1.

0 OBJECTIVES
To measure the time constant of RC and RL circuits.
To relate the nature of the physical response of a series RLC circuit to the
parameter values and wd determined by component values.

2.0 EQUIPMENT
NI ELVIS II prototyping bread board
Desktop with NI Multisim software installed

3.0 PROCEDURE
SESSION A RL and RC circuits.
Part 1: A circuit was set up as shown in fig 6.1 .And the function generator
was set to give a square wave output with its magnitude being equal to
500mv.The source voltage and voltage across the capacitor were both measured
using the digital oscilloscope. The time taken for the voltage to reach 0.632 times
its value was measured using the oscilloscopes cursor function. These steps were
repeated using C = 0.047 F and C = 0.1 F.

Figure 6.1 - RC circuit.

PART 2: The capacitor and resistors positions were swapped. The measurements in
Part 1 were repeated using C = 0.01F, 0.047F, and 0.1F while observing the
voltage across the resistor. The time when the voltage reaches 0.368 times its initial
value (the voltage decays here) was found.
PART 3: A RL circuit was set up as shown in figure 6.2. The function generator was
set up as in Part 1. The resistors potential difference and the source voltage were
both measured using digital oscilloscope. The cursor function of the oscilloscope was
used to measure the time taken for the voltage to reach 0.632 times its value. These
steps were repeated using L = 400m, 600m, and 800mH.

Figure 6.2 - RL circuit

PART4 .The resistors and the inductors positions in were swapped and the
measurements in Part 3 were repeated using L = 200m, 400m, 600mH, and
800m while observing the voltage across the inductor. The time when the
voltage reaches 0.368 times its initial value (the voltage decays here) was found.
 SESSION B: RLC SERIES CIRCUITS
PART1: Values of s1,s2 ,wd and T for the circuit shown in fig 7.1were calculated
before the lab and recorded in the notebook.

Figure 7.1 Series RLC circuit

PART 2: in fig 7.1 RT is the total resistance of the circuit.in practice, part of
the resistance was due to the internal resistance of the function generator and part
was supplied by the resistance substitution box

The circuit was set up as shown in fig 7.2 the function generator was set to
output a square wave with amplitude = 2vpp,dc offset=ov,and a frequence in the
range of 10Hz

Figure 7.2 Series RLC circuit to measure voltage on inductor

 CH 0 the oscilloscope was connected to display the voltage across the
inductor.
To get a stable image of the circuit oscillation, a lead from the FGEN output
was connected to CH1 of the oscilloscope
The period of the square wave adjusted .so that the damped sinusoidal
waveform decreased to a negligible value.
The picture of the transient sinusoidal waveform was taken.

PART 3. The time scale of the oscilloscope was expanded to show 3 to 6 peaks of
the damped sinusoidal oscillation. Using the CURSORS function of the oscilloscope,
the period of the damped sinusoidal waveform was measured and Compare this
value to T obtained in Part 1.

PART 4.The peak height of the first full peak of the damped sinusoidal wav form and
the peak height at the next peak were measured and the time difference between
these two peaks were recorded.

The Neper frequency (damping coefficient), , was determined using your

measurements and the equation Vpeak2=Vpeak1.e- t
The measured value was then compared to the value calculated in part 1

PART 5 . The function generators internal resistance was Calculated using RFGEN
= Rtot RS

Part 6.The position of the inductor and the capacitor swapped, as shown
fig7.3
 CH0 of the oscilloscope was connected to measure the voltage across the
capacitor as before. In your laboratory notebook, a picture of the
waveform of the voltage across the capacitor was taken and stored.

Critical damping
For the values of L and C used in this circuit, the value of total series
resistance Rtot that gave critical damping was calculated and the
resistance RS was changed so that Rtot equalled the value. The voltage
drop across the capacitor was again observed the and a picture of the
resulting waveform taken.

Overdamped
RS was changed so that Rtot was 10 times the value calculated for critical
damping. Again the capacitor voltage response was observed and
recorded.

4.0 DATA COLLECTED

SESSION A

Time constant (capacitor) Time constant (inductor)

Capacitor rating Constant Inductor rating Constant
0.01F 100s 200mH 100s
0.047F 470s 400mH 200s
0.1F 1000s 600mH 300s
800mH 400s

Part 1

Source Voltage = 1.894V

Voltage across capacitor = 1.672V

The waveform produced was as shown below;

 Capacitor (C) Frequency Used (Hz) Final Voltage (V) Time Taken (s)
0.368 0.632 0.368 0.632
0.01F 500Hz 0.740V 1.264V 106.1s 53.0s
0.047F 150Hz 0.739V 1.258V 492.4s 236.7s
0.1F 60Hz 0.740V 1.264V 984.9s 454.6s
Part 2

Source Voltage = 2.000V

Capacitor (C) Frequency Used (Hz) Final Voltage (V) Time Taken (s)
0.368 0.632 0.368 0.632
0.01F 180Hz 740mV 1264mV 98.485s 18.939s
0.047F 50Hz 736mV 1264mV 473.485s 217.803s
0.1F 60Hz 763mV 1264mV 1.004ms 464.015s

It was noted the there was a difference in the practical time constant and the theoretical ones. In this
case, there was an average difference of about 5 % ~ 25 % from the theoretical values.

Theoretical value Practical value Percentage difference

100s 106.061s 6.061%
470s 492.424s 22.424%
1000s 984.848s 15.152%
It was observed that the voltage across the resistor varied at different intervals in the experiment.

Part 3

Source Voltage = 2.000V

 The waveform produced was as shown below;

Frequency Used Final Voltage

Source Voltage Inductor Time Taken (s)
(Hz) (V)
0.368 0.63 0.368 0.63
200mH 4KHz 725mV 1.264V 100.379s 45.455s
400mH 80Hz 733mV 1.259V 200.758s 92.803s
2000mV 600mH 500Hz 733mV 1.259V 285.985s 123.106s
800mH 4KHz 523mV 0.966V 399.621s 125.92s

Part 4

Source Voltage = 2.000V

Frequency
Source Voltage Inductor Final Voltage (V) Time Taken (s)
Used (Hz)
0.368 0.63 0.368 0.63
200mH 500Hz 736mV 1.264V 102.273s 47.34s
400mH 100Hz 735.2mV 1.2627V 200.758s 90.909s
2000mV 600mH 350Hz 729.74mV 1.2532V 301.136s 140.152s
800mH 200Hz 734.528mV 1.261V 401.555s 185.606s
It was noted the there was a difference in the practical time constant and the theoretical ones. In this
case, there was an average difference of about 5 % ~ 25 % from the theoretical values.

Theoretical value Practical value Percentage difference

100s 100.379s 0.379%
 200s 200.758s 0.758%
300s 285.985s 14.015%
400s 399.62145s 0.37855%

SESSION B

Part 1

Parameter/
S1 S2 T
Component
-1250 + -1250
Value 1250 31598.06s 1.488*10^-4s
31548j 31548j
Sample calculation;

R = 250; L = 100mH; C = 0.01F

1 & 2 = (R/2L)((^2/4^2 1/LC))/

S1 = -1250 + 31548.1012j & S2 = -1250 31548.1012j

Whereas, = 1250

= 31548.01633 ; = 31622.7766

And T = 2/

T = 1.98547 X 10^-4 sec

Part 2
 Waveform produced on oscilloscope

Part 3

Time Scale Period

3 to 6 peaks of graph 194.079 s
The Calculated value of T was found to have been 198.547s and the percentage
difference was found to have been 2.302%.

Part 4

For damped sinusoidal waveform;

Component Peak Height Time difference Neper Frequency

nd
2 Full(
1st Full
Value +1) 197.368 s 536.529Hz
3.961V 3.975V
Comparison 3.153V 3.975V 194.097 s 1193.58Hz

Rtot Value = 167.3057 Rfgen = Rtot Rs

= 107.30758 - 100

Rfgen = 107.30578

Sample calculation;

3.563 = 3.961(197.36810^4
 -* 197.368*10^-4 = ln3.563

-* 197.368*10^-4 = -0.1054

= 536.524 Hz Neper Frequency

The calculated value differed from the practical one by 57.07% which was as a result of
the unrealised resistance from the functional generator.

Part 5

Damping coefficient
Component Value Rfgen Rtot

7.30578 250 1143.58Hz

Part 6

Voltage across the capacitor was;

4V

The waveform obtained was as follows;

Critical Damping

Rtot = 6324.55532

And the waveform produced was;

 Overdamped

The waveform produced was;

Sample calculations;

2 = 2 2 = (31622.7766)2

[2(10010 3 )]^2 = (31622.7766)^2

= (31622.7766) 2 100 103

= 6224.55532

5.0DISCUSSION
The results obtained from the experiment seemed largely in agreement with the
values obtained experimentally. The percentage errors in all experiments was of
 an acceptable value (below 10%) in almost all cases with the exception of
experiment. The experiments also noted that Capacitors and inductors possess
the following three special properties that make them very useful in electric
circuits: First is that the capacity to store energy makes them useful as temporary
voltage or current sources. Thus, they can be used for generating a large amount
of current or voltage for a short period of time. Also, capacitors oppose any
abrupt change in voltage, while inductors oppose any abrupt change in current.
This property makes inductors useful for spark or arc suppression and for
converting pulsating dc voltage into relatively smooth dc voltage. Lastly,
capacitors and inductors are frequency sensitive. This property makes them
useful for frequency discrimination.The roots 1 and 2 are called natural
frequencies, measured in nepers per second (Np/s), because they are associated
with the natural response of the circuit; 0 is known as the resonant frequency
or strictly as the undamped natural frequency, expressed in radians per second
(rad/s); and is the neper frequency or the damping factor, expressed in nepers
per second. The behaviour of such a network is captured by the idea of damping,
which is the gradual loss of the initial stored energy, as evidenced by the
continuous decrease in the amplitude of the response. The damping effect is due
to the presence of resistance R. The circuit is said to be loss-less, because the
dissipating or damping element (R) is absent. By adjusting the value of R, the
response may be made underdamped, overdamped, critically damped, or
underdamped. The damping factor determines the rate at which the response
is damped. If 2 > 02 we have the overdamped case, if 2 = 02 we have the
critically damped case, if 2 < 02 we have the underdamped case. It was also
noted that in general, it is difficult to tell from the waveforms the difference
between the overdamped and critically damped responses. The critically damped
case is the borderline between the underdamped and overdamped cases and it
decays the fastest. With the same initial conditions, the overdamped case has
the longest settling time, because it takes the longest time to dissipate the initial
stored energy.

ANSWERS TO QUETIONS

Q1. ANS: The difference in damping response in the capacitor voltage is how it
will decay. The overdamped response is the decay of the transient current without it
oscillating. The underdamped response is the decay of the transient current
oscillating at a rate determined by . The underdamped response can also be
considered as the frequency the circuit will naturally oscillate at if not driven by an
external source. In the critically damped response, the transient current decays in
the fastest possible time without going into an oscillation.

Q2. ANS: when a series RLC circuit is driven at its resonant frequency, the
inductive reactance and capacitive reactance cancel and the current is limited only
by the series resistance. The voltage across the inductor alone will then be the series
current (applied voltage divided by the series resistance) multiplied by the inductive
reactance. Since the circuit is in resonance, the inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance are equal and so the same amount of voltage (out of phase by 180
degrees) will also be present across the capacitor. You can, in principle, make each of
these voltages as large as you wish by reducing the series resistance. For an ideal
circuit, when the series resistance is decreased to zero, the current will increase to
infinity and the voltage across the inductor and across the capacitor will also be
infinity. This won't happen for an actual circuit but the increase in voltage at
resonance can be significant and must be considered in choosing the voltage ratings
of the capacitor and inductor as well as the spacing of the wires or circuit board
traces.

CONCLUSION
The experiment showed that the values of several parameters of the capacitor
and the inductor in RL, RC and RLC circuits can be determined through
theoretical calculation with very little percentage difference in all cases. The
student was also able to relate the nature of the physical response of a series
RLC circuit to the parameter values and d determined by the component
values.

This report is accurate to the best of my knowledge and is true

representation of my laboratory results.

Sign;
 REFERENCES

Hughes E (2004) (Electrical and Electronic Technology); 8th Ed.:

Longman Publishers: Essex.
Electrical & Electronic Department (2017) (EEE2019 Laboratories
Manual); University of Zambia Printing Press: Lusaka.
 INTRODUTION

SECTION A .

RC and RL circuits are used in many configurations for a large variety of design
purposes. Consequently real components of R and C or R and L as appropriate. This
section illustrates some of the basic features of the transient response of circuits
in which in which RC or RL are both present.

SECTION B.

This part illustrates some of the properties of RLC circuits. The circuit response is
given by

Where s1 and s2 are the poles of the characteristic equation. Define

Depending on the component values, series RLC circuits are over damped, critically
damped, or under damped. The conditions for the three cases are as follows:

Overdamped: 2 > 02
Critically damped: 2 = 0 2
Underdamped: 2 < 0 2

For the component values used in this experiment, 2 < 0 2, so the circuit is
underdamped. Thus, the roots of the characteristic equation are complex. If we
define

Where T= period, then the circuits

current may be written as i(t)=e-t(A cosdt +B sindt)