwodecadesago,coincidentlyprojectinga
returntothesameeconomicandsocialconditionsidentifiedintheinfluential1993OfSTED
report,AccessandAchievementinUrbanEducation.UNICEFstatesthattheseforecastsarethe
bestavailableindependentestimateofwhatmighthappentopovertyundercurrent

 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

governmentpolicies.Thisimmediateeconomicandsocialcontextsetsanurgent,challenging
andtimelyagendaforthisreviewofthepowerofearlyeducationtocountersuchdisadvantage.

Evenbeforetherecession,theevidenceineachofthereportsweexaminedindicatesthatinthe
UK,especially,parentssocioeconomicstatuscontinuestobetheprimarypredictorofwhich
childrenprosperinadultlife.ThedatarevealsthattheUKremainsatthebottomofinternational
leaguetablesforsocialmobility,asmeasuredbyincomeorearnings.Latestcomparisonssuggest
BritishcitizensareabouthalfassociallymobileaspeopleinFinlandorDenmark,whichmeans
theyaretwiceaslikelytostayinthesameincomebracketastheirparentswhentheybecome
adults(seeFigure1).

FIGURE1:SocialMobilityLevels

ReproducedfromSuttonReport(Coraketal2012,p.4)

UKsocialmobilityisalsosignificantlylowerthaninCanadaandAustralia,countrieswithwhom
wesharemuchincommoneconomically,culturallyandintherichdiversityoftheir
populations.AmongstG2Orichestnations,onlytheUSAhaspoorersocialmobilitythantheUK.
Thesefindingschallengeoneofthefundamentalassumptionsofameritocraticsociety,thatlarge
inequalitiesofincomeareacceptableaslongaseveryonehasequalityofopportunitytoprogress
inlifethroughtheirowntalentsandhardwork.TheUKslowsocialmobilitylevelsshowthatthis
isnotbeingrealisedandthatthoseatthebottomoftheincomeladderinearlylifearefarless

 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

likelytoearnhigherincomesasadults,whencomparedtothoseinmostothercountriesof
similarwealth.

IntergenerationalsocialmobilitypatternsintheUK,overtime,whetherclassifiedbysocialclass
orincome,reinforcethethelifepatternsofindividuals.Wealthierparentsareabletoprovide
theirchildrenwithadvantagesthatlessaffluentparentscannotaffordandacycleforthepooris
perpetuatedandbecomeschronic.Theevidenceshowsthattheroleofeducationasasocio
economiclevellerisclearlyfailingforthevastmajorityofchildrenfromlessprivileged
backgrounds.Farfromraisingopportunitiesforallirrespectiveofbackground,ourcurrent
educationsystemseemstoperpetuateinequalities.

AstheSuttonTrust/CarnegieCorporationSummitReport(Waldfogel&Washbrook2008)points
out,

Itisclearthatforafortunatefew,education,andparticularlyhighereducation,canbeadriver
ofupwardmobility.Yet,thefewtalentsfromhumbleoriginsthatdogoontorealisetheir
potentialoftendosodespitethesystem,notbecauseofit.Notonlyisthisunfairforindividuals
unluckyenoughtofindthemselvesonthebottomrungsofsociety:itrepresentsatragicwasteof
talenttotheBritisheconomyinanincreasinglyglobaleconomy.

Theirfiguresshowthatstark,persistentgaps,wideningfromprebirthtopostgraduation,
characterisetheUK,withstudentsfromthehighestsocialclassgroupsbeingthreetimesmore
likelytoenteruniversityasthosefromthelowestsocialgroups(seeFigure2).

 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

FIGURE2:HigherEducationRates

ReproducedfromSuttonTrustReport(Coraketal2012p16)


EvenstarkergapspersistinentrytotheeliteacademicinstitutionsintheUK:lessthanoneinfive
degreeentrantsinleadingresearchuniversitiescomefromthefourlowerclassgroupsthatmake
uphalftheUKpopulation.Thisreportcontinuesbyarguingthatthisisallthemoreconcerningas
educationisnow,perhapsmorethanever,thegatewaytobetterlifeprospects;thisatatime
whenhigherorderskillsandknowledgeareincreasinglythemostvaluedcommoditiesinthe
worldsrapidlyevolvinglabourmarket.Thepersistenceofthisunderachievementgaphasbeen
quantifiedineconomiccostsasimposingtheequivalentofapermanentnationalrecession
(McKinseyandCompany,2009)andisestimatedtoreducetheGDPofacountrybybetween9
16%.Thecorequestionofhowfareducation,andparticularlyearlyeducation,canimprove
mobilitylevelsisanevenmorepressingissueamidaneconomicrecessionthatwillundoubtedly
affectthelivesofthoseonlowincomes.

Ouranalysisoftheevidenceindicatesthateventhemostsuccessfuleducationpolicy
interventionscanonlyreduceandnoteliminatedisparitiesineducationaloutcomesacross
income,socialclassorrace.TheSuttonTrust/CarnegieCorporationReportsuggeststhatthe
mostsuccessfulinterventionswillimproveeducationaloutcomesbynomorethanaquarterofa
standarddeviation,enoughtopassacostbenefittestbutnotenoughtoequaliseeducational
opportunityforallchildren.Theyarguethatthisshouldnotmeandespairbutratherthatwe

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

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shouldrecognisethatschoolinginterventionsbythemselvesshouldneverbeseenasapanacea
foraddressingdeeplyentrenchedsocialclassinequalitiesintheUK.Educationalistsshouldbe
realistsbutnotdefeatistsand,asweshallshow,therearerealdifferencesthatcanbeachieved
withhighqualityearlyinterventionstrategies.


1.2Theextentandnatureofearlychildhoodinequality

WaldfogelandWashbrook(2008,2012)traceearlyeducationinequalitiesforthecurrent
generationofchildrenandidentifythefactorsunderpinningthesegapsindifferentcountries.
ThemagnitudeofearlychildhoodinequalityintheUKiswelldocumented;someestimates
suggestthathalftheattainmentgapsforpupilsarealreadypresentatthestartofprimaryschool.
UsingMilleniumCohortstudydata,thisresearchshowsthatthesizeoftheemerginggapsinthe
testscoresofchildrenfromdifferentincomegroupsreflectsthespreadofincomeintheUK.
LargegapsexistintheUKforvocabularytestsbetweenchildrenaged4and5fromfamilieswith
middleincomesandthosefromfamilieswithlowestfifthofincomes(figure3).

FIGURE3:PreSchoolGaps

WaldfogelandWashbrook(2012)ReproducedfromSuttonTrustReport(Coraketal2012p8)

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

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Thedataalsoshowsthattherearegapsinwhatistermedschoolreadinessassociatedwithrace
andethnicityandplaceofbirth.IntheUK,PakistaniandBangladeshichildrenlagfarbehind
whitechildreninschoolreadinessandvocabulary.Blackchildren(acategorythatcombinesBlack
Britishchildren,childrenfromtheCaribbeanandchildrenfromAfrica)alsoscorelowerthan
whitechildren,particularlyinvocabulary.Incontrast,Indianchildren,whilelagginginvocabulary
atage3,demonstrateagooddealofcatchupbyage5andalsoscorecomparablytowhite
childrenonschoolreadinessatage3.

TheevidencealsoshowsimmigrantnativegapsfortheUK.Althoughimmigrantchildrenlagin
vocabularyatage3,andtoalesserextentatage5,theirschoolreadinessatage3iscomparable
tothatofnativebornchildren.Immigrantchildrenhaveifanythingfewerbehaviourproblems
thannativebornchildrenalthoughthedifferencesareveryslight.Thesecomparisonssuggest
thatincomerelatedgapsarenotthesameasracial/ethnicorimmigrant/nativegaps.Ingeneral,
racial/ethnicminorityorimmigrantgroupsdonotlagasfarbehindincognitivemeasuresof
schoolreadinessasthebottomincomequartiledoes.Thispatternofresultsreinforcesthe
importanceoflookingatincomerelatedgapsandstrategieswhichmightaddressthese.

Thedevelopmentaldelayinboysrelativetogirlsisalsosignificantinschoolreadinessandintheir
abilitytocopewithaformalcurriculum.ThelongitudinalEPPEstudy(Sylvaetal2004)suggested
thatintermsoftheirrelativeimpactoneducationalachievement,poverty,genderandethnicity
couldberankedinthatorder,soworkingclassboysregardlessofethnicitywouldlikelybeoneof
themoredisadvantagedgroups.

Oneofthekeychallengesforschoolsisthatsubstantialgapsinschoolreadinessfortheseunder
achievinggroupsofchildrenareembeddedintheearliestyearsoflife.Thepresenceofsuchlarge
gapsevenbeforechildrenstartschoolhaspromptedagreatdealofinterestintherolethatearly
education(preschool)andparentingpolicymightplayinnarrowingthesegaps.Ifschoolsareto
promoteequalityofeducationalachievement,itwouldclearlyhelpifchildrenwereabletostart
schoolonamoreequalfootingandthismeansthatactionhastobeginmuchearlier.


1.3Thepotentialforactionintheearlyyears

Theinterestintheearlyyearsasafocusforactionincounteringsocioeconomicdisadvantageis
supportedbyemergingresearchinneuroscience,developmentalpsychologyandeconomics.The
NationalAcademyofSciencesReportFromNeuronstoNeighbourhoods(ShonkoffandPhillips,
2000),highlightedresearchonearlybraindevelopment,andlinkedthistotheimportanceof
qualityexperiencesintheearlyyearsforchildhealthanddevelopmentaloutcomes.Atthesame
time,HeckmanandLochner(2000)emphasisedtheimportanceofearlyyearsforhumancapital
formation,arguingthatinvestmentsmadeintheearlyyearswouldlayafoundationforlearning
notonlyinthoseearlyyears,butalsointhefuture.Heckmanhasalsojoinedwithdevelopmental
psychologistsinemphasisingthatbothcognitiveandnoncognitiveaspectsofdevelopmentare

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

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consequentialforlaterlifechances(CarneiroandHeckman,2003).Heckmansworkhas
particularlyshownthelongtermimportancetoattainmentofsecuredevelopmentof:

Motivation;
Sociability(theabilitytoworkwithothers);
Attention;
Selfregulation;
Selfesteem;
Timepreference;
Healthandmentalhealth.

Inevaluatingeducationalpolicies,Heckmanarguesthatsoftskillsinvolvingpersonalitytraits,
suchasconscientiousness,opennessanddiligenceareoftenneglected,eventhoughtheyare
valuedinschoolandworkenvironments,andinmanyotherdomains.Thisisinpartbecauseso
muchvalueisplacedonstandardisedtestscoresandsoftskillsareconsideredtoodifficultto
quantify.Suchskillscan,however,predictsuccessinlifeandprogramsthatenhancesoftskills
haveanimportantplaceinthewritingofpublicpolicies(HeckmanandKautz2012).Heargues
thatsocialpolicyshouldbedirectedtowardsthemalleableearlyyearsifwewanttoaddressthe
gapsinattainment.Heckmansworkhasalsopointedtotheeconomicreturnofinvestinginhigh
qualityearlyeducationprogrammes,especiallyfordisadvantagedchildrenandparticularlywhen
comparedwithinvestmentsinhigheragegroups(Seefig4).Thisbeliefissupportedbythework
ofRolnickandGrunewald(2003)whosereportconsideredseveralstudiesofmodelprogrammes
and,whenconsideringthePerryPreschoolprogramintheUSA,foundareturnoninvestmentof
16percent,with80percentofthebenefitsgoingtothegeneralpublic.

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

FIGURE4:RatesofReturn

ReproducedfromHeckman&Masterov2007,p.89

Afurtherimpetusforearlyintervention,welldocumentedintheFieldandAllenReviews
(2010,2011)isthegrowingevidencethathighqualityinterventionscanadvancechild
developmentintheearlyyears.RandomassignmentstudiesofprogrammessuchasPerry
Preschool,Abecedarian,InfantHealthandDevelopmentandNurseFamilyPartnerships,andthe
EPPEresearchintheUK,havefoundthathighqualityearlyyearsprogrammesdohavethe
capacitytosignificantlyimprovechildhealthandeducationaloutcomesfordisadvantaged
children,inbothcognitiveandnoncognitivedomains(Karoly,KilburnandCannon,2005;Sylvaet
al,2004,2008).Theseresultsprovidegroundsforoptimismthatwellcraftedearlychildhood
policiescanandshouldplayakeyroleinnarrowingthegapsinschoolreadiness,andinthe
longerterm,counteringtheeffectsofsocioeconomicdisadvantage.

Theevidenceinthesereportsshowsconvincinglythattherearebothshortandlongterm
economicbenefitstotaxpayersandthecommunityifhighqualityearlyeducationisavailableto
allchildren,startingwiththosewhoaremostdisadvantaged.Indeed,universallyavailableearly

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

educationofahighstandardwouldbenefiteveryoneandbethemostcosteffectiveeconomic
investment.Insummarytheevidencerevealsthat:

Highqualityearlychildhoodeducationhelpsprepareyoungchildrentosucceedinschooland
becomebettercitizens;theyearnmore,paymoretaxes,andcommitfewercrimes.
Every1investedinqualityearlycareandeducationsavestaxpayersupto13.00infuture
costs.
Theearlycareandeducationindustryiseconomicallyimportantoftenmuchlargerintermsof
employeesandrevenuesthanotherindustriesthatreceiveconsiderablegovernmentattention
andinvestment.
Failingtoinvestsufficientlyinqualityearlycareandeducationshortchangestaxpayersbecause
thereturnoninvestmentisgreaterthanmanyothereconomicdevelopmentoptions.
Accesstoavailableandaffordablechoicesofearlychildhoodlearningprogrammeshelps
workingparentsfulfilltheirresponsibilities.
Qualityearlyeducationisasessentialforaproductive21stcenturyworkforceasroadsorthe
internet;investinginitgrowstheeconomy.

(CalmanandTarrWhelan2005,p2)

Whilstbeingoptimistic,weshouldacknowledgethatthereareclearlysomelimitstowhatearly
yearsprogrammesinthemselvescanaccomplish.Someaspectsofthedifferencesthatemerge
intheearlyyearswillbeduetofactorsthatarenotreadilyalteredbypolicy.Afurtherchallenge
isthatnotallearlyyearsprogrammesareequallyeffective.Highqualityprogrammesare
expensiveandeventhemostpromisingmodelprogrammesmightnotworkwhendeliveredona
largescale.Yetanalysisbyeconomists(Barnett,2011)andneuroscientists(Diamond,2012)
suggestthatearlychildhoodinterventionhasadisproportionateimpact;alittleofthehighest
qualitygoesalongway.ArecentUKreportbytheDaycareTrust(2009)whichlookedatthe
costsofpayingforhighqualityearlyeducationandcarerevealedthatstaffqualificationsand
wagesinnurseryschoolsandnurseryclassesarealreadyalmostattheleveldescribedintheir
highqualitymodel,sothedifferenceforthosesettingstoachievehighqualitywouldbeminimal
comparedtothoseinothersettings:onlyaround15percentincreaseincostsfornursery
schools.Costincreasesinnurseryclasseswithinprimaryschoolsareslightlyhigher,at27per
cent.Thereportalsoindicatesthatnurseryclassesareactuallythemostcosteffectivetypeof
provisioninthehighqualitymodel,followedbyfulldaycareinchildrenscentres.Thisisbecause
innurseryclassestheheadteachercostsandotherindirectcostsarespreadoveramuchlarger
numberofchildrenthan,forexample,innurseryschools.Therefore,thehighqualitycostmodel
representsonlyarelativelysmallcostincrease(between10and27percent)formaintained
settings,butaverysignificantincrease(upto200percent)forPVIsettings.

TheAllenReport(2011)alsopresentssomeusefulexamplesofthereturnsthathavebeen
reportedfromaselectionofwellregardedstudies.Forexample,anevaluationbytheRAND
CorporationoftheNurseFamilyPartnership(aprogrammetargetedtosupportatriskfamilies
bysupportingparentalbehaviourtofosteremotionalattunementandconfident,nonviolent
parenting)estimatedthattheprogrammeprovidedsavingsforhighriskfamiliesbythetime

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childrenwereaged15.Thesesavings(overfivetimesgreaterthanthecostoftheprogramme)
cameintheformofreducedwelfareandcriminaljusticeexpendituresandhighertaxrevenues,
andimprovedphysicalandmentalhealth.

Anindependentreview(Aosetal2004)placedtheaverageeconomicbenefitsofearlyeducation
programmesforlowincome3and4yearoldsatclosetotwoandahalftimestheinitial
investment:thesebenefitstaketheformofimprovededucationalattainment,reducedcrimeand
fewerinstancesofchildabuseandneglect.Withinthisoverallfigure,thereissubstantial
variation,andreviewsofindividualearlyeducationprogrammeshavenotedbenefittocost

ratiosashighas17:1(Lynch2009). Someofthelargestreturnshavebeenseeninimproving
childrensabilitytocommunicate,somethingcentraltoanychildssocialdevelopment.Ithas
beenestimatedthatthebenefitsassociatedwiththeintroductionoftheliteracyhourintheUK,
evenaftercontrollingforarangeofotherfactors,outstripthecostsbyaratioofbetween27:1
and70:1(Allen2011).
Therearestillthornyissuestobeaddressed,forexample,whethersuchprogrammesarebest
delivereduniversallyortargeted;however,theevidenceforthesignificanceofqualityearly
childhoodinterventionanditscosteffectivenessovernearly40yearsofresearchisnow
overwhelming.Thisreviewthereforesetsouttoidentifywhataspectsofearlyintervention,and
particularlyearlyeducationalinterventions,seemtobemostpromisinginenhancingeducational
attainmentforthelessadvantagedandhowearlyeducationprogrammesmightmoreeffectively
incorporatethesefeaturesintopracticeandservicedelivery.

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2. Howfarandinwhatwayscanearlyeducationcountersocioeconomic
disadvantage?
Assetoutpreviously,wehavetoacknowledgethatanyearlyinterventionstrategycanmakeonly
alimitedcontributiontocounteringdeep,socialandeconomicinequalitiesinsociety.However,
thissectionofourreportreviewscurrentevidencewhichidentifiesthemostfertileareasfor
actionintheearlyyears,highlightingkeyfactorswhichareassociatedwitheducational
underachievementduringthisperiodoflifeandneedtobeaddressedifanyprogressistobe
madeincounteringsocioeconomicdisadvantage.Thereisaclearcasemadeinalltherecent
reviewsforanincreaseintheproportionofoverallexpenditureallocatedtoearlyintervention
programmes,startinginpregnancy.UNICEF(2012)recommendsthattheminimumlevelof
publicspendingonearlychildhoodeducationandcare(forchildrenaged0to6years)shouldnot
belessthan1percentofGDP.TheUKcurrentlymeetsthistargetbutisalsotryingtoreverseits
investmentchoicestowardspreventionandearlierinterventionratherthanremediationduring
theearlyyearsofachildslife,asisevidentthroughouttheOECDcountriesandbeyond
(EconomistIntelligenceUnit,2012;PascalandBertram,2012).Thesteadystreamofreportsand
studiesontheimportanceofearlyinterventionoverthelast18monthsistestimonytothe
continuedpoliticalawarenessoftheneedtosustaininvestmentinthisareaofpolicy.Weshould
alsonotethattheOECD(2009)reportsthatspendingonyoungchildrenismorelikelytogenerate
morepositivechangesthanspendingonolderonesand,indeed,islikelytobefairertomore
disadvantagedchildren.Howeveritnotesthat,intheUK,forevery100spentonearlychildhood
(05years),135isspentonmiddlechildhood(611years)and148isspentonlatechildhood
(1217years).

WaldfogelandWashbrook(2008,2012)usedetailedcohortstudydatatoexplainthegapsin
schoolreadinessbetweenchildrenfromthebottomfifthandchildrenfromthemiddlefifthof
theincomedistributionintheUSandtheUK.Theyexploretherelativeimportanceofthefactors
thataccountforthepoorerscoresoflowincomechildrenandthebetterscoresofhighincome
childrentohelpidentifypoliciesthatcanplayaroleinclosinggaps.Theyfoundthatnoone
factordrivestheseresults.Rathertheyhighlightahostofdifferencesinfactorssuchas
parentingstyleandthehomeenvironment,maternalandchildhealth,earlychildhoodcareand
education,maternaleducationandotherdemographicfactorswhichtogetherhelpexplainwhy
lowincomechildrencometoschoollessreadytolearnandwhyhighincomechildrencometo
schoolwithanadvantage.

Sowhatrolecanearlyyearspolicyplayintacklingthesedifferencesinachievement?Whatpolicy
leversmightreduceinequalityinschoolreadiness?Drawingonbestavailableevidence,
WaldfogelandWashbrook(2008,2012)identifyanarrayofearlychildhoodpolicyschemesthat
offerthepotentialtoclosetheseearlygaps.Theyalsoarguethattoplayaroleinclosingearly
gaps,aninterventionmust1)effectivelyaddressafactorthatisconsequentialforearlygaps,and
2)domoretoimprovetheschoolreadinessofdisadvantagedchildrenthanmoreadvantaged
children(eitherbytargetingorifuniversal,havingagreaterimpactonoutcomesfor
disadvantagedchildren).

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Allofthereportsweconsideredhaveconsistentconclusionswhichpinpointthreecoreareasfor
actionintheearlyyears.Theseareasarediscussedinmoredetailbelowandinclude:

Maternalhealth,healthrelatedbehavioursandchildhealth;
Parenting;
Earlyeducation.

Wehaveincludedtheevidenceoneachoftheseareasinthisreviewasitisclearthatthemost
effectiveearlychildhoodprogrammesincounteringsocioeconomicdisadvantagearemulti
prongedandincludeactioninmorethanoneoftheseareas.Whilstthecapacityofearly
educationincounteringdisadvantageistheprimefocusinthisreview,itisimportantthat
considerationshouldbegiventoitsabilitytoworkinpartnershipwithearlyintervention
initiativesintheotherareas.Theevidencealsorevealsthatthepotentialimpactofactionineach
oftheseareasisnotequal,andthattheprimacymightshiftasthechildmovesthroughthe
foundationyears.Forexample,inthefirstmonthsoflifematernalandchildhealtharepivotal,
andlater(fromabout2years),earlyeducationcanmakeamoresignificantcontribution.Whatis
clear,however,isthatparentingandthehomelearningenvironmentaretheprimeandmost
powerfulcontributoryfactorsthroughout.


2.1Maternalhealth,healthrelatedbehavioursandchildhealth

Thereisevidenceofincomerelateddifferencesinmaternalhealthandhealthrelatedbehaviours
suchassmoking,breastfeeding,prenatalcare,depression,obesityandoverallhealth,whichplay
aroleinexplainingdevelopmentaldelayandunderachievementinyoungchildren,particularly
frompregnancytoaround2yearsofage.However,thesefactorsappeartohavemuchlessofan
impactonschoolreadinessasthechildgetsolder(47%ofgapincognitiveoutcomesbetween
lowandmiddleincomefamilies).Disparitiesinchildhealtharealsoawelldocumentedsourceof
disparitiesinschoolachievementbutareseentoaccountforonlyabout4%ofthegapinschool
readiness(thismaybeanunderestimate)againsuggestingthatchildhealthdoesnotseemtobe
amajorfactorinexplainingthegapsinschoolreadinesswhichincreaseasthechildmatures.


2.2Parenting

Parentingdifferencesbetweenhighandlowincomefamiliesarewelldocumentedandtheyare
associatedwithsizabledifferencesincognitiveandnoncognitivedevelopment,andinlongterm
educationalachievement.ThisevidenceisdefinitivelyreflectedintheEPPEstudy(Sylvaetal,
2004,2010,2012),aswellasinWaldfogelandWashbrooks(2008,2012)analysisofthefactors
associatedwitheducationalunderachievement.

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Parentingstyle:Thisfactoremergesinrecentresearchasthesinglelargestdomainexplaining
thepoorercognitiveperformanceoflowincomechildrenrelativetomiddleincomechildren,
accountingfor19%ofthegapinmathematics,21%ofthegapinliteracyand33%ofthegapin
language(WaldfogelandWashbrook,2012).Aparticularlyimportantfactorincludedinthe
parentingstyledomainismaternalsensitivityandresponsiveness(sometimescallednurturance).
Otherfactorsincludeknowledgeofinfantdevelopment,disciplineandrules.Developmental
psychologistshavelongemphasisedtheimportanceofsensitiveandresponsiveparentingfor
childdevelopmentandthisanalysisshowsthatthisoneaspectofparentingstyleaccountsfor
11%ofthegapsinliteracyandmathsbetweenlowandmiddleincomechildrenand21%ofgapin
languageskillsbetweenthesetwogroups.

HomeLearningEnvironment:Aspectsofthehomelearningenvironmentarethesecondmost
importantsetoffactors,togetheraccountingforbetween16and21%ofthegapincognitive
schoolreadinessbetweenlowincomechildrenandtheirmiddleincomepeers.TheEPPEresearch
alsofoundthatforallchildren,thequalityofthehomelearningenvironmentismoreimportant
forintellectualandsocialdevelopmentthanparentaloccupation,educationorincome;asthe
reportstates,whatparentsdoismoreimportantthanwhotheyare.TheHomeLearning
Environmentincludesparentsteachingbehavioursaswellastheirprovisionoflearningmaterials
andactivities,includingbooksandCDs,computeraccess,TVwatching,libraryvisitsandclasses.
Whatparticularfactormattersmostinthisdomainappearstodependonthespecificoutcome.
Forexample,theresearchshowsthatcomputeraccessexplains9%ofthegapinliteracyand
maths,butislessimportantforlanguage.


2.3Earlyeducation

Themostrecentinternationalevidence(Coraketal2012)revealsthatinmanycountries,
includingtheUK,childrenfromlowincomefamiliescontinuetobelesslikelytoattendhigh
qualityearlyeducationandcareprogrammes,eventhoughweknowthattheybenefitmorethan
theirmoreadvantagedpeers.Thisreviewestimatesifthatifalllowincomechildrenweretobe
enrolledinhighqualityearlyeducationprogrammes,suchreformscouldclosethegapin
achievementbyasmuchas2050%,revealingwhatapowerfuldriverearlyeducationcanbein
counteringsocioeconomicdisadvantage.ThisevidenceisreinforcedbyEPPEstudy(2004,2008,
2010,2012)whichdemonstratesthepositiveeffectsofhighqualitypreschoolonchildrens
intellectualandsocialbehaviouraldevelopmentuptoendofKS1(7years)andbeyondandalso
showsitsparticularbenefitforlessadvantagedchildren.Thecurrentevidenceprovidesan
unequivocalargumentforthepivotalroleofearlyeducationprogrammesincountering
educationalunderachievement,especiallyiftargeteddifferentiallytowardslowersocioeconomic
childrenandaccessedfromanearlierage.

TheEPPEevidencealsomakesclearthatboththequalityoftheearlyeducationexperienceas
wellasthequantity,(moremonths,notmorehoursaday),areinfluentialindetermining
outcomesforchildren.ThestudyalsorevealsthatmanyoftheUKearlyeducationprogrammes

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currentlyaccessedareofvariablequality,andaslowincomechildrenmoreoftenattendthese
lowerqualitysettings,itfollowsthatifqualityimprovementswereimplementedinallearly
educationprogrammesthereductionsinthegapcouldbehigher.Insummary,theEPPE
longitudinalevaluationofchildrensearlypreschoolexperiencesrevealed:

Preschoolattendance,comparedtonone,enhanceschildrensallrounddevelopment,leadsto
bettercognitiveandnoncognitiveoutcomes;
Durationofattendance(inmonths)isimportant:anearlierstart(underthreeyears)isrelatedto
betterintellectualdevelopment;
Fulltimeattendanceleadstonobettergainsthanparttimeprovision;
Disadvantagedchildrenbenefitsignificantlyfromgoodqualitypreschoolexperiences,especially
wheretheyarewithamixofchildrenfromdifferentsocialbackgrounds;
Overall,disadvantagedchildrentendtoattendpreschoolforshorterperiodsoftimethanthose
frommoreadvantagedgroups(around46monthsless);
Therearesignificantdifferencesbetweenindividualpreschoolsandtheirimpactonchildren:some
settingsaremoreeffectivethanothersinpromotingpositivechildoutcomes;
Goodqualitycanbefoundacrossalltypesofpreschoolbutqualityishigheroverallinsettings
integratingcareandeducationandinnurseryschools.
(Sylvaetal2004)

Thenexttwosectionsexplorefurtherevidencefromthisimportantanddetailedstudy,andalso
otherresearch,whichidentifiesthosecharacteristicsofearlyeducationprogrammeswhichare
associatedwithenhancededucationaloutcomes,particularlyfordisadvantagedchildren.

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3. Whichearlychildhoodprogrammesareparticularlyeffectiveincountering
socioeconomicdisadvantage?


Overthelast10yearstheUKhasimplementedamenuofdifferentprogrammesandinitiatives
whichaimtocombatsocialinequalityandeducationalunderachievementthroughearly
intervention.TheAllenReport(2011,AppendixD,p138142)providesausefultableofsuch
initiatives,givingprogrammecharacteristics,targetedagerange,andmeasuredexamplesof
impact,outcomesandcosteffectivenessandthisisreproducedinAppendix1.Parentingsupport
andfamilyhealthinitiativesareincreasinglyofferedinconjunctionwithearlyeducation
programmesandviewedasatwogenerationalapproachinwhichprofessionalsworkwith
parentsandchildrentosupportchildrensearlydevelopmentandlearning.Earlyeducationis
offeredasakeyelementinthispackageofsupportasaneducationalinterventionspecificallyto
help34yearolds(andnowdisadvantaged2yearolds)togainskillsforschoolentry(school
readiness).Italsoisseentoprovideaplacewherechildrencanformwiderfriendships,learnto
getalongwithotherchildrenandregulatetheirbehavioursoastodevelopappropriatesocio
emotionalanddispositionalbehavioursthatwillfacilitatelaterlearning.

Examinationoftheevaluationevidenceoftheseprogrammesrevealsthattherearedifferent
modelsofcontentanddeliverymodeadoptedinsuccessfulprogrammes.Forexample,parenting
supportandmaternalhealthprogrammescanuseprofessionallytrainednursesandauniform
deliverymethodoruseparaprofessionalsandotherlaystafftodeliveramixofservicestailored
toaspecificcommunity.Earlyeducationcanbepublicorprivate,centreorschoolbased,
targetedoruniversalatdifferentages.Also,eachoftheprogrammescanbeimplementedas
standaloneorpartofamultifacetedprogramme.Variationsinmodelsinclude:

Focusondifferentchildand/oradultoutcomesegschoolreadinesscognitive,socioemotional,
behavioural,health,economicsuccess,childrearingskills,pregnancy,parenteducation,parenting
skills;
Differenttargetpersonegchild,family,parent;
Differenttargetingcriteriaegsingleparent,ethnicity,mothersage,lowincome,lowSES,highrisk
children,behaviouralproblems,substanceabuse,relationshiporsocialproblems,universal;
Differentageoffocalchildegprenatalto5,shorterorlongerspans;
Differentlocationofserviceseghome,centre,school,medicalsetting;
Differentservicesofferedegeducational,preschool,parentingeducation,familysupports,health
ornutrition,jobrelated,therapeutic;
Differentintensityofinterventionegstartingagetoendingage,hoursperweek,weeksperyear;
Differentialapproachtoindividualisedattentionegindividuals,smallorlargegroup;
Differentprogrammereachegnational,citywide,singlesetting.

Theresearchconsideredinthisreviewidentifiesanumberofpromisingprogrammesthathave
shownthepotentialtocountersocioeconomicdisadvantagebyimprovingmaternalandchild

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health,parentingandearlyeducationalattainment,orallofthese.Judgedbytheevidence,the
corecharacteristicsanddeliveryfeaturesprogrammesthathavesuccessfullyboostedthe
learninganddevelopmentofdisadvantagedchildrenaresetoutbelow,groupedintofourtypes
ofprogramme:

1. Programmesthatprovidesupporttoparentsduringpregnancyandearlychildhood;
2. Programmesthatcombineparentsupportandearlyeducationandcareforchildren02years;
3. Earlyeducationandcareprogrammesforchildren02years;
4. Earlyeducationprogrammesforchildren34years.

Apointofcautionshouldbeinsertedhere.Whilethevalueofevidencebasedprogrammesis
clearlypromotedinrecentreviews,suchastheAllenReview(2011)weshouldnotethatto
concentratesolelyonthoseprogrammeswhichmeetanarrowsetofsuccesscriteriawhichfocus
onasetofhardandprovenoutcomesmayexcludesomeveryvaluableprogrammeswith
broadernotionsofsocialjusticeandreducinginequalitywhichhavekeyresonanceinthisreview.
Wewouldrecommendthatalternativemethodsofevidencingvalueandimpactshouldbe
consideredaswellastheRandomisedControlTest,experimentalstyleevaluationapproachwhen
evaluatingawiderrangeofearlychildhoodprogrammes.Thefollowingprogrammeshavebeen
identifiedwithinoneormoreofthecorereviewdocumentsasofferingparticularcapacityand
impactonoutcomesfordisadvantagedchildren.


3.1Programmesthatprovidesupporttoparentsduringpregnancyand
earlychildhood

TheNurseFamilyPartnershipProgrammehasbeenshowntobesuccessfulinimproving
prenatalhealth,reducingdysfunctionalcareofchildreninearlylife,andimprovingfamily
functioningandeconomicselfsufficiency.Thisprogrammeprovidesnursehomevisitingtolow
income,firsttimemothers,deliveringaboutonevisitamonthduringpregnancyandthefirsttwo
yearsofachildslife.Ithasbeenshowntoimprovenutrition,reducematernalsmokingduring
pregnancy,reducepretermbirths,promoteheavierbirthweightandalsoreducechildabuseand
neglect.Ithasalsobeenshowntoimproveparentingbyincreasingresponsiveandsensitive
parentingandbythequalityofthechildsHomeLearningEnvironmentandparentsliteracy
activities;thesemeasureshaveledtosmallimprovementsinbehaviouralandcognitiveoutcomes
forchildren,withlargereffectsforatriskchildren.Italsoimprovesfamilyfunctioning,delaying
subsequentbirthsandincreasingmaternalemployment.Thesuccessofthisprogrammehasbeen
attributedtothefactthatithasdevelopedahighlymanualisedinterventionandthatituses
highlytrainednursestodeliverit.

TheIncredibleYearsProgrammeprovidesparenttrainingforfamilieswithseverely
behaviourallydisorderedchildren.Itusesvideoclipstoteachparentshowtomanagedifficult
behaviourandhasbeenfoundtoimproveparentsabilitytomanagetheirchildrensbehaviour
andtoleadtoimprovementsinchildrensconductdisorderandattention.

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TheTriplePPositiveParentingProgrammeisamanualisedprogramme,ledbytrained
professionalsandhasbeenshowntohelpparentsbettermanagechildrensbehaviour.

ThePlayandLearningStrategies(PALS)Programmeprovidesinhometrainingtoparentsof
infantsandtoddlersfocusedonimprovingparentsresponsivenessandsensitivity.TheInfant
Programmehaswelldefined,manualisedactivitiesofferedin10sessions;withtheToddler
Programmehaving12sessionsandparentswithbothagesusingvideoclipsasatrainingtool.The
evidenceshowsitimprovesparentsresponsivenessandsensitivityandtheirabilitytosupport
childrenslearninganddevelopment.Italsoshowsimpactonchildrensattention,useof
languageandvocabularyscores.

ThePEEP(PeersEarlyEducationPartnership)Programmeaimstofosterreadingreadinessby
providingparentswithageappropriatematerialsandsupportingtheminusingthematerials
eitherthroughgroupsessionsorhomevisits.Thisprogrammeiswellspecifiedanduseswell
trainedprofessionalsinitsimplementation.Resultsshowgainsinseveralmeasuresofcognitive
developmentbetweenage2and45years.Thisprogrammeisexperimentingwithadditional
modelsofdeliverytoreachparentswhomaynotparticipateinformalprogrammesegdropin
sessionsinshoppingcentre.

TheSpecialSupplementProgrammeforWomen,InfantsandChildrenisahealthandnutrition
focusedprogramme,basedinlocalitybasedcentres,whichprovidesnutritionaladviceandhelp
inpurchasinghealthyfoodstolowincomepregnantparentinUSwhichshowsreductionsinlow
birthweightandimprovedchildnutritionindisadvantagedfamilies.


3.2ProgrammesthatcombineparentsupportandECECforchildren02
years

SureStartProgramme,(includingChildrensCentres)combinesparentsupportwithearly
childcareandeducation.SureStartisacommunitybasedprogramme,supportedbyanetworkof
localitybasedChildrensCentres,whereanyoneresidinginthereachareaisabletoreceive
services.Thelocalcommunitieshaveincreasinglatitudeinwhatservicestheyoffer,althoughall
offersomecoreservicessuchasoutreachandhomevisiting,aswellassomechildcareandearly
education.Somelocalprogrammeshaveastronghealthfocus,othersareledbysocialservicesor
educationorthevoluntaryandcommunitysector.Increasingly,itisamixoftheseapproaches
whichisbeingemployed,withthesectorsworkingtogetherinlocalitypartnerships.Previous
evaluationshavenotshownconsistentevidenceofimpactbutmorerecentevaluationsindicate
thismultiprofessionalandmultiagencyprogrammeisassociatedwithimprovementsin
parentingandHomeLearningEnvironmentsandhaveshownsomeimprovementsinsome
aspectsofchildbehaviour,childdevelopmentandhealth(NationalEvaluationofSureStart,
2008)ThisprogrammeisnowpartofwiderChildrensCentreinitiativesineverylocalcommunity
andevaluativeevidenceoftheimpactofthiswiderangingandcomplexinitiativeiscurrently

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beingevaluated(ChildrensCentreEvaluation2012).Earlyindicationshaveshownthatthe
leadershipofthemultiagencypartnershipsrequiredforeffectivedeliveryoftherangeof
servicesiscritical.Keycharacteristicsofthisprogrammeareitsmultiagencyemphasis,the
localityandneedsledfocus,theuseofwellqualified,multiprofessionalstaffteamswith
qualifiedleadershipandtheadoptionofevidencebasedpractices.


3.3Earlyeducationandcareprogrammesforchildren02years

Aprogrammefortheexpansionofhighquality,parttime,earlyeducationtodisadvantaged2
yearoldsiscurrentlybeingrolledoutintheUK,toallowaccessfor40%ofthemost
disadvantagedchildren.Programmeswhichfocusprimarilyondeliveringearlyeducationand
caretoinfantsandtoddlershavereceivedlessattentionintheliterature,andarelesscommonly
found.However,theEPPEresearchshowedclearlyhighqualityearlyeducationfortoddlersis
particularlyeffectiveforraisingcognitiveachievementfordisadvantagedchildren.Akeyaspect
ofthisprogrammeisthatitisofferedinconjunctionwithparentingsupport,andalso
accompaniedbystrategiestoimprovetheaccesschildrenfromlowincomefamiliesand
measurestoimprovethequalityofearlyeducationexperiencesofferedintheprovidingsettings.
Thisprogrammewouldappeartobuildontheevidencebasewehavebutitsimpacton
counteringsocioeconomicdisadvantageisyettobeevaluated.Theprogrammeisbuildingon
existingprovisionintheprivate,voluntaryandmaintainedsector,usingprofessionallytrained
educatorsworkingwithtrainedfamilysupportstaff,andimplementingadefinedEYFS
curriculum,withafocusoncommunicationandlanguage;personalsocialandemotional
development;andphysicaldevelopment.Thisprogrammeisabouttobeevaluatedonbehalfof
theDfEandfurtherevidenceofitsimpactwillbeavailableinduecourse.

3.4Earlyeducationprogrammesforchildren34years

Theexpansionoffreeentitlementtoparttimeearlyeducationprogrammeswhichdeliverearly
educationtoallchildrenfrom35hasbeeninplaceintheUKsince2006.Thereisstrong
evidencefromUSHeadStartevaluationsandUKEPPEstudiestosupporttheexpansionofhigh
quality,parttimeearlyeducationprogrammeswhichhavebeenshowntoimproveschool
readiness,cognitivedevelopment,healthandbehaviourimprovements,andlongerterm
improvementstoschoolachievementandlifesuccess.Theevidenceonwhichthisprogrammeis
basedfavoursuniversalprovisionfor34yearolds.Thereisacompellingcasethathighquality
programmespromoteschoolreadinesswithlargereffectsfordisadvantagedchildren.IntheUK
thereisworkunderwaytoimprovequality,availabilityandaccesstoprovisionasqualityremains
veryvariableandlowincomechildrenstillappeartoaccessitless.Alsotheflexibilityoftheoffer
isbeingworkedontosupportparentsworkcommitments.Policyresponsesaresettinghigher
qualitystandards,expandingwraparoundcare,developingnewmodelsforparentswhowork
irregularhoursandincreasingchildcaresubsidiesforlowestincomefamiliestoallowthe
integrationofearlyeducationandchildcaremoreeffectively.Therearealsomovestoachievea

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tighterlinkbetweennurseryprovisionandprimaryschoolswherealignmentofcurriculaand
raisingthestandardsofteacherswouldreapbenefits.Also,itisarguedthatthismightfreeup
voluntaryandcommunityservicestofocusonyoungerchildren.Thisprogrammeisledby
professionallytrainededucators(teachersinmostcases),workingwithtrainedsupportstaff,and
implementingadefinedEYFScurriculum,withaprimefocusoncommunicationandlanguage;
personalsocialandemotionaldevelopment;andphysicaldevelopment.

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4. Whatparticularaspectsofearlyeducationarecriticalinimproving
educationaloutcomesforthedisadvantagedandhowdothesefactors
operatetocountersocioeconomicdisadvantage?

Ouranalysisofrecentresearchandevaluativeevidenceprovidesstrongandconvincingevidence
ofthequalitiesandfeaturesofsuccessfulearlyinterventionprogrammes,andinparticular,
effectiveearlyeducationprogrammes.Thisevidenceprovidesusefulguidanceforthefurther
developmentofearlyeducationprogrammestoenhancetheircapacitytoboostearly
achievementforlessadvantagedchildren.Wehavedividedthesefactorsintothree,interrelated
aspectsofearlyyearspolicyandprovisionwhichdemandcontinuedattention:

Systemicfactors:factorswhichareshapedbythewidersysteminwhichearlyeducationis
placed;
Structuralfactors:factorswhichshapethenature,scopeandcapacityofearlyeducation
programmes;
Processfactors:factorswhichdeterminehowearlyeducationisexperiencedbythoseinvolved.

Foreachfactorweprovideaclearrationaledrawnfromtheevidencetosupportfurtheractionto
enhancethequalityofearlyyearsprovisionandpracticeinallsettingssothatthecurrent
investmentinearlyeducationprogrammesmighthavegreaterimpactincounteringsocialand
educationalinequality.Eachsetoffactorsgeneratesasetofrecommendationswhichcollectively
provideanagendaforfurtherreflectionandaction.

4.1 SystemicFactors
Differentialfundingandinvestment:Theevidencewehavereviewedinthecoredocuments
supportsthethrustofadvicegivenintheMarmotReviewFairSocieties,HealthLives(2010),
callingforasecondrevolutionintheearlyyearstoincreasetheproportionofoverall
expenditureallocated,startinginpregnancy.Whathappensduringtheseearlyyears(startingin
thewomb)haslifelongeffectsonmanyaspectsofhealthandwellbeingfromobesity,heart
diseaseandmentalhealth,toeducationalachievementandeconomicstatus....Later
interventions,althoughimportant,areconsiderablylesseffectivewheregoodearlyfoundations
arelacking(Marmot2010p.16)

Thecostbenefitanalysisofinvestmentinhighqualityearlyyearsprogrammes(Heckmanetal
2006)demonstratesthatthehighestperchildbenefitsstemfromprogrammesthatfocuson
economicallydisadvantagedchildren.Indeed,studieshaveshownthatthesechildrenmake
significantgainsincognition,socialemotionaldevelopment,andeducationalperformancewhen
theyparticipateinhighqualityearlyeducationprogrammesrelativetochildrenwhodon't
participate.Theeconomicbenefitsofthesegainsincludeincreasedearningsoftheparticipants

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andpublicsavingsduetoreducedcrimeandreducedneedforrehabilitationandtreatment.
AccordingtoHeckmanetal(2006),Costbenefitanalysisalsoshowsthatthesebenefitsare
higherthanthosefrompublicinvestmentslikesportsstadiumsorofficetowers.

AstudybyLynch(2007)documentsthereturnsoninvestmentmadebyhighqualitypre
kindergartenprogrammesforthreeandfouryearoldsandprovidesanindicationofthecost
benefitsavingsthatinvestmentintargetedanduniversalearlyeducationprogrammescan
achieve.Thesefindingsarebaseduponanextensivereviewoftheeconomicliterature,anddata
extrapolatedfromvariouspastinvestmentsinEarlyYearsprogrammesintheUSsuchasthe
HeadStartprogram,thePerryPreschoolProjectandtheChicagoChildParentCentersprogram.
Lyncharguesthatreallocationfromlatertoearlyyearsinvestmentwillimprovetheacademic
performanceandqualityoflifeofmillionsofournationschildren,reducecrime,makethe
workforceofthefuturemoreproductive,andstrengthenournationseconomy.He
demonstratesthataUSnationwideinvestmentinuniversalhighqualityearlychildhood
educationwouldcostroughly$50billionannually,(approximatelyonethirdof1%ofUSGDP)but
thatbenefitswouldbefarreachingandwouldincludeincreasedlifetimeearnings,reducedsocial
costsfromcrime,andincreasedtaxrevenue.Inall,Lynchestimatesthattheannualbenefitsto
costratioin2050ofuniversalearlyyearsserviceswouldberoughly8to1.Forinvestment
targetedonthemostdisadvantagedchildrenthisrateofreturnincreasestomorethan12to1
(SeeFigure5).

FIGURE5:Economicbenefitsfrominvestmentinhighqualityprekindergartenforthreetofour
yearolds

Savingsto
Number
individuals Ratioof
ofyears Government Totalbudget,
from total
before budget Increased compensation,
reduced annual
program benefitsin compensation andcrime
crimeand benefits
Program annual 2050 in2050 benefitsin
childabuse to
benefits (billionsof (billionsof 2050(billions
in2050 program
exceed 2006 2006dollars) of2006
(billionsof costsin
annual dollars) dollars)
2006 2050
costs
dollars)

Targeted* 6 $83 $156 $77 $315 12.1

Universal 9 191 432 156 779 8.2

*Targetedtolowerincomefamilies

ReproducedfromLynch(2007,Table1)

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

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Multifacetedandintergenerationalaction:Itisclearfromtheevidencethatbreakingcyclesof
disadvantagerequiressystemicactionwhichbringstogetherarangeofhealth,education,
economicandsocialstrategieswhichtogetherworktocreateanearlyinterventionapproachat
everystageinthelifecycle.Thismeansearlyeducationsitswithinawiderprogrammeofearly
interventionwhichisactivefrombirthtoadulthood,withafocusonchildren,parentsandthe
widerfamilyandcommunity.Themosteffectiveearlyinterventionschemesoftenimprovemore
thanonesetoffactors,withsomeofthemosteffectiveearlyeducationprogrammesworkingin
conjunctionwithparentingprogrammes,childhealthandmaternalhealthprogrammes.

ContinuityinPrimarySchool:Theevidenceindicatesthatwhileearlyyearsschemesshow
promiseinnarrowingearlyachievementgaps,thesegainswillbelostunlesstheinterventions
continueduringtheschoolingyears.Thecorechallengeforschoolsduringthestillformative
yearsforchildrenfrom5to11years,istocontinuethefocusedattentiononraisingattainment
tothehighestlevelsamongallchildrenfrompoorandprosperousbackgroundsalike.Evidence
presentedattheHouseofCommonsSelectCommitteeintoSureStartChildrensCentres(2010)
showedthatthebestandmostsustainedimpactincounteringtheeffectsofdisadvantage
occurredwherethedevelopmentofcommunity,broadbasedorfullserviceprimaryschools
werecombinedinonebuildingandunderonemanagementteam.Onthisbasistheselect
committeesupportedtheextensionofcontinuinginterventionstrategiesfordisadvantaged
childrenthroughoutthebirthto19agephasesandrecommendedthatthisfindingshouldbe
followedthrough.

RegulationandAccountability:Thereisemergingevidencethatreformtobringinbetter
regulationandaccountabilityintheearlyyearssectorcanfosterchangesinbehaviourand
improveoutcomesfordisadvantagedchildren(althoughwemustnotethatitcanalsoleadto
unintendedconsequencesegcuttingcorners,focusingoncertainstudents,inflatingtestscores,
narrowingthecurriculum).Thedevelopmentofenhancedstatutorystandards,acomprehensive
regulatoryframeworkandmoreefficientsystemstomanagedata,measurequalityandevidence
theimpactofpracticeisassociatedwithbetterquality,moreeffectivetargeting,theefficient
deploymentofresourcesatalllevelsandimprovedoutcomesforthelessadvantaged.

WorkforceLabourMarkets:Thereissomeevidencethatmanipulatingtheworkforcemixofstaff
workingwithdisadvantagedchildren,togivethemaccesstomoreeffectiveandhighlytrained
practitioners,canleadtoimprovededucationaloutcomes.Payforperformance,incentivesto
teachthedisadvantagedandclosermonitoringofpoorperformancearefactorswhich,according
toevidencepresentedattherecentSocialMobilitySummit(Coraketal2012),canenhancethe
qualityofearlyeducationavailableinsomeofourmostdisadvantagedcommunities.

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4.2StructuralFactors
Staff:childratios:Thereissomeevidencethatafavourableadult:childratioinearlyeducation
programmes,particularlythoseworkingwithlessadvantagedchildren,ishelpfulinensuringthe
qualityofinteractionsbetweeneducatorsandchildren(Howes,PhilipsandWhitebrook1992).
Favourableratiosareseentohelptocreateaclimateofemotionalsecurity,allowpractitionersto
beresponsivetotheneedsofchildrenandabletosupportthemwhentheyhaveneedsorarein
distress.Thereisyettobedefinitiveresearchwhichindicatesoptimaladult:childratiosat
differentages,asworksofarhasbeenunabletodisentangletheeffectsofstaffqualification,
groupsizeandratios.Whiletheavailableliteratureontheeffectsofadult:childratioscannot
offeranexactbestratiothereisageneralconsensuswiththeUNICEFreport(Bennett2008)
thatanacceptablemodelforECECclassesforfourandfiveyearoldswouldbeagroupof2224
childrenwithtwoadults,assumingthatbothhavequalificationsrelatedtoworkingwithyoung
childreninanECECsetting.Itshouldbenotedthatallthereportsconsideredinthisreview
continuetoadvocatethattosupportapedagogywithmoreintensiveeducativedialogueswhich
arebeneficialtounderachievingchildren,requiressmallergroupsizeswithmorefavourablestaff:
childratios.

ClassSize:Thereareclearindicationsthatsmallerclasssizesaredirectlylinkedtooverall
effectivenessofpreschoolprovision;areductioninclasssizeenablesteachers/practitionersto
spendmoretimewithindividualchildren;tailorinstructiontomatchchildrensneedsand
monitorclassroombehaviourmoreeasily.BarnetetalstatedintheirNIEERreportthatinsum,
preschoolresearchstronglyindicatesthatsmallerclasssizesareassociatedwithgreater
educationaleffectivenessandotherbenefitsandthatevenwithinstudiesthatfocusonlyonpre
schoolchildren,theeffectsofclasssizehavebeenfoundtobelargerforyoungerchildren
(Barnettatal2004).Howeverotherstudieshaveshownthatconsistencyofteacherqualityis
alsoanimportantfactor:InCaliforniawherethegovernmentintroducedsmallerclasssizesbut
struggledtofindspaceorqualifiedteacherstosustainthequalityofteacherinput,thesame
resultswerenotfound.Teacherqualityandphysicalresourcesarekeytothesuccessofthis
strategyincombatingdisadvantage.

AcrossEuropethereisconsiderablevariationingroupsizeregulation,rangingfrom10to20
childrenforunderthreesandfrom2026orevenhigherforthe3to6yearoldagegroup
(Oberhuemeretal2010).Barnettetal(2004)quotedtwoseparatestudieswithdiffering
conclusions;onereportedthatonlythoseprogramswithsmalleffectiveclasssizes(15orfewer)
producedverylargeeducationalbenefits.Thesecondsuggestedthatthemajorbenefitscouldbe
seenwithgroupsbelow20pupils.Theselevelsofvariationmakeitdifficulttoarriveatanideal
classsizeformaximumeffectiveness.

Stafftrainingandqualification:Thereisstrongevidencethatawelltrainedearlyyears
workforce,withhighlevelsofqualificationandaccesstoongoingprofessionaldevelopment,is
vitaltoclosetheachievementgapbetweenchildrenfrompoorerhomesandtheirpeers.Thereis
aconsensusthatworkinginearlyyearsshouldnotbeseenasalesswellpaid,lowerstatusand
lessskilledjobthanworkingwitholderchildren.ResearchfromtheUK,theUS,Canadaand

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

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Australiashowsthatwelltargetedinvestmentintrainingthosewhoworkwithdisadvantaged
youngchildrenisacrucialstrategyincounteringeducationalunderachievement.Theeducation
oftheworkforcemattersbecausepractitionerscandoalottoimprovevocabulary,andenhance
thecognitiveandsocialskillsofyoungchildren,particularlywhentheyarenotgainingtheseskills
athome.TheEPPEstudymakesapowerfulcasethatteachersshouldbeinvolvedaspartofawell
qualifiedteamofprofessionalsworkingwithyoungchildren,andparticularlythosewhocome
fromlessadvantagedhomes.Theevidenceindicatesthatqualifiedstaffprovidechildrenwith
morecurriculumrelatedactivities(especiallyinlanguageandmathematics)andencourage
childrentoengageinchallengingplay.Lessqualifiedstaffhavealsobeenshowntobebetterat
supportinglearningwhentheyworkwithqualifiedteachers.Thepresenceofwelleducated,
professionalstaffwhouseextendedvocabularyandreplicatewhatwelleducatedmotherscando
hasbeenshowntobecruciallyimportantinimprovingschoolreadiness.Montieetal.(2006)
suggestthatteacherswithmoreeducationusemorewordsandmorecomplexlanguagewhen
communicatingwithchildren.TheEPPEstudyconsistentlyfoundpositiveassociationswithlevels
ofteachereducationandhigherlevelsofteachereducationwereassociatedwithchildrens
readingandlanguageprogressinthefirsttwoyearsofschooling.Theseincludedthefindingsof
Montieetal(2006)fromtheIEAPreprimaryProjectin10countriesthatasthelevelofteacher
educationincreased,thelanguageperformanceof7yearoldsimproved.IntherecentEIUreport
StartingWellwhichcomparedpreschoolprovisionacross42countries,UKwasrankedthirdin
thecategoryQualityforwhich2ofthe8criteriawereaveragepreschoolteacherwagesand
preschoolteachertraining.OnlyFinlandandSwedenfaredbetter,withFinlandbeingheldasan
exampleofgoodpracticeintermsofearlychildhoodteacherqualityandtrainingAcasestudyin
thereportheadedLessonsfromFinlandspreschoolpointsoutthatthroughsystematic
developmentofpreschoolteachingasaprofessionalcareer,earlychildhoodeducatorsare
accordedthesamerespectasotherprofessionals,suchaslawyers,withcomparableworking
conditions(EIU2012P13)

Researchoverthelast8yearshasconsistentlystronglyidentifiedstrongleadershipasakey
elementofeffectiveearlychildhoodprovision(Muijsetal,2004;Rodd,2005).Blatchfordand
Manniclaim

thereisnodoubtthateffectiveleadershipandappropriatetrainingfortheleadershiproleis
anincreasinglyimportantelementinprovidinghighqualityprovisionfortheearlyyears,
especiallyaswemovetolargerandsometimesmorecomplex,multiprofessionalteamsof
staffacrosstheearlyyearssector(2006P27)

AmorerecentstudybyDavis(2011)providesaninsightintotheimpactthatformalinstruction
hasuponleadershippractices.

Enhancedpractitionerskillbase:Theevidenceindicatesthattheknowledgeandskillbaseofan
earlyyearspractitioneriscentraltotheireffectivenessasaneducator.TheEPPEstudyshowed
thatthepractitionersknowledgeoftheparticularcurriculumareathatisbeingaddressedisvital
andarguesthatcurriculumknowledgeisjustasimportantintheearlyyearsasitisatanylater
stageofeducation.Inaddition,aneffectiveeducatoralsoneedstohaveknowledgeabouthow

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

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youngchildrenlearn.Thisresearchrevealedthatknowledgeofchilddevelopmentunderpins
soundpracticebutitoftenweakamongearlyyearsstaff.

Earlyyearspedagogy:Theevidenceindicatesthatcertainpedagogicalpracticesaremore
effectivethanothersinimprovingattainmentforlessadvantagedchildren.Therehasbeenalong
debateabouttheextenttowhichpreschooleducationshouldbeformalorinformal,often
summarisedbytheextenttowhichthecurriculumisplaybased.TheEPPEstudyconcludesthat
inmosteffectivecentresplayenvironmentswereusedtoprovidethebasisofinstructive
learning.However,themosteffectivepedagogycombinesbothteachingandprovidingfreely
chosenyetpotentiallyinstructiveplayactivities.Effectivepedagogyforyoungchildrenisless
formalthanforprimaryschoolbutitscurricularaimscanbeacademicaswellassocialand
emotional(Sylvaetal2004).

Curriculumcoverage:Recentresearchhasindicatedthattherearesomeareasoflearningand
developmentthatareparticularlyvitaltofocusoninthefoundationyearsoflife.(Pascaland
Bertram2008;TickellReview,2011)However,asHeckman(2011)emphasises,anyearly
educationprogrammeseekingtoreducesocialinequalitiesbetweenchildrenmustfocusonthe
crucialroleofskillformation,butthisrequiresmorethanbasicintellectualskills.Hestatesthat
justasimportantarelifeskillssuchasconscientiousness,perseverance,motivation,sociability,
attention,selfregulationandangermanagement,selfesteem,andtheabilitytodefer
gratification.Healsonotesthatthecriticalperiodforsuchskillsformationisinthepreschool
years.Recentresearchfromneuroscience(Diamond,2010)affirmsthisapproachtotheearly
yearscurriculumandhasidentifiedarangeofexecutivefunctionswhichareneededforachild
tomakeprogress.Threeofthesecorefunctionsappeartobeparticularlyassociatedwithlong
termattainmentandarevitalforchildrentodevelopifthegapinachievementistobenarrowed:

1. CognitiveFlexibilityi.e.switchingperspectives;
2. InhibitoryControl:abilitytostayfocuseddespitedistraction,haveselectivefocusedattention,
stayontask;
3. WorkingMemory:holdinginformationinmindandmentallyworkingwithit,makingsenseof
whatunfoldsovertime,relatingevents,ideas,learningfrombeforetonow,reasoning,causeand
effect,rememberingmultipleinstructionsinsequenceandfollowingstepbystepincorrect
order.

TheevidenceindicatesthattheseaspectsofdevelopmentaremoreimportantthanIQ,entry
levelreading,ormaths(BlairandRazza,2007;BlairandDiamond2008).Thereforetosupporta
childtobeschoolreadyandabletooperateasaneffectivelearner,theearlyyearscurriculum
needstofocusonbothcognitiveandnoncognitiveaspectsofearlylearningand,importantly,
givethechildasenseoftheirowncapacitytobeasuccessfullearner.Thisapproachissupported
byMoffitetal(2010p.2)whostatethatevensmallimprovements.shifttheentiredistribution
ofoutcomes.

ParentingProgrammes:Theevidenceshowsthatearlyeducationprogrammesthatencouraged
highlevelsofactiveparentengagementintheirchildrenslearning,(throughregulardialogue

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aboutchildrenslearningathomeandinthesetting),weremoresuccessfulinclosingthe
attainmentgapforsociallydisadvantagedchildren.Themosteffectivesettingssharedchild
relatedinformationbetweenchildrenandstaff,andmoreparticularly,childrendidbetterwhere
thecentreshareditseducationalaimswithparents.Thisenabledparentstosupportchildrenat
homewithactivitiesormaterialsthatcomplementedthoseexperiencesintheFoundationStage.
EACEAstatesthatthewinningformulaconsistsincombiningcareandeducationoftheyoung
childinaformalsettingwithsupportforparents.Researchstillneedstoidentifytheprecise
natureandcharacteristicsoftheparentalsupportwhichshouldbeprovidedinEuropean
countries.(2009p142)

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4.3Processfactors
Thequalityofinteractions:Thequalityofinteractionsbetweenadultsandchildrenhasbeen
showntobeavitalelementintheeffectivenessofanearlyeducationprogramme,and
responsive,sensitive,nurturingrelationshipsaremoreeffectiveinsupportinganopenattitude,
learningandexploration.TheEPPEstudyidentifiedeffectivepedagogicinteractionsandrevealed
thatmoresustainedsharedthinkingwasobservedinsettingswherechildrenmadethemost
progress.Thisoccurswhentwoormoreindividualsworktogetherinanintellectualwaytosolve
aproblem,clarifyaconcept,evaluateanactivity,extendanarrativeetc.Bothchildandadult
mustcontributetothethinkinganditmustdevelopandextendtheunderstanding.Itwasmore
likelytooccurwhenchildrenwereinteracting1:1withanadultorwithasinglepeerpartnerand
duringfocussedgroupwork.Inadditiontosustainedsharedthinking,staffengagedinopen
endedquestioninginthesettingswherechildrenmadethemostprogressandprovided
formativefeedbacktochildrenduringtheactivities.Adultmodellingskillsorappropriate
behaviourwasoftencombinedwithsustainedperiodsofsharedthinking:openended
questioningandmodellingwerealsoassociatedwithbettercognitiveachievement.

Initiationofactivities:Theopportunityforchildrentoselfmanage,totakeinitiativeandself
directtheirlearninghasbeenshowntobeavitalfactorineffectiveearlyeducationprogrammes.
IntheEPPEstudy,thebalancebetweenstafforchildinitiatedactivitieswasequalinthemost
effectivesettings.Similarly,ineffectivesettingstheextenttowhichstaffmembersextended
childinitiatedinteractionswasimportant.Thestudyfoundthatalmosthalfthechildinitiated
episodesthatcontainedintellectualchallengeincludedinterventionsfromastaffmemberto
extendthechildsthinking.Freelychosenplayactivitiesoftenprovidedthebestopportunitiesfor
adultstoextendthechildsthinking.Itmaybethatextendingthechildinitiatedplay,coupled
withtheprovisionofteacherinitiatedgroupwork,arethemosteffectivevehiclesforlearning.
Childrenscognitiveoutcomesappeartobedirectlyrelatedtothequantityandqualityofthe
teacher/adultplannedandinitiatedfocusedgroupwork.(Sylvaetal2004)

Behaviourexpectationsanddiscipline:Researchhasshownthatthewayinwhichbehaviouris
managedanddisciplineexpectationsareenforcediskeytoeffectivelearningsupport.Themost
effectivesettingsintheEPPEstudyadopteddiscipline/behaviourpoliciesinwhichstaff
supportedchildreninrationalisingandtalkingthroughtheirconflicts.Insettingsthatwereless
effectiveinthisrespect,EPPEshowedthattherewasoftennofollowuponchildrens
misbehaviourand,onmanyoccasions,childrenweresimplydistractedortoldtostopwhatthey
weredoing.

Diversity:TheevidencefromtheEPPEstudyshowsthattraininganddevelopingprovisionfor
diversityandmonitoringprovisionfordiversityleadstobetteroutcomesforlessadvantaged.
Researchshowedthatqualitypracticesrelatedtodiversitywereassociatedwithasmanyas5of
the9cognitiveandbehaviouralattainmentoutcomes,morethananyotheronefactor,including
literacy.Lowattainmentisassociatedwithdiversityinethnicbackground,language,gender,
specialneedsandSESatalllevelsofeducation.EPPEfoundthatmostearlychildhoodsettings

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

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providearelativelylowqualitylearningenvironmentforchildrenintermsofdiversity.The
qualityofdiversitywashigherincombinedcentresandnurseryschools.Yet,strongpatternsof
associationwerefoundbetweenscoresfordiversityandchildrensattainmentinearlynumber
andnonverbalreasoningandpositivelylinkedtoscoresonprereading.Diversityqualitywasa
verystrongpredictivefactorintermsofchildrenscognitiveoutcomes.Itwasalsoassociated
withsocialandbehaviouraloutcomessuchasindependence,cooperationandconformity.The
diversityratingincludedfactorssuchasplanningforindividuallearningneeds,genderequityand
awarenessandraceequalitywithinthesettings(Sylvaetal2008).

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5. Howmightearlyeducationprogrammesbetteradoptthesesuccessful
strategies?Recommendationsforactionandfurtherinnovation

Weseemtoknowasmuchinprincipleabouthowparentalinvolvementanditsimpacton
pupilachievementasNewtonknewaboutthephysicsofmotionintheseventeenthcentury.
Whatweseemtolackistheengineeringsciencethathelpsustoputourknowledgeinto
practice.By1650Newtonknewintheoryhowtoputamissileonthemoon.Ittookmore
than300yearstolearnhowtodothisinpractice.ThescientistswhodidthisusedNewtons
physicswithmodernengineeringknowledge.Wemustnotwaitthreehundredyearsto
promotestellaradvancesinpupilsachievement.Weneedurgentlytolearnhowtoapplythe
knowledgewealreadyhaveinthefield.

(DesforgesandAbouchaar,2003,citedinField2011)

Thisquoteaptlycapturesthechallengesinensuringthegrowingevidencebasewehaveabout
theearlycausesofeducationalunderachievementandhowearlyeducationmightbeusedmore
effectivelytocountersocialeconomicdisadvantage.Thelast10yearshaveseenthecreationofa
significantinternationalandnationalknowledgebaseaboutthefactorsthatareassociatedwith
earlydisadvantageandhowearlyeducationprogrammesmightworkmoreeffectively,both
systemicallyandstructurally,topromotebetterqualityearlylearningprocessestoclosegapsin
achievement,especiallyforthesociallydisadvantaged.AccordingtoEACEA,

lowintensive,lowdose,latestarting,monosystemicapproachesarelesseffectiveoverall.A
didacticoracademicapproachinanegativesocioemotionalclimatemaydomoreharm
thangood.Earlystarting,intensive,multisystemicapproachesthatincludecentrebased
educationandtheinvolvementoftrainedprofessionalsasacoreactivityaresuperior,with
impressivelongtermresultsandveryfavourablecostbenefitratios.Itisnowclearthat
investinginaccessible,highquality,earlystartingandintensivecareandeducation
provisionsforyoungchildrenissociallyandeconomicallyveryprofitable.(2009,p38)

Theproblemisthatmanytargetedearlyeducationprogrammesdonotmeetthecriteriaof
qualityandefficiencyandmanyprogrammesareoftentemporaryprojectsandvulnerableto
economictrends.Theycanalsoreinforcesocialandethnicsegregationinthesystemwhich
transferstoprimaryschoolswhereweseeaconcentrationofchildrenwithdisadvantagesin
particularschools.Theevidenceisthatmixedincomepopulationsaremoreeffective(Schechter
&Bye,2007).AsAncheta(2012)succinctlyexplains

Thepolicychallengeistorebuildthecurrentsystemssothattheymeetthecrucialdesign
features,thatprovidehighearlyqualityeducationandcareforallchildren,thatare
integrated,attractiveandaffordabletoallfamiliesregardlessofsocialclassorminority
status,yetthataresensitivetodifferingeducationalneeds,workinginachildandfamily
centredwayandabletocompensateforearlyeducationaldisadvantages.

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Wehavesetoutbelowthreeareasofearlyeducationpolicyandpracticewhichtheevidence
showswouldbenefitfromfurtherdevelopment,listingfruitfulactionsineacharea.

5.1SystemDevelopments
Continuedandincreasinginvestmentinearlychildhoodprogrammes,particularlythoseaimingto
enhanceparentingskillsandprovidechildrenwithearlyaccesstohighqualityearlyeducation;

Maintenanceofpoliciesbeyondtheshorttermtotrackimpactandinsistonrigorousevaluation
ofoutcomes;

Earlyeducationprogrammesworkinginconjunctionwithwiderearlyinterventionprogrammes,
especiallythoseconcernedwithsupportingparentingskillsandmaternalandchildhealth
enhancement;

Thedevelopmentofenhancedserviceprimaryschools,whichworkcloselywithChildrens
Centresandotherearlyyearsservicesonalocalitybasistoensurecontinuityofsupportforthe
lessadvantaged;

Rigorousimplementationandmonitoringofthenewstatutoryframeworkforearlyyears
providers,includinggreateraccountabilityandsupporttoimproveperformance,particularlyin
narrowingtheachievementgapforlessadvantagedchildren;

Tighterspecificationsaroundthenatureandqualityofearlyyearsprovision;

Explorationofstrategiestoattract,recruitandpositivelyrewardhighcalibre,wellqualified
professionalstoworkindisadvantagedcommunities;

Improvementoftrainingfortheearlyyearsworkforce,includingupskillingcurrentemployees.

5.2StructuralDevelopments
Favourablestaff:childratiosshouldbeencouraged,especiallyinearlyeducationprogrammes
whichworkwithdisadvantagedchildren;

Reductionsinclass/groupsizeshouldbeencouraged,especiallyinearlyeducationprogrammes
whichworkwithdisadvantagedchildren;

Developmentofwelltrainedandqualifiedstaffteams,includingtrainedteachers,toworkin
earlyeducationprogrammes,offeringthemaccesstoongoingstaffdevelopmentopportunities;

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio

Economic Disadvantage

Developmentofcurriculumknowledgeamongststaffaswellasknowledgeandunderstandingof
childdevelopment;

Improvementofthechilddevelopmentcontentofbothinitialandcontinuingprofessional
development;

Anactive,playbasedpedagogywhichencompassesablendofformalandinformalteachingand
learningexperiencesshouldbeencouraged;

Afocusintheearlyyearscurriculumonbothcognitiveandnoncognitiveaspectsofearly
learningand,importantly,givethechildasenseoftheirowncapacitytobeasuccessfullearner;

Prioritisationandmeasurementofexecutivefunctioning(PSED)andlanguagedevelopmentin
earlyeducationprovision;

Encouragementofparentstosupportandengagemoreactivelyintheirchildrenslearning.

5.3ProcessDevelopments
Adoptionofmoresensitive,responsiveandnurturingstaff:childrelationships;

Encouragementofsustainedsharedthinkingwiththechildrenwhichencouragesdialogue,
negotiationofmeaningsandcoconstructionofunderstandings;

Worktowardsanequalbalanceofchildandadultinitiatedactivityandencouragethe
developmentofselfmanagement,selfregulationandcriticalthinking;

Developmentofbettertrainingondiversityinallearlychildhoodsettings;

Encouragementofbehaviourpoliciesinwhichstaffsupportchildrensbehaviourmanagement
throughreasoningandtalk.

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 The Impact of Early Education as a Strategy in Countering Socio
Economic Disadvantage

6. Whataspectsofearlyeducationrequiremoresupportingevidence?
Researchinearlychildhoodhasdevelopedsignificantlyoverthelast10years,withsomemajor,
longitudinalevaluationsofyoungchildrensprogressthroughtheFoundationYearsrevealingthe
impactofdifferentialexperiencesonlearninganddevelopmentoutcomes.Thisresearchisalso
beingfedbyarapiddevelopmentinpractitionerresearch,thedocumentationofpracticeandthe
evidencingofoutcomeswithintheearlyyearssector.Knowledgecreationandknowledge
transferintheearlyyearsisgainingmaturitybutstillhassomewaytogo.

Researchintofeaturesofeffectiveearlyeducationprogrammeshasidentifiedtwokey
characteristics:

Systemicandstructuralcharacteristicsegstaffeducation,staff:childratios;
Processcharacteristicsegnatureofcaregiverinteraction,warmth,responsiveness,programme
coverageanddelivery.

Progressisevidentbuttherearekeyaspectsofearlyeducationpolicyandpracticewhichneed
moredetailedevidencewhichdrawsonqualitativeaswellasexperimentalandquasi
experimentalapproaches.Areaswhichrequirefurtherevidenceareespeciallyneededinthe
processareasofprogrammedeliveryandthefollowingissuesneedtobeexplored:

Howtoimproveaccessforlessadvantaged;
HowtheHomeLearningEnvironmentshapesandinfluencesearlydevelopmentandlearningand
whatwecanlearnfromhigherachievingbutdisadvantagedchildren,especiallyboys;
Howstaff:childratios,staffqualificationsandoutcomesforchildrenarelinked;
Howdifferentstaffqualificationsimpactonqualityofteachingandlearning;
Howrobustoutcomesdataatasystemlevelcanbecapturedearlier;
Howleadershipworksacrossalocalitydeliveryreach;
Howearlyinterventionpartnershipsoperate;
HowtherevisedEYFShasimpactedonaccessandinclusion.

Thereisalsoaneedtoprovideandutilise:
Evaluationswhichshowwhichearlyeducationprogrammesaremoreeffectivethanothersand
whatfactorsarecriticalineffectiveprogrammes(wouldneedalternativeresearchapproachesto
RandomisedControlTrials(RCTs)whichareexpensiveanddifficulttodoformanyvery
worthwhileprogrammes,includingobservationalstudies);
Costbenefitanalysisofvariousinitiatives.

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Appendix1AllenReport(AppendixD)

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Economic Disadvantage

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Economic Disadvantage

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