Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
T o n g
W e i
J i e
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Table of Contents
FIDUCIARY DUTIES.......................................................................................................................... 55
TRACING ............................................................................................................................................ 80
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CREATION
OF
EXPRESS
TRUST:
THREE
CERTAINTIES
P R E L I M I N A R Y : I S I T A P O W E R O R A T R U S T ?
*Note: A power does not confer proprietary rights upon the objects while a trust does.
S T E P 1 : C E R T A I N T Y O F I N T E N T I O N
RULES
OF
CONSTRUCTION
[1]
Court
will
construe
the
language
used
in
its
context
in
the
light
of
the
whole
instrument
as
a
whole
to
decide
whether
a
trust
is
intended
and
created.
No
general
formula
which
can
determine
exactly
when
a
transfer
will
carry
with
it
the
whole
beneficial
interest
and
when
it
will
create
a
trust
o Language
construed
in
its
context,
including
the
surrounding
circumstances
Law
looks
at
substance,
not
labels
Street
v
Mountford
No
requirement
that
the
settlor
must
use
the
words
trust
or
in
trust
o C.f.
older
regime
where
a
presumption
was
raised
by
precatory
words
in
an
older,
more
paternalistic,
age
[2]
In
ascertaining
the
intention
of
the
settlor,
VK
Rajah
in
Low
Ah
Cheow
v
Ng
Hock
Guan
(SGCA2009)
summarised
the
relevant
principles
with
regard
to
the
construction
of
a
will
as
follows:
(a) In
the
construction
of
a
will,
the
main
task
of
the
court
is
to
ascertain
the
testators
intention
as
expressed
in
the
will
(b) The
inquiry
is
not
to
discover
what
the
testator
subjectively
intended
to
do
when
he
made
the
will
but
what
the
written
words
in
the
will
mean
(c) The
words
used
in
the
will
are
prima
facie
given
their
ordinary
meaning
with
legal
and
technical
words
to
be
given
their
legal
or
technical
meaning
unless
it
clearly
appears
from
the
face
of
the
will
that
they
are
intended
to
bear
some
other
meaning
(d) If
the
testators
expressed
intention
is
clear,
then
the
rules
of
construction
will
not
override
that
clear
intention
(e) If
the
testators
intention
is
ambiguous,
then
the
rules
of
construction
will
apply
and
the
court
may
also
admit
relevant
admissible
extrinsic
evidence
as
an
aid
to
the
interpretation
of
the
will
However,
such
extrinsic
evidence
is
not
admissible
for
the
purposes
of
controlling,
varying
or
altering
the
written
words
of
the
will.
It
is
simply
admitted
to
enable
the
court
to
understand
the
words
used
and
to
declare
the
expressed
intention
of
the
testator.
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[3]
(use
only
if
question/facts
are
favourable)
In
Australia,
the
High
Court
in
Byrnes
v
Kendle
(HCA2011)
took
a
detailed
consideration
on
how
trusts
are
constructed.
All
the
judges
agreed
that
an
objective
construction
of
the
trust
is
preferred
over
a
subjective
ascertainment.
Heyden
and
Crennan
JJ
encapsulated
the
principle
by
saying
that
contractual
construction
depends
on
finding
the
meaning
of
the
language
of
the
contract
the
intention
which
the
parties
expressed,
not
the
subjective
intentions
which
they
may
have
had,
but
did
not
express.
Heyden
and
Crennan
JJ:
Contractual
construction
depends
on
finding
the
meaning
of
the
language
of
the
contract
the
intention
which
the
parties
expressed,
not
the
subjective
intentions
which
they
may
have
had,
but
did
not
express.
A
contract
means
what
a
reasonable
person
having
all
the
background
knowledge
of
the
surrounding
circumstances
available
to
the
parties
would
have
understood
them
to
be
using
the
language
in
the
contract
to
mean.
But
evidence
of
pre-contractual
negotiations
between
the
parties
is
inadmissible
for
the
purpose
of
drawing
inferences
about
what
the
contract
meant
unless
it
demonstrates
knowledge
of
surrounding
circumstances
[1]
In
commercial
cases
involving
the
transfer
of
funds
to
or
[1]
If
commercial
purposes
of
the
arrangement
militate
against
collection
of
funds
by
one
party,
segregation
of
funds
is
a
chief
piece
finding
an
intention
to
create
a
trust
no
intention:
Hinckley
of
evidence
from
which
to
infer
that
a
trust
intention
exists
Singapore
Trading
v
Sogo
Department
Stores
[2001]
Allows
a
strong
inference
to
be
drawn
Facts
o If
there
are
no
other
indicators
of
a
trust
o Concessionaire
agreement
between
Sogo
and
H
absence
of
obligation
to
segregate
normally
H
would
exhibit
and
sell
its
goods
in
a
part
of
negatives
any
trust
intention
the
department
store
premises
operated
by
Sogo
o Mingling
of
funds
raises
an
inference
that
there
o Customers
would
pay
at
Sogos
cashiers
is
no
intention
to
create
a
trust
o At
the
end
of
each
month,
Sogo
would
give
H
a
However
it
is
not
conclusive
when
there
are
other
statement
of
the
total
sales
indicators
of
a
trust
Hinckley
v
Sogo
After
deducting
20%
of
net
monthly
o On
one
hand,
segregation
could
be
undertaken
sales
remaining
80%
paid
to
Hinckley
for
purposes
of
convenience
of
ascertainment,
or
o Sogo
subsequently
placed
under
judicial
for
logistics
reasons
[TYL]
management
H
sought
to
recover
a
net
sum
o Absence
of
segregation
is
not
conclusive
against
from
the
sale
of
Hs
goods
the
existence
of
a
trust;
absence
could
be
a
o Issue:
whether
the
sum
of
money
was
held
on
breach
trust
for
H
Held
In
Hinckley
Singapore,
the
Court
of
Appeal
held
that
in
the
absence
o Sogo
merely
a
debtor
no
trust
intention
to
be
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of
an
express
term
creating
a
trust
and
where
there
are
no
other
implied
clear
indices
of
a
trust,
the
maintenance
of
a
separate
account
by
the
o Mingling
of
funds
not
conclusive
when
there
is
agent
was
crucial
to
constitute
the
monies
as
trust
monies.
other
evidence
pointing
either
for
or
against
a
o In
Re
Lewiss
of
Leicester
Ltd
[1995]
1
BCLC
428,
a
trust
trust
was
found
despite
the
money
being
deposited
into
a
o The
commercial
context
militates
against
any
general
bank
account
because
there
was
an
express
imputation
or
inference
of
the
trust
[i.e.
would
stipulation
of
a
trust
in
the
contract
and
the
trust
monies
defeat
the
commercial
purposes
of
the
could
therefore
be
traced
by
equitable
tracing
rules.
concessionaire
agreement
to
have
the
funds
o In
Re
Fleet
Disposal
Services
Ltd
[1995]
1
BCLC
345,
the
imposed
with
a
trust]
proceeds
of
the
principals
goods
were
held
to
be
trust
Relevant
facts
monies
because
there
was
a
designated
account
for
the
o Business
arrangement
envisaged
a
possibly
proceeds
of
sale
and
the
credit
period
allowed
for
the
agent
high
but
fluctuating
turnover
of
small
ticket
to
pay
the
principal
was
relatively
short
(five
days).
items,
replicated
with
many
other
o Likewise
in
Westacre
Investments
Inc
(SGHC2011),
the
concessionaires
court
found
that
there
was
no
express
trust
intended
Wholly
unrealistic
to
suggest
parties
because
the
uncertainty
of
each
of
the
Other
Parties
share
expected
a
trust
to
arise
in
relation
to
of
the
Funds
indicate
the
lack
in
certainty
of
intention
in
the
sum
received
in
respect
of
each
creating
a
trust
item
of
goods
o No
rental
deposit
no
security
for
Sogo
that
the
[2]
Intention
to
create
trust
present
although
no
actual
segregation
concessionaires
were
able
to
pay
rental
i.e.
intention
to
segregate
is
sufficient:
Re
Kayford
Ltd
Indicates
that
the
payment
to
Sogo
was
Facts
a
commercial
safeguard
o Company
(mail-order
business)
in
financial
Further,
Sogo
may
have
borne
risks
of
difficulties,
concerned
for
customers
of
company
pilferage
and
3P
loss
who
had
sent
and
were
sending
money
for
goods
o TYL:
highly
unlikely
that
in
the
circumstances
o Directors
intended
to
segregate
funds
by
opening
Sogo
would
have
agreed
to
hold
the
sale
separate
bank
account
in
which
all
further
sums
of
proceeds
on
trust
for
Hinckley
while
being
money
sent
by
customers
would
be
paid
exposed
to
those
risks
o Passed
a
resolution
that
was
in
evidence
of
this
Note
intention
Trust
would
have
been
more
likely
o Resolution
not
carried
out
funds
were
deposited
o If
deduction
of
commission
was
required
to
be
into
account
in
companys
name
and
mixed
made
at
the
outset
of
every
interval
Held:
Sogo
not
bearing
risks?
(dont
really
get
o Intention
to
create
a
trust
clear
even
if
no
actual
this)
segregation
of
funds
o If
there
was
an
indication
that
Sogo
was
likely
to
o Failure
to
carry
out
intention
to
segregate
the
go
under
persons
dealing
with
them
might
funds
did
not
preclude
a
valid
trust
form
arising
intend
for
moneys
to
be
held
on
trust
to
protect
o Company
as
trustee
committed
breach
of
trust
in
against
insolvency
innocently
mixing
trust
moneys
with
the
trustees
own
moneys
N.B.
o In
this
case
there
was
evidence
of
intention
to
segregate
even
if
there
was
no
actual
segregation
may
be
a
distinguishing
factor
o Case
distinguishable
on
policy
ground
court
was
concerned
with
protecting
the
public
by
giving
effect
to
good
commercial
practice
of
using
trust
accounts
when
coy's
ability
to
perform
its
obligations
is
in
doubt
SHAM TRUST: CERTAINTY OF INTENTION NOT JUST TO CREATE A TRUST BUT TO HAVE THE TRUST PERFORM AS A TRUST
An
express
intention
to
create
a
trust
might
be
struck
down
by
the
court
if
it
was
a
sham
intention
where
the
owner
had
no
real
intention
to
subject
his
property
to
a
trust.
The
trust
is
a
sham
so
long
as
it
was
intended
to
give
the
courts
the
appearance
of
rights
which
are
different
from
the
actual
legal
rights
parties
intend
to
create
(Snook
v.
London).
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The
test
is
the
subjective
intention
of
the
parties
and
the
court
will
look
at
external
evidence
such
as
parties
conduct,
explanations
and
circumstantial
evidence
(per
Arden
J
in
Hitch
v
Stone).
There
must
be
a
common
intention
to
mislead
among
all
the
parties
(Shalson
v
Russo).
If
a
party
is
recklessly
indifferent
and
goes
along
with
the
sham,
it
may
be
considered
as
satisfying
the
requisite
common
intention
(Midland
Bank
v.
Wyatt).
A
v
A
orbiter
A
v
A
orbiter
Trust
initially
a
sham
but
if
successor
trustees
decided
to
Suggests
that
as
a
matter
of
principle,
a
trust
which
was
exercise
powers
and
fulfill
duties
in
accordance
with
the
not
initially
a
sham
could
not
subsequently
become
a
sham
terms
of
the
trust
instrument,
trust
would
not
be
regarded
o Unless
all
the
beneficiaries
were,
with
the
as
a
sham
requisite
intention,
to
join
together
for
that
Problem:
purpose
with
the
trustees
Saunders
v
Vautier
o Sham
transaction
void
Midland
Bank
v
Wyatt
TYL
disagrees:
trust
validly
created
should
be
able
to
TYL
reconciling:
become
a
sham
o Would
make
sense
if
one
thought
of
the
o See
reasoning
above
if
that
is
right,
true
position
document
as
being
void
in
form,
but
not
the
is
that
doctrine
of
sham
transactions
only
affects
substance
of
the
transaction
being
void
the
instrumentation
o In
which
case
the
transaction
would
not
be
void
o No
difficulty
in
seeing
that
parties
to
a
trust
can
ab
initio
for
sham
subsequently
intend
not
to
operate
it
as
a
trust,
contrary
to
what
the
instrument
says
S T E P 2 : C E R T A I N T Y O F S U B J E C T M A T T E R
Under
the
second
element,
there
must
be
an
identifiable
subject
matter
at
the
point
of
creation
of
the
trust
for
trust
obligations
to
be
enforced
on
(Sprage
v.
Barnard).
A
trust
cannot
exist
in
abstract
but
only
in
relation
to
specific
assets,
the
failure
to
identify
any
specific
property
as
the
trust
property
will
prevent
the
creation
of
a
valid
trust
(Hemmens
v
Wilson
Browne).
[1]
Where
the
trust
property
is
mixed
with
other
[2]
Analogous
rule
where
such
a
trust
would
be
held
valid
appeared
in
Hunter
v
property
without
sufficient
earmarking
such
that
the
Moss
where
the
court
held
that
an
oral
declaration
of
trust
by
Mr
Moss
of
5%
of
his
trust
property
becomes
unascertainable,
the
trust
is
950
company
shares
in
favour
of
Mr
Hunter
was
valid
even
though
the
50
shares
invalid
(Re
London
Wine
Co
and
Re
Goldcorp
had
not
been
segregated
or
or
apportioned
from
the
rest
of
his
shares.
Two
ways
of
Exchange).
interpreting
this
rule:
In
Re
London
Wine
Co,
wine
merchant
[A]
Hayton
supports
the
view
that
where
trust
property
expressed
as
a
failed
to
segregate
bottles
ordered
by
percentage
and
not
numbers,
it
does
not
have
to
be
segregated
because
it
customers
from
general
stock
until
they
are
was
intended
to
be
treated
as
a
fractional
share
of
a
clearly
identifiable
to
be
delivered.
Hence,
before
delivery,
no
whole,
like
a
tenancy
in
common.
beneficiary
could
identity
which
of
the
o Under
this
test
[APPLICATION]
bottles
in
the
general
stocks
was
his
or
hers.
[B]:
An
alternative
view
is
to
distinguish
Hunter
and
Re
Goldcorp,
where
Court
held
that
trust
failed
for
want
of
the
former
deals
with
intangible
property
while
the
latter
deal
with
certainty
of
subject
matter.
tangible
chattels,
and
the
need
to
segregate
only
applies
to
tangibles.
In
Re
Goldcorp
Exchange,
company
used
o Under
this
test
[APPLICATION]
investors
money
to
acquire
bullion
which
[C]
(if
applicable)
However
it
is
submitted
that
a
better
view
is
that
of
would
be
held
on
trust
for
them.
As
the
scholar
Worthington
that
the
requirement
of
segregation
of
trust
property
company
had
not
appropriated
or
does
not
apply
to
fungible
property.
As
long
as
there
is
certainty
of
segregated
any
specific
parcels
of
bullion
to
intention
and
objects
there
is
no
good
reason
to
deny
the
trust
since
for
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the
individual
purchasers,
but
rather,
held
it
fungible
property
such
as
shares,
one
share
is
the
same
as
the
other
so
in
bulk,
the
PC
held
no
certainty
of
subject
there
is
no
practical
need
for
them
to
be
differentiated
and
any
share
will
matter.
be
sufficient
to
fulfil
the
obligations
of
the
trust.
Under
this
test...
ANALYSIS:
Important
to
note
that
this
case
falls
within
the
sale
of
goods
context.
It
is
[3]
However,
if
the
beneficiary
of
the
failed
trust
is
a
consumer,
he
would
be
difficult
for
equity
to
intervene
in
the
law
of
protected
by
s20A
of
the
Sale
of
Goods
Act.
The
effect
of
section
20A
was
to
give
sale,
especially
when
UK
Sale
of
Goods
Act
the
buyer
in
such
a
situation
an
undivided
share
in
the
bulk
so
that
he
could
look
s16
states
that
no
property
can
pass
before
directly
to
the
proceeds
of
sale
of
the
bulk
and
was
not
relegated
to
merely
having
a
ascertainment,
thus
reflecting
the
policy
personal
right
against
the
insolvent
buyer.
imperative
of
commercial
certainty.
Property
may
be
non-existent
[1]
STARTING
POINT
It
is
impossible
to
create
a
present
trust
of
future
property
(i.e.
property
which
a
where
person
does
not
presently
own,
but
which
he
hopes
or
expects
will
come
into
his
ownership
sometime
Purported
settlor
has
in
the
future)
as
established
in
Re
Ellenborough.
Future
property
must
be
distinguished
from
already
disposed
of
it,
residuary
interest
where
a
property
right
has
already
been
conferred
subject
to
the
expiry
of
some
prior
no
property
to
be
held
right.
This
rule
holds
true
even
if
the
expectation
or
hope
eventually
comes
true
(Re
Brookes
on
trust
Settlement
Trusts).
Settlor
merely
expects
that
he
will
come
into
[2]
IMPORTANCE
OF
CONSIDERATION:
However,
equity
treats
a
present
trust
over
future
property
as
a
possession
of
the
promise
to
set
up
a
trust
in
the
future
when
the
property
materializes.
If
there
is
consideration,
equity
property
without
any
will
enforce
the
trust:
Tailby
v
Official
Receiver,
cf
Re
Ellenborough.
legal/equitable
title
Facts:
Packing
case
manufacturer
assigned
to
Tyrell
for
valuable
consideration
over
all
his
trade
assets,
thereby
creating
a
floating
security
reaching
over
all
present
and
future
assets
Starting
point:
indefinite
and
Held:
An
assignment
of
future
property
for
value
operates
in
equity
by
way
of
agreement,
should
be
void
no
certainty
of
binding
the
conscience
of
the
assignor,
and
binding
the
property
form
the
moment
the
subject
matter
contract
becomes
capable
of
performance
No
reason
for
equity
to
o Principle:
Equity
looks
on
as
done
that
which
ought
to
be
done
intervene
because
o The
moment
the
future
trading
assets
came
into
being,
they
would
be
property
of
subject
matter
is
non- the
financier
under
the
bill
of
sale
existent
N.B.
o Powerful
principle
of
equity
sets
up
a
mirror
image
of
the
interest
to
be
given
even
before
it
can
be
given
in
fact
o Blends
two
things
contract
and
transfer
into
one
o Consideration
makes
the
purchaser
the
owner
in
equity
immediately
upon
the
creation
of
the
obligation
S T E P 3 : C E R T A I N T Y O F O B J E C T S
SUMMARY
Mere
powers:
Core
meaning
test
so
long
as
the
appointee
is
plainly
and
unequivocally
by
any
reasonable
standard
of
judgment
within
the
core
meaning
of
the
class
criterion.
No
need
for
any
given
postulant
test
because
there
is
no
duty
to
consider
the
exercise
of
power.
Fixed
trusts:
Trust
is
valid
as
long
as
trustee
is
able
to
draw
up
a
list
of
all
beneficiaries
under
the
trust
(IRC
v
Broadway
Cottages)
Powers:
("is
or
is
not")
Power
is
valid
so
long
as
it
is
possible
to
say
with
certainty
that
a
given
individual
is
or
is
not
a
member
of
the
class
(Re
Gulbenkian's
ST)
+
exercised
capriciously
Discretionary
trusts:
Similar
test
as
powers
i.e.
Re
Gulbenkian
(McPhail
v
Doulton)
remitted
to
High
Court
(where
it
was
renamed
as
Re
Baden's
Deed
Trusts
(No
2))
for
application
of
test
+
administrative
unworkability
o In
Re
Baden's
Deed
Trusts
(No
2),
on
whether
it
could
be
said
with
certainty
that
any
given
individual
was
or
was
not
a
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member
of
a
class,
it
was
NECESSARY
TO
DISTINGUISH
BETEWEN
CONCEPTUAL
UNCERTAINTY
AND
EVIDENTIAL
DIFFICULTY.
(YES/PRESUMED
NO)
Sachs
LJ:
Onus
lies
with
claimant
to
show
that
he
is
within
class
of
beneficiaries
if
he
cannot
prove
that,
he
is
not
within
the
class.
Default
position
is
that
the
claimant
is
not
within
class
(pragmatic
approach).
Slight
deviation
from
HL
ruling:
Sachs
LJ
practical
approach
will
not
give
a
clear
is
or
is
not
result
but
merely
that
the
claimant
is
not
proven
to
be
within
the
class
(YES/UNCERTAIN/NO)
Megaw
LJ:
Test
is
satisfied
if,
as
regards
at
least
a
substantial
number
of
objects,
it
can
be
said
with
certainty
that
they
fall
within
the
class
Deviation
from
HL
ruling:
Megaw
LJs
approach
seems
to
allow
for
some
objects
to
be
in
the
uncertain
category,
contrary
to
the
is
or
is
not
approach
In
HL.
This
suggests
that
complete
conceptual
certainty
was
not
required
but
enough
certainty
in
the
language
for
the
distribution
to
be
made
to
identifiable
persons
(YES/NO
EVIDENTIAL)
Stamp
LJ:
Must
be
able
to
say
of
any
individual
and
not
just
the
one
whose
claim
you
are
considering,
whether
he
is
or
is
not
a
member
of
the
class
BUT,
Stamp
LJ
upheld
the
trust
on
basis
that
relatives
mean
next
of
kin
(giving
an
artificual
narrow
meaning
to
the
term,
relatives,
in
order
to
avoid
conceptual
uncertainty)
Got
the
meaning
of
'relative'
as
'next
of
kin'
from
old
succession
cases
(OLD
MEANING).
Arguably
not
applicable
in
modern
context
since
'relative'
has
different
definition
SO
WHICH
TEST
SHOULD
WE
ADOPT?
Should
adopt
Sachs
LJs
pragmatic
approach
It
is
submited
that
Sachs
practical
approach
has
much
to
commend
because
it
avoids
confusing
questions
about
the
inherent
validity
of
the
trust
or
power
(conceptual
certainty)
with
difficulties
surrounding
its
execution
(evidential
certainty).
Moreover,
Stamp
LJs
literal
approach
requires
a
degree
of
certainty
barely
less
than
the
Broadway
Cottages
complete
list
test,
which
has
received
much
criticism.
Finally,
Megaw
LJs
least
stringent
interpretation
would
satisfy
most
class
gifts.
In
fact,
his
approach
is
arguably
a
variant
from
the
one
postulant
approach
that
was
overruled
by
the
HL
in
Re
Gulbenkian.
Hence,
Sachs
approach
would
be
the
most
justifiable
and
practical
to
adopt.
o [CONSTRUCTION
OF
SETTLORS
CLASS
DESCRIPTION]
Furthermore,
it
is
clear
from
Re
Baden
(No
2)
that
it
is
possible
first
to
construe
the
settlors
class
description
and
then
apply
the
is
or
is
not
test
to
the
class
description
so
construed.
So,
in
Baden,
Sachs
and
Megaw
LJJ
decided
that
relatives
actually
meant
able
to
trace
descent
from
a
common
ancestor
and,
therefore,
on
application
of
the
is
or
is
not
test,
the
class
so
redefined
was
certain.
Stamp
LJ,
on
the
other
hand,
thought
relatives
meant
next
of
kin
and
was
both
conceptually
and
evidentially
certain
for
that
reason.
Clearly,
this
power
of
construction
will
allow
a
court
to
render
most
class
gifts
certain
if
it
so
chooses,
simply
by
redefining
the
testators
class
description
in
a
manner
that
makes
the
test
easier
to
be
satisfied.
o For
discretionary
trusts,
next
consider
whether
they
are
administratively
unworkable
(West
Yorkshire).
Thanks
to
Re
Manisty
the
issue
of
certainty
of
object
can
be
avoided:
all
you
have
to
do
is
to
1)
include
a
few
named
beneficaries
and
2)
grant
the
power
to
add
on
other
beneficiaries.
Different minds make take different views on the [1] Hayton argues that it is possible for the trust instrument to contain a clause
-
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question
of
whether
a
particular
description
is
empowering
someone
like
the
trustees
or
the
testators
widow
to
resolve
any
conceptually
certain
or
not.
evidential
uncertainty.
Problem
is
that
few
descriptions
of
the
kind
likely
[2]
He
also
argues
that
a
distinction
must
be
made
between:
to
be
encountered
in
trusts
and
powers
are
so
clear
APPARENT
CONCEPTUAL
UNCERTAINTY
i.e.
not
uncertain
because
court
as
to
admit
of
no
borderline
cases.
Most
fall
construes
a
term
restrictively
and
thus
the
person
may
help
resolve
any
between
those
which
are
indisputably
certain
e.g.
evidential
uncertainty.
E.g.
Court
may
restrict
Cambridge
students
to
Nobel
prize
winners
and
those
which
are
students
from
time
to
time
studying
as
junior
members
of
the
University
of
conceptually
unclear
e.g.
friends.
Cambridge
or
restrict
fans
of
Elvis
Presley
to
members
of
Elvis
Presley
Dispositions
ought
if
possible
to
be
official
fan
club.
A
proviso
that
in
cases
of
doubt
the
decision
of
the
Registrar
upheld
and
should
not
be
held
void
on
a
of
the
University
of
Cambridge
or
of
the
secretaries
of
official
Elvis
Presley
peradventure.
Words
such
as
relatives
fan
clubs
shall
be
conclusive
may
assist
the
court
restrict
the
concept.
may
cause
difficulties
but
trustees
can
be
ACTUAL
CONCEPTUAL
UNCERTAINTY
cannot
be
resolved
by
such
provisos,
expected
to
act
sensibly
and
not
to
select
except,
it
seems,
where
a
person
acting
as
an
expert
(as
opposed
to
acting
as
a
remote
kinsman.
an
arbitrator)
is
given
power
to
resolve
the
matter.
[Note:
Crown
is
not
The
best
solution
is
to
regard
such
words
convinced
as
to
the
expert
argument.]
as
conceptually
certain,
leaving
it
to
the
o There
are
no
clear
conceptual
criteria
to
guide
non-experts,
or
indeed,
claimant
to
establish
his
case?
the
court
if
their
exercise
of
the
power
is
challenged.
Nothing
and
nobody
can
cure
conceptual
uncertainty.
o Any
uncertainty
in
the
requirement
of
being
of
the
Jewish
faith
and
married
to
an
approved
wife
could
be
cured
by
a
provision
that
disputes
were
to
be
decided
by
a
chief
rabbi:
Re
Tuck's
Settlement
Trusts
[1978]
Ch
49;
following
the
decision
that
Clayton
v
Ramsden
[1943]
AC
321
that
the
words
Jewish
parentage
and
Jewish
faith
were
uncertain.
o The
settlor
or
testator
cannot
however
purport
to
oust
the
jurisdiction
of
the
court
by
giving
the
trustees
conclusive
power
to
construe
the
words
used
UNLESS
it
was
a
personal
power.
Such
a
clause
will
be
void
as
contrary
to
public
policy.
o Nonetheless,
the
court
may
still
intervene
if
the
power
to
resolve
an
uncertainty
was
exercised
in
bad
faith
and
unreasonably
and
possibly
on
other
grounds.
[1]
Weight
of
authority
supports
the
view
that
[1]
The
court
may
intervene
to
void
an
intermediate
power
on
two
grounds:
1)
if
administrative
unworkability
can
invalidate
power
has
been
exercised
in
a
capricious
manner
(looks
at
trustees
exercise)
e.g.
discretionary
trusts
but
not
mere
powers.
choosing
objects
based
on
irrelevant
facts
such
as
hair
colour,
and
2)
the
creation
of
a
capricious
power
(looks
at
settlors
intent)
e.g.
Templeman
J
suggests
that
power
to
[2]
Administrative
unworkability
has
been
restricted
benefit
the
residents
of
Greater
London
is
capricious
because
the
terms
negative
any
to
discretionary
trusts
(McPhail
v
Doulton).
sensible
intention
on
the
part
of
the
settlor:
Re
Manisty;
Re
Hay.
Rationale
for
this
is
that
the
trustee
of
a
Rationale:
discretionary
trust
is
under
more
extensive
o Trust
is
mandatory
and
beneficiaries
can
enforce.
Therefore,
it
obligations
which
the
beneficiaries
can
positively
must
be
administartive
workable
(POSITIVE
DUTY)
enforce
whereas
the
donee
of
a
power
is
not
under
o Power
is
discretionary
and
trustee
only
need
to
consider
an
obligation
to
exercise
the
power.
Therefore,
periodically,
the
only
control
is
by
the
removal
of
trustee
or
court
will
only
intervene
if
the
power
is
exercised
directions
for
trustee
to
distribute.
Therefore,
it
need
not
be
capriciously.
administratve
workable
but
it
cannot
be
capricious
(NEGATIVE
Question
is,
since
they
are
so
similar
in
DUTY)
substance
that
the
same
certainty
test
The
court
may
hold
that
a
power
is
invalid
if
there
is
some
real
problem
of
applies
equally
to
both,
why
should
the
administration
or
execution
but
should
be
slow
to
do
so.
Dispositions
ought
administrative
workability
test
be
limited
to
be
upheld
if
possible
and
the
court
ought
not
to
be
astute
to
find
grounds
to
discretionary
trusts?
upon
which
a
power
can
be
invalidated.
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[2A]
Pearce
suggests
that
administrative
[2]
Megarry
J
in
Re
Hay
criticised
Templeman
Js
example
of
a
capricious
power
i.e.
unworkability
must
be
in
milions
because
1)
Lord
residents
of
Greater
London
in
Re
Manisty
and
said
that
it
would
not
be
capricious
if
Wilberforce
in
McPhail
referred
to
Greater
the
settlor
was
the
former
chairman
of
Greater
London.
This
suggests
that
whether
the
London
and
2)
Lloyd
LJ
in
West
Yorkshire
failed
power
is
capricious
does
not
depend
directly
on
the
width
of
the
ambit
but
whether
for
2.5million.
there
is
a
'discernible
link'
with
the
settlor
which
allows
for
a
'sensible
approach'
to
be
taken
by
the
trustees.
[3]
Administrative
unworkability
cannot
invalidate
powers:
Re
Manisty;
Re
Hay's
Settlement
Trusts.
A L T E R N A T I V E : G I F T S U B J E C T T O A C O N D I T I O N P R E C E D E N T
[1]
Significance
of
using
the
devise
of
gift
subjecting
to
a
condition
precedent
is
that
the
test
of
certainty
is
relaxed
i.e.
core
meaning
test.
Rule
is
that
gift
subject
to
condition
precedent
is
valid
if
it
is
possible
to
say
that
at
least
one
or
more
claimants
qualified:
Re
Barlows
WT;
Re
Allen.
Sufficient
if
the
condition
is
couched
in
language
that
permits
some
individuals
to
come
with
evidence
before
the
trustees/court
and
show
they
satisfy
the
condition
Gift
will
not
fail
if
there
is
at
least
one
person
who
can
do
that
[2]
Examples:
Directed
executor
to
give
remainder
of
collection
subject
to
a
provision
that
any
members
of
my
family
and
any
friends
of
mine
who
may
wish
to
do
so
be
allowed
to
purchase
at
a
discount:
Re
Barlows
Will
Trusts.
To
the
eldest
of
the
sons
of
A
who
shall
be
a
member
of
the
Church
of
England
and
an
adherent
to
the
doctrine
of
that
Church:
Re
Allen
Gift
to
A
if
he
is
a
tall
man:
Re
Tucks
ST,
Lord
Eversheds
dictum
[3]
Criticisms:
Although
Browne-Wilkinson
J
in
Re
Barlows
WT
considered
a
gift
of
$10,000
to
each
of
my
friends
was
valid,
such
an
approach
has
been
criticised
as
anomalous
and
illogical.
After
all,
the
court
may
still
have
to
ascertain
the
conceptual
certainty
of
friends
if
a
person
entitled
to
the
fund
sues
the
trustee
or
executor
for
paying
sums
to
persons
not
ranking
as
friends.
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NON-CHARITABLE
PURPOSE
TRUST
P R E - R E Q U I S I T E S
1. Whether
trust
or
power
if
power
to
apply
for
specific
purpose
with
residuary
legatees,
power
is
valid
even
if
no
beneficiaries.
2. Whether
certainty
of
intention
and
subject
matter
3. Whether
charitable
trust
if
charitable
there
is
no
need
for
beneficiaries
or
perpetuity
rules
Purpose
Trusts
are
prima
facie
invalid
unless
you
can
show
that:
1)
the
purpose
is
charitable
(PP
reasons,
enforceable
by
the
state/AG),
2)
it
falls
under
one
of
the
anomalous
cases
for
non-charitable
purpose
trusts,
3)
the
purpose
trusts
fits
into
a
Re
Denley
purpose
trust
situation.
S T E P 1 : G E N E R A L R U L E B E N E F I C I A R Y P R I N C I P L E
A
trust
is
void
unless
there
are
human
beneficiaries
capable
of
enforcing
the
trust.
Acceptance
of
this
principle
renders
non-charitable
purpose
trusts
prima
facie
void
(Mourice
v
Bishop
of
Durham).
S T E P 2 : E S T A B L I S H 1 O F 3 E X C E P T I O N S
As
per
Re
Endacott,
the
exception
to
the
beneficiary
rule
applies
if
it
Even
if
purpose
trust
falls
within
anomalous
exceptions,
they
may
falls
within
one
of
the
accepted
exceptions.
This
is
affirmed
in
be
invalid
if
they
are
useless
or
capricious.
Singapore
but
qualified
to
the
extent
that
they
subject
to
local
Templeman
in
Re
Manistys
Settlement:
The
court
may
conditions:
Hongkong
Bank
Trustee
(Singapore);
Re
Khoo
intervene
if
the
trustees
act
"capriciously,"
i.e.
to
act
for
Cheng
Teow.
reasons
which
are
irrational,
perverse
or
irrelevant
to
any
1. Erection
or
maintenance
of
graves
sensible
expectation
of
the
settlor;
for
example
if
they
a. Re
Hooper
trust
must
be
in
some
form
of
chose
a
beneficiary
by
height
or
complexion
or
by
the
specific
memorial
and
not
"some
useful
memorial,
irrelevant
fact
that
he
was
a
resident
of
Greater
London.
which
is
too
vague
as
per
Endacott
2. Saying
of
masses
(Re
Hetherington)
or
Sinchew
rites
Issue
is
whether
a
person,
usually
deceased,
should
be
allowed
to
a. Re
Khoo
Cheng
Teow
-
Sinchew
rites
for
the
deprive
the
community
or
individuals
within
it
of
the
beneficial
purpose
of
perpetuating
the
testators
memory
use
of
capital.
There
is
of
yet
no
authority
at
all
to
support
the
have
been
recognised
proposition
that
the
capriciousness
doctrine,
if
there
is
one,
applies
b. Bermuda
Trust
v
Wee
Richard
applied
Re
to
trust.
Khoo
Cheng
Teow
but
failed
because
it
is
either
impossible
or
impracticable
to
carry
out
its
objects;
Scottish
judges
have
been
forthright
in
their
disapproval
of
the
in
this
case,
all
3
objects
failed
waste
of
money
on
useless
projects
but
Scottish
cases
are
very
3. Maintenance
of
animals
weak
authority.
a. Pettinghall
v
Pettinghall
-
in
view
of
the
M'caig
v
University
of
Glasgow
(1907):
Income
willingness
of
the
executor
to
carry
out
the
from
property
to
be
used
1)
to
erect
monuments
and
testators
wishes,
a
valid
trust
in
favour
of
the
statutes
of
himself
and
his
family,
and
2)
to
build
artistic
animal
was
created),
and
towers
at
prominent
points
of
his
estates
held
void
b. Re
Dean:
(2
difficulties)
M'caig
Trustees
v
Kirk-session
of
United
Free
i. North
J
seems
to
reject
the
beneficiary
Church
of
Lismore
(1915):
a
trust
for
erecting
of
principle
completely,
saying
that
he
did
bronze
statutes
of
the
testatrix's
parents
and
their
not
accept
the
view
that
a
trust
is
not
children
held
void
("sheer
waste
of
money";
"little
less
valid
if
there
is
no
beneficiary
to
enforce
it
than
appaling")
ii. Seems
to
offend
the
perpetuity
period
Brown
v
Burdett
(1882):
A
trust
to
block
up
all
the
50
years
rooms
in
a
house
for
20
years
was
held
void.
4. Benefit
of
unincorporated
associations
Re
Shaw
(1957):
Testator
bequeathed
money
to
be
5. Note:
Court
refused
to
re-characterise
the
trust
as
a
power
in
used
to
develop
a
40-letter
alphabet
and
translate
his
order
to
justify
purpose
trusts.
If
it
is
drafted
as
a
power,
they
play
int
othis
alphabet
may
be
valid;
but
if
they
are
drafted
as
a
trust,
they
will
not
be
re-characterised
as
a
power
-
Page
11
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
Private
purpose
trusts
may
be
valid
if
there
are
INDIRECT
BENEFICIARIES:
Re
Denley's
Trust
Quistclose
money
purpose
trusts
have
also
Deed
(1969).
been
construed
in
accordance
with
The
rationale
is
that
a
purpose
trust
is
only
void
if
it
is
abstract
or
impersonal,
and
traditional
doctrine
to
be
trusts
for
persons
the
objection
is
not
the
purpose
but
to
the
fact
that
there
is
no
beneficiary
to
and
not
special
cases
where
there
is
a
valid
enforce
the
trust.
purpose
trust
o Hence,
where
the
trust,
though
expressed
as
a
purpose,
is
directly
or
indirectly
for
the
benefit
of
individuals,
it
is
outside
the
mischief
of
the
Where
X
advances
money
to
Y
on
the
beneficiary
principle
and
can
be
upheld.
understanding
that
Y
is
not
to
have
the
free
Facts:
Plot
of
land
conveyed
to
trustees
to
hold
for
a
period
determined
by
lives,
for
disposition
of
the
money
and
that
it
may
the
purpose
of
a
recreation
or
sports
ground
primarily
for
the
benefit
of
the
only
be
applied
for
the
purpose
stated
by
employees
of
the
company
and
secondarily
for
the
benefit
of
such
other
person
or
X,
the
position
will
be
either
that
persons
(if
any)
as
the
trustees
may
allow
X
created
an
express
trust
(Lord
Held:
Trust
was
valid
Hoffmans
analysis
in
Twinsectra)
of
the
money
for
Two
ways
the
Re
Denley
principle
may
be
explained:
himself
subject
to
Ys
power
as
[1]
It
creates
a
new
type
of
purpose
trusts
recognised
in
law
(Hayton)
trustee
to
use
the
money
for
the
[2]
Another
view
is
that
the
trust
was
for
individuals
and
is
thus
a
people
trust,
and
specified
purpose,
or
that
not
a
purpose
trust
at
all.
If
this
is
correct,
Re
Denley
breaks
no
new
ground
and
all
X
created
a
resulting
trust
(Lord
private
purpose
trusts
remain
void
unless
they
fall
within
the
Quistclose
trust
or
Milletts
analysis
in
Twinsectra)
special
categories
exception
(Millet
decided
extrajudicially)
to
the
same
effect
(presumed
in
the
absence
of
any
intent
of
P
to
Criticism
transfer
the
beneficial
interest
to
However
it
is
interesting
to
note
the
Re
Denley
exception
is
not
wholly
satisfactory.
While
Y).
Goff
J
explained
that
court
could
enforce
the
trust
in
Re
Denley
at
the
suit
of
the
employees
(thereby
falling
outside
the
mischief
of
the
beneficiary
principal),
this
analysis
does
not
answer
If
it
is
sufficiently
clear
(i)
whether
the
the
question
as
to
who
has
beneficial
ownership
of
the
land.
Does
the
trustee
hold
the
land
on
specified
purpose
can
be
carried
out
or
(ii)
trust
for
the
employees?
If
so
then
under
rule
in
Saunders
v.
Vautier
the
employee
can
when
money
is
misapplied,
then
it
is
together
demand
the
transfer
of
the
land
to
them
and
sell
it
for
lucrative
cash.
In
response,
sufficiently
certain
to
be
valid.
perhaps
an
alternative
rationalization
of
Re
Denley
is
as
argued
by
Paul
Matthew
that
the
trust
was
still
mainly
for
the
employees
and
that
the
purpose
was
merely
an
incidental
add-on.
This
is
significant
if
the
borrower
is
Be
that
as
it
may
it
seems
that
Re
Denley
exception
is
the
law
and
was
even
applied
in
Re
insolvent,
since
the
lender
will
be
entitled
Lipinskis
Will
Trusts
albeit
in
a
slightly
different
situation
of
a
gift
to
an
unincorporated
to
assert
an
equitable
proprietary
claim
to
association.
the
money
lent
(not
pari
passu
with
unsecured
creditors)
and
it
will
not
form
Some
examples
of
purpose
trusts
which
are
abstract
or
impersonal
include
(i)
the
trust
for
the
part
of
the
assets
of
the
creditor.
development
of
a
40-letter
alphabet
(Re
Shaw);
and
(ii)
trust
for
freedom
of
press
(Astor).
S T E P 3 : U N C E R T A I N T Y
If
the
problem
of
the
beneficiary
principle
has
been
surmounted
or
if
the
case
falls
within
one
of
the
exceptional
categories,
non-charitable
purpose
trusts
are
only
valid
if
the
purposes
are
expressed
with
sufficient
certainty
to
enable
the
court
to
control
the
performance
of
the
trust:
Morice
v
Bishop
of
Durham
(1805).
RE ENDACOTT RE DENLEY
For
special
exceptional
categories
cases,
For
Re
Denley
type
cases,
apply
the
McPhail
v
Doulton
test.
The
point
commonly
arises
in
cases
where
incompetent
Consider
the
two
ways
in
which
Re
Denley
principle
draftsmanship
has
failed
to
create
a
charitable
trust;
where,
for
may
be
explained.
example,
the
property
is
to
be
applied
for
charitable
or
No
matter
whether
one
views
Re
Denley
type
trusts
as
benevolent
purposes.
a
whole
new
category
of
trusts
or
really
just
a
type
of
This
objection
can
be
met
by
specifying
in
sufficient
detail
the
normal
express
people
trusts,
it
makes
sense
to
apply
-
Page
12
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
purposes
to
which
the
property
is
to
be
applied.
McPhail
v
Doulton
to
identify
the
class
of
Trusts
for
specific
purposes
like
feeding
the
testators
animals,
beneficiaries/people
that
are
able
to
enforce
the
trust.
or
maintaining
a
tomb
or
monument,
usually
pass
this
test.
Rationale:
Even
if
they
are
not
beneficiaries
in
the
strict
sense
of
the
word,
we
have
a
class
of
peole
who
can
In
general,
the
modern
approach
towards
purpose
trust
seems
to
be
enforce
the
trust
then
it
is
valid
(since
they
directly
or
strict:
indirectly
benefit).
In
Re
Endacott
[1960]
Ch
232
the
Court
of
Appeal
held
void
a
o Q:
How
can
we
say
they
directly
or
indirectly
residuary
gift
to
the
North
Tawton
Devon
Parish
Council
for
benefit?
the
purpose
of
providing
some
useful
memorial
to
myself.
o A:
Whether
we
can
or
cannot
say
they
are
Such
a
trust,
though
specific
in
the
sense
that
it
indicated
a
identified
as
part
of
the
trust
or
whether
they
purpose
capable
of
expression,
was
of
far
too
wide
and
are
uncertain
a
nature
to
qualify
within
the
class
of
cases
cited.
S T E P 4 : P E R P E T U I T Y R U L E S
PEOPLE
TRUST
PERPETUITY
PERIOD
PURPOSE
TRUST
(SS
32
AND
34
ALWAYS
APPLIES)
People
trust
Perpetuity
period
Purpose
trust
(ss
32
and
34
always
applies)
[1]
A
charitable
trust
may
last
for
ever;
a
non-charitable
trust
is
void
if
it
is
to
continue
beyond
the
perpetuity
period.
The
reason
is
that
perpetual
non-charitable
purpose
trusts
would
conflict
with
the
policy
of
the
perpetuity
rule,
which
is
the
prevention
of
the
tying
up
of
property
for
too
long
a
period.
Reference
is
often
made
to
a
trust
offending
the
perpetuity
rule
without
it
being
made
clear
whether
the
trust
infringes
the
rule
against
remoteness
of
vesting
or
the
rule
against
alienability.
-
Page
13
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
The
two
rules
are
mutually
exclusive.
**
Note,
new
CLA
provisions
only
applicable
to
trusts
created
after
15
Dec
2004,
else
common
law
position
stands
[2]
At
common
law,
a
trust
will
be
void
for
violation
of
the
rule
of
perpetuity
if
it
DOES
NOT
EXPRESSLY
STATE
AN
ACCEPTABLE
PERPETUITY
PERIOD.
In
Singapore,
however,
s32
of
CLA
substitutes
a
fixed
perpetuity
period
of
100
years
for
the
previous
period
of
a
life
in
being
plus
21
years.
Any
attempt
to
specify
lives
in
being
for
the
purpose
of
calculating
the
perpetuity
period
e.g.
using
royal
lives
clause
will
be
ineffective.
Not
possible
to
provide
for
a
longer
period
than
100
years
but
it
is
possible
to
specify
a
shorter
period
[3]
At
common
law,
one
has
to
DETERMINE
AT
THE
OUTSET
whether
a
disposition
may
vest
outside
the
perpetuity
period.
However,
in
Singapore,
s34
of
CLA
now
provides
for
a
wait
and
see
period.
If
it
is
uncertain
whether
or
not
an
interest
will
vest
outside
the
perpetuity
period,
one
can
simply
wait
until
it
becomes
certain
that
the
vesting
will
occur
outside
the
permitted
period.
The
disposition
only
fails
at
the
moment
when
it
becomes
certain
that
vesting
will
occur
(if
at
all)
after
the
end
of
the
permitted
period.
**Any
action
taken
previously
in
relation
to
the
disposition
remains
valid.
Legislative
history
The
main
focus
of
the
reform
of
the
rule
of
perpetuity
was
the
rule
against
remoteness
of
vesting.
According
to
Prof
Jayakumar:
the
Bill
will
reform
a
complicated
common
law
rule
that
requires
future
interests
in
property
to
vest
within
a
perpetuity
period,
if
they
vest
at
all.
The
period
is
measured
by
reference
to
lives
in
being
plus
21
years
at
the
relevant
time.
There
are
complicated
rules
for
determining
the
relevant
lives.
Sir,
not
only
is
this
rule
complicated
for
lawyers
and
judges,
it
can
frustrate
the
intention
of
the
person
creating
the
trust.
In
response
to
question
of
whether
it
applies
to
private
purpose
trusts:
many
issues
that
arise,
especially
from
non-charitable
purpose
trusts
and
settlors
reserve
powers,
are
matters
which
require
careful
study
and
we
also
need
to
see
how
other
jurisdictions
handle
them
and
what
has
been
their
experience.
Question
is
whether
the
phrase
the
rules
against
perpetuities
should
include
the
rule
against
inalienability.
[SHOULD
APPLY]
One
view
is
that
the
authorities
have
often
conflated
the
two
rules
and
thus
s.
32
should
apply
to
the
rule
against
alienability
as
well.
For
example,
the
phrase
has
been
used
in
Khoo
Cheng
Teow
and
Bermuda
Trust
as
referring
to
the
rule
against
inalienability,
and
referring
to
both
rules
in
the
case
of
Re
Estate
of
Chong
Siew
Kum
and
other
UK
authorities.
Academics
have
also
consistently
referred
to
the
rule
against
inalienability
as
falling
under
the
rule
against
perpetuities.
o We
should
read
the
statute
liberally
to
give
effect
to
the
reform
and
not
unduly
limit
it.
[SHOULDNT
APPLY]
Another
view
is
that
s.
32
should
not
apply
to
the
rule
against
inalienability
because
any
change
in
the
law
relating
to
non-charitable
purpose
trusts
should
await
a
comprehensive
review
of
this
area
of
law.
However,
Crown
argues
that
changing
the
rule
against
inalienability
does
not
impact
in
any
way
the
operation
of
the
law
relating
to
non-charitable
purpose
trusts.
The
requirements
are
still
according
to
Re
Endacott
and
nothing
in
s.
32
changes
the
law
established
by
that
case
-
Page
14
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
CHARITABLE
TRUST
5
STEPS
TO
CHARITABLE
TRUSTS
1.
Does
the
trust
fall
under
any
one
of
the
four
Pemsel
heads
of
charitable
trusts?
2.
If
there
is
ambiguity
as
to
whether
it
falls
under
one
of
the
four
Pemsel
heads,
the
charitable
status
of
the
trustee
may
help
resolve
it.
3.
Is
the
trust
wholly
and
exclusively
charitable?
4.
If
there
are
non-charitable
purposes
within
the
trust,
consider
the
application
of
section
64
of
the
Trustees
Act
to
validate
the
trust
i.e.
apply
the
blue
pencil
trust.
5.
If
there
has
been
a
failure
after
the
charitable
trust
has
been
set
up,
consider
the
application
of
cy-pres
pursuant
to
section
21
of
the
Charities
Act.
G E N E R A L
Charitable
trusts
are
accorded
a
number
of
concessions
over
other
trusts
in
terms
of
enforcement,
perpetuity,
certainty
and
taxation.
To
earn
these
concessions,
especially
in
relation
to
taxation,
a
trust
must
generally
be
of
benefit
to
the
public
and
not
merely
to
private
individuals
but
it
seems
that
the
degree
of
public
benefit
required
varies
from
head
to
head.
Intention
of
the
legislature
is
to
encourage
charitable
giving
and
the
development
of
the
voluntary
sector
as
a
whole.
There
is
a
well-established
maxim
that
the
court
leans
in
favour
of
charity
when
construing
charitable
gifts.
Thus
where
a
gift
is
capable
of
two
constructions,
one
which
would
make
it
void
and
the
other
which
would
render
it
effectual,
the
latter
must
be
adopted.
It
is
better
to
effectuate
than
to
destroy
the
intention...
The
court
must
however
be
careful
not
to
strain
the
will
to
gain
money
for
the
charity.
For
in
doing
so
it
will
cheat
the
residuary
legatees
or
next
of
kin
[1]
No
need
for
human
beneficiaries.
Charities
are
purpose
trusts
but
there
is
no
need
for
human
beneficiaries
to
enforce
them,
as
there
is
in
the
case
of
non-charitable
purpose
trusts.
Individuals
who
may
benefit
from
a
charitable
trust
have
no
standing
to
enforce
them.
Charitable
trusts
are
enforced
by
the
AG
in
the
name
of
the
state,
although
the
general
administration
of
charitable
trusts
is
overseen
by
the
Commissioner
of
Charities.
[2]
Objects
need
not
be
certain.
There
is
no
requirement,
as
with
other
trusts,
that
the
objects
of
the
trust
must
be
certain.
Thus,
a
trust
for
charitable
purposes
will
be
valid.
The
court
and
the
Commissioner
of
Charities
have
jurisdiction
to
establish
a
scheme
for
the
application
of
the
funds
for
specific
charitable
purposes.
There
must,
of
course,
be
no
doubt
that
the
objects
of
the
trust
are
exclusively
charitable
and
the
purpose
expressed
must
not
be
so
vague
that
the
court
could
not
control
the
application
of
the
assets.
[3]
Perpetuity:
charitable
trusts
are
exempted
from
the
rule
of
inalienability
(capital
cannot
be
retained
for
longer
than
perpetuity
period).
However,
the
rule
against
remoteness
of
vesting
(all
property
given
to
the
trust
must
vest
during
perpetuity
period)
applies,
with
an
exception
where
there
is
a
gift
over
form
one
charity
to
another
charity.
[4]
Tax
benefits.
Not
so
significant
in
Singapore
because
some
tax
benefits
are
not
automatic
but
in
England,
the
courts
may
be
slow
to
hold
trust
to
be
charitable
to
prevent
abuse
of
these
tax
advantages
Singapore
courts
may
be
more
liberal
in
finding
a
charitable
trust?
P R E L I M I N A R Y : C O M M I S S I O N E R O F C H A R I T I E S G U I D E L I N E S
S T E P 1 : C H A R I T A B L E P U R P O S E S & T H E 4 H E A D S O F P E M S E L
[1]
Starting
point
is
that
charitable
purposes
are
grouped
into
four
distinct
heads
by
Lord
McNaughten
in
Commissioners
of
Income
Tax
v
Pemsel,
which
are
trusts
for
1)
relief
of
poverty,
2)
advancement
of
education,
3)
advancement
of
religion,
and
4)
other
purposes
beneficial
-
Page
15
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
to
the
community.
This
has
been
recognised
by
Lord
Wilberforce
in
Scottist
Burial
Reform
and
Cremation
Society
Ltd
v
Glasgow
Corp
as
a
classification
of
convenience
with
the
fourth
division
as
a
catch-all
category.
Because
the
law
of
charity
is
a
moving
subject
that
is
constantly
evolving,
the
Charity
Commssion
and
Comissioner
of
Charities
have
a
major
role
to
play
in
the
development
of
the
concept.
Note
that
each
head
involves
two
elements;
1)
an
element
of
benefit
and
2)
an
element
of
PUBLIC
benefit.
As
mentioned,
the
requirement
of
PUBLIC
benefit
varies
from
head
to
head.
NOTE:
Thus,
if
you
want
to
argue
that
your
trust
is
charitable,
determine
whether
it
is
exactly
on
point
with
one
already
recognised
and
if
there
is
none,
you
try
to
extend
the
concept
by
analogy.
[2]
However,
post-2005
in
Singapore,
following
the
Budget
Speech
for
2005,
the
definition
of
charitable
purposes
has
been
extended
to
include
new
categories
such
as:
The
advancement
of
sport
where
the
sport
advances
the
health
of
individuals;
The
advancement
of
health;
The
advancement
of
citizenship
or
community
development;
The
advancement
of
the
arts,
heritage
or
science;
The
advancement
of
environmental
protection
or
improvement;
The
relief
of
those
in
need
by
reason
of
youth,
age,
ill-health,
disability,
financial
hardship
or
other
disadvantage;
and
The
advancement
of
animal
welfare.
The
extended
list
of
charitable
purposes
has
also
been
recognized
in
the
annual
reports
of
the
Commissioner
of
Charities
since
2005.
However,
given
that
these
categories
have
yet
been
amened
into
the
Charities
Act,
and
given
that
there
is
a
lack
of
publicity
of
these
categories
sufficient
for
them
to
be
considered
as
Subsidiary
Legislation,
these
charitable
purposes
run
the
risk
of
being
ultra
vires,
being
invalid
because
of
non-compliance
with
publicity
requirements
or
being
of
no
legal
effect
as
a
mere
informal
rule
[3]
Note
that
a
failure
to
register
carries
with
it
the
spectre
of
criminal
liability:
Charities
Act,
s5(6).
In
the
issue
where
courts
decide
WHETHER
OR
NOT
CHARITIES
COMMISSION
GUIDELINES
SHOULD
BE
FOLLOWED,
one
position
is
to
defer
to
Charities
Commissions
expertise.
Counter
position
is
to
bring
up
technical
arguments
and
state
that
they
do
not
have
force
of
law
unless
Parliament
amends
Charities
Act.
[1]
Concept
of
poverty
is
a
relative
one.
A
persons
social
position
and
circumstances
can
be
taken
into
account.
Re
Scarisbrick
in
needy
circumstances
Re
Alsagoff
Trusts
my
poor
relations
Re
Shaikh
Salman
poor
and
in
distressed
circumstances
Gibson
v
South
American
Stores
who
are
or
shall
be
necessitous
and
deserving
[2]
Gift
must
be
exclusively
for
the
benefit
of
the
poor:
Re
Gwyon
[1930]
1
Ch.
255
Fund
providing
for
a
gift
of
clothing
to
boys
in
Farnham
and
district
failed
on
the
ground
that
the
conditions
for
qualification,
precise
through
they
were
in
many
ways,
failed
to
exclude
affluent
children.
[3]
In
poverty
cases,
there
is
no
need
to
show
any
public
benefit:
Re
Scarisbrick
[1951]
Ch.
622
In
Re
Scarisbrick
a
testator
established
a
trust
for
the
benefit
of
such
relation
of
myson
and
daughters
as
in
the
opinion
of
myson
and
daughters
shall
be
in
needy
circumstances
It
was
held
to
be
a
valid
charity
even
though
it
was
essentially
a
trust
for
the
benefit
of
poor
relatives.
[4]
However,
there
can
be
no
charitable
trust,
even
in
the
poverty
category,
where
the
persons
to
be
benefited
are
specified
individuals.
If
the
class
is
large
enough
though,
it
could
constitute
a
section
of
the
public
despite
being
prima
facie
a
private
class:
Dingle
v
Turner.
The
"poor
members"
and
the
"poor
employees"
decisions
were
a
natural
development
of
the
"poor
relations"
decisions
and
to
draw
a
distinction
between
different
sorts
of
"poverty"
trusts
would
be
quite
illogical
and
could
certainly
not
be
said
to
be
introducing
"greater
harmony"
into
the
law
of
charity.
-
Page
16
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
[5]
Examples
Poor
relatives:
Re
Scarisbrick
Poor
employees:
Dingle
v
Turner
[1]
Concept
of
educational
charity
has
widened
significantly
over
the
years
and
now
covers
almost
any
form
of
worthwhile
instruction
or
cultural
advancement
except
for
purely
professional
or
career
courses.
Total
conception
of
education:
o Endowments
of
schools:
AG
v
Lady
Downing
o Encouragement
of
chess-playing
among
young
people
in
Portsmouth
:
Re
Duprees
Deed
Trusts
o Physical
education
in
Universities
(as
integral
part
of
education
for
the
young):
IRC
v
McMullen
o Materials
for
study
of
law:
ICLR
v
AG
Skills
and
craft:
o Association
for
the
purpose
of
encouraging
craftsmanship
and
maintaining
standards
of
modern
and
ancient
crafts:
IRC
v
White
o Teaching,
promotion
and
encouragement
of
self-control,
elocution,
oratory,
deportment,
arts
of
personal
contact,
social
intercourse
and
other
arts
of
public,
private,
professional
and
business
life:
Re
Shaw
WT
Dissemination
of
useful
information:
o Research
(with
element
of
dissemination):
Re
Hopkins
WT,
McGovern
v
AG,
cf:
Re
Shaw
o Study
and
dissemination
of
ethical
principles
and
the
cultivation
of
a
rational
religious
sentiment:
Re
South
Place
Ethical
Society
Arts
and
Music:
o
Re
Pinion
(no
artistic
merit
as
per
expert
evidence),
cf:
Re
Delius
(music
of
the
composer
Delius)
o Music
-
choral
singing
in
London:
Royal
Choral
Society
v
IRC;
organ
music:
Re
Levien;
music
of
composer
Delius:
Re
Delius
Political
purpose:
touchstone
of
political-ness
is
whether
the
gift
is
designed
to
change
the
law
o
Southwood
v
AG:
Disarmament
and
pacifism
as
the
best
means
of
achieving
peace:
o
McGovern
v
AG
(1982):
The
trust
established
by
Amnesty
International
included
some
charitable
objects
but
also
some
non-charitable
political
purpose,
and
was
held
not
chariatble
[2]
It
is
for
the
courts
to
objectively
ascertain
educational
value/artistic
merit
of
the
subject
matter,
such
that
there
is
public
benefit,
with
the
assistance
of
expert
evidence:
Re
Delius
(1957);
Re
Pinion
(1965).
Re
Delius:
In
Re
Delius
a
gift
to
increase
the
general
appreciation
of
the
musical
work
of
the
renowned
composer
was
for
the
advancement
of
education.
Roxburgh
J.
however
recognised
that
there
would
be
a
difficulty
if
a
manifestly
inadequate
composer
had
been
chosen.
Re
Pinion:
Harry
Pinion
was
a
prolific
collector
of
paintings,
furniture,
china,
glass
and
other
objects
dart.
On
his
death,
he
left
his
residuary
estate
to
trustees
to
open
his
studio
as
a
museum
housing
the
collection.
o Expert
witnesses
considered
the
merit
of
the
collection
and
were
unanimous
in
their
conclusion
that
it
was
of
no
educational
value.
In
light
of
the
evidence,
the
Court
held
that
the
trust
is
not
charitable
as
the
works
had
no
artistic
merit.
[3]
The
opinion
of
the
donor
that
the
gift
is
for
the
public
benefit
does
not
make
it
so:
Re
Pinion.
[4]
It
is
necessary
to
show
public
benefit
under
this
head.
Thus,
education
requires
something
more
than
the
mere
accumulation
of
knowledge
e.g.
individual
directed
research.
[5]
Public
benefit
(in
trusts
for
the
advancement
of
education)
only
exists
where
the
persons
who
benefit
can
form
a
section
of
the
public
i.e.
1)
no
personal
nexus
(Oppenheim)
and
2)
no
class
within
a
class
(IRC
v
Baddeley).
th
[1]
A
trust
cannot
qualify
as
a
charity
within
the
4
head
if
the
Test
is
to
look
at
the
distinguishing
quality
that
unites
those
-
Page
17
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
within
the
class
and
ASK
IF
THAT
QUALITY
IS
PERSONAL
OR
beneficiaries
are
a
class
of
persons
not
only
confined
to
a
particular
IMPERSONAL.
If
personal,
the
class
will
not
be
considered
a
area
but
selected
from
within
it
by
reference
to
a
particular
creed
section
of
the
public.
Note
criticisms/dissenting
approach.
(IRC
v
Baddeley
(UKHL1955)).
Facts:
This
case
concerned
a
trust
to
promote
the
moral,
[1]
A
personal
link
or
nexus
among
the
class,
either
through
common
social
and
physical
well-being
of
Methodists
resident
in
ancestry
or
common
employer,
will
normally
negate
any
public
West
Ham
and
Leyton
by
the
provision
of
facilities.
benefit
(Oppenheim
v
Tobacco
Securities
Trust
Co
Ltd
(1951)).
Held:
Not
charitable,
first,
because
the
intended
EXCEPTION:
Even
then
Re
Koettgen
(1954)
suggests
that
beneficiaries
did
not
comprise
a
sufficient
section
of
the
there
is
no
objection
if
merely
a
proportion
of
the
intended
community,
and,
second,
because
the
promotion
of
social
class
is
linked
to
the
donor.
A
fortiori,
the
fact
that
just
one
well-being
was
not
a
charitable
purpose
person
the
donors
son
is
a
member
of
the
club
does
not
Note
the
distinction
between
destroy
the
public
nature
of
its
purpose.
Whether
the
test
is
o a)
a
form
of
relief
accorded
to
the
whole
satisfied
on
the
facts
of
this
problem
will
depend
on
the
community
yet
by
its
very
nature
advantageous
size
of
membership
of
the
club.
If
it
is
negligible,
the
club
only
to
a
few
and
may
fail
to
satisfy
the
public
benefit
test.
The
court
has
a
o b)
a
form
of
relief
accorded
to
a
selected
few
out
wide
discretion
in
deciding
this
issue.
of
a
larger
number
equally
willing
and
able
to
take
Thus
in
Oppenheim,
a
trust
for
the
education
of
the
advantage
of
it
children
of
employees
of
British
American
Tobacco
Co
Ltd
o (a)
is
charitable
or
any
of
its
subsidiary
or
allied
coy
was
not
a
valid
charitable
trust
although
there
were
over
110,000
current
[2]
Class
within
a
class
rule
does
not
apply
in
Singapore?
AG
v
Lim
employees.
Poh
Neo
[1976]
2
MLJ
233
o Majority
(Lord
Simonds)
supported
Re
Settlor
conveyed
all
the
interests
in
lands
to
the
trustees
for
Comptons
personal
nexus
test
use
as
a
burial
ground
for
all
persons
who
are
of
the
Yeo
o Minority
(Lord
McDermott)
dissented
because
clan
and
of
the
Hokkien
tribe.
the
test
would
likely
lead
to
anomalous
results.
Court
held
that
a
gift
of
a
burial
ground
to
members
of
a
Felt
that
if
size
of
class
is
substantial
and
settlors
clan
was
a
gift
to
charity
because
members
of
such
a
clan
intention
was
advance
interests
of
the
class
form
a
section
of
the
community
and
could
not
be
said
to
(purpose
of
trust),
then
trust
should
be
upheld.
be
a
group
of
private
individuals
or
a
fluctuating
group
of
In
Re
Compton,
a
testatrix
by
her
will
provided:
the
individuals.
money
is
to
be
invested
under
a
trust
for
ever
for
the
On
a
proper
construction
of
the
indenture
the
settlor
had
education
of
C
and
P
and
M
children.
Court
held
that
The
made
an
out
and
out
gift
of
the
property
for
charity,
albeit
trust
was
not
a
valid
trust
because
the
beneficiaries
were
for
a
particular
charitable
purpose.
As
the
gift
had
failed
on
defined
by
reference
to
a
personal
relationship,
and
it
the
acquisition
of
the
property
by
the
government
and
the
lacked
the
quality
of
being
a
public
trust.
purpose
of
the
gift
has
become
impossible
of
performance,
o A
trust
for
the
education
of
the
descendents
of
the
proceeds
of
the
acquisition
should
be
held
cy-pres
and
three
named
persons
was
in
fact
a
family
trust.
not
held
as
a
resulting
trust
in
favour
of
the
settlor`s
estate.
o The
fundamental
requirement
of
a
charitable
gift
Crown:
Wrongly
decided
because
didnt
consider
relevant
was
its
public
character;
that
the
number
of
case
authorities?
potential
beneficiaries,
however
large,
could
not
raise
a
family
or
private
benefaction
into
the
class
of
charitable
gifts.
[3]
Pearce
questions
the
validity
of
the
class
within
a
class
restriction
since
there
are
many
trusts
with
double
limitations
on
eligibility
that
should
remain
valid.
The
real
objection
is
the
[2]
FOR:
Needless
to
say,
the
efficacy
of
this
test
has
been
challenged
introduction
of
an
arbitrary
limitation
on
eligibility
i.e.
a
Church
for
(for
example,
in
Dingle
v
Turner
(1972)),
but
it
is
designed
to
Christians
is
acceptable
but
a
bridge
for
Christians
only
is
not
since
a
ensure
that
a
donor
does
not
derive
a
private
benefit,
with
fiscal
bridge
should
be
available
to
all.
advantages,
from
what
is
supposed
to
be
a
public
purpose.
Consequently,
even
though
the
motives
of
[SETTLOR]
may
be
of
the
purest
kind,
the
fact
that
this
trust
would
confer
benefits
on
their
own
employees,
making
employment
at
the
company
more
attractive
[4A]
Discretion
to
prefer
=
valid:
If
a
trust
for
a
broad
charitable
class
and
the
workforce
more
content,
is
enough
to
deprive
the
intended
of
beneficiaries
gives
the
trustees
a
power,
without
being
under
any
trust
of
charitable
status.
duty,
to
prefer
a
certain
private
class
within
the
broader
public
class,
this
does
not
vitiate
the
validity
of
the
trust
as
a
charitable
trust
(
[2B]
AGAINST:
The
narrow
personal
nexus
approach
in
Oppenheim
Re
Koettgen
(1954).
is
conducive
to
certainty,
but
is
susceptible
to
artificial
manipulation
In
this
case,
a
testatrix
bequeathed
her
residuary
estate
on
of
legal
forms
in
order
to
obtain
incentives
as
a
charitable
trust.
As
trust
for
the
promotion
and
furtherance
of
commercial
-
Page
18
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
noted
by
Lord
McDermott,
a
trust
for
employees
of
university
will
fail
education.
She
further
directed
that
in
selecting
the
whereas
a
trust
for
university
education
will
be
recognised
as
beneficiaries
it
is
my
wish
that
the
trustees
shall
give
a
charitable.
Furthermore,
the
Law
Lords
in
Dingle
v
Turner
preferred
preference
to
any
employees
of
JB
&
Co
(London)
or
any
Lord
McDermotts
broader
approach
too,
which
is
concerned
with
members
of
the
families
of
such
employees
substance
and
not
form.
[4B]
Duty
to
prefer
=
void:
However,
if
the
trust
for
the
broad
charitable
class
imposes
a
duty
upon
the
trustees
to
use
the
whole,
if
possible,
or
an
uncertain
part
of
the
funds
for
a
specified
private
class
then
the
trust
cannot
be
a
valid
charitable
trust
(
Re
Martin
(1977)).
If
only
a
maximum
specified
part
of
the
fund
is
directed
to
be
used
for
the
private
class
then
while
such
part
should
not
be
charitable,
the
remainder,
presumably,
should
be
SEVERED
AS
CHARITABLE
since
it
can
be
used
for
exclusively
charitable
purposes
[1]
Trusts
for
research
purposes
are
charitable
only
if
it
is
[1]
Traditionally,
the
promotion
of
sport
was
upheld
as
charitable
contemplated
that
the
research
will
be
published:
Re
Shaw;
Re
only
where
it
was
ancillary
to
the
pursuit
of
a
charitable
purpose:
Hopkins
Will
Trusts
Re
Mariette
(1915)
(sport
in
a
school
educational)
In
Re
Hopkins
WT,
Wilberforce
J
held
that
research
must
Re
Gray
(1925)
(sport
in
any
army
regiment
general
either
be
of
a)
educational
value
to
the
researcher
or
must
public
benefit
in
promoting
efficiency
of
the
Army)
be
so
directed
as
to
lead
to
b)
something
which
will
pass
o Note:
doubted
in
IRC
v
City
of
Glasgow
into
the
store
of
educational
material,
or
so
as
to
improve
Police
Athletic
Assoc
(1953)
where
it
was
held
the
sum
of
communicable
knowledge
in
an
area
which
that
the
charitable
purpose
has
to
be
the
education
may
cover
predominant
object
London
Hospital
Medical
College
v
IRC
(1976)
(athletic,
cultural
and
social
activities
of
Students
Union
furthering
educational
purposes
of
medical
school)
IRC
v
McMullen
(UKHL1981)
(soccer
and
other
sports
in
schools
and
universities
educational)
[2]
However,
post-2005
in
Singapore,
an
extended
list
of
charitable
purposes
has
been
recognised
following
the
Budget
Speech
for
2005
where
PM
Lee
Hsien
Loong
extended
the
definition
of
charitable
purposes
by
including
the
advancement
of
sport...
where
the
sport
advances
the
health
of
individuals.
The
extended
list
of
charitable
purposes
has
also
been
recognized
in
the
annual
reports
of
the
Commissioner
of
Charities
since
2005.
[1]
Definition
of
religion:
The
definition
of
religion
was
previously
defined
as
mans
relations
with
God
and
this
effectively
restricted
the
scope
of
religious
trusts
to
a
monotheistic
religion:
Re
South
Place
Ethical
Society.
Likewise
in
Singapore,
a
restrictive
definition
of
religion
was
adopted
in
Nappalli
v
ITE
(1999)
where
the
CA,
in
addressing
the
substance
of
religious
belief,
excluded
ideologies
which
do
not
evince
a
belief
in
God.
Thus,
in
Re
South
Place
Ethical
Society,
the
Societys
objects,
which
were
the
study
and
dissemination
of
ethical
principles
and
the
cultivation
of
a
rational
religious
sentiment,
failed
to
qualify
it
as
a
religious
charity
(though
it
was
considered
a
charity
nevertheless
under
other
heads)
-
Page
19
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
religion
by
Dillon
J
in
Re
South
Place
distinction
is
drawn
between
monotheistic
are
within
the
scope
of
a
religion,
it
is
no
Ethical
Society,
Buddhism
was
not
a
and
polytheistic
religions.
objection
that
those
tenets
are
theologically
religion
since
a)
it
is
a
realised
rather
than
Charitable
trusts
have
been
unsound
(
Thornton
v
Howe
(1862)),
or
a
revealed
religion,
and
b)
its
adherents
do
registered
for
the
advancement
of
that
the
number
of
followers
is
minimal
(
not
revere
the
Buddha
as
a
god,
but
the
Church
of
England,
Catholic
Re
Watson
(1973)).
instead
believe
that
they
should
follow
a
(Bradshaw
v
Tasker),
Baptist
(Re
In
Thornton
v
Howe,
a
trust
for
spiritual
path
that
he
laid
out
which
can
the
publication
of
the
sacred
Stricklands
WT),
Jewish
(Neville
ultimately
lead
to
spiritual
awakening.
writings
of
Joanna
Southcott,
who
Estates
Ltd
v
Madden),
Sikh,
claimed
that
she
was
with
child
by
Islamic,
Hindu
(Varsani
v
Jesani)
Argue
for
acceptance:
the
Holy
Ghost
and
would
give
and
Spiritualist
religions
Singapore
is
accommodative
Church
of
Scientology
does
not
birth
to
a
new
Messiah
was
held
to
towards
religion
in
general
have
charitable
status.
Its
be
charitable.
More
than
50%
of
Singaporeans
application
was
rejected
by
Charity
In
Re
Watson,
Plowman
J.
upheld
are
Buddhists
Commission
because
although
a
trust
for
the
continuation
of
the
Buddhist
charitable
groups
have
successfully
registered
as
a
charity
Scientologists
believe
in
a
supreme
work
of
Godin
propagating
the
being,
this
belief
does
not
find
truth
as
given
in
the
Holy
Bible
by
expression
in
conduct
indicative
of
financing
the
continued
publication
reverence
or
veneration
for
the
of
the
books
and
tracts
of
one
supreme
being:
study
and
therapy
Hobbs
who,
with
the
testator,
was
or
counseling
did
not
amount
to
the
leading
member
of
a
very
such
worship
small
group
of
undenominational
o Note
that
Scientologists
Christians.
Expert
evidence
have
achieved
regarded
the
intrinsic
value
of
the
recognition
as
a
religious
work
as
nil;
but
it
confirmed
the
charity
in
Australia
i.e.
genuineness
of
the
belief
of
the
Church
of
the
New
adherents
of
that
small
group.
Faith
v
Commissioner
of
Pay-roll
Tax
[2]
However,
doctrines
adverse
to
the
very
foundation
of
all
religion
cannot
be
charitable:
Thornton
v
Howe
[2]
Trusts
for
the
adding
to
or
repairing
the
fabric
of
a
church
(
Hoare
v
Osborne)
or
for
the
upkeep
of
a
churchyard
(
Re
Vaughhan;
Re
Douglas)
are
charitable
but
not
for
the
erection
or
upkeep
of
a
particular
tomb
in
a
churchyard
(
Re
Hooper).
[3]
If
a
1)
gift
is
made
to
an
ecclesiastic
in
his
official
name
and
by
virtue
of
his
office
then
if
2)
no
purposes
are
expressed
in
the
gift,
the
gift
is
for
charitable
religious
purposes
inherent
in
the
office
(Re
Rumball).
However,
if
the
purposes
are
expressed
in
terms
not
confining
them
to
exclusively
charitable
purposes
then
the
charitable
character
of
the
trustee
will
not
make
the
gift
charitable:
o
Re
Simson
(gift
to
vicar
for
his
work
in
the
parish
charitable);
o
Farley
v
Westminster
Bank
(gift
to
vicar
for
parish
work
not
charitable
since
it
could
include
work
for
other
purposes)
[4]
A
trust
for
religious
purposes
will
be
treated
as
for
charitable
religious
purposes
but
a
trust
for
religious
institutions
will
not
be
a
charitable
trust
because
some
religious
institutions
lack
the
necessary
public
benefit
for
a
charitable
trust
(
Gilmour
v
Coats
-
e.g.
purely
contemplative
order
of
nuns).
MacLaughlin
v
Campbell:
to
trustees
for
such
Roman
Catholic
purposes
void
because
possibility
of
Catholic
political,
economic
or
social
purposes
Re
White:
gift
for
religious
purposes
means
impliedly
charitable
religious
purposes
[5]
Public
benefit
in
religious
trusts
is
required
but
court
seems
prepared
to
assume
a
public
benefit
where
the
purpose
in
question
is
of
a
religious
nature
unless
the
contrary
is
shown.
The
law
assumes
that
any
religious
activity
carried
on
in
the
public
domain
is
charitable.
There
is
no
need
for
the
religion
to
prove
its
value
or
for
the
court
to
weigh
the
validity
of
its
beliefs.
However,
the
belief
must
be
objective
and
-
Page
20
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
capable
of
proof
in
court:
Gilmour
v
Coats.
In
Gilmour
v
Coats
(UKHL1949),
HL
held
that
a
trust
for
a
contemplative
order
of
nuns
who
did
not
leave
their
cloisters
nor
allow
the
public
into
them
was
not
charitable.
The
benefits
of
their
edifying
example
and
their
intercessory
prayers
were
too
vague
and
incapable
of
being
proved
to
be
of
tangible
benefit
for
the
public.
However
in
Neville
Estates
Ltd
v
Madden
(UKCh1962),
which
bears
a
similar
factual
matrix
as
Gilmour
v
Coats,
Cross
J
upheld
as
charitable
the
trust
because
the
Synagogues
activities
included
public
services.
[1]
The
mere
fact
that
the
object
of
the
trust
is
beneficial
to
the
community
is
not
enough.
The
question
whether
a
purpose
is
beneficial
to
the
community
is
one
that
the
court
must
decide
in
light
of
all
the
evidence
available.
What
the
donor
thought,
or
what
other
people
think
is
not
the
issue.
In
a
sense,
the
test
is
objective,
yet
the
judges
cannot
avoid
making
a
subjective
choice.
In
National
Anti-Vivisection
Society
v
IRC
(1948),
the
question
was
whether
the
Society
was
entitled
to
relief
from
income
tax
on
the
ground
that
its
objects
which
was
the
total
suppression
of
vivisection
was
charitable.
The
protection
of
animals
from
cruelty
is
a
chartaible
purpose.
Vivisection
on
the
other
hand
is
a
necessary
part
of
medical
research,
thus
is
beneficial
to
community
as
well.
The
question,
as
Lord
Simmonds
said,
is
whether
the
court,
for
the
purposes
of
determining
whether
the
object
of
the
society
is
charitable
may
disregard
the
finding
of
fact
that
any
assumed
public
benefit
in
the
direction
of
the
advancement
of
morals
and
education
was
far
outweighed
by
the
detriment
to
medical
science
and
research
and
consequentl
to
public
health
which
would
result
if
the
society
succeeded
in
achiving
its
objects,
and
on
that
balance,
the
object
of
the
society,
so
far
from
being
for
the
public
benefit,
was
gravely
injurious
thereto.
The
court
undertook
to
make
the
value
judgment,
Weighing
conflicting
moral
and
material
utilities.
On
balance,
on
the
evidence
available
to
it,
the
suppression
of
vivisection
was
not
beneficial
to
the
public,
and
the
claim
failed.
Another
reason
why
the
trust
failed
as
a
charity
in
that
case
is
because
it
was
seeking
a
change
in
the
law
to
outlaw
vivisection.
Political
trusts
are
not
charitable
and
any
trust
which
seeks
to
change
the
law
is
political.
See
below
for
more
on
political
trusts.
[2]
Analogy
approach:
you
have
to
show
that
the
purpose
is
beneficial
in
the
way
which
law
regards
as
charitable
i.e.
beneficial
within
the
spirit
and
intendment
of
the
Preamble,
or
by
analogy
from
the
principles
established
by
the
cases:
Williams
Trustees
IRC
(1947);
Scottish
Burial
Reform
and
Cremation
Society
Ltd
v
Glasgow
Corporation
(1968)
In
Williams
Trustees
v
IRC
a
trust
for
the
purpose
of
maintaining
an
institute
"for
the
benefit
of
Welsh
people
resident
in
or
near
or
visiting
London
with
a
view
to
creating
a
centre
in
London
for
promoting
the
moral,
social,
spiritual
and
educational
welfare
of
Welsh
people,
and
fostering
the
study
of
the
Welsh
language
and
of
Welsh
history,
literature,
music
and
art"
failed,
on
the
ground
that
the
objects
of
the
trust,
though
beneficial
to
the
community,
were
not
beneficial
in
the
way
which
the
law
regards
as
charitable.
In
Scottish
Burial
Reform
and
Cremation
Society
Ltd
v
Glasgow
Corporation
a
non-profit-making
cremation
society
was
held
charitable
by
analogy
with
cases
holding
burial
grounds
to
be
so,
though
neither
facility
receives
specific
mention
in
the
Preamble.
[3]
Singapore
may
choose
to
abandon
the
analogy
approach
and
use
a
wider
approach
where
there
is
no
definitional
boundary
to
the
fourth
class.
Russell
LJ
in
Incorporated
Council
of
Law
Reporting
v.
Attorney-General
went
so
far
as
to
say
that
if
a
purpose
is
beneficial
to
-
Page
21
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86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
the
community,
it
is
prima
facie
charitable
in
law,
and
that
the
analogy
approach
is
too
restrictive.
In
Re
South
Place
Ethical
Society
(1980)
Dillon
J.
preferred
the
old
analogy
approach.
More
recently
however,
in
AG
of
the
Cayman
Islands
v
Wahr-Hansen
[2000]
3
All
ER
64
Lord
Browne-Wilkinson
said
in
obiter
dicta
that
Russell
LJs
approach
has
much
to
commend
it.
In
Hwa
Soo
Chin
v
Estate
of
Lim
Soo
Ban,
the
Singapore
High
Court
found
that
a
childrens
home
in
looking
to
the
relief
of
children
who
were
liable
to
neglect
and
owing
to
their
tender
years,
helpless
to
assist
themselves,
fulfilled
a
purpose
that
was
beneficial
to
the
community
and
charitable
within
the
preamble
to
the
Statute
of
Elizabeth.
This
seems
to
support
Russel
LJs
broad
approach.
[4]
Treatment
of
the
problem
has
been
much
improved
by
the
obligation
to
register
charities
under
s5(6)
of
the
Charities
Act.
As
part
of
their
jurisdiction
to
register
or
refuse
registration,
the
Commissioners
have
built
up
a
valuable
range
of
precedents
by
which
they
can
be
guided.
However,
there
is
an
appeal
from
the
Commissioners
decision
to
the
court.
[5]
There
are
dicta
to
support
the
view
that
a
higher
element
of
public
benefit
is
required
in
charities
under
the
fourth
head
than
in
the
other
categories
of
charities
(see
above
Advancement
of
Educations
public
benefit)
S T E P 2 : I F A M B I G U O U S , L O O K T O C H A R I T A B L E S T A T U S O F T R U S T E E
The
charitable
nature
of
a
trust
is
determined
by
the
terms
of
the
trust
and
not
by
the
status
of
the
trustee.
But
the
charitable
status
of
the
trustee
can
in
some
cases,
where
the
terms
of
the
trust
are
not
spelled
out,
lead
the
court
to
construe
the
terms
of
the
trust
as
charitable.
In
Re
Rumball
a
gift
to
the
bishop
for
the
time
being
of
the
diocese
of
the
Windward
Islands
to
be
used
by
him
as
he
thinks
fit
in
his
diocese
was
upheld.
S T E P 3 : E X C L U S I V E L Y C H A R I T A B L E
[1]
For
a
charitable
trust
to
be
valid,
it
must
be
for
exclusively
charitable
purposes.
Thus,
in
Chichester
Diocesan
Fund
v
Simpson,
the
court
held
that
the
testators
direction
to
apply
the
residue
of
his
estate
for
such
charitable
institution
or
institutions
or
other
charitable
or
benevolent
object
or
objects
in
England"
led
to
the
failure
of
the
trust
because
or
benevolent
meant
that
the
trust
was
not
exclusively
charitable.
Prima
facie,
the
word
or
causes
the
the
words
to
be
read
disjunctively
whereas
the
word
and
causes
them
to
be
read
conjunctively.
A
statement
of
objects
which
includes
non-charitable
purposes
is
not
saved
by
adding
in
so
far
as
they
are
of
a
charitable
nature.
[2]
If
there
is
a
combination
of
purposes,
some
charitable
and
others
not,
then
it
will
not
be
charitable
unless
the
private
benefits
can
be
seen
as
being
no
more
than
ancillary
or
subordiante
to
the
public
benefits.
IRC
v
Oldham
Training
and
Enterprise
Council
(1996):
Lightman
J
held
that
a
TEC
was
not
a
charitable
body
because
its
objects
included
some
non-charitable
elements,
including
the
promotion
of
the
interests
of
individuals
rather
than
of
the
community
in
general.
McGovern
v
AG
(1982):
The
trust
established
by
Amnesty
International
included
some
charitable
objects
but
also
some
non-
charitable
political
purpose,
and
was
held
not
chariatble.
Williams
Trustees
v
IRC
(1947):
Objects
included
many
that
were
charitable,
but
also
the
promotion
of
social
activities
that
are
not.
IRC
v
Baddeley
(1955):
Promotion
of
Methodism
was
a
charitable
purpose,
but
not
the
promotion
of
sport
and
recreation.
[3]
Benignant
construction:
Where
the
court
is
required
to
determine
whether
a
gift
was
for
exclusively
charitable
purposes,
it
may
take
a
generous
approach
and
give
it
a
benignant
construction:
IRC
v
McMullen
per
Lord
Hailsham
LC;
Guild
v
IRC
(UKHL
1992).
This
means
that
where
there
is
an
ambiguity
such
that
a
gift
is
capable
of
two
constructions,
one
of
which
would
make
it
void
and
the
other
effectual,
court
will
uphold
it.
Precise
scope
of
the
principle
permitting
a
benignant
construction
was
considered
in
Funnell
v
Steward
where
it
was
held
that
the
-
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22
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
it
would
not
save
a
dual
purpose
gift
where
one
identifiable
object
was
clearly
present
but
plainly
not
charitable,
as
the
court
could
not
simply
ignore
the
non-charitable
element
of
the
trust.
However,
courts
can
save
a
gift
which
had
a
single
purpose
capable
of
being
carried
into
effect
in
two
different
ways,
one
of
which
would
be
charitable
and
the
other
which
would
not.
[4]
In
Singapore,
s
6(1)
of
the
Charities
Act
provides
that
an
institute
that
is
on
the
register
of
charities
is
presumed
conclusively
to
be
a
charity.
Therefore,
when
an
institution
is
registered
as
a
charity,
there
is
no
question
of
(i)
it
not
being
a
charity,
or
(ii)
the
objects
not
being
exclusively
charitable.
(Re
Will
of
Samuel
Emily,
deceased
(SGHC2001))
Conjunctions
AND
OR
Re
Sutton:
gift
to
charitable
and
deserving
objects
held
AG
of
the
Cayman
Islands
v
Wahr-Hansen:
trusts
for
exclusively
charitable
income
to
be
paid
"to
any
one
or
more
religious,
charitable
o The
word
and
was
give
a
conjunctive
or
educational
institution
or
institutions
OR
any
interpretation
so
that
only
deserving
objects
organisations
or
institutions
operating
for
the
public
good"
which
were
ALSO
charitable
were
contemplated.
held
not
valid
as
charitable
trusts
and
void
for
perpetuity
Re
Best:
gift
to
charitable
and
benevolent
institutions
Chichester
Diocesan
Fund
and
Board
of
Finance
v
held
exclusively
charitable
Simpson:
"for
such
charitable
institution
or
institutions
OR
AG
of
Bahamaas
v
Royal
Trust
Co:
gift
for
the
education
other
charitable
OR
benevolent
object
or
objects
in
and
welfare
of
Bahamian
children
construed
as
disjunctive
England"
held
not
exclusively
charitable
(in
light
of
circumstances)
and
gift
thus
failed
since
it
o In
Singapore,
can
be
validated
by
s64
permitted
application
of
funds
for
educational
purposes
Re
Bennett:
gift
to
educational
purposes
and
other
and
for
welfare
purposes
which
need
not
necessarily
be
objects
of
charity,
or
any
other
public
objects
in
the
parish
educational
of
Farringdon
was
held
to
be
exclusive
charitable.
o Note:
rebuttal
of
presumption
that
and
o Court
took
the
clause
as
a
whole
and
noted
the
denotes
conjunctive
reading;
two
purposes
word
other,
and
held
that
it
was
not
to
be
weflare
not
charitable
construed
disjunctively
but
to
mean
other
public
purposes
that
are
also
charitable.
o Note:
rebuttal
of
the
presumption
that
or
denotes
disjunctive
reading
S T E P 4 : C A N T H E T R U S T B E S A V E D B Y S 6 4 , T R U S T E E S A C T ?
IMPORTANT:
It
only
applies
if
the
trust
is
going
to
be
invalidated.
If
it
merely
becomes
clear
that
a
trust
is
NOT
charitable
but
still
valid
as
a
private
purpose
trust,
s.
64
does
not
apply.
In
Nai
Seng
Hiang
v
Trustees
of
the
Presbyterian
Church
in
Singapore,
court
held
that
trust
did
not
fail
for
want
of
exclusive
charitable
purpose
even
though
it
included
the
words
social
or
otherwise
in
its
declaration
of
trust.
This
was
because
the
donor
clearly
and
unequivocably
evinced
a
general
charitable
intention
that
Christian
works
and
evangelistic
pursuits
were
the
exclusive
purposes
with
the
other
purposes
"social
or
otherwise"
as
mere
adjectives
describing
Christian
works
or
one
aspect
of
them.
Accordingly,
the
court
exercised
its
discretion
and
ordered
a
cy-pres
scheme
to
fulfil
the
exclusive
charitable
intent
of
the
donor.
Might
be
better
if
the
court
had
applied
s64,
Trustees
Act
instead
of
coming
up
with
a
contrived
reasoning
However,
a
single
purpose
with
both
charitable
and
non-charitable
elements
cannot
be
given
effect
to
because
deleting
the
non-charitable
purpose
will
completely
alter
the
character
of
the
gift:
Roman
Catholic
Archbishop
of
Melbourne
v
Lawlor
(HCA1934)
-
Page
23
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86
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N i c h o l a s
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The
testator
set
up
a
trust
for
the
purpose
of
(1)
establishing
a
Catholic
daily
newspaper
[which
is
a
general
newspaper
with
religious
articles]
and
(2)
finding
or
supporting
a
farm
for
the
training
of
orphan
or
delinquent
boys
to
country
life.
The
testator
next
provided
that,
until
sufficient
funds
were
in
hand
to
found
the
daily
paper
and
secure
the
farm,
the
income
from
both
benefactions
should
be
used
for
Catholic
education
or
any
good
object
the
trustees
might
decide.
Rich
J:
It
is
one
entire
description
of
one
entire
purpose.
To
confine
the
publication
to
purposes
of
religion
which
are
charitable
is
to
change
the
whole
character
of
the
newspaper
intended
by
the
testator.
Starke
J:
But
[section
64
Trustees
Act]
cannot
be
applied
to
a
gift
directing
the
application
of
the
fund
for
a
single
purposee.g.
establishing
a
Catholic
daily
newspaperthe
charitable
and
non-charitable
elements
of
which
cannot
be
disentangled,
separated
or
delimited.
S T E P 5 : C A N C Y - P R E S B E A P P L I E D U N D E R S 2 1 , C H A R I T I E S A C T ?
Where
specific
charitable
purposes
become
impossible
or
impracticable
to
perform,
the
doctrine
of
cy-prs
under
common
law
allows
the
funds
to
be
applied
to
purposes
as
similar
to
the
original
purposes
as
possible.
Under
s.
21(1)
of
the
Charities
Act
the
circumstances
in
which
the
original
purposes
of
a
charitable
gift
can
be
altered
to
allow
the
property
given
or
part
of
it
to
be
applied
cy-pres
are
as
follows:
(a) Where
the
original
purposes,
in
whole
or
in
part
(i) Have
been
as
far
as
may
be
fulfilled;
(ii) Cannot
be
carried
out;
or
(iii) Cannot
be
carried
out
according
to
the
directions
given
and
to
the
spirit
of
the
gift.
(b) Where
the
original
purposes
provide
a
use
for
part
only
of
the
property
available
by
virtue
of
the
gift;
(c) Where
the
property
available
by
virtue
of
the
gift
and
other
property
applicable
for
similar
purposes
can
be
more
effectively
used
in
conjunction,
and
to
that
end
can
suitably,
regard
being
had
to
the
spirit
of
the
gift,
be
made
applicable
to
common
purposes;
(d) Where
the
original
purposes
were
laid
down
by
reference
to
an
area
which
then
was
but
has
since
ceased
to
be
a
unit
for
some
other
purpose,
or
by
reference
to
a
class
of
persons
or
to
an
area
which
has
for
any
reason
since
ceased
to
be
suitable,
regard
being
had
to
the
spirit
of
the
gift,
or
to
be
practical
in
administering
the
gift;
or
(e) Where
the
original
purposes,
in
whole
or
in
part,
have,
since
they
were
laid
down
(i) Been
adequately
provided
for
by
other
means;
(ii) Ceased,
as
being
useless
or
harmful
to
the
community
or
for
other
reasons,
to
be
in
law
charitable;
or
(iii) Ceased
in
any
other
way
to
provide
a
suitable
and
effective
method
of
using
the
property
available
by
virtue
of
the
gift,
regard
being
had
to
the
spirit
of
the
gift.
Under
s.
21(2),
subsection
(1)
shall
not
affect
the
conditions
which
must
be
satisfied
in
order
that
property
given
for
charitable
purposes
may
be
applied
cy-prs,
except
in
so
far
as
those
conditions
require
a
failure
of
the
original
purposes.
Duty
of
trustee
to
apply
for
cy-pres.
INITIAL
FAILURE
WHETHER
THERE
IS
A
PARAMOUNT
OR
GENERAL
CHARITABLE
INTENTION
(AS
OPPOSED
TO
SPECIFIC)
For the relief of the blind in Batley Unincorporated association e.g. For Batley Blind Home, High Street, Batley
-
Page
24
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86
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N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
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[1]
No
problem
because
purposes
3
STEPS
last
forever
though
particular
First,
construction
of
will
whether
could
ascertain
intention
of
testator
as
per
Re
Will
of
Samuel
institutions
carrying
out
purposes
Emily,
deceased
may
die.
Second,
construe
gift
to
have
a
continuing
purpose
[2]
If
the
purpose
is
more
specific
Third,
even
if
gift
fails
but
theres
general
charitable
intention,
apply
for
cy-pres
such
that
it
becomes
impossible
to
perform
e.g.
building
an
old
folks
home
at
a
particular
site,
then
the
[1]
A
gift
to
an
unincorporated
charity
will
be
construed
as
a
gift
on
trust
for
purposes.
As
these
purpose
may
fail
and
the
trust
will
purposes
still
exist,
there
will
be
no
failure
as
a
trust
does
not
fail
for
lack
of
a
trustee:
Re
Fingers
lapse
unless
cy-pres
is
applied
to
Will
Trusts
(1972);
Re
Vernons
Will
Trusts
(1972).
save
it
As
stated
by
Buckley
J
in
Re
Vernons
WT,
every
bequest
to
an
unincorporated
charity
by
name
without
more
must
take
effect
as
a
gift
for
a
charitable
purpose
unless
the
testators
[3]
However,
if
the
use
of
the
intention
was
to
the
contrary.
specified
site
was
merely
incidental
to
his
charitable
intention
(of
[2A]
If
the
gift
is
construed
as
a
gift
to
a
particular
charitable
institution
just
for
its
particular
building
an
old
folks
home)
then
an
purposes
then
the
gift
lapses
if
the
institution
ceases
to
exist
before
the
testators
death:
Re
Spences
alternative
site
may
be
used
without
WT.
need
for
the
application
of
cy-pres
at
Re
Spence's
Will
Trusts
[1979]
where
the
testatrix
gave
residue
of
her
estate
to
a
trust
to
all.
be
divided
equally
between
the
Blind
Home
at
Scott
Street
and
the
Old
Folks
Home
at
Hillworth
Lodge.
o The
Blind
Home
did
not
exist
per
se
but
there
was
a
similar
association
such
that
the
court
could
interpret
it
as
one
for
a
cause,
not
a
particular
institution:
Re
Harwood
o The
Old
Folks
Home
was
something
that
ceased
to
exist
prior
to
the
testatrixs
death.
Seniors
now
had
various
other
residences
and
the
building
now
serves
as
office
space.
The
gift
thus
prima
facie
fails
unless
a
general
charitable
intention
can
be
found.
o Megarry
V.C.
held
that
the
gift
failed
and
could
not
be
applied
cy-pres.
It
was
not
a
general
gift
to
the
old
people
of
the
district.
**It
is
unlikely
for
a
general
charitable
intention
to
be
found
justifying
a
cy-pres
application
as
per
the
presumption
in
Re
Harwood.
LEAD
ON
TO
POINT
ON
NON-EXISTENT
CHARITIES.
[2B]
If
the
gift
is
construed
as
a
gift
for
a
charitable
purpose
in
circumstances
where
the
existence
of
the
particular
institution
carrying
out
the
purpose
is
not
material
to
the
gifts
validity,
the
gift
does
not
lapse
so
long
as
the
purpose
can
be
carried
out
by
other
means
which
are
to
be
determined
by
the
court
in
cases
of
doubt:
Re
Fingers
WT.
Re
Fingers
WT
(1972):
there
was
a
gift
to
the
National
Radium
Commission
(unincorporated)
and
to
the
National
Council
for
Maternity
and
Child
Welfare
(incorporated).
Both
had
ceased
to
exist
by
the
testatrixs
death.
The
gift
to
the
unincorporated
charity
was
construed
as
a
gift
to
charitable
purposes.
o A
scheme
was
ordered
to
settle
the
destination
of
the
gift,
but
this
was
not
a
cy-
pres
scheme
and
no
general
charitable
intention
was
necessary.
[2C]
If
gift
is
construed
as
an
augmentation
of
trust
funds,
then
so
long
as
there
are
endowment
funds
held
in
trust
for
the
named
charitys
purposes
the
gift
augments
such
funds
despite
any
alteration
in
its
name
or
constitution
or
any
amalgamation
with
other
charities:
Re
Faraker.
Re
Faraker:
Gift
to
Mrs.
Bayleys
Charity,
Rotherhithe.
A
Mrs.
Hannah
Bayly
had
founded
a
charity
in
1756
for
the
benefit
of
poor
widows
in
Rotherhithe.
The
Charity
Commissioners
had
consolidated
this,
with
a
number
of
other
local
charities,
under
a
scheme
in
1905,
and
the
funds
were
held
in
various
trusts
for
the
benefit
of
the
poor
in
Rotherhithe.
o Held:
Bayly
trusts
had
not
been
destroyed
by
the
scheme,
and
that
the
consolidated
charities
were
entitled
to
the
legacy.
The
gift
had
not
failed
because
a
perpetual
charity
cannot
die.
o Thus,
there
was
no
question
of
cy-pres
at
all.
-
Page
25
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
[3]
Non-existent
charities:
In
Re
Harwood
it
was
said
that
it
was
easier
to
find
a
general
charitable
intent
in
a
case
where
the
institution
had
never
existed
than
it
was
in
the
case
where
an
identifiable
institution
had
ceased
to
exist.
If
he
had
a
specific
intention,
he
would
likely
have
had
gotten
the
name
right.
The
substance
of
the
principle
was
applied
in
Re
Will
of
Samuel
Emily,
deceased,
where
the
testator
left
some
of
the
beneficiaries
names
incomplete
or
misdescribed
in
her
will.
The
court
held
that
evidence
may
be
used
to
show
that
misdescribed,
non-existent
charities
are
actually
referring
to
particular
ones.
o Construction:
However,
the
tenor
of
the
will
is
clear.
The
testatrix
had
no
blood
relatives
as
the
evidence
incontrovertibly
shows
and
was
planning
to
give
away
her
worldly
possessions
to
the
Church,
to
institutions
which
she
deemed
worthwhile
causes
and
to
certain
people
whom
she
had
associated
with
in
this
life.
She
was
clearly
intending
to
be
kind
and
generous
and
to
do
good
when
she
expressed
the
bequests
in
her
will.
It
is
in
that
broad
sense
of
doing
charity
that
she
was
making
the
"Donations
for
Charities".
Incorporated association e.g. for Batley Blind Home Ltd, High Street Batley
[1]
A
gift
to
an
incorporated
charity
is
presumed
to
be
an
out
and
out
gift
to
the
corporate
institution
beneficially
as
part
of
its
general
funds,
unless
there
is
something
positive
in
the
will
to
justify
the
bequest
being
treated
as
on
trust
for
the
purposes
of
the
companys
charitable
objects.
Re
Fingers
Will
Trusts
(1972):
The
gift
to
the
incorporated
charity
on
the
other
hand
failed
but
was
saved
by
lapse
by
the
finding
of
a
general
charitable
intention
and
was
accordingly
applied
by
the
court
cy-pres.
[2A]
Where
it
is
treated
as
an
out
and
out
gift,
the
gift
will
lapse
if
the
company
is
wound
up
before
the
testator
dies
unless,
which
is
most
unlikely,
a
general
charitable
intention
can
be
found
to
justify
a
cy-pres
application.
[2B]
Where
it
is
treated
as
being
on
trust
for
purposes,
the
purposes
could
be
a)
to
the
charity
as
run
by
the
company,
b)
to
the
company,
or
c)
to
a
charitable
purpose.
For
(a),
lapse
will
occur
if
the
home
ceases
to
exist
before
the
testators
death
For
(b),
lapse
will
occur
if
the
company
is
wound
up
before
the
testators
death
For
(c),
lapse
will
not
occur
SUBSEQUENT FAILURE
[1]
Once
assets
are
effectively
dedicated
to
a
charity,
there
can
be
no
question
of
a
lapse
or
a
resulting
trust
UNLESS:
There
is
no
exclusive
dedication
to
charity,
such
as
where
the
donor
retains
an
interest
or
there
is
a
gift
over
to
a
non-charitable
purpose
upon
a
certain
event.
Only
the
income
is
gifted
the
capital
cannot
be
applied
via
cy-pres.
[2]
All
that
is
necessary
is
that
the
property
has
been
given
out
and
out
to
charity,
in
the
sense
that
the
donor
did
not
envisage
its
return
in
any
circumstances.
In
general,
the
court
will
apply
the
cy-pres
doctrine,
regardless
of
how
general
or
specific
the
intention.
Hwa
Soo
Chin
v
Estate
of
Lim
Soo
Ban:
The
property
therefore
represented
the
asset
of
a
defunct
charity
and
as
such
it
ought
to
be
applied
cy
prs
under
s21(1)(a)(ii),
Trustees
Act
where
original
purposes,
in
whole
or
in
part,
cannot
be
carried
out,
or
not
according
to
the
directions
given
and
to
the
spirit
of
the
gift.
AG
v
Lim
Poh
Neo
[1976]
2
MLJ
233
Settlor
conveyed
all
the
interests
in
lands
to
the
trustees
for
use
as
a
burial
ground
for
all
persons
who
are
of
the
Yeo
clan
and
of
the
Hokkien
tribe.
-
Page
26
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
Court
held
that
a
gift
of
a
burial
ground
to
members
of
a
clan
was
a
gift
to
charity
because
members
of
such
a
clan
form
a
section
of
the
community
and
could
not
be
said
to
be
a
group
of
private
individuals
or
a
fluctuating
group
of
individuals.
On
a
proper
construction
of
the
indenture
the
settlor
had
made
an
out
and
out
gift
of
the
property
for
charity,
albeit
for
a
particular
charitable
purpose.
o Directions
that
the
trustee
should
not
sell,
mortgage
or
otherwise
part
with
the
property
was
a
step
taken
to
ensure
that
the
property
was
reserved
for
the
charitable
purpose.
o Settlor
had
not
contemplated
a
failure
of
the
trust
as
he
made
no
provision
for
such
an
eventuality.
Settlor
did
not
try
to
reserve
or
preserve
any
interests
for
himself
should
such
an
eventuality
arise.
Gift
had
taken
effect
because
the
property
had
been
used
as
a
burial
ground
for
a
number
of
years.
As
the
gift
had
failed
on
the
acquisition
of
the
property
by
the
government
and
the
purpose
of
the
gift
has
become
impossible
of
performance,
the
proceeds
of
the
acquisition
should
be
held
cy-pres
and
not
held
as
a
resulting
trust
in
favour
of
the
settlor`s
estate.
G I F T L A P S E S R E S I D U A R Y E S T A T E
If
gift
lapses,
the
property
will
be
passed
to
residuary
legatees
by
way
of
a
resulting
trust.
-
Page
27
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
CONSTITUTION
OF
TRUST
S T A R T I N G P O S I T I O N
The
test
for
creating
a
perfect
trust
was
laid
down
by
Turner
LJ
in
Milroy
v
Lord
(1862).
This
involves
the
settlor,
[NAME],
choosing
one
of
two
modes
of
creating
the
trust:
1)
a
transfer
of
property
to
the
trustees,
subject
to
a
direction
to
hold
upon
trust
for
the
beneficiaries;
or
2)
a
self-declaration
of
trust.
Applying
this
test
to
the
facts
of
the
problem,
we
have
been
informed
that
[SETTLOR]
failed
to
transfer
the
relevant
properties
([PROPERTIES])
to
[TRUSTEE],
the
intended
trustee.
Thus,
it
would
appear
that
the
intended
trust
is
imperfect.
M E T H O D 1 : C O N S T I T U T I N G T R U S T B Y T R A N S F E R
GENERAL RULE
The
issue
here
is
whether
the
trust
property
has
been
effectively
transferred
to
the
trustee.
The
requirements
for
an
effective
transfer
may
vary:
Land
(deed
or
registration)
o In
Singapore,
s63(1),
LTA
states
that
lease,
mortgage
or
charge
requires
1)
instrument
of
transfer
in
approved
form
and
2)
registration
for
legal
title
to
be
transferred
Shares
(share
transfer
form
+
register
with
company)
Cheque
(endorse
by
name
of
transferee
and
signature
at
the
back)
Chattel:
Transfer
of
legal
title
done
with
delivery
of
the
chattel
to
the
transferee
with
the
intention
to
transfer
legal
title.
[1]
The
settlor
must
have
done
everything
that,
according
to
the
nature
of
the
property
comprised
in
the
settlement,
was
necessary
to
be
done
in
order
to
transfer
the
property
and
render
the
settlement
binding
upon
him:
Milroy
v
Lord;
Re
Fry.
Milroy
v
Lord
(1862)
[1]
No
transfer
of
legal
title
where
something
remains
to
be
done
to
effect
transfer;
[2]
Equity
will
not
perfect
an
imperfect
gift.
If
it
is
intended
to
take
effect
by
transfer,
court
will
not
hold
the
intended
transfer
to
operate
as
a
declaration
of
trust.
o In
this
case,
a
voluntary
deed
purporting
to
transfer
shares
to
a
trustee
to
be
held
on
trust
for
Milroy
was
invalid
because
shares
could
only
be
transferred
by
registration
of
name
of
transferee
(trustee)
in
the
books
of
coy,
which
was
not
done
o Although
it
was
his
intention
to
create
a
trust,
he
had
tried
to
do
so
by
transferring
the
shares
to
a
trustee
i.e.
method
1.
It
was
not
his
intention
to
declare
himself
a
trustee
i.e.
method
2.
Richards
v
Delbridge:
o Transfer
of
land
by
memorandum
in
writing
held
as
invalid
declaration
of
trust
because
it
was
not
done
by
deed
[2]
At
the
same
time
an
imperfect
transfer
will
not
automatically
be
construed
as
a
self-declaration
of
trust
with
the
effect
of
imposing
a
trust
obligation
on
[SETTLOR],
for
otherwise
all
imperfect
transfers
will
be
treated
as
perfect
(Richards
v
Delbridge
(1874)).
In
any
event
[SETTLOR]
did
not
declare
an
intention
to
make
himself
a
trustee.
RE
ROSE
EXCEPTION
IF
ACT
OF
3P
REQUIRED
TO
PERFECT
TITLE
The
general
rule
is
that
equity
would
not
act
to
perfect
an
imperfect
The
principle
that
the
donor
has
done
everything
he
can
is
not
gift,
i.e.
imperfect
attempt
at
transferring
the
gift.
absolute;
it
is
always
possible
to
find
something
more
that
he
could
have
done.
Recent
cases
seem
to
illustrate
a
more
lenient
However,
the
Re
Rose
exception
states
that,
as
between
the
donor
approach
to
the
technicalities
of
this
area
of
the
law
on
the
part
-
Page
28
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
and
donee,
the
equitable
ownership
(note:
through
a
constructive
of
the
modern
courts.
trust)
in
the
property
passes
as
soon
as
the
donor
has
done
all
that
has
to
be
done
by
him,
according
to
the
nature
of
the
property.
[1]
Benevolent
construction:
Although
equity
will
not
aid
a
volunteer,
In
Re
Rose,
husband
transferred
shares
in
private
company
it
will
not
strive
officiously
to
defeat
a
gift.
In
effect,
where
the
court
to
wife
and
executed
share
transfer
forms
on
30
Mar
1943.
is
satisfied
that
the
donor
had
the
relevant
intention,
the
court
will
in
order
for
wife
to
avoid
estate
duty,
the
transfer
has
to
be
construe
the
words
which
the
donor
used
as
words
effecting
a
gift
or
completed
before
10
Apr
1943,
which
is
the
date
that
is
5
declaring
a
trust
if
they
can
fairly
bear
the
meaning:
T.
Choithram
v
years
before
husbands
death.
Because
husband
had
done
Pagarani
(UKPC2001).
everything
necessary
to
be
done
by
executing
the
share
transfer
form,
court
held
that
trust
was
valid
and
effective
[2]
Unconscionability:
A
donor
would
not
be
permitted
to
change
his
in
equity
from
30
Mar
1943,
thus
shares
were
not
position
or
recall
his
gift
if
it
would
be
unconscionable
to
do
so:
assessable
for
estate
duty.
Pennington
v
Waine
(2002).
o The
case
has
been
criticised
because
Mr
Rose
o In
Pennington
v
Waine,
company
auditor
told
donee
(settlor)
clearly
did
not
intend
to
declare
himself
a
nephew
he
need
no
take
further
steps
and
he
signed
form
trustee.
If
company
had
refused
to
register
the
of
consent
to
become
director
but
share
transfer
form
not
share,
he
could
have
been
a
trustee
for
years,
delivered
to
him
nor
was
he
registered
as
a
shareholder
by
resulting
in
the
imposition
of
onerous
trustee
date
of
donors
death
a
few
weeks
later.
Court
stated
that
it
duties
on
him.
would
have
been
unconscionable
if
the
donee
did
not
get
In
Re
Lee
Phee
Soo,
applicant
tried
to
rely
on
Re
Rose
the
shares
since
he
assumed
directorship
with
its
attendant
doctrine
but
court
held
that
it
cannot
fairly
be
said
that
the
liabilities,
and
accordingly
held
that
the
shares
had
been
intestate
has
done
all
that
was
in
his
power
to
perfect
the
effectively
transferred
in
equity
to
him
prior
to
donors
gift:
he
had
admittedly
failed
to
obtain,
or
even
ask
for,
death.
the
necessary
permission
of
the
Controller,
which
was
o COUNTER:
Indeed,
in
Pennington
v
Waine
(2002),
the
necessary
for
share
transfer.
Court
of
Appeal
decided
that
the
delivery
of
the
share
transfer
form
to
the
company
could
be
dispensed
with.
If
it
BONUS:
It
is
unclear
as
to
the
precise
role
played
by
the
third
party.
would
be
unconscionable
for
the
transferor
to
have
recalled
Some
third
parties
may
have
a
purely
ministerial
role
while
others
what
she
intended
to
donate,
the
transfer
would
be
may
have
a
discretion
to
refuse
registration
of
the
legal
title.
It
would
effective
in
equity.
This
notion
of
unconscionability
was
appear
that
the
Re
Rose
principle
is
applicable
irrespective
of
the
role
based
on
analogy
with
the
principle
laid
down
by
the
Privy
of
the
third
party
dispositive
or
not.
Council
in
Choithram
International
SA
v
Pagarani
(2001).
o However,
the
Privy
Council
in
that
case
had
decided
that
the
trust
was
perfectly
created
and
thus
it
would
have
been
unconscionable
for
the
settlor
to
deny
the
existence
of
the
trust,
whereas
in
Pennington
the
donor
had
neither
declared
a
trust
nor
made
a
perfect
gift
nor
had
she
done
everything
required
of
her
to
make
the
gift.
Accordingly,
Pennington
was
an
unjustifiable
extension
of
the
Milroy
v
Lord
principle.
M E T H O D 2 : D E C L A R A T I O N O F S E L F A S T R U S T E E
**Questions
usually
arise
in
cases
where
the
settlors
intention
was
to
make
a
gift
to
a
donee
but
the
gift
failed,
and
the
question
is
whether
the
intent
to
benefit
the
donee
can
be
construed
as
a
declaration
of
trust
in
his
favour.
[1]
If
settlor
wishes
to
declare
himself
trustee
of
some
or
all
of
his
property,
all
that
is
needed
is
a
manifestation
of
an
intention
to
declare
a
trust.
If
property
is
land,
evidence
in
writing
of
such
intent
[2]
Equity
will
not
construe
a
void
gift
as
a
declaration
of
trust.
What
is
needed
is
a
manifestation
of
an
intention
to
declare
a
trust,
not
just
an
intention
to
benefit
someone:
Jones
v
Lock
(1865).
In
Jones
v
Lock,
father
wanted
to
make
a
gift
of
a
cheque
to
infant
son.
He
died
and
cheque
was
found
among
his
effects.
Court
-
Page
29
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
held
that
there
was
no
evidence
that
he
intended
to
declare
himself
trustee
of
the
cheque
and
to
burden
himself
with
trustee
duties,
thus
child
took
nothing.
[3]
Declaration
of
self
as
trustee
could
be
implied
through
conduct:
Paul
v
Constance
(1977),
cf
Jones
v
Lock.
In
Paul
v
Constance,
Mr
Constance
promised
his
mistress
that
the
money
in
a
bank
account
was
as
much
hers
as
his.
Although
the
statement
made
by
him
was
in
itself
insufficient
to
imply
a
trust,
the
fact
that
Mr
Constance
and
his
mistress
both
paid
their
bingo
winnings
into
this
account
and
that
a
subsequent
withdrawal
was
made
for
the
benefit
of
both
of
them
implied
to
the
court
that
Mr
Constance
did
intent
for
it
to
be
a
trust.
M E T H O D 3 ? T R A N S F E R O F A S S E T S T O G R O U P O F T R U S T E E S W H I C H T R A N S F E R O R W A S P A R T O F
Moreover,
in
Choithram
International
SA
v
Pagarani
(2001),
the
Privy
Council
decided
that
where
the
settlor
appoints
multiple
trustees,
including
himself,
and
declares
an
irrevocable
intention
to
create
a
trust
for
specific
persons,
a
failure
to
transfer
the
property
to
the
nominated
trustees
is
not
fatal,
for
his
(settlors)
retention
of
the
property
will
be
treated
as
a
trustee.
Facts:
Wealthy
man
TCP
executed
a
trust
deed
establishing
a
charitable
foundation,
and
made
an
oral
statement
along
the
lines
of
I
now
give
all
my
wealth
to
the
trust.
He
then
instructed
his
accountant
to
transfer
his
assets
to
the
trustees,
of
whom
he
was
one,
but
died
before
this
was
completed.
Held:
Privy
Council
held
that
in
the
context,
settlors
words
amounted
to
a
declaration
of
trust
Browne-Wilkinson
LJ:
There
can
be
no
distinction
between
the
case
where
the
donor
declares
himself
to
be
sole
trustee
for
a
donee
or
a
purpose
and
the
case
where
he
declares
himself
to
be
one
of
the
trustees
for
that
donee
or
purpose.
In
both
cases,
his
conscience
is
affected
and
it
would
be
unconscionable
and
contrary
to
the
principles
of
equity
to
allow
such
a
donor
to
resile
from
his
gift
T R U S T I N C H O S E I N A C T I O N S A N D C O N V E N A N T S
Fletcher
v
Fletcher
establishes
that
if
A
covenants
with
B
to
transfer
$60,000
to
B
as
trustee
with
express
or
implied
intent
that
B
shall
hold
the
benefit
of
the
covenant
upon
trust
for
C
and
D
if
they
attain
21
years
of
age,
then
A
has
created
a
completely
constituted
trust,
which
may
be
enforced
by
C
and
D,
although
they
are
volunteers.
[1]
Fletcher
rule:
Alternatively,
the
intended
beneficiaries
may
argue
that
the
subject
matter
of
the
covenant
involves
the
benefit
of
the
covenant,
as
distinct
from
the
[PROPERTIES
IN
QUESTION
E.G.
CASH,
YACHT],
which
constitute
choses
in
action.
Such
properties
are
intangible
personal
property
rights
that
are
transferred
by
operation
of
law
in
accordance
with
the
intention
of
the
transferor. If
this
argument
were
to
succeed,
it
would
follow
that
[TRUSTEE]
would
have
acquired
the
respective
properties
from
[SETTLOR]
and
would
be
required
to
hold
the
same
on
trust
for
the
beneficiaries:
Fletcher
v
Fletcher
(1844).
However,
the
Fletcher
rule
is
restricted
to
one
type
of
chose
in
action,
namely
debts
enforceable
at
law.
Hence,
no
trust
exists
for
the
[PROPERTY
THAT
IS
NOT
DEBT].
Question
of
fact
whether
[SETTLOR]
had
intention
of
creating
a
trust
of
a
chose
in
action.
In
this
case
[2]
To
rule
out
Fletcher
application
to
property
other
than
money:
In
respect
of
the
Fletcher
v
Fletcher
(1844)
rule,
it
was
decided
in
Re
Cook
(1965)
that
that
rule
is
restricted
to
debts
enforceable
at
law.
This
limitation
restricts
Fletcher
to
one
type
of
chose
only,
namely
covenanted
obligations
to
transfer
money.
Thus
the
principle
would
not
be
applicable
to
a
covenant
to
transfer
the
house.
TRANSITION:
On
the
other
hand,
if
the
trusts
of
the
covenants
are
imperfect
(i.e.
the
covenant
to
transfer
50,000
and
the
yacht)
on
the
ground
that
the
subject
matter
of
the
trust
has
not
been
transferred
to
Tim,
the
intended
trustee,
the
trust
is
imperfect
and
the
principle
is
that
equity
will
not
perfect
an
imperfect
trust
and
equity
will
not
assist
a
volunteer.
The
unfulfilled
covenants
will
amount
to
agreements
to
create
trusts
and
be
enforceable,
if
at
all,
in
contract
law.
Have
to
show
either:
I N C O M P L E T E L Y C O N S T I T U T E D T R U S T S
Where
the
beneficiaries
of
an
incomplete
constituted
trust
are
If
B
is
not
a
volunteer
(if
he
has
provided
value
or
within
the
scope
of
volunteers
who
have
not
provided
valuable
consideration,
equity
marriage
consideration
(Paullan
v
Koe))
then
he
can
either
-
Page
30
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
will
not
compel
the
constitution
of
the
trust:
Re
Cooks
ST.
Sue
the
settlor
for
breach
of
contract
or
Cook
executed
a
covenant
that
he
would
settle
the
In
appropriate
circumstances
obtain
specific
performance
proceeds
of
sale
of
any
picture
he
had
received
from
his
(to
force
the
settlor
to
transfer
legal
title
or
declare
trust)
father
and
which
he
sold
in
his
lifetime
on
trust
for
such
that
the
trust
becomes
completely
constituted
members
of
his
family
these
beneficiaries
provided
no
consideration
during
his
lifetime,
he
gave
Rembrandts
Pullan
v
Koe
(1913)
Titus
to
his
wife,
which
she
wished
to
sell
Wife
covenanted
to
settle
after-acquired
property
of
a
Held:
Since
potential
beneficiaries
were
volunteers,
equity
value
greater
than
$100
on
the
trusts
established
under
the
would
not
enforce
the
trust
if
it
was
not
completely
marriage
settlement
subsequently
received
a
gift
of
$285
constituted
by
the
promised
transfer
of
the
proceeds
of
from
mother,
which
she
failed
to
transfer
to
trustee
and
sale.
invested
in
bonds
on
husband/s
death,
bonds
were
in
the
possession
of
his
executors
Held:
Trustees
entitled
to
enforce
the
trust
on
behalf
of
her
children
because
they
were
within
the
scope
of
the
marriage
consideration
and
not
mere
volunteers.
Bonds
were
held
on
the
terms
of
the
marriage
settlement
even
though
they
had
not
been
transferred
to
the
trustees.
F O R M A L I T I E S
F O R
T H E
C R E A T I O N
O F
T R U S T S
I N T E R
F O R M A L I T I E S
B Y
W I L L :
S
3
A N D
6 ,
W I L L S
A C T
V I V O S :
S
6
&
7 ,
C I V I L
L A W
A C T
-
Page
31
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
fraud.
So
in
spite
of
this,
the
trust
is
still
enforced
even
though
there
is
no
evidence
in
writing.
How
did
the
courts
do
this?
Historically,
it
was
stated
in
a
maxim
that
equity
will
not
allow
a
statute
to
be
used
as
an
instrument
of
fraud.
However,
modern
courts
use
the
s.7(3)
constructive
trust
provision.
The
Court
would
impose
a
trust
on
T
to
prevent
his
fraud.
The
terms
of
the
constructive
trust
are
identical
to
the
trust
expressed
by
S,
which
could
not
be
enforced
due
to
a
want
of
formalities.
When
transferring
or
assigning
trust
property
to
trustees,
the
settlor
must
also
accord
with
the
instruments
prescribed
by
law.
Thus,
if
the
intended
trust
property
is
real
property,
there
must
be
a
transfer
of
property
by
valid
conveyance:
Section
52(1),
CLPA).
Situation:
What
if
transfers
to
T
but
no
evidence
in
writing
The
trust
is
still
enforced
even
though
there
is
no
evidence
in
writing.
How
did
the
courts
do
this?
Historically,
it
was
stated
in
a
maxim
that
equity
will
not
allow
a
statute
to
be
used
as
an
instrument
of
fraud,
as
in
the
case
of
Rochefoucauld.
Failure
to
uphold
the
trust
would
mean
that
T
is
able
to
use
the
statute
to
perpetuate
a
fraud.
However,
modern
courts
use
the
s.7(3)
constructive
trust
provision.
The
Court
would
impose
a
trust
on
T
to
prevent
his
fraud.
The
terms
of
the
constructive
trust
are
identical
to
the
trust
expressed
by
S,
which
could
not
be
enforced
due
to
a
want
of
formalities
E X C E P T I O N S T O T H E R U L E T H A T E Q U I T Y W I L L N O T P E R F E C T A N I M P E R F E C T G I F T
RELEASE
OF
DEBT
**CUE
IS
WHEN
DONOR
IS
DYING
OR
SAY
THINGS
LIKE
WHEN
I
[1]
At
common
law,
the
appointment
of
the
debtor
as
executor
DIE.
operates
to
perfect
the
imperfect
release
of
a
debt:
Strong
v
Bird
(1874).
A
donatio
mortis
causa
is
a
lifetime
gift
which
is
conditional
upon,
In
Strong
v
Bird
B
borrowed
money
from
A,
his
and
which
takes
effect
upon,
death.
It
must
be
distinguished
on
the
stepmother,
who
lived
in
his
house
paying
money
a
quarter
one
hand
from
a
normal
lifetime
gift,
under
which
title
passes
for
board
and
it
was
agreed
that
the
debt
should
be
paid
off
immediately
to
the
transferee;
and,
on
the
other
hand,
from
a
by
a
deduction
of
100
pounds
from
each
quarters
payment.
testamentary
gift
which
takes
effect
under
the
provisions
of
a
will.
It
Deductions
of
this
amount
were
made
for
two
quarters;
but
may
therefore
be
regarded
as
an
exception
either
to
the
rules
on
the
third
quarter
day
and
thereafter,
A
paid
the
full
governing
lifetime
gifts,
or
to
the
rules
governing
testamentary
gifts.
amount.
Thus
on
her
death,
some
4
years
later,
there
But
the
assistance
of
equity
will
not
be
required
by
the
remained
monies
owed.
B
was
appointed
her
sole
executor
donee
in
all
cases.
Where
the
subject
matter
is
a
chattel,
and
proved
the
will.
Later
As
next-of-kin
claimed
for
the
which
has
been
delivered
to
the
donee,
the
donees
title
is
balance
of
the
debt.
It
was
held
that
the
appointment
of
B
complete
on
the
donors
death,
no
further
act
being
as
executor
released
the
debt.
necessary.
In
the
case
of
a
chose
in
action
or
land,
on
the
other
hand,
GIFTS
the
donees
title
is
not
complete
on
the
donors
death
as
The
rule
in
Strong
v
Bird
has
been
extended
to
perfecting
imperfect
the
legal
title
vests
in
the
donors
personal
representatives.
gifts.
The
donee
can
seek
the
assistance
of
equity
to
compel
the
1. Where
an
incomplete
gift
is
made
during
the
donors
personal
representatives
to
do
whatever
is
necessary
to
lifetime
and
the
donor
appointed
the
donee
as
executor,
or
perfect
the
donees
title.
It
is
in
this
latter
situation
that
the
2. In
the
case
of
an
intestacy,
the
donee
is
appointed
doctrine
of
donatio
mortis
causa
can
be
seen
as
an
-
Page
32
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
administrator
exception
to
the
rule
that
equity
will
not
assist
a
volunteer
to
perfect
an
imperfect
gift.
The
vesting
of
the
property
in
the
donee
in
his
capacity
as
executor
or
administrator
may
be
treated
as
the
completion
of
the
gift,
overriding
the
claims
of
the
beneficiaries
under
the
will
or
intestacy.
3
ESSENTIALS
FOR
A
VALID
DONATIO
MORTIO
CAUSA
as
per
Cain
v
NOTE:
It
is
necessary
to
show
that
the
donor
intended
to
make
Moon
[1896]
an
intermediate
lifetime
gift
(or
to
release
a
debt,
as
the
case
1. Donor
is
required
to
contemplate
death.
may
be)
and
also
that
he
had
a
continuing
intention
until
the
2. The
gift
must
have
been
made
under
such
circumstances
date
of
his
death.
Thus
an
intention
to
make
a
testamentary
gift
as
to
show
that
the
property
is
to
revert
to
the
donor
if
he
is
not
sufficient.
The
intention
must
relate
to
a
specific
item
of
should
recover.
So
if
the
donor
intended
to
give
the
property.
It
is
not
sufficient
that
there
was
a
vague
desire
to
property
to
the
donee
in
all
events,
there
will
be
no
donatio
provide
something
for
the
donee.
mortis
causa.
3. Donor
is
required
to
transfer
dominion
over
property
during
his
lifetime.
BEWARE
RED-HERRING
QUESTIONS:
o Chattel
can
be
handed
over
physically.
Dominion
In
any
event,
John
and
Smith
as
the
intended
trustees
are
the
can
be
given
too,
for
example,
the
key
to
a
safe
executors
of
Franks
will.
It
is
tempting
to
argue
that
the
rule
in
can
be
handed
over.
For
land,
the
donor
must
Strong
v
Bird
(1874)
will
perfect
the
imperfect
gifts,
see
Re
Ralli
deliver
the
essential
indicia
or
evidence
of
title
to
(1964).
But
on
reflection
Franks
intention
was
to
make
future
the
donee.
An
antecedent
delivery
is
allowed.
transfers
to
the
trustees.
This
has
the
effect
of
excluding
the
rule
in
Strong
v
Bird,
see
Re
Freeland
(1952).
First
two
issues
are
issue
of
fact.
Point
(3)
is
usually
the
contested
issue.
-
Page
33
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
RESULTING
TRUSTS
&
COMMON
INTENTION
CONSTRUCTIVE
TRUST
Steps:
1. Was
there
a
presumption
of
resulting
trust?
2. Can
it
be
rebutted
by
evidence
or
presumption
of
advancement?
3. Is
the
presumption
of
advancement
precluded
by
illegality?
a. Subject
to
the
exceptions
of
non-reliance
of
illegality
and
locus
poenitentiae?
4. Was
there
a
common
intention
that
the
property
be
shared
in
different
proportions?
R E S U L T I N G T R U S T
GENERAL
[1]
Under
section
7(3)
of
the
Civil
Law
Act,
resulting
and
constructive
trusts
are
exempted
from
the
requirement
of
signed
writing.
[2]
Note
that
in
matrimonial
context,
s3
of
Inheritance
(Family
Provision)
Act
grants
power
for
court
to
order
payment
out
of
net
estate
of
deceased
for
benefit
of
surviving
spouse
or
child.
1
In
Stack,
however,
Lord
Neuberger
considered
that
resulting
trusts
still
has
a
role
to
play.
In
Laskar
v
Laskar,
it
was
held
that
because
mother
and
daughter
bought
the
property
primarily
for
rental
income
and
capital
appreciation
purposes,
the
traditional
resulting
trust
analysis
still
applies
even
though
their
relationship
is
a
familial
one.
-
Page
34
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
case
where
monies
are
borrowed
by
the
mortgagor
to
be
used
on
the
purchase,
the
mortgagor
is
treated
as
having
provided
the
proportion
of
the
purchase
price
attributable
to
the
monies
so
borrowed.
Sole
name
situations:
Payment
of
mortgage
instalments
pursuant
to
the
agreement
between
the
parties
when
the
mortgage
is
taken
out
will
be
direct
contributions
to
the
purchase
price
and
will
give
rise
to
a
resulting
trust.
However,
in
the
absence
of
any
such
agreement,
the
payment
of
mortgage
instalments
or
other
financial
contributions
subsequent
to
the
initial
acquisition
of
the
property
WILL
NOT
give
rise
to
any
beneficial
interest
by
way
of
a
resulting
trust.
[2]
Renovation
work:
Where
a
property
is
redeveloped
closely
after
purchase
and
where
its
value
is
increased
by
the
redevelopment,
contributions
to
the
costs
of
redevelopment
can
be
relevant
in
determining
the
respective
proportion
of
contributions
to
the
purchase
price
of
the
property
for
the
purposes
of
a
resulting
trust.
This
is
because
the
courts
recognise
that
whatever
the
parties
intentions
were
at
the
outset,
they
may
have
changed
where
one
party
has
financed
an
extension
or
substantial
imporvement
to
the
property,
so
that
what
they
have
now
is
significantly
dfferent
from
what
they
had
then.
RIGHT OF SURVIVORSHIP
As
joint
tenants
of
the
flat,
the
plaintiff
and
defendant
have
at
law
an
identical
interest
in
the
whole
of
the
flat.
The
position
is,
however,
different
in
equity
because
of
the
way
in
which
they
paid
for
the
flat.
The
governing
principle
is
that
where
two
or
more
persons
buy
a
property
together
but
pay
for
it
in
unequal
shares,
then
even
if
they
register
themselves
as
joint
owners
of
the
property,
the
law
will
presume
that
the
express
joint
tenancy
has
been
severed
in
equity
into
an
implied
tenancy
in
common
in
unequal
shares
proportioned
to
the
amount
of
the
purchase
price
contributed
by
each
co-owner. Equity
leans
in
favour
of
tenancies
in
common
in
given
situations
because
of
the
inherent
unfairness
of
the
right
of
survivorship
that
obtains
where
there
is
a
joint
tenancy.
However,
if
it
is
a
claim
by
the
estate
of
the
deceased:
The
Court
of
Appeal's
conclusion
in
aligning
itself
to
the
basic
and
direct
approach
expressed
in
the
paragraph
quoted
below
in
the
judgment
in
Lau
Siew
Kim
reflects
its
inclination
to
preserving
the
right
of
survivorship
in
status
quo:
There
is
no
occasion
for
equity
to
fasten
upon
the
registered
interest
held
by
the
joint
tenants
a
trust
obligation
representing
differently
proportionate
interests
as
tenants
in
common.
The
subsistence
of
the
matrimonial
relationship,
as
Mason
and
Brennan
JJ
emphasized
in
Calverley
v
Green,
supports
the
choice
of
joint
tenancy
with
the
prospect
of
survivorship
(emphasis
added.)
Thus,
the
defendant
could
argue
that
the
right
of
survivorship
is
part
of
the
presumption
of
advancement
as
accepted
by
Lau
Siew
Kim
Presumption
of
resulting
trust
arises
when
If
A
made
full
contribution
If
parties
contributions
to
the
purchase
the
transferee:
Equity
will
follow
the
law
and
home
will
be
price
of
the
property
is
the
SAME
Has
not
given
full
consideration
or
deemed
to
belong
to
A.
Equity
will
follow
the
law
and
parties
will
be
Is
a
fiduciary
or
No
presumption
of
resulting
trust
arises.
deemed
to
hold
the
property
as
joint
tenants
Is
under
an
obligation
to
return
the
in
equity
as
will.
If
A
dies,
then
B
will
take
property
to
the
transferor.
legal
title
to
the
whole
by
survivorship,
but
If
B
made
full
contribution
will
be
treated
as
a
tenant
in
common
in
Presumption
of
resulting
trust
arises
in
equity
and
will
hold
As
share
of
the
purchase
favour
of
B
because
A
gave
no
consideration.
or
mortgage
money
on
reslting
trust
for
As
estate.
A
can
try
and
prove
that
B
intended
to
make
him
a
gift:
Loosemore
v
McDonnell
A
can
try
and
prove
that
B
intended
If
parties
contribution
to
the
purchase
price
to
lend
A
the
purchase
money,
thus
of
the
party
was
UNEQUAL
he
must
have
intended
for
A
to
A
presumption
of
resulting
trust
arises
and
have
beneficial
ownership
of
parties
will
be
presumed
to
hold
the
property
and
to
owe
him
a
properties
as
beneficial
tenants
in
common
personal
obligation
to
repay
the
of
shares
proportionate
to
their
-
Page
35
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
amount
of
the
loan
contributions
to
the
acquisition
of
the
o If
proven,
B
will
only
be
properties.
entitled
as
As
creditor
to
Because
parties
contributions
the
repayment
of
the
crystallise
at
the
date
of
sum
of
money
and
any
acquisition,
neither
can
agreed
interest
subsequently
claim
a
larger
share
under
the
resulting
trust
on
the
basis
that
he
has
paid
for
If
BOTH
PARTIES
made
contributions
to
the
improvements
to
the
property
or
property
paid
a
higher
proportion
of
the
A
presumption
of
resulting
trust
arises
and
mortgage
instalments
than
the
parties
will
be
presumed
to
hold
the
parties
agreed
at
the
time
of
properties
as
beneficial
tenants
in
common
acquisition
of
shares
proportionate
to
their
contributions
to
the
acquisition
of
the
properties.
Parties
contribution
should
be
At
the
extreme,
if
ONLY
A
made
full
confined
to
those
made
at
the
time
of
the
contribution,
both
parties
will
be
presumed
acquisition
of
the
property.
to
hold
the
property
on
resulting
trust
for
A.
Presumption
of
resulting
trust
may
be
Presumption
of
resulting
trust
may
be
Presumption
of
resulting
trust
may
be
rebutted
(i.e.
property
was
an
outright
gift)
rebutted
(i.e.
contribution
made
towards
the
rebutted
with:
with:
acquisition
of
the
property
was
meant
to
be
a
Presumption
of
advancement
i.e.
Presumption
of
advancement
gift)
with:
can
be
expanded
to
include
which
may
be
rebutted
by
evidence
Presumption
of
advancement
intention
on
the
part
of
the
parties
Evidence
of
the
real
objective
of
which
may
be
rebutted
by
evidence
for
the
rule
of
survivorship
to
operate
such
that
absolute
the
transferor.
Evidence
of
the
real
objective
of
beneficial
ownership
is
to
be
the
transferor.
conferred
on
the
surviving
joint
tenant
(Lau
Siew
Kim)
which
may
be
rebutted
by
evidence
Evidence
of
the
real
objective
of
the
transferor.
P R E S U M P T I O N O F A D V A N C E M E N T
GENERAL
[1]
For
certain
kinds
of
relationships,
it
is
presumed
that
a
contribution
towards
the
acquisition
of
property
was
intended
to
be
an
outright
gift.
In
particular,
where
the
joint
tenants
are
spouses,
the
presumption
of
advancement
applies
to
presume
an
intention
on
the
part
of
the
parties
for
the
rule
of
survivorship
to
operate;
the
scope
of
the
presumption
should
be
expanded
to
include
(if
it
does
not
already
so
include)
the
inference
of
an
intention
for
the
absolute
beneficial
ownership
of
the
property
to
be
conferred
on
the
surviving
joint
tenant.
Traditionally,
a
presumption
of
advancement
will
be
raised
in
3
types
of
transfers:
1)
husband
and
wife,
2)
father
and
child,
and
3)
person
who
stands
in
loco
parentis
and
child.
[2]
Singapore
law
remains
committed
to
the
traditional
categorisation
approach
to
presumptions
of
advancement
(Lau
Siew
Kim),
albeit
in
a
more
nuanced
and
fact-sensitive
way
based
on,
first,
the
nature
of
the
relationship
between
the
parties
and,
second,
the
state
of
the
relationship
(Low
Gim
Siah,
affirmed
in
Lau
Siew
Kim).
The
financial
dependence
of
the
recipient
on
the
transferor
or
contributor,
mentioned
in
Low
Gim
Siah,
is
but
one
factor
which
may
affect
the
strength
of
the
presumption
of
advancement.
In
our
judgment,
two
key
elements
are
crucial
in
determining
the
strength
of
the
presumption
of
advancement
in
any
given
case:
o first,
the
nature
of
the
relationship
between
the
parties
(for
example,
the
obligation
(legal,
moral
or
otherwise)
that
one
party
has
towards
another
or
the
dependency
between
the
parties);
and
o second,
the
state
of
the
relationship
(for
example,
whether
the
relationship
is
a
close
and
caring
one
or
one
of
formal
-
Page
36
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
convenience).
The
court
should
consider
whether,
in
the
entirety
of
the
circumstances,
it
is
readily
presumed
that
the
transferor
or
contributor
intended
to
make
a
gift
to
the
recipient
and,
if
so,
whether
the
evidence
is
sufficient
to
rebut
the
presumption,
given
the
appropriate
strength
of
the
presumption
in
that
case.
HUSBAND AND WIFE FATHER AND CHILD LOCO PARENTIS AND CHILD
H U S B A N D - T O - W I F E
F A T H E R - T O - C H I L D
L O C O
P A R E N T I S - T O - C H I L D
Although
influence
of
the
presumptions
of
For
many
years,
the
Singapore
readily
A
person
in
loco
parentis
is
regarded
as
advancement
and
resulting
trust
as
between
applied
the
presumption
of
advancement
to
someone
standing
in
the
position
of
a
lawful
husband
and
wife
is
limited
in
the
UK
transfers
between
father
and
child:
Yeo
Kia
father
of
the
child.
Thus,
the
presumption
of
(Pettitt
v
Pettitt;
Neo
Tai
Kim)
and
Hong
v
Yeo
Kia
Hock.
advancement
will
apply
to
such
person
who
considered
as
an
evidential
instrument
of
takes
upon
himself
the
duty
of
the
father
of
a
last
resort
locally
in
Teo
Siew
Har
v
Lee
child
to
provide
for
that
child
e.g.
a
Kuan
Yew,
the
presumption
was
applied
in
grandparent,
an
uncle
and
even
a
mother
force
in
the
recent
Court
of
Appeal
case
of
although
it
is
no
longer
necessary
to
Lau
Siew
Kim,
where
the
presumption
of
establish
that
a
mother
is
in
loco-parentis
to
advancement
was
even
extended
to
a
child
for
the
presumption
of
advancement
engaged
couples.
to
apply
to
a
transfer
from
her
to
a
child.
W I F E - T O - H U S B A N D
M O T H E R - T O - C H I L D
C H I L D - T O - P A R E N T
?
Whereas
the
presumption
of
advancement
The
Court
of
Appeal
in
Lau
Siew
Kim
in
the
One
of
the
factors
considered
by
the
court
in
traditionally
operates
upon
transfers
from
form
of
obiter
remarks
extended
the
Lau
Siew
Kim
in
expanding
the
husbands
to
wives,
it
does
not
apply
to
presumption
of
advancement
to
all
parent- presumption
of
advancement
to
all
transfers
from
wives
to
husbands.
child
relationships,
even
where
the
child
was
relationships
between
parent
and
child
is
the
In
Lau
Siew
Kim
v
Terence
Yeo
an
adult
and
financially
independent,
despite
statutory
duty
on
the
part
of
both
parents
to
Guan
Chye,
CA
considered
the
the
contrary
view
of
the
majority
of
the
maintain
their
children
under
s68
of
changed
roles
of
the
modern
Supreme
Court
of
Canada
in
Pecore
v
Womens
Charter.
Singapore
woman
at
length
but
did
Pecore.
not
explicitly
consider
if
the
In
the
reverse
scenario
of
child-parent
presumption
now
operated
One
possible
factor
within
the
parent-child
transfers,
given
societys
respect
for
ones
between
wife
and
husband.
There
category
which
could
affect
the
weight
of
the
elders,
it
is
more
probable
than
not
that
are,
however,
passages
suggesting
presumption
of
advancement
may
be
the
apparent
gifts
to
ones
parents
are
actually
implicitly
that
the
presumption
number
of
children
the
parent
(or
person
intended
to
be
gifts
rather
than
transfers
on
ought
to
apply
in
such
cases
as
standing
in
loco
parentis)
has;
ceteris
trust.
Furthermore,
an
elderly
person
who
is
well.
paribus,
the
greater
the
number
of
children
unable
to
maintain
himself
is
able
to
seek
one
has,
the
less
likely
that
a
transfer
of
maintenance
from
any
of
his
children
under
property
of
substantial
value
to
a
single
the
Maintenance
of
Parents
Act
too.
child
without
similar
provision
for
the
other
E N G A G E D
C O U P L E S
S I B L I N G - T O - S I B L I N G
children
would
be
intended
as
a
pure
gift
to
Extended
by
Lau
Siew
Kim.
There
is
no
presumption
of
advancement
that
child.
Of
course,
the
presumption
of
between
siblings.
advancement
should
still
operate
in
such
a
C O - H A B I T E E S
case,
but
it
is
likely
that
less
weighty
evidence
Although
the
CA
in
Lau
Siew
Kim
extended
would
be
required
to
rebut
the
presumption
the
presumption
of
advancement
between
of
a
gift
as
compared
to
a
case
where
the
husband
and
wife
to
transfers
between
recipient
child
was
the
only
child
of
the
fianc
and
fiance,
it
expressed
a
reluctance
transferor
parent.
All
the
circumstances
of
to
extend
the
presumption
to
transfers
the
case
must
be
considered:
Lau
Siew
between
co-habiting
couples.
Kim.
I L L E G A L I T Y
General
rule:
Subject
to
two
exceptions,
English
authorities
support
the
proposition
that
equity
will
not
aid
a
plaintiff
who
had
transferred
his
property
for
an
illegal
purpose.
Thus,
he
will
not
be
able
to
lead
evidence
of
an
illegal
purpose
to
rebut
a
presumption.
-
Page
37
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
One
exception
to
this
principle
is
that
where
the
plaintiff
does
not
have
to
rely
on
the
illegality
Another
exception
to
the
rule
that
a
to
support
his
title,
then
he
is
not
stopped
from
doing
so
by
the
illegal
purpose
behind
the
transferor
may
not
rely
on
leading
transaction:
Tinsley
v
Milligan;
Shi
Fang.
evidence
of
the
illegal
purpose
to
rebut
a
**Where
there
is
a
presumption
of
advancement
and
the
claimant
needed
to
rebut
the
presumption
is
the
doctrine
of
locus
presumption,
then
he
would
be
prevented
from
leading
in
evidence
of
the
illegal
poenitentiae
as
exemplified
in
Tribe
v
purpose,
but
where
the
presumption
is
of
a
resulting
trust
instead,
the
claimant
would
Tribe.
Thus,
where
the
illegal
purpose
succeed,
since
this
did
not
involve
the
illegal
purpose
behind
the
transfer.
has
been
aborted
or
otherwise
not
APPLICATION:
Therefore,
if
wife
transfers
to
husband
to
evade
tax,
the
presumption
of
carried
out,
the
transferor
may
refer
to
advancement
does
not
arise
and
she
would
be
able
to
lead
evidence
of
the
illegal
the
aborted
purpose
to
rebut
the
relevant
purpose
to
buttress
the
presumption
of
resulting
trust
whereas
if
a
husband
transfers
presumption.
to
wife
to
evade
tax,
the
presumption
of
advancement
would
arise
and
he
would
not
This
exception
was
also
applied
be
able
to
lead
evidence
of
the
illegal
purpose
to
rebut
it.
in
Shi
Fang,
where
although
In
Shi
Fang
v
Koh
Pee
Huat,
the
Singapore
CA,
by
way
of
dicta,
followed
Tinsley
v
the
transfer
from
father
to
son
Milligan
and
held
that
the
presumption
of
advancement
in
a
transfer
from
father
to
sought
to
enable
the
father
to
son
was
rebutted
by
the
sons
admission
that
he
held
the
property
on
trust
for
the
avoid
paying
estate
duty,
the
father.
Thus,
the
illegal
purpose
for
the
transfer,
evasion
of
estate
duty
by
the
father,
purpose
had
not
been
carried
at
did
not
have
to
be
relied
on.
the
time
of
the
dispute.
It
is
however
difficult
to
reconcile
the
decision
of
the
Court
of
Appeal
in
Suntoso
Jacob
v
Kong
Miao
Meng
with
that
of
Shi
Fang.
No
attempt
was
made
in
to
reconcile
Suntoso
Jacob
v
Kong
Miao
Meng
with
Tinsley
v
Milligan.
Nor
have
local
courts
considered
the
Australian
approach
to
illegality
in
Nelson
v
Nelson
that
espouses
a
more
flexible
approach
that
takes
into
account
all
the
policy
considerations
relevant
to
the
case.
C O M M O N I N T E N T I O N C O N S T R U C T I V E T R U S T
[1]
After
resulting
trust
established
based
on
contributions
to
the
purchase
price
of
the
property,
the
initial
view
of
the
parties
shares
may
however
be
adjusted
or
trumped
where
there
is
a
1)
common
intention
that
the
property
be
shared
in
different
proportions
and
2)
detrimental
reliance
established.
[2]
The
basis
of
the
plaintiff's
claim
for
a
share
in
the
flat
was
s
56
of
the
Women's
Charter
(Cap
353).
The
section
empowers
"the
Judge
to
make
such
order
with
respect
to
the
property
in
dispute
and
as
to
the
costs
of
and
consequent
on
the
application
as
he
thinks
fit".
The
law
is
settled
in
that
the
spouse
claiming
some
proprietary
or
possessory
interest
in
the
property
under
s
56
of
the
Women's
Charter
must
establish
a
legal
or
equitable
basis
for
it.
Remember to distinguish the 2 types of CICT question (which could also be merged):
STEP 1: AGREEMENT THAT THE OTHER SPOUSE IS TO HAVE AN INTEREST IN DISPUTED PROPERTY
Express Inferred
**Note
that
it
is
common
ground
that
a
conveyance
into
joint
[1]
Alternatively,
the
agreement
need
not
be
in
writing:
s7(3),
CLA.
names
is
sufficient
to
surmount
this
hurdle
Parties
may
have
conducted
themselves
in
such
a
way
that
the
agreement
may
be
inferred.
[1]
The
first
and
fundamental
question
is
whether
there
has
been,
at
any
time
prior
to
the
acquisition
of
property
or
exceptionally
at
some
[2]
Only
direct
contributions
to
purchase
price
(at
the
outset
or
later
date,
some
agreement,
arrangement
or
understanding
reached
direction
contributions
to
the
payment
of
mortgage
instalments
between
them
that
the
property
is
to
be
shared
beneficially.
Such
a
afterwards)
will
amount
to
sufficient
conduct
from
which
an
finding
can
only
be
based
on
evidence
of
express
discussions
agreement
could
be
inferred:
Lloyds
Bank
v
Rosset.
Indirect
between
the
partners,
however
imperfectly
remembered
and
contributions
would
not
be
referable
towards
the
acquisition
of
the
-
Page
38
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
however
imprecise
the
their
terms
may
be:
Lloyds
Bank
plc
v
house:
Burns
v
Burns.
Rosset.
Look
above
at
resulting
trust
section
for
mortgage/renovations
analysis
wrt
direct
contributions
[2]
In
some
cases,
although
there
has
been
no
writing,
the
parties
However,
look
at
Midlands
Bank
to
see
how
to
court
may
have
orally
declared
themselves
in
such
a
way
as
to
make
their
circumvent
this
rule.
common
intention
plain:
Grant
v
Edwards.
[3]
The
question
of
whether
indirect
mortgage
repayments
should
EXISTENCE
EXAMPLE
also
suffice
is
covered
in
the
House
of
Lords
decision
in
Stack
v
Tan
Poh
Soon
v
Phua
Sin
Yin
Dowden,
where
Baroness
Hale
held
that
the
law
has
moved
on
since
o In
addition
to
the
inference,
there
was
an
express
Lloyds
Bank
v
Rosset,
in
response
to
changing
social
and
economic
statement
by
the
plaintiff
that
the
defendant
told
conditions,
and
that
a
holistic
approach
should
be
taken,
which
her
that
it
was
not
necessary
to
include
her
name
includes
looking
at
factors
such
as
how
the
purchase
was
financed
as
the
flat
was
for
both
of
them
till
death.
The
both
initially
and
subsequently.
plaintiff
no
doubt
found
this
assurance
an
incentive
to
contribute
moneys
on
account
of
the
EXAMPLES
flat.
It
was
therefore
a
legitimate
expectation
and
Tan
Poh
Soon
v
Phua
Sin
Yin
unstated
undeclared
understanding
of
the
parties
o Firstly,
the
marriage
status
was
an
ingredient
the
that
both
would
have
an
interest
in,
and
defendant
would
have
relied
on
in
making
the
possessory
right
to,
the
flat
application
for
the
purchase
of
the
flat.
In
Eves
v
Eves,
where
the
dispute
involved
an
unmarried
o Secondly,
because
she
was
married
to
the
defendant,
couple,
a
house
was
bought
in
the
defendants
name
solely.
the
plaintiff
was
prevented
from
purchasing
another
Court
found
that
there
was
an
express
agreement
because
HDB
flat
in
her
name.
Further,
under
s
56(1)(a)
of
the
defendant
led
the
plaintiff
to
believe
that
she
was
to
have
some
Housing
and
Development
Board
Act,
the
flat
could
defined
interest
in
the
property
and
that
her
name
was
only
have
been
compulsorily
acquired
by
the
Board
if
the
omitted
from
the
conveyance
because
of
her
age
(under
21).
owner
and
his
spouse
ceased
to
occupy
the
same.
In
Grant
v
Edwards,
also
involving
an
unmarried
couple,
The
plaintiff's
occupation
of
the
flat
during
the
time
common
intention
was
established
from
the
evidence
that
the
the
defendant
was
in
the
Netherlands
was
an
defendant
had
told
the
plaintiff
that
her
name
was
not
included
important
fact
to
be
taken
into
consideration.
in
the
title
because
it
would
cause
her
prejudice
in
her
In
Lloyds
Bank
plc
v
Rosset,
the
house
was
registered
in
Mr
matrimonial
proceedings,
which
were
then
pending.
This
Rossets
name
alone.
Mrs
Rosset
did
not
make
any
contribution
suggests
that
there
was
a
common
intention
that
she
should
to
the
acquisition
of
the
house.
There
was
no
evidence
of
any
have
an
interest
in
the
house.
agreement
between
her
and
her
husband
to
share
ownership
of
the
house,
so
it
was
held
that
the
husband
did
not
hold
his
title
QUANTIFICATION
EXAMPLES
on
a
constructive
trust
for
her.
In
Tan
Thiam
Loke
(CA),
court
found
that
the
defendant
had
In
Burns
v
Burns,
the
Court
of
Appeal
rejected
plaintiffs
claim
expressly
agreed
to
purchase
the
property
for
the
plaintiff
for
a
proprietary
interest
in
the
house
on
the
basis
that
her
absolutely
and
that
the
defendant
caused
his
name
to
appear
contributions
towards
household
expenses
and
to
buy
on
the
title
as
a
joint
tenant
as
a
mechanism
to
have
some
hold
consumer
durables
such
as
a
washing
machine
for
the
house
over
the
plaintiff
and
to
prevent
her
from
walking
out
on
him.
were
considered
indirect
contributions,
and
were
thus
not
Thus,
a
common
intention
that
plaintiff
was
to
have
property
referable
towards
the
acquisition
of
the
house.
absolutely
was
found
(On
existence)
In
Midland
Bank
plc
v
Cooke,
the
court
o Note
that
claim
for
absolute
beneficial
title
to
considered
that
half
of
the
$1,100
from
the
husbands
parents
property
failed
eventually
at
CA
because
there
that
was
used
to
pay
for
the
house
was
direct
contribution
was
no
detrimental
reliance.
Hence,
based
on
the
from
the
wife
because
of
the
parents
must
have
intended
for
joint
tenancy,
plaintiff
interest
fixed
at
one
half
of
the
gift
to
belong
to
both
of
them.
Thus,
wife
made
6%
direct
the
share
of
the
property.
contribution
to
acquisition
of
house.
In
Tan
Poh
Soon,
substantial
financial
contributions
+
invisible
o (On
quantification)
The
Court
of
Appeal
then
held
that
contribution
of
having
remained
as
wife
of
defendant
thereby
once
a
party
had
acquired
a
share
in
the
property
and
foregoing
her
opportunity
to
purchase
a
flat
in
her
own
name
=
there
was
no
evidence
of
intention,
the
court
could
half
interest
infer
from
their
conduct
the
proportions
in
which
o Further,
equity
is
equality
(Lau
Choong
Choo)
they
hold
the
property.
On
this
basis
they
gave
the
thus,
ordered
defendant
to
transfer
his
half
wife
a
half
share.
interest
in
flat
as
declared
by
judge
to
plaintiff
so
o What
Midland
Bank
does
show
is
that
the
courts
are
she
could
live
with
retarded
son
without
not
content
to
follow
the
strict
guidelines
laid
down
dislocation
in
Lloyds
Bank.
-
Page
39
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
Imputed
(only
apply
if
party
expressly
said
no
common
intention
of
sharing
beneficial
interest
e.g.
Midland)
There
are
conflicting
views
on
whether
it
is
permissible
for
courts
to
impute
intentions
on
to
party.
Baronness
Hale
in
Stack
stressed
that
the
search
is
still
for
the
result
which
reflects
what
the
parties
must,
in
light
of
their
conduct,
be
taken
to
have
intended
and
not
what
the
court
considers
fair.
This
is
consistent
with
Lord
Diplocks
statement
in
Gissing
v
Gissing
that
it
is
not
open
to
the
court
to
impute
a
common
intention
to
the
parties.
However,
Baroness
Hale
also
said
that
the
search
is
to
ascertain
the
parties
shared
intentions,
actual,
ifnerred
or
imputed.
This
triggered
a
dissent
from
Lord
Neuberger
who
held
that
to
impute
an
intention
would
be
wrong
in
principle
and
precedent.
In
most
cases,
it
is
likely
that
there
will
be
ample
evidence
of
the
parties
words
and
conduct
from
which
the
court
can
form
a
view
of
their
intentions
one
way
or
another.
However,
in
some
cases,
imputation
may
be
needed
e.g.
those
like
Midland
Bank
where
parties
explicitly
state
in
evidence
that
they
never
turned
their
minds
to
beneficial
ownership
of
the
property.
Nevertheless,
given
the
vested
interest
these
parties
have
in
saying
this,
it
is
submitted
that
courts
should
take
a
skeptical
view
of
such
declarations.
Baronness
Hale
in
Stack
v
Dowden
stated
that
context
is
essential
in
determining
the
quantum
of
beneficial
interest
that
the
parties
allgedly
shared
a
common
intention
to.
Because
the
domestic
context
is
very
different
from
the
commercial
world,
many
more
factors
than
financial
contributions
may
be
relevant
to
divinig
the
parties
true
intentions:
Any
advice
or
discussions
at
the
time
of
the
transfer
showing
their
intentions
Reasons
why
the
home
was
acquired
in
joint
names
The
purpose
for
which
the
home
was
acquired
Nature
of
the
parties
relationship
Whether
they
had
children
for
whom
they
both
ad
responsibility
to
provide
a
home
How
the
purchase
was
financed,
both
initially
and
subsequently
How
parties
arranged
their
finances,
whether
separately
or
together
or
a
bit
of
both
In
cohabitation
context,
mercenary
considerations
may
be
more
to
the
fore
than
they
would
be
in
marriage,
but
it
should
not
be
assumed
that
they
always
take
pride
of
place
over
natural
love
and
affection
[1]
Under
the
traditional
In
Grant
v
Edwards
the
womans
very
substantial
contributions
to
the
household
expenses
were
held
analysis,
mere
proof
of
to
be
made
on
the
understanding
that
she
was
to
have
an
interest
in
the
house.
The
requirement
of
common
intention,
whether
acting
upon
and
suffering
detriment
in
addition
to
that
of
common
intention
was
upheld
by
the
House
express
or
inferred,
is
of
Lords
in
Lloyds
Bank.
insufficient
to
lead
the
court
to
SGCA
in
Tan
Thiam
Loke
v
Woon
Swee
Kheng
Christina
[1992]
1
SLR
232,
a
case
concerning
impose
a
constructive
trust.
cohabitees,
applied
Lloyds
Bank
and
declined
to
impose
a
constructive
trust
even
though
the
court
had
There
has
to
be
proof
of
found
that
there
had
been
a
common
intention,
because
the
respondent
Christina
had
not
acted
upon
detrimental
reliance
on
the
the
agreement
to
her
detriment.
Although
she
claimed
to
have
done
so
by
moving
in
with
the
expectation
that
she
had
an
interest
in
the
house.
defendant
Tan,
this
was
contradicted
by
her
evidence
that
she
moved
in
because
she
loved
Tan
and
believed
that
he
was
going
to
marry
her.
P R O P R I E T A R Y E S T O P P E L
REPRESENTATION:
Where
an
owner
of
land
permits
the
claimant
to
have,
or
encourages
him
in
his
belief
that
he
has,
some
right
or
interest
in
the
land,
and
RELIANCE:
The
claimant
acts
in
reliance
on
this
belief
To
his
DETRIMENT
Unconscionability
is
the
overarching
inquiry.
Remedies
available
in
a
PE
case
are
more
numerous
and
are
often
weaker
than
the
award
of
an
equitable
interest
under
a
constructive
trust.
According
to
Lord
Walker
in
Stack
v
Dowden,
they
are
awarded
on
a
different
basis:
Proprietary
estoppel
typically
consists
of
asserting
an
equitable
claim
against
the
conscience
of
the
true
owner.
The
claim
is
a
mere
equity.
It
is
to
be
satisfied
by
the
minimum
award
necessary
to
do
justice,
which
may
sometimes
lead
to
no
more
than
a
monetary
award.
A
common
intention
constructive
trust,
by
contrast,
is
identifying
the
true
benfeicial
onwer
and
the
size
of
their
beneficial
interests.
-
Page
40
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
ADMINISTRATION
OF
TRUST
&
TRUSTEES
DUTIES
STARTING POINT
G E N E R A L
The
trustee
has
two
types
of
powers,
Administrative
powers
(administration
of
trust
property)
and
Dispositive
powers
(power
of
appointments).
Trustees
derive
their
powers
and
obligations
from
3
sources.
[1]
Expressed
terms
in
trust
deed
The
first
is
in
the
express
term
in
the
trust
deed.
If
the
clause
stipulates
very
wide
discretion
for
trustee
to
enter
into
investment,
then
the
trustee
is
allowed
to
do
so
(In
Re
Wragg).
[2]
Supplementary
power
The
second
source
of
power
is
supplementary
powers
provided
by
general
law
and
in
particular
the
Trustees
Act,
but
only
in
so
far
as
no
contrary
intention
is
not
expressed
in
the
trust
deed
(s.2(2)
Trustees
Act).
[3]
Equitable
and
statutory
duties
Trustees
also
have
general
equitable
and
statutory
duties.
a. Trustees
are
a
fiduciary
and
thus
have
fiduciary
duties
of
undivided
loyalty
to
beneficiary
and
not
to
put
himself
in
a
position
of
conflict
as
the
beneficiary
(Bristol
v.
Mothew)
b. Duties
of
care
and
skill
also
exist
in
equity,
and
the
standard
of
trustees
is
that
of
an
ordinary
man
of
prudence
(Downsview
Nominees
v.
First
City).
This
is
also
enshrined
in
s.
3A
of
the
Trustees
Act,
which
may
bring
in
any
special
knowledge
or
experience
of
the
trustee,
however
once
again
in
so
far
as
it
is
not
contrary
to
the
intention
of
the
trust
deed
(s.
3A(2)
Trustees
Act).
c. Trustees
must
also
act
in
good
faith
and
for
the
proper
purpose
and
any
arrangement
contrary
to
it
could
be
set
aside
by
the
courts
(Cloutte
v.
Storey).
However,
courts
will
not
interfere
with
the
trustees
discretion
as
long
as
he
has
reasonable
grounds
for
his
decisions
(Tempest
v.
Lord
Camoys).
T E R M I N A T I O N O F T R U S T ( S A U N D E R S V V A U T I E R R U L E )
[1]
Saunders
v
Vautier
holds
that
if
a
beneficiary
of
full
capacity
has
a
vested
interest
in
the
trust
property,
he
can
call
for
a
transfer
of
legal
title
from
the
trustees,
irrespective
of
any
material
purpose
that
the
settlor
might
have
had
in
mind.
An
absolutely
entitled
beneficiary
can
do
whatever
he
wants
with
the
property,
and
any
restriction
on
his
enjoyment
is
inconsistent
with
the
absolute
nature
of
his
interest.
The
settlor
cannot
oust
this
principle,
even
by
express
declaration.
Thus
beneficiaries
of
a
discretionary
trust
who
are
of
full
capacity
and
are
entitled
absolutely
to
the
property
between
them
may
call
for
a
transfer
provided
that
they
act
together.
The
Saunders
v
Vautier
rule
applies
even
where
there
are
nothing
more
than
powers
of
appointment
with
a
gift
over
I
ndefault
of
appointment.
[2]
Where
trusts
arise
out
of
contractual
relationships
it
is
possible
for
the
parties
who
are
beneficiaries
to
contract
out
of
their
Saunders
v
Vautier
rights.
So,
for
example,
unit-holders
in
a
unit
trust
cannot
terminate
the
trust
and
claim
the
trust
property
while
the
trust
is
operating
as
a
going
concern
and
before
it
is
wound
up
as
agreed
pursuant
to
the
trust
deed.
[3]
The
rule
does
not
give
beneficiaries
the
right
to
control
the
trustee
in
the
exercise
of
any
discretion
conferred
upon
him
by
statute
or
the
trust
instrument.
However,
if
property
is
held
on
trust
for
beneficiaries
all
of
whom
are
ascertained
and
of
full
capacity
then
the
beneficiaries,
acting
collectively,
may
force
the
trustees
to
retire
in
favour
of
new
trustees
whom
they
have
nominated.
-
Page
41
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
A1: GENERAL ADMIN POWERS & DUTIES
1. Duties
upon
accepting
trusteeship
a. Duty
to
inspect
trust
documents:
Hallows
v
Lloyd
(1888)
b. Duty
to
get
the
trust
property:
Lewis
v
Nobbs
(1878)
c. Duty
to
inquire
into
possible
earlier
breaches
of
trust:
In
Re
Strahan
(1856)
2. Duties
during
the
administration
of
trust
a. Duty
to
obey
lawful
directions
in
trust
deed:
Fry
v
Fry
(1859);
Clough
v
Bond
(1838)
b. Duty
to
pay
the
correct
beneficiaries:
Eaves
v
Hickson
(1861)
c. Duty
to
notify
beneficiaries
and
account
them:
Armitage
v
Nurse
(1998)
The
right
of
a
beneficiary
to
obtain
accounts
from
the
trustee
so
that
they
can
then
be
falsified
or
surcharged
is
at
the
heart
of
the
trust
concept.
To
give
substance
to
this
right,
a
beneficiary
of
full
age
or
of
a
primary
object
of
a
power
of
appointment
has
a
right
to
be
told
by
the
trustee
that
she
is
a
beneficiary
+
right
to
be
told
by
the
settlor
the
name
and
address
of
the
trustee
to
whom
a
request
can
then
be
made
for
a
discretionary
distribution
d. Power
to
sell
(s56
of
Trustees
Act)
see
below
P O W E R T O S E L L ( S 5 6 O F T R U S T E E S A C T )
Trustee
may
apply
to
the
court
via
s.
56
of
the
Trustee
Act
to
sell
the
trust
assets.
If
the
court
deems
it
to
be
expedient
it
may
order
sale
of
trust
property.
Court
may
overrule
the
express
intention
of
the
settlor
for
expediency
sake
if
it
thinks
that
in
the
given
change
in
circumstances
the
settlor
would
have
intended
for
the
property
to
be
sold
instead
(Leo
Teng
Choy;
Foo
Jee
Seng
(CA)).
Singapore
courts
have
shown
that
they
are
willing
to
override
express
intentions
of
the
settlor
via
s56,
Trustees
Act
regarding
trustees
power
of
sale
as
long
as
it
is
EXPEDIENT
AND
PRAGMATIC.
This
can
be
seen
in
Leo
Teng
Choy,
where
court
overrode
settlors
express
intentions
that
the
house
may
only
be
sold
with
unanimous
consent
of
the
sons.
Even
though
one
of
the
sons
refused
to
give
consent,
court
looked
at
trust
deed
and
reasoned
that
it
could
not
have
been
the
intention
of
settlor
to
allow
only
one
son
to
enjoy
the
property
and
therefore,
since
circumstances
have
changed,
applied
s56
and
ordered
a
sale
of
the
property.
Similarly,
in
the
recent
case
of
Foo
Jee
Seng,
Court
of
Appeal
overturned
the
HC
decision
where
Prakash
J
showed
undue
deference
to
trustees
discretion,
affirmed
the
approach
in
Leo
Teng
Choy,
and
held
that
even
though
trust
deed
granted
power
to
postpone
sale,
court
reasoned
that
it
was
not
the
intention
of
the
Testator
that
the
trustees
should
withhold
sale
of
the
Property
indefinitely
even
to
the
detriment
of
the
beneficiaries.
A2: INVESTMENT POWERS AND DUTIES
N O T E :
O N L Y
A U T H O R I S E D
I N V E S T M E N T S
Starting
point:
trustee
can
make
any
investments
But
only
authorised
investments
A
trustee
may
make
any
kind
of
investment
that
he
could
make
if
he
But
other
than
that
scenario,
a
trustee
must
not
choose
investments
were
absolutely
entitled
to
the
assets
of
the
trust
(s.
4
of
Trustees
other
than
those
which
the
terms
of
his
trust
permit
(Speight
v.
Act).
Gaunt).
Duty
to
consider
standard
investment
criteria
(SIC)
Risk
adjudged
by
modern
portfolio
theory
Trustee
also
has
a
duty
to
periodically
review
investments
by
The
risk
of
the
investment
should
be
judged
based
on
the
standard
of
considering
the
standard
investment
criteria
(s.
5
of
Trustees
Act),
the
modern
portfolio
theory
of
examining
the
entire
portfolio
rather
such
as
the
suitability
of
the
investment
and
diversification
of
assets.
than
the
risk
attaching
to
each
investment
(Nestle
v.
NWB).
[1]
Is
it
a
suitable
investment
for
the
particular
type
of
trust?
If
trust
is
for
elderly
beneficiaries,
suitable
investments
are
those
that
carry
less
risk
because
elderly
beneficiaries
do
not
have
time
to
recover
losses
if
investment
fares
poorly
[2]
Need
to
diversify
portfolio:
cannot
put
all
the
eggs
into
one
basket.
Need
sufficiently
broad-based
approach
in
terms
of
investment,
having
regard
to
the
type
of
trust
you
are
in
charge
of
and
modern
portfolio
theory
(Nestle
v
-
Page
42
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
National
Westminster
Bank)
Duty
of
care
/
ordinary
prudent
man
Duty
to
get
best
returns
In
addition,
there
is
an
overarching
duty
of
care
with
regard
to
the
As
a
general
rule,
trustees
as
a
prudent
man
must
invest
to
obtain
the
investment.
This
include
to
take
such
care
as
an
ordinary
prudent
best
possible
returns.
This
is
subject
to
the
principles
that
1)
trustees
man
would
take
if
he
were
minded
to
make
an
investment
for
the
personal
views
are
irrelevant,
2)
ethical
considerations
are
relevant
benefit
of
other
people
for
whom
he
felt
morally
bound
to
provide
only
if
all
the
beneficiaries
hold
that
view,
and
3)
trustee
may
even
(Lindley
LJ
in
Re
Whiteley).
have
to
act
dishonourable
i.e.
gazumping
(offering
higher
price
for
house
even
though
a
previous
offer
already
accepted).
Higher
standards
for
professional
man
Cowan
Scargill:
trustees
of
pension
funds
of
coal
miners
If
the
trustee
is
a
person
professing
a
particular
experience
in
the
wanted
to
prohibit
investment
overseas
and
in
industries
in
management
of
trust
and
has
been
appointed
for
that
reasons
or
is
a
competition
with
coal.
Held
that
trustees
cannot
fetter
their
professional
trustee,
he
will
be
judged
by
a
higher
standard:
s3A(1),
discretion
in
investment
in
such
a
manner.
Trustees
Act.
Note,
however,
that
such
duties
may
be
exempted
o Exception:
Small
family
trust
where
all
under
s3A(2).
beneficiaries
take
a
particular
view
about
particular
industries.
applies
to
charitable
trusts
too
Even
trustees
of
charitable
trusts
should
seek
to
obtain
maximum
possible
returns:
Harris
v
Church
Commssioners
for
England;
Cowan
v
Scargill.
Harries
v.
Church
Church
money
on
trust.
Investment
policy
ruled
out
investments
in
various
industries
based
on
ethical
considerations
and
Christian
principles
(e.g.
gambling
and
tobacco).
Held:
No,
Trustee
must
maximize
returns,
UNLESS
it
clashes
with
the
object
of
the
charity.
with
the
exception
to
the
rule
for
charities
However,
there
are
exceptions
to
this
general
rule
for
charities,
which
is
that
the
investment
cannot
clash
with
the
object
of
the
charity
or
risk
alienation
of
donors
(Harries
v.
Church).
Company
shares
=
onerous
duty
Duty
to
obtain
advice
If
trust
asset
is
company
shares,
trustees
obligation
is
more
onerous
There
is
also
a
duty
to
obtain
advice
before
making
decisions
on
as
he
may
have
to
take
an
active
management
role
in
the
company
investment
(s.
6
of
Trustee
Act).
This
is
not
required
if
trustee
such
as
inquiring
and
consulting
with
directors
in
order
to
safeguard
reasonable
concludes
so:
s6(3),
TA.
his
investment
like
a
prudent
man
would
(Bartlett
v.
Barclays
If
he
finds
that
he
has
the
necessary
exprtise
and
does
not
Bank).
need
to
obtain
advice
A
prudent
man
of
business
will
safeguard
his
investment.
If
the
trust
fund
is
too
small
Inquiry
and
consultation
with
directors
If
somebody
within
the
group
of
trustees
is
an
expert
If
necessary,
convene
a
meeting
to
remove
the
directors
A
prudent
man
of
business
will
not
be
content
with
mere
Trustees
must
not
simply
accept
the
advice
given
and
they
must
receipt
of
information
as
a
shareholder.
ultimately
make
their
own
decision:
Jones
v
AMP
Perpetual
A
trust
corporation
has
a
higher
duty
of
care.
Breach
of
duty
Trustee
Company
(NZHC1994).
here
by
the
trustees.
Trustees
could
have
prevented
the
loss
with
regard
to
the
Old
Bailey
project.
Charity
Commissioner
Guidelines
(FOR
CHARITIES
DOING
BUSINESS)
In
addition,
the
Charity
Commissioner
has
set
out
several
guidelines
regarding
investments
for
charity
trusts.
First,
the
investments
must
not
distract
charities
from
their
core
charitable
mission.
Second
the
investment
and
must
not
expose
charities
to
significant
risk
to
losing
assets
or
materially
impact
their
financials.
Third,
if
a
charity
engages
in
business
it
must
incorporate
a
business
subsidiary.
SETTLOR
MAY
RESTRICT
INVESTMENT
POWERS
By
virtue
of
s.
90(5)
of
the
Trustees
Act
a
trust
is
valid
even
if
the
settler
reserves
power
of
investment.
This
is
especially
useful
for
ultra-
high
net
worth
settlors
who
do
not
wish
to
risk
their
properties
in
the
hands
of
trustees,
by
reserving
certain
powers
of
investments.
-
Page
43
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
If
the
trust
deed
expressly
prohibits
certain
kind
of
investments
which
may
actually
bring
high
return,
an
issue
arise
whether
the
trustee
have
to
respect
that
prohibition.
It
is
submitted
that
it
all
depends
whether
the
court
follows
the
contractual
versus
proprietary
model.
The
contractual
model
might
suggest
that
trustee
has
to
follow
the
trust
deed
which
is
a
contract.
However,
the
proprietary
model
would
suggest
that
because
the
settler
no
longer
has
any
interest
in
the
property
and
the
trustee
has
legal
title,
he
may
very
well
be
able
to
go
ahead
with
the
investments.
R E M E D I E S
[REPARATION
CLAIMS]
B
can
seek
for
reparation
claims
i.e.
claims
for
trustee
to
make
good
harm
which
beneficiaries
suffer
as
a
consequence
of
trustees
breach
of
duty.
These
losses
will
be
translated
into
surcharging
the
trustee
with
amount
of
loss
as
if
trustee
received
amount
for
the
beneficiaries.
This
is
subject
to
principles
of
causation,
contributory
negligence
and
remoteness.
[SUBSTITUTIVE
CLAIM]
Failure
to
perform
in
accordance
to
trust
instrument
will
lead
to
substitutive
claim
i.e.
for
the
amount
that
would
have
been
realised.
If
power
However,
if
trustee
has
absolute
discretion
in
the
exercise
of
certain
powers
(i.e.
non-mandatory),
the
courts
will
not
compel
trustees
to
exercise
these
powers
as
long
as
trustees
do
consider
exercising
such
power
periodically
(Re
Hays
Settlement).
W H E T H E R D E C I S I O N S W E R E P R O P E R L Y M A D E
A
trustee
must
make
decisions
on
proper
bases.
In
Re
Hastings
Bass
it
was
suggested
that
the
court
will
only
intervene
with
the
trustees
action
if
he
has
acted
ultra
vires
the
trust
deed
or
when
trustee
has
taken
into
account
irrelevant
considerations
or
did
not
take
into
account
relevant
considerations.
The
irrelevant
considerations
may
include
the
wrong
instructions
from
settlor
(Abacus
v
Barr)
or
receiving
the
wrong
advice
(Sieff
v
Fox).
#1:
Was
discretion
exercised
or
#2:
Did
trustee
or
fiduciary
take
into
account
relevant
considerations
or
irrelevant
considerations?
authorised?
[1]
Was
discretion
exercised?
[1]
Rule
to
act
on
proper
bases
in
Re
Hastings
Bass
came
to
be
understood,
as
expressed
in
Sieff
v
Fox
Trustees
will
not
be
exercising
by
Lloyd
LJ,
as
the
principle
where
trustees
act
under
a
discretion
given
to
them
by
the
terms
of
the
trust,
their
discretion
if
they
merely
but
the
effect
of
the
exercise
is
different
from
that
which
they
intended,
the
court
will
interfere
with
signed
document
blindly
their
action
if
it
is
clear
that
they
would
not
have
acted
as
they
did
had
they
not
failed
to
take
into
account
without
understanding
them
considerations
which
they
ought
to
have
taken
into
account,
or
taken
into
account
considerations
which
(Turner
v.
Turner)
or
if
they
they
ought
not
to
have
taken
into
account.
appointment
of
beneficiaries
Since
taxation
is
a
relevant
consideration,
if
the
exercise
of
a
discretionary
power
by
trustees
was
drafted
in
a
very
wide
and
produced
an
unforeseen
and
unwanted
tax
burden,
they
could
invoke
the
rule
to
undo
its
non-specific
manner
(Re
Hays
exercise.
Settlement).
Hayton:
Hastings-Bass
principle
is
too
wide
--
too
good
to
be
true
--
and
that
trustees,
unlike
others,
can
use
it
whenever
it
suits
them
to
wriggle
out
of
their
recklessness
or
negligent
[2]
Was
the
discretion
decisions
which
turn
out
to
have
unfortunate
consequences
authorised?
In
Re
Hays
ST,
trust
was
stipulated
for
such
person
[2]
The
Court
of
Appeal
in
Pitt
v
Holt
(UKCA2011)
admitted
that
the
law
took
a
seriously
wrong
turn
20
or
purposes
as
the
trustees
years
ago
and
now
hold
that
the
purported
exercise
of
a
power
beyond
its
scope
is
void
and
an
exercise
shall
execute
within
21
years
within
its
terms
but
in
breach
of
fiduciary
duty
is
voidable.
-
Page
44
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
and
in
default
of
appointment
(A)
Purported
exercise
of
a
power
beyond
its
scope
is
void
the
nephews
and
nieces
of
the
o The
defect
may
be
procedural,
such
as
a
failure
to
use
the
correct
document
or
obtain
settlor.
Trustees
purported
to
the
necessary
consent,
or
it
may
be
substantive,
such
as
an
improper
delegation
of
the
exercise
discretion
to
or
for
the
power
or
an
attempt
to
appoint
to
someone
outside
the
class
of
objects.
This
includes
benefit
of
any
person
or
persons
cases
of
fraud
on
a
power,
where
the
power
is
exercised
in
favour
of
an
object
for
the
whatsoever
or
to
any
charity
as
purpose
of
benefiting
a
non-object.
the
trustees
thought
fit.
(B)
Exercise
within
its
terms
but
in
breach
of
fiduciary
duty
is
voidable
Held
that
this
was
not
o The
failure
to
take
relevant
considerations
into
account
is
a
breach
of
fiduciary
duty,
a
valid
exercise
of
and
taxation
is
normally
a
relevant
consideration
discretion
and
the
o However,
trustees
will
not
be
in
breach
of
their
fiduciary
duty
if
they
seek
advice
default
appointment
from
apparently
competent
advisers
and
follow
the
advice
so
obtained,
even
if
it
turns
took
effect.
out
that
the
advice
given
to
them
was
materially
wrong.
The
proper
remedy
in
that
case
lies
not
in
the
realms
of
equity
but
by
way
of
a
claim
for
damages
for
professional
negligence.
Applies
to
trustees
AND
fiduciaries
such
as
Mrs
Pitt
acting
as
her
husband's
receiver
If
the
exercise
of
a
power
is
voidable,
then
normally
the
action
should
be
brought
by
the
beneficiaries
against
the
trustees
for
breach
of
fiduciary
duty,
and
not
by
the
trustees
in
breach.
Also,
the
disposition
will
be
valid
unless
and
until
the
court,
in
its
discretion,
decides
to
grant
rescission
setting
it
aside
or
some
other
remedy,
such
as
equitable
compensation
or
an
account.
APPLICATION:
Having
sought
professional
advice
that
she
believed
to
be
correct,
it
could
not
be
said
that
Mrs
Pitt
had
acted
in
breach
of
her
fiduciary
duties
and
that
on
basis
of
the
principle
discussed
above,
the
transactions
were
neither
void
nor
voidable.
[1]
Courts
may
also
be
persuaded
to
intervene
if
the
trustees
act
capriciously
i.e.
irrationally,
perverse
to
any
sensible
expectation
of
the
settlor:
Re
Manisty's
Settlement
[1974]
Ch
17,
26
DEFERENCE
In
examining
the
conduct
of
trustees,
courts
generally
defer
to
their
discretion.
This
is
seen
from
case
law:
Accuracy
and
correctness
is
not
the
courts
concern,
only
the
honesty
and
fairness
of
the
decision
(Re
Beloved
Wilkess
Charity)
Courts
will
also
intervene
when
exercised
capriciously
ie.
Irrational,
perverse
or
irrelevant
to
any
sensible
expectation
of
the
settlor
(Re
Manisty)
The
HC
case
of
Foo
Jee
Seng
represents
the
high
watermark
of
deference-
where
the
trustee
have
absolute
discretion
to
do
or
refrain
from
doing
a
particular
action,
and
the
court
will
not
interfere
in
the
trustees
exercise
of
power,
except
in
cases
of
bad
faith.
This
was
overturned
by
the
CA
decision.
While
the
testator
had
every
right
to
determine
how
his
assets
were
to
be
managed
through
his
will,
the
trustees
duty
to
exercise
discretion
had
to
be
exercised
properly.
THIS
DUTY
WOULD
BE
SUBJECT
TO
THE
COURTS
PURVIEW
AND
WAS
NOT
ONLY
LIMITED
TO
INSTANCES
WHERE
THERE
HAD
BEEN
BAD
FAITH
ON
THE
TRUSTEES
PART.
However,
the
court
would
not
go
so
far
as
to
invoke
the
principles
of
public
law
like
the
English
Courts
had
apparently
done
i.e.
Wednesbury
principle
of
reasonableness.
Outside
of
litigation,
trustees
are
not
required
to
give
reasons
as
per
Re
Londonderry's
Settlement.
As
explained
by
Salmon
LJ,
this
is
for
a
very
practical
reason
that
if
the
trustee
had
to
explain
his
decisions
it
may
embitter
family
feelings,
strain
relationship
and
beneficiaries
may
make
life
difficult
for
the
trustees
such
that
it
is
very
difficult
to
persuade
people
to
become
trustees
in
the
future.
However,
the
modern
approach
is
based
on
the
courts
inherent
jurisdiction
to
supervise
the
administration
of
a
trust
and
this
extends
to
objects
of
a
power:
Schmidt
v
Rosewood.
The
court
can
order
the
trustee
to
give
the
claimant
access
to
such
documents
and
other
information
relating
to
the
trusteeship
functions
as
to
the
court
seems
appropriate
in
all
the
circumstances.
There
is
therefore
no
need
to
distinguish
between
the
different
types
of
trust
documents.
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If
the
beneficiaries
attack
a
decision
of
the
trustees
in
legal
proceedings,
the
beneficiaries
can
ask
for
discovery
of
the
documents
or
reasons
for
their
decision:
Scott
v
National
Trust
for
Places
of
Historic
Interest
[1998]
2
All
ER
705,
719
LETTER OF WISHES
Traditionally,
beneficiaries
are
not
entitled
to
see
confidential
memorandum
of
wishes
(Hartigan
Nominees
v
Rydge).
Because
of
the
new
approach
heralding
the
courts
inherent
jurisdiction
to
supervise
the
administration
of
the
trust,
it
may
be
disclosed
if
1)
it
is
relevant
to
the
construction
of
a
trust
deed
in
litigation
and
2)
trustees
are
of
the
view
that
it
is
the
interest
of
the
sound
administration
of
the
trust
as
a
whole.
Trustees
may
apply
to
court
for
directions
(Breakspear
v
Ackland
(2008)).
Even
then
courts
are
generally
reluctant
to
allow
beneficiaries
to
see
letter
of
wishes
because
it
might
cause
family
strife.
In
fact,
in
Breakspear,
Briggs
J
stated
that
he
would
have
upheld
the
trustees
discretion
not
to
disclose
the
letter
if
the
trustees
had
not
sought
sanction
of
the
court
in
the
scheme
of
distribution.
APPLICATION:
Based
on
present
facts,
given
that
A
is
not
asking
for
a
scheme
of
distribution
Disclosure
of
trust
information
to
third
parties
are
only
permitted
in
limited
circumstances
as
prescribed
in
s.
49(1)
and
Third
Schedule
of
the
Trust
Companies
Act.
Where
the
settlor
or
beneficiary
consents;
Where
the
settlor
passes
away
and
there
is
no
personal
representative;
Disclosure
is
in
connection
with
an
application
for
a
grant
of
probate
or
letters
of
administration
of
a
beneficiary;
Disclosure
is
solely
in
connection
with
a
situation
where
the
settlor
or
beneficiary
has
become
bankrupt
or
wound
up;
Disclosure
is
solely
in
connection
with,
the
conduct
of
proceedings
relating
to
a
trust
that
is
administered
by
a
licensed
trust
company
Where
disclosure
pertains
to
the
investigation
of
an
offence
that
is
alleged
or
suspected
to
have
been
committed
under
any
written
law;
Where
disclosure
is
necessary
for
compliance
with
a
garnishee
order
served
on
a
licensed
trust
company
attaching
assets
in
a
trust;
and
Where
disclosure
is
in
compliance
with
any
notice
by
the
Monetary
Authority
of
Singapore.
DELEGATION
S27,
Trustees
Act
:
Notwithstanding
any
rule
of
law
or
quity
to
the
contrary,
a
trustee
may,
by
power
of
attorney,
delegate
the
execution
or
execise
of
all
or
any
trusts,
powers
and
discretions
vested
in
him
as
trustee
either
alone
or
jointly
with
any
other
person
or
persons.
Delegation
under
this
section
is
intended
as
a
temporary
measure,
the
donor
of
the
power
being
automatically
liable
for
the
acts
and
defaults
of
the
donee
as
if
the
donors
and
also
having
to
give
written
notification
to
the
person,
if
any,
having
power
to
appoint
new
trustees
and
to
the
donors
co-trustees,
who
have
the
same
power
in
default
of
any
such
person.
They
might
then
consider
it
more
appropriate
to
replace
the
donor
as
trustee.
S32,
Trustees
Act:
A
trustee
shall
(a)
be
chargable
only
for
money
and
securities
actually
received
by
him
notwithstanding
his
signing
any
receipt
for
the
sake
of
conformity;
and
(b)
be
answerable
and
accountable
only
for
his
own
acts,
receipts,
neglects
or
defaults,
and
not
for
those
of
any
trustee,
or
of
any
banker,
broker
or
any
other
person
with
whom
any
trust
money
or
securities
may
be
deposited,
nor
for
the
insufficiency
or
deficiency
of
any
securities,
nor
for
any
other
loss,
unless
the
same
happens
throguh
his
own
wilful
default.
S41,
Trustees
Act:
A
failure
by
the
trustees
to
act
within
the
limits
of
the
powers
conferred
by
this
Part
(a)
in
authorising
a
person
to
exercise
a
function
of
theirs
as
an
agentl
or
(b)
in
appointing
a
person
to
act
as
a
nominee
or
custodian
Shall
not
invalidate
the
authorisation
or
appointment.
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EXEMPTION
CLAUSES
I S S U E :
W H E T H E R
T R U S T E E S
C A N
B E
E X E M P T E D
F R O M
L I A B I L I T Y .
Traditionally
trustee
could
exempt
themselves
from
any
liability,
including
gross
negligence,
via
exemption
clauses
in
the
trust
deed
so
long
as
there
is
no
dishonesty,
even
if
it
was
arguably
against
public
policy
(Armitage
v.
Nurse).
However,
trustees
cannot
contract
out
of
the
irreducible
core
of
obligations
owed
by
trustee
to
beneficiary.
The
irreducible
core
contains
duty
of
good
faith
and
honesty
but
does
not
include
duty
of
care
and
skill.
However
this
rule
was
criticized
by
the
Law
Commission
Consultation
Paper
2003
because
in
most
cases
the
trustees
are
professional
trustees
who
are
being
paid
and
thus
they
should
not
be
excluded
for
liability
from
negligence.
Perhaps
as
a
result,
the
Law
Commission
Report
2006
proposed
that
the
rule
of
practice
is
trustee
must
before
creation
of
the
trust
ensure
that
the
settlor
is
aware
of
the
meaning
and
effect
of
the
exemption
clause.
Despite
the
report,
the
Privy
Council
in
Spread
Trustee
v
Hutcheson
endorsed
Armitage
v.
Nurse
with
the
exception
of
Baroness
Hale
dissenting.
While
the
Singapores
position
is
still
open,
our
court
will
most
likely
follow
Armitage
v.
Nurse
to
maintain
competitiveness
as
a
trust
and
commercial
hub
in
Asia.
Departing
from
it
would
likely
increase
insurance
premium
of
trust
companies
and
increase
price
of
trust
services.
Trust
companies
would
also
become
more
reluctant
to
offer
their
services
or
increase
the
price
of
their
services
according
to
the
increased
risk
of
being
liable.
Hence,
it
is
submitted
that
cases
of
professional
trustees
should
be
analyzed
via
the
contractual
model
rather
than
the
proprietary
model
because
the
settlors
are
in
all
practical
terms
contracting
for
the
services
of
these
professional
trustees.
In
fact,
we
see
that
in
Citibank
NA
v
QVT
Financial
LP
that
you
could
even
give
third
parties
powers
to
direct
the
trustees
so
much
so
that
the
trustees
must
follow
the
third
partys
direction.
Under
this
contractual
analysis,
trustees
and
settlor
should
be
free
to
contract
however
they
wish,
notwithstanding
cases
of
unequal
bargaining
power.
Thus
trustees
should
be
allowed
to
make
any
exemption
clauses
as
long
as
the
settlor
is
aware
of
the
meaning
of
those
clauses
as
per
the
Law
Commission
Report
2006.
Under
this
rule,
in
our
present
case
[1]
Clauses
with
wordings
such
as
all
acts
could
be
struck
down
as
Millett
LJ
in
Armitage
stated
that
a
trustee
who
relied
on
the
it
emcompasses
duty
to
act
in
good
faith
and
honesty.
presence
of
an
exemption
clause
to
justify
what
he
proposed
to
do
However,
this
depends
on
the
attitude
of
the
courts:
may
would
thereby
lose
its
protection:
he
would
be
acting
recklessly
in
read
the
clause
as
implying
a
duty
to
act
in
good
faith
and
the
proper
sense
of
the
term.
honesty.
Courts
may
not
want
to
strike
out
such
clauses
Exemption
only
meant
to
protect
trustee
when
he
honestly
outright
as
it
could
cause
concern
among
the
industry
or
think
that
there
are
risks
which
he
ought
to
take,
and
upset
industry
practices.
Therefore,
they
may
uphold
such
justifiably
believe
they
have
a
right
to
take
it.
clauses,
but
find
the
it
does
not
exempt
the
trustees
KL:
One
would
criticise
this
rule
in
that
this
would
render
behaviour
in
particular
cases
exemption
clause
nugatory,
e.g.
there
is
an
exemption
As
long
as
the
clause
does
not
purport
to
exclude
the
basic
clause
that
allows
for
conflict
of
interest,
but
when
actually
minimum
duties
of
the
trustees,
it
would
not
be
construed
have
conflict
of
interest,
cannot
rely
on
it.
as
being
void
for
repugnancy
to
the
trust.
Some
of
the
However,
in
order
to
invoke
this
rule,
must
prove
that
he
minimum
duties
which
may
not
be
excluded
are
the
duties
did
not
honestly
think
that
the
risk
ought
to
be
taken
and
of
honesty,
good
faith
and
acting
for
the
benefit
of
the
that
he
did
not
justifiably
believe
they
had
a
right
to
take
beneficiaries,
see
Armitage
v
Nurse
(1997)
it.
But
this
is
hard
to
prove
since
it
looks
into
the
motivation
of
the
trustee.
[2]
Blue
pencil:
Also
be
aware
that
courts
may
be
able
to
strike
out
o Unless
there
are
clear
facts
like
in
the
case
of
not
certain
terms
using
the
blue
pencil
test.
This
is
not
unlike
Armitage
doing
anything
for
5
years.
After
all,
why
else
v
Nurse
where
the
courts
are
asked
to
strike
down
the
whole
clause.
would
you
not
do
anything
if
you
were
not
Therefore,
if
courts
are
able
to
strike
down
a
whole
clause,
it
should
thinking
of
relying
on
the
exemptions?
logically
extend
that
they
are
able
to
strike
down
particular
wordings.
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I S S U E : W H E T H E R C O N F L I C T O F I N T E R E S T / U N A U T H O R I S E D P R O F I T S C A N B E E X E M P T E D
This
position
is
still
open.
The
preclusion
of
the
acts
that
are
done
in
conflict
in
interest
would
strictly
speaking
not
fall
under
the
irreducible
core
and
therefore
can
be
validly
exempted
because
conflict
of
interest
per
se
does
not
mean
dishonesty
or
lack
of
good
faith.
YES:
One
would
also
argue
that
one
should
be
able
to
exempt
conflict
NO:
However,
there
are
two
contentions:
of
interest.
This
is
by
drawing
parallel
to
cases
where
(i)
there
was
a
1. The
exemption
clause
is
general
and
relates
to
all
conflict
of
breach
and
beneficiary
decided
to
exonerate
the
trustee
and
where
interest;
in
contrast,
when
trustee
sought
consent,
the
B
(ii)
the
trustee
sought
consent
beforehand
knowing
that
he
would
be
would
have
informed
consent
relating
to
a
specific
conflict
in
a
position
of
conflict.
Therefore,
by
extension,
trustee
should
of
interest
similarly
be
allowed
to
exempt
liability
through
an
exemption
clause.
2. This
is
different
form
procuring
consent
as
exemption
clauses
are
an
agreement
between
settlor
and
beneficiary.
Policy:
From
the
perspective
of
commercial
actors,
such
exemption
clauses
should
be
upheld.
Otherwise,
it
would
deter
people
from
being
fiducaries.
For
instance,
in
practice,
directors
are
often
part
of
the
Board
of
Directors
of
multiple
companies,
which
would
prima
facie
put
them
in
breach.
Therefore,
courts
may
TAKE
A
MIDDLE
GROUND:
that
it
is
implied
in
such
clauses
that
it
does
not
include
actual
conflict
of
interest
(rather
than
potential
ones),
as
well
as
those
done
in
good
faith
and
honesty
(as
the
ones
seen
in
Boardman;
Regal
Hastings).
Therefore,
courts
do
not
need
to
strike
down
such
clauses.
This
depends
on
the
attitue
of
the
court.
Courts
may
not
want
to
strike
out
such
clauses
outright
as
it
could
cause
concern
among
the
industry
or
upset
industry
practices.
Therefore,
they
may
uphold
such
clauses,
but
find
that
it
does
not
exempt
the
trustees
behaviour
in
particular
cases
To
hold
them
liable,
say
that
trustee
has
in
fact
not
acted
in
good
faith
and
honesty.
E.g.
accepting
commission
akin
to
taking
bribes
and
this
would
suggest
bad
faith
and
lack
of
honesty.
Therefore,
trustee
cannot
rely
on
exemption
clause.
NO-CONTEST
CLAUSES
A
no
contest
clause
excludes
a
beneficiary
who
challenges
inter
alia
the
validity
of
the
decision
of
the
trustee
and/or
protector.
However,
no-
contest
clauses
are
inapplicable
if
the
challenges
to
the
decisions
of
the
trustee
are
successful,
bona
fide
or
justifiable,
i.e.
not
frivolous
or
vexatious
(AN
v
Barclays).
Reasoning
to
have
such
no-contest
clauses
in
the
first
place:
settlors
concern
to
prevent
challenge
having
already
established
the
struture
for
legitimate
reasons.
Most
no-context
clauses
preclude
challenge
to
the
validity
of
the
settlement
and
transfer
of
property
to
trustee
to
be
held
on
trust
of
the
settlement.
APPLICATION:
In
AN
v
Barclays,
the
no-contest
clause
went
further
by
preventing
challenge
to
decisions
of
the
trustee
and
protectors.
Held
to
be
void
for
uncertainty
(also
questioned
whether
it
would
have
been
settlors
intention
for
ANY
challenge
to
any
decision
of
the
trustee
to
result
in
automatic
forfeiture),
repugnancy
and
public
policy
(operate
to
deprive
a
beneficiary
from
its
right
to
enforce
the
trusts
and
thus
would
oust
the
court's
jurisdiction
to
supervise
the
administration
of
trusts).
However,
CJ
found
that
clause
23
had
to
be
read
in
the
context
of
the
settlements
as
a
whole
and
not
in
isolation.
Therefore,
Clause
23,
seen
in
light
of
Clause
11
(trusts
enforceable
by
beneficiaries)
and
Clause
19
(does
not
permit
trustee
to
act
contrary
to
laws),
in
this
context
was
not
void
for
repugnancy
or
contrary
to
public
publicy.
It
provides
a
psychological
barrier
to
beneficiaries
in
challenging
trustees
discretion.
ENDING
TRUSTEESHIP
AND
APPOINTING
NEW
TRUSTEES
Death:
Section
37
of
the
Trustees
Act
Retirement:
Section
40
of
the
Trustees
Act
Appointment:
Sections
37
and
38
of
the
Trustees
Act
o Last
surviving
trustee
can
appoint
a
new
trustee
-
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C: LIABILITY OF TRUSTEES
L I A B I L I T Y
O F
T R U S T E E S
The
personal
liability
of
a
trustee
for
breach
of
trust
extends
to
all
loss
which
can
be
causally
linked
to
the
breach
(Target
Holdings
v
Redferns
(1996))
and
it
is
generally
no
defence
to
the
imposition
of
liability
that
the
trustee
was
innocent,
honest
or
was
acting
in
the
best
interests
of
the
trust.
Furthermore,
as
we
shall
see,
although
the
liable
trustees
may
have
rights
of
contribution
against
each
other,
the
liability
of
trustees
for
breach
of
trust
is
joint
and
several,
such
that
a
beneficiary
may
sue
any
one
or
all
of
the
trustees
in
order
to
recover
the
full
amount
of
compensation
(Jackson
v
Dickinson
(1903))
The
essential
nature
of
liability
for
breach
of
trust
is
that
it
is
restitutionary:
it
should
restore
to
the
trust
fund
all
the
loss
causally
linked
to
any
breach
of
trust
and
it
matters
not
that
certain
activities
of
the
trustees
have
brought
considerable
gains
to
the
trust
(Dimes
v
Scott
(1828);
Bartlett
v
Barclays
Bank
Trust
Co
(No
2)
(1980)).
**BEDDOE
ORDER
[1]
General
rule
is
that
trustee
is
personally
liable
to
third
party
if
trustee
contracts
with
third
party.
But
trustee
has
an
indemnity
or
charge
over
the
trust
assets
as
long
as
the
debts
are
properly
incurred.
[2]
Where
the
trustee
defends
a
law
suit
by
third
parties,
trustee
can
apply
for
a
Beddoe
order
i.e.
for
the
costs
of
litigation
to
be
paid
out
of
trust
assets:
Re
Beddoe,
Downes
v
Cottam
[1893]
1
Ch
547
How
do
you
apply
for
this
Beddoe
Order?
Lightman
J
in
Alsop
Wilkinson
v
Neary
[1996]
1
W.L.R.
1220
(Ch
D)
gave
some
pointers:
Beddoe
Order
must
be
brought
in
a
separate
action
because
you
need
to
tell
what
the
strengths
and
weaknesses
of
your
case
are
as
trustee.
Beneficiaries
should
be
heard.
No
confidential
information
must
be
revealed
to
the
judge
in
the
main
cause
of
action.
Nature
of
the
dispute
is
important
in
considering
whether
Beddoe
Order
should
be
given.
General
rule:
A
beneficiary
cannot
effectively
hold
the
trustee
to
account
unless
he
has
first
been
informed
of
his
status.
However,
a
settlor
should
have
some
freedom
to
exclude
certain
beneficiaries
from
the
right
to
be
notified.
The
very
purpose
of
the
trust
may
require
this,
as
where
the
settlor
establishes
a
blind
trust
for
a
wasteful
family
member
who
might
fail
to
apply
himself
if
he
realized
that
he
was
the
beneficiary
of
a
trust
fund.
Similarly,
the
trustees
could
not
be
expected
to
notify
every
potential
object
of
a
broad
discretionary
power
of
their
possible
entitlement.
Those
who
were
expressly
or
impliedly
first
in
line
to
receive
appointments
from
the
power
could
fairly
be
expected
to
be
vigilant
about
holding
the
trustee
to
account.
There
might
be
little
to
be
gained
from
informing
a
remote
potential
object
of
his
status
as
beneficiary.
General
rule:
Unless
the
trust
instrument
specifically
provides
to
the
contrary,
the
general
rule
is
that
trustees
need
not
give
reasons
for
the
exercise
of
their
discretionary
powers.
It
is
easily
overlooked
that
the
trustees
are
the
primary
owners
of
the
trust
assets.
They
hold
them
subject
to
the
equitable
limitations
in
the
trust
instrument
and
the
general
law
that
make
them
accountable
for
their
dealings
with
them.
The
beneficiaries
beneficial
ownership
consists
in
their
power
to
enforce
these
equitable
limitations
against
the
trustees
or
to
require
third
parties,
other
than
bona
fide
purchasers
for
value
without
notice,
to
restore
the
trust
assets
received
in
breach
of
trust.
SUPERVISION BY A COURT
It
is
a
non-excludable
feature
of
a
trust
that
the
trustees
administration
of
the
fund
must
be,
directly
or
indirectly,
subject
to
the
supervision
of
the
court.
-
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-
N i c h o l a s
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[1]
No-contest
clauses
but
cannot
bar
judicial
power
At
its
most
basic
level,
the
requirement
means
that
the
beneficiarys
interests
under
the
trust,
as
a
legal
institution,
MUST
BE
ENFORCEABLE
BY
JUDICIAL
PROCESS.
This
is
what
distinguishes
the
trust
from
an
arrangement
that
is
only
binding
in
honour
or
as
a
matter
of
morality
The
point
has
ARISEN
IN
THE
CONSTRUCTION
OF
NO-CONTEST
CLAUSES
contained
in
testamentary
trusts.
A
testator
is
free
to
make
the
beneficiarys
interest
subject
to
a
condition
that
would
cause
it
to
divest
if
he
brought
proceedings
to
challenge
the
validity
of
the
will
But
he
cannot
bar
the
beneficiary
from
resorting
to
legal
proceedings
to
enforce
his
beneficial
entitlements
under
a
trust
that
is
accepted
to
be
valid
o The
beneficiary
of
income
from
an
annuity
or
a
rental
property
cannot
be
barred
from
enforcing
his
claim
to
be
paid
the
money
due
to
him
from
the
trustees.
[2]
Ouster
clauses
At
a
second
level,
a
settlor
CANNOT
DEPRIVE
THE
BENEFICIARY
OF
HIS
RIGHT
TO
APPLY
TO
THE
COURT
ABOUT
THE
PROPER
ADMINISTRATION
OF
THE
TRUST,
or
for
directions
about
the
construction
of
the
trustees
powers
and
how
they
should
be
exercised.
Again,
the
cases
on
NO-CONTEST
CLAUSES
recognize
that
a
clause
which
purported
to
forfeit
the
beneficiarys
interest
in
this
situation
would
be
void,
unless
perhaps
the
beneficiarys
action
was
clearly
frivolous
or
vexatious.
Makes
no
difference
that
the
trust
instrument
expressly
provided
some
alternative,
internal
mechanism
for
controlling
the
trustees
administration
of
the
trust,
such
as
a
protection
committee
which
had
power
to
supervise
the
accounts
of
the
trusts
funds,
and
to
remove
or
replace
trustees:
AN
v
Barclays
Private
Bank
&
Trust
(Cayman)
Ltd.
o Even
if
the
control
mechanism
is
vested
in
a
majority
of
beneficiaries
so
that
an
aggrieved
beneficiary
can,
by
democratic
process,
obtain
the
removal
and
replacement
of
a
trustee
or
the
protection
committee,
that
can
be
no
justification
for
a
complete
prohibition
against
access
to
the
courts.
Such
a
complete
prohibition
would
be
repugnant
to
the
trusts
themselves,
to
the
beneficial
interests
of
the
beneficiaries
and
to
their
right
to
seek
vindication
of
their
positions
before
the
court
in
an
appropriate
case
where
such
vindication
may
be
necessary.
It
would
also
be
contrary
to
public
policy
entirely
to
preclude
them
from
having
such
access.
[3]
Alternative
dispute
resolution
It
seems
that
there
is
nothing
in
the
concept
of
the
irreducible
core
that
necessarily
precludes
compulsory
arbitration.
Traditional
view
is
that
settlor
may
not
require
compulsory
arbitrartion:
Re
Raven.
But
read
in
context,
courts
are
only
against
clauses
which
allow
trustee
to
determine
disputes
or
which
trustees
have
the
exclusive
power
to
determine
questions
of
construction
relating
to
their
equitable
powers
of
dealing
with
the
trust
fund
Considered
solely
from
the
point
of
view
of
the
accountability
and
the
irreducible
core,
there
seems
no
compelling
reason
why
a
settlor
should
not
require
trust
disputes
to
be
referred
to
compulsory
ADR
that
would
be
binding
on
the
beneficiaries.
The
accountability
of
the
trustees
and
their
status
as
non-beneficial
owners
of
the
assets
vested
in
them
could
be
adequately
enforced
without
resorting
to
court
proceedings.
It
is
not
necessarily
repugnant
to
the
nature
of
the
beneficiaries
interests
under
the
trust.
CONCLUSION
There
are
reasons
to
be
sceptical
about
its
usefulness.
First,
the
concept
of
an
irreducible
core
does
not
provide
any
clear-cut
answers
to
some
difficult
trust.
Its
predictive
value
is
good
in
extreme
cases,
such
as
where
a
settlor
purports
to
exclude
the
trustees
liability
for
dishonest
breaches
of
trust
or
where
all
disputes
under
the
trust
are
referred
to
the
trustee
for
determination.
But
in
more
moderate
instances
of
duty
exclusion
or
modification,
its
predictive
value
is
weak.
But
the
concept
of
an
irreducible
core
still
has
some
value.
The
concept
indicates,
in
a
principled
way,
the
outer
limits
of
trust
drafting
beyond
which
a
settlor
may
not
go
if
he
still
expects
the
transaction
he
creates
to
take
effect
as
a
trust.
It
is
a
signal
that
trust
drafting
devices
which
leave
the
existing
entitlements
of
the
beneficiaries
practically
unenforceable,
or
which
make
the
trustees
purportedly
circumscribed
powers
in
the
trust
instrument
practically
unlimited
must
be
treated
with
caution
Conceals
or
limit
information
about
beneficiaries
until
the
person
is
appointed,
there
is
no
legal
status
accorded
to
him.
Advantage
of
this
kind
of
trust
is
to
DISGUISE
BENEFICIAL
OWNERSHIP
OF
ASSETS.
At
the
outset
the
document
would
not
reveal
that
such
a
person
was
indeed
ever
intended
to
benefit
from
the
trust
(so
connecting
it
with
a
particular
settlor
or
with
a
particular
class
of
beneficiaries),
and
moreover
it
would
mean
that
questions
addressed
to
the
trustees
(eg
by
a
court)
as
to
who
the
beneficiaries
were
could
be
answered
truthfully
by
pointing
simply
to
those
who
were
actually
already
in
the
class.
[2]
Tax
authorities
knocking
down
trusts
to
tax
them
[3]
Creditors
knocking
down
trusts
to
access
their
assets
Voluntary
conveyances
to
defraud
creditors
are
voidable:
Section
73B
of
the
Conveyancing
Law
and
Property
Act
-
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52
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86
-
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o Except
as
provided
in
this
section,
every
conveyance
of
property,
made
whether
before
or
after
12th
November
1993,
with
intent
to
defraud
creditors,
shall
be
voidable,
at
the
instance
of
any
person
thereby
prejudiced.
o This
section
does
not
affect
the
law
relating
to
bankruptcy
for
the
time
being
in
force.
o This
section
does
not
extend
to
any
estate
or
interest
in
property
disposed
of
for
valuable
consideration
and
in
good
faith
or
upon
good
consideration
and
in
good
faith
to
any
person
not
having,
at
the
time
of
the
disposition,
notice
of
the
intent
to
defraud
creditors.
Sections
98
and
99
of
the
Bankruptcy
Act
o Section
98:
Transactions
at
undervalue.
Includes
gifts.
o Section
99:
Unfair
preference.
[4]
Family
courts
knocking
down
trusts
to
get
assets
to
be
distributed
as
matrimonial
assets
In
J
v
V
(2003),
Coleridge
J
expressed
that
these
sophisticated
offshore
structures
are
very
familiar
nowadays
to
the
judiciary
who
have
to
try
them.
They
neither
impress,
intimidate
nor
fool
anyone.
The
courts
have
lived
with
them
for
years.
Express
trust?
In
CH
v
CI
[2004]
SGDC
131
there
was
a
life
insurance
policy
under
Section
73
of
the
Conveyancing
and
Law
of
Property
Act
in
which
wife
named
as
a
beneficiary
(dicta
per
Lim
Hui
Min
DJ
if
section
73
trust
declared
on
behalf
of
a
third
party
not
a
matrimonial
asset)
and
a
section
73
trust
declared
on
behalf
of
a
wife
is
a
matrimonial
asset.
Court
has
wide
powers
to
make
orders
on
a
section
73
trust
policy
including
removing
or
changing
named
beneficiaries
under
section
112
of
the
Womens
Charter.
Now
governed
by
section
49L
of
the
Insurance
Act
trust
nomination.
Court
does
not
have
a
similar
power
to
vary
a
discretionary
trust?
Argue
on
policy?
The
husbands
would
have
no
incentive
to
keep
paying
the
premiums
since
he
would
normally
have
no
desire
to
benefit
the
ex-wife.
Setting
aside
the
trust?
Under
section
132
of
the
Womens
Charter,
the
court
may
set
aside
the
trust
if
it
is
a
disposition
to
reduce
maintenance
or
deprive
the
spouse
of
rights
to
the
property
and
it
must
be
within
3
years
of
the
application.
A
case
that
may
have
some
relevance
to
the
trust
as
a
vehicle
for
wealth
management
and
which
I
heard
as
Judge
was
a
matrimonial
dispute
concerning
maintenance.
The
couple
had
lived
in
the
UK
where
the
husband
sold
his
business
for
a
considerable
sum
of
money.
The
couple
then
migrated
to
Australia
where
the
husband
found
the
tax
regime
intolerable.
So
he
put
his
capital
into
a
Cayman
Island
discretionary
trust
to
avoid
having
to
pay
either
income
tax
or
estate
duty
should
he
die.
They
then
came
to
Singapore
where
the
marriage
fell
apart,
resulting
in
a
claim
by
the
wife
for
maintenance
and
custody
of
the
two
children
of
the
marriage.
The
husband
appeared
in
person
and
offered
a
ridiculously
small
sum
for
maintenance
on
the
ground
that
he
had
no
money
as
he
no
longer
had
a
proprietary
interest
in
the
capital
in
the
trust
fund
which
was
no
longer
under
his
control.
When
I
asked
him
who
owned
the
fund,
he
replied
that
it
was
the
bank
which
had
legal
title
to
the
funds.
I
replied
that
I
would
only
accept
his
argument
if
the
bank
concerned
was
prepared
to
testify
that
it
had
beneficial
ownership
of
the
fund.
End
of
argument.
Opening
Address
by
the
Honourable
Chief
Justice
Chan
Sek
Keong
in
The
Regulation
of
Wealth
Management,
(H.
Tjio,
Ed),
(NUS,
2008),
xxv.
The
case
was
not
actually
reported.
However,
the
same
parties
came
before
Selvam
J
in
Marie
Eileen
Guin
Nee
Fernandez
v
Arun
Guin
[1994]
SGHC
157.
AQT
v
AQU
[2011]
SGHC
138
o Divorce
in
Singapore.
Husband
settled
a
trust
called
the
Bemali
trust
in
UK
out
of
savings
of
480,000.
o Wife
said
possibility
that
children
would
not
benefit.
o The
trust
seemed
to
be
a
form
of
a
discretionary
trust
as
judge
said
beneficial
ownership
belongs
to
neither
husband
nor
wife.
o Lai
Siu
Chiu
J
held
wifes
fears
unfounded
because
the
Memorandum
of
the
Settlors
wishes
stipulated
that
the
children
would
benefit.
480,000
not
put
into
the
pool
of
asset
to
be
divided.
Possibility
of
analyzing
through
the
sham
trust?
-
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53
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86
-
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W e i
J i e
o Minwalla
v
Minwalla
[2005]
1
FLR
771
concerned
divorce
proceedings.
Husband
called
wife
and
told
her
that
he
had
divested
himself
of
all
assets.
There
was
a
discretionary
trust
in
Jersey
Two
contradictory
letter
of
wishes:
One
is
that
during
husbands
lifetime,
he
was
the
principal
beneficiary;
the
other
omits
any
reference
to
H
as
the
principal
beneficiary.
Singer
J
held
that
husband
should
in
his
lifetime
be
regarded
as
the
owner
of
the
trust.
It
was
a
sham
transaction
there
was
shamming
intention
on
the
art
of
the
settlor
and
trustees.
o Cf
Charman
v
Charman
[2007]
EWCA
Civ
503
Two
letters
of
wishes
by
Mr.
Charman
I
wish
to
have
the
fullest
possible
access
to
the
capital
and
income
and
During
my
lifetime,
I
would
like
you
to
treat
me
as
the
primary
beneficiary
CA
attributed
the
property
held
by
Dragon
Trust
to
Mr.
Charman.
The
trust
was
a
resource
to
the
husband.
No
need
to
find
that
Dragon
Trust
was
a
sham.
There
was
enough
property
in
the
UK
to
distribute
to
Mrs.
Charman.
-
Page
54
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
FIDUCIARY
DUTIES
NOTE:
Generally,
if
you
are
engaged
to
defend
a
fiduciary,
always
[1]
attempt
to
argue
that
he
was
not
a
fiduciary
because
his
role
was
reduced
to
vanishing
point;
[2]
even
if
he
was
a
fiduciary,
that
the
extent
of
fiduciary
obligations
that
he
owed
was
minimal;
and
[3]
if
both
fails,
argue
that
there
is
no
causal
link
between
the
breach
of
fiduciary
duty
and
losses
suffered.
There
are
5
established
categories
of
fiduciaries:
Trustee
(Keech
v.
Sandford),
Agents
(Yuen
Chow
Hin;
Estate
Agents
Act),
Company
Directors
(Regal
Hastings;
Tan
Eng
Leong),
Solicitors
(Boardman
v.
Phipps)
and
Partners
(Chan
v.
Zacharia).
However,
these
categories
are
open
and
the
courts
will
have
to
examine
if
a
particular
relationship
gives
rise
to
trust
and
confidence
(Bristol
v
Mothew).
Trustees
Keech
v
Sandford:
Settlor
transferred
a
lease
to
the
trustee
on
trust
for
the
infant.
Prior
to
the
expiry,
the
trustee
sought
to
renew
the
lease
on
behalf
of
the
infant
but
was
rejected,
but
was
granted
a
renewal
to
the
trustee
for
himself.
Held:
Although
there
was
no
fraud
in
this
case,
the
trustee
should
rather
have
let
the
lease
run
out
than
have
had
it
renewed
to
himself.
Boardman
v
Phipps:
Boardman
and
beneficiary
used
their
own
money
to
buy
shares
in
company
get
majority
take
control
of
company
made
lots
of
profit
for
everyone.
Even
though
information
is
not
property,
but
because
Boardman
owed
a
fiduciary
duty,
such
a
act
constituted
a
misappropriation
of
an
opportunity
that
was
only
available
to
him
in
his
position
as
a
fiduciary.
Liable
for
profits,
with
equitable
allowance
for
his
own
skill
and
effort.
Agents
rd
CONSIDER:
a)
is
X
able
to
act
on
behalf
of
and
under
the
control
of
principal
company
in
dealing
with
3
parties
and
b)
are
her
actions,
if
acting
within
her
scope
of
authorisation,
binding
on
the
principle.
Yuen
Chow
Hin
v
ERA
Realty
Network:
In
that
case,
the
Pfs
were
husband
and
wife
who
decided
to
sell
their
flat
and
they
engaged
Jeremy,
a
senior
marketing
director
of
Df
ERA
to
help
them.
Jeremy
was
a
subordinate
of
Mike.
Jeremy
found
a
buyer
named
Natassha,
who
was
Mikes
wife.
Pfs
did
not
know
that
Natassha
was
Mikes
wife
and
that
Mike
as
Jeremys
superior
in
ERA.
o Natassha
flipped
the
property
to
a
third
party
within
the
same
month
and
made
over
$200k
profit.
o Held:
Court
regarded
Jeremy
and
Mike
to
be
agents
of
ERA
and
their
conduct
to
be
thus
binding
on
ERA.
o The
profit
Natassha
made
from
the
subsidiary
sale
was
a
secret
profit
amounting
to
a
breach
of
fiduciary
duty
even
though
Natassha
herself
was
not
an
estate
agent,
she
was
a
party
to
the
plan
made
and
carried
out
by
two
agents
of
the
Df.
Estates
Agent
Act:
estate
agents
now
have
high
duties
to
meet
COUNTER:
Consider
the
fact
that
duty
can
be
excluded
i.e.
via
contract
or
that
the
judges
can
alter
the
incidence
of
fiduciary
law
as
they
are
applied
in
relation
to
particular
relationships
(Kelly
v
Cooper).
In
these
two
cases,
Kelly
v
Cooper
and
ERA
v
Puspha,
since
it
was
widespread
in
the
market
that
estate
agents
who
act
for
both
sellers
and
buyers,
it
was
accepted
that
estate
agents
in
these
situations
would
normally
not
owe
a
duty
to
advise
the
seller
his
job
is
mainly
to
bring
the
seller
and
buyer
together
and
negotiate
the
property.
This
type
of
agent
is
regarded
as
a
canvassing
agent.
Tay
Yong
Kwang
J
even
went
further
to
say
that
such
agents
are
not
even
agents
(note
that
this
position
is
not
widely
accepted).
Company
directors
CONSIDER:
Possibility
of
de
facto
director
(managed
all
the
affairs
of
the
company
without
formal
title;
s4(1)
of
Companies
Act:
by
whatever
name
called)
or
shadow
director
(making
all
the
moves
but
not
wanting
to
be
recognised
as
a
director)
Regal
Hastings:
the
plaintiff
company
had
formed
a
subsidiary
company
with
the
view
to
acquiring
the
latters
entire
share
capital
of
5000
shares.
The
Pfs
Board
of
Directors
(who
comprised
5
out
of
the
6
Dfs)
later
reached
the
conclusion,
IN
GOOD
FAITH,
that
the
Pf
lacked
the
financial
capacity
to
subscribe
for
more
than
2000
of
those
5000
shares.
They
decided
then
that
the
Pf
should
subscribe
for
only
2000
of
the
shares,
the
remaining
being
subscribed
for
by
4
of
the
Pfs
5
directors,
the
Pfs
solicitor
and
other
persons.
They
sold
the
business
and
made
a
profit.
Buyers
then
brought
an
action
against
the
directors,
saying
that
this
profit
was
in
breach
of
their
fiduciary
duty
to
the
company
and
that
they
did
not
gained
fully
informed
consent
from
the
shareholders.
-
Page
55
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
Solicitors
Boardman
v
Phipps:
The
Trust
(T)
owned
shares
in
a
Co
that
was
inefficiently
run.
But
T
had
no
power
to
acquire
more
shares
to
wrest
control
over
the
Co.
One
of
the
beneficiaries
(B)
and
the
solicitor
(S)
acquired
further
shares
in
order
to
wrest
control.
All
beneficiaries
were
informed,
except
one.
One
of
the
Bs,
despite
being
informed,
sued
the
lawyers
and
argued
that
there
should
be
a
constructive
trust
over
profits.
o They
were
therefore
liable
for
the
profits
earned.
However,
they
would
be
able
to
retain
a
generous
remuneration
for
the
services
performed.
Partners
Chan
v
Zacharia:
Partners
in
a
medical
practice
carried
on
leased
premises.
The
lease
contained
an
option
for
renewal.
The
partnership
was
dissolved
and
a
receiver
appointed.
Chan
refused
to
exercise
the
option
of
renewal
with
Zacharia,
but
instead
obtained
a
new
lease
for
himself.
Zacharia
sought
a
declaration
that
Chan
held
the
new
lease
as
a
constructive
trustee
for
the
partnership.
o Chan
owed
Zacharia
a
fiduciary
duty
and
after
the
dissolution
and
before
the
winding
up,
the
obligations
of
the
partners
continued
so
far
as
was
necessary
to
wind
up
the
partnership.
-
Page
56
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
Singapore
River
Cruise:
Bitter
quarrel
between
brothers
of
a
company;
one
brother,
PTK,
left
company
and
set
up
competing
business.
Held:
no
FD
because
PTK
while
a
marketing
manager
in
name,
had
a
very
minor
role
in
the
company
and
brothers
aware
of
him
working
on
other
projects.
[4]
In
the
context
of
RETIRING
DIRECTORS,
whether
the
director,
X,
remains
a
fiduciary
is
contextually
dependent:
at
one
extreme,
director
(i)
was
a
director
in
name
only
whereas
at
the
other
extreme,
director
had
(ii)
planned
his
resignation
having
in
mind
the
destruction
of
his
company
or
at
least
the
exploitation
of
its
property
in
the
form
of
business
opportunities
in
which
he
was
involved.
Foster
Bryant
v
Bryant:
Case
was
about
alleged
breach
of
a
directors
fiduciary
duties
during
a
period
of
notice
after
he
had
resigned
as
a
director
but
when
his
resignation
had
not
yet
taken
effect.
o Mr
Bryant
was
found
to
have
no
ulterior
motive.
o Resignation
forced
on
him
by
Mr
Fosters
hostile
manner
(rejected
client-side
proposal
to
split
work
between
co-directors)
and
sacking
of
Mrs
Bryant.
It
is
thus
not
a
case
where
he
resigned
in
order
to
attempt
to
take
work
or
clients
from
the
company.
o He
was
offered
retainment
by
Alliance;
he
did
not
sought
it
out
o Held:
no
breach
of
fiduciary
duty
[1]
Generally,
there
is
no
fiduciary
relationship
in
a
TYPICAL
CONTRACT.
But
even
in
the
context
of
sale
and
purchase,
a
fiduciary
relationship
may
be
found
in
unusual
circumstances:
English
v
Dedham
Vale
Properties
(1978).
Dedham
Vale:
Elderly
couple
sold
property
to
a
developing
company
at
a
very
low
price
on
reliance
of
Managing
Directors
words
that
there
was
no
prospect
of
obtaining
planning
permission.
But
MD
secretly
went
to
apply
for
planning
permission
under
couples
name
as
agent
value
increased.
Held:
Yes
FD,
couple
would
not
have
gone
through
with
the
contract
on
the
same
terms
but
for
reliance
on
the
MDs
assertions.
o Slade
J
held
that
Dedham
Value
without
plaintiffs
authority
put
itself
as
a
self-appointed
agent;
it
placed
itself
in
a
fiduciary
relationship
with
the
Pfs.
Pfs
would
not
have
gone
through
the
contract
on
the
same
terms
if
they
had
known
of
the
planning
permission.
Thus,
Pfs
have
a
right
to
an
account
of
profits
made
by
Df.
[2]
In
DEBTOR-CREDITOR
RELATIONSHIPS,
bank
is
generally
not
considered
to
be
a
fiduciary
because
banks
are
self-interested
parties
and
customers
should
not
have
the
expectation
that
the
bank
would
undertake
to
be
a
fiduciary.
Are
there
contractual
Any
unusual
circumstances?
Did
the
bank
create
Was
it
a
commercial
Was
there
independent
clauses
such
as
non- expectation
in
customer
that
it
would
advise
in
his
or
transaction
conducted
at
professional
advice?
Did
reliance
clauses?
her
interest
i.e.
lead
customer
to
believe
that
his
arms
length?
bank
advised
customer
to
interest
was
consistent
with
that
of
the
bank.
seek
such
advice?
In
Singapore
and
UK,
fiduciary
relationships
found
in
banker-customer
situations
might
now
be
negated
by
the
development
of
contractual
clauses
such
as
non-reliance
clauses
In
Australia,
courts
found
that
a
bank
could
still
owe
fiduciary
duties
to
its
customers
in
unusual
circumstances:
Commonwealth
Bank
of
Australia
v
Smith.
-
Page
57
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
o Bank
manager
introduced
Mr
and
Mrs
Smith
to
vendors
of
a
hotel
and
acted
as
their
financial
advisors.
Couple
wanted
to
get
brokers
and
accountants
to
look
at
the
value
of
the
hotel
but
were
actively
discouraged
to
do
so.
Hotel
turned
out
to
be
a
bad
buy;
couple
paid
too
much
for
the
hotel.
o Bank
manager
should
have
asked
the
couple
to
get
independent
advice.
A
bank
might
be
expected
to
act
in
its
own
interests
in
ensuring
the
security
of
its
position
as
lender
to
its
customer,
but
it
might
have
created
in
the
customer
the
expectation
that
nevertheless
it
would
advise
in
the
customer's
interests
as
to
the
wisdom
of
a
proposed
investment.
o Example:
This
might
be
the
case
where
the
customer
might
fairly
take
it
that
to
a
significant
extent
his
interest
was
consistent
with
that
of
the
bank
in
financing
the
customer
for
a
prudent
business
venture.
Factors
such
as
commercial
transaction
conducted
at
arms
length
and
whether
parties
sought
independent
professional
advice
go
towards
showing
the
absence
of
a
fiduciary
relationship
[3]
The
LACK
OF
A
FORMAL
POSITION
in
relation
to
the
company
does
not
mean
that
a
person
would
not
owe
fiduciary
duties:
SM
Trading
Services
v
Intersanctuary
Ltd.
In
SM
Trading
Services
v
Intersanctuary,
the
defendant
brought
a
third-party
suit
against
Kek
Kim
Hok
to
indemnify
any
potential
losses
for
his
role
in
an
alleged
conspiracy
to
sell
goods
at
inflated
prices
to
the
defendant
company.
High
Court
in
Singapore
held
that
Mr
Kek
had
vested
interests
in
the
business
of
the
columbarium
because
he
was
o 1)
actively
involved
in
running
the
business,
o 2)
advising
the
DF
on
the
management
of
such
businesses,
and
o 3)
the
officers
of
the
Df
relied
on
his
advice.
Hence,
a
fiduciary
relationship
arose
such
that
the
Df
were
entitled
to
Mr
Keks
loyalty.
CONFLICT
OF
INTEREST
In
the
UK,
the
test
for
conflict
of
interest
is
the
mere
possibility
of
conflict
(majority
in
Boardman,
although
minority
preferred
real
sensible
possibility
of
conflict
which
academic
Davies
supports).
In
Singapore,
Court
of
Appeal
in
Ng
Eng
Ghee
preferred
Lord
Hodsons
STRICTER
APPROACH
OF
MERE
POSSIBILITY
for
3
reasons:
1)
the
need
for
deterrence
combined
with
2)
evidential
difficulties
in
proving
the
harm,
and
also
the
3)
agency
cost
problem
i.e.
beneficiaries
cannot
easily
monitor
the
actions
of
those
who
manage
their
business
or
property
on
a
day-
to-day
basis.
S E L F - D E A L I N G R U L E F A I R - D E A L I N G R U L E
[1]
If
a
trustee
sells
the
trust
property
to
himself,
the
sale
is
voidable
by
any
beneficiary
as
of
right,
[1]
If
a
trustee
purchases
the
however
fair
the
transaction:
Tito
v
Waddell
(No
2).
beneficial
interest
of
any
of
his
Ohm
Pacific
(SGCA1994):
Doreen
Ng,
a
solicitor,
prepared
a
document
between
Ohm
Pacific
beneficiaries,
the
transaction
and
Pacific
Navigation.
Ohm
Pacific
owned
a
ship
called
Ohm
Marianna
and
appointed
Pacific
is
not
voidable
as
of
right,
but
Navigation
as
its
managing
agent.
When
she
prepared
documentation
between
Ohm
Pacific
it
can
be
set
aside
by
the
and
Pacific
Navigation,
she
was
also
a
director
and
shareholder
of
Pacific
Navigation,
and
so
beneficiary
unless
the
trustee
was
her
husband.
can
show
that
he
has
taken
no
o Prima
facie,
conflict
of
interest,
though
claim
was
eventually
dismissed
because
loss
advantage
of
his
position
and
which
was
claimed
did
not
flow
from
the
breach.
has
made
full
disclosure
to
the
beneficiary,
and
that
the
[2A]
There
is
some
suggestion
that
the
rule
that
such
a
transaction
may
be
set
aside
without
proof
that
transaction
is
fair
and
honest:
the
transaction
was
unfair
is
irrebutable:
Ex
parte
James.
Tito
v
Waddell
(No
2).
Ex
parte
James
(1803)
32
ER
385
per
Lord
Eldon:
This
doctrine
as
to
purchases
by
trustees,
-
Page
58
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
assignees,
and
persons
having
a
confidential
character,
stands
much
more
upon
general
Fair
price
was
paid
/
principle
than
upon
the
circumstances
of
any
individual
case.
It
rests
upon
this;
that
the
Beneficiary
has
not
purchase
is
not
permitted
in
any
case,
however
honest
the
circumstances;
the
general
entirely
relied
on
his
interests
of
justice
requiring
it
to
be
destroyed
in
every
instance."
advice
[2B]
However,
in
Holder
v
Holder,
Harman
J
doubted
whether
the
court
was
bound
to
apply
the
principle
in
Ex
parte
James
as
a
strict
rule
and
suggested
that
it
should
not
be
applied
where
the
trustee
had
ceased
to
act
in
effect
as
a
trustee
and
therefore
could
not
be
deemed
to
be
both
the
seller
of
the
interest
(on
behalf
of
the
trust)
and
also
the
buyer
on
his
own
account.
Vinelott
J
in
Re
Thompsons
Settlement
preferred
Harman
Js
approach
and
expressed
the
decision
on
the
narrow
ground
that
the
Df
had
never
acted
as
executor
in
a
way
which
could
be
taken
to
amount
to
acceptance
of
a
duty
to
act
in
the
interests
of
the
beneficiaries
under
his
fathers
will.
**Whether
self-dealing
rule
should
apply
to
a
SALE
OF
AUCTION
Danckwerts
LJ
in
Holder
v
Holder
expressed
doubt
whether
today
the
self-dealing
rule
should
apply
where
trust
propety
is
(i)
sold
at
public
auctions,
at
least
in
a
case
where
the
(ii)
sale
is
arranged
by
trustees
other
than
the
purchasing
trustee.
He
also
held
that
the
claimant
had
(iii)
acquiesced
in
or
confirmed
the
sale
and
could
not
claim
to
have
set
it
aside.
Likewise,
Sachs
LJ
expressed
the
same
doubt
as
to
whether
the
self-dealing
rule
should
apply
now
to
a
sale
by
auction.
He
took
the
view
that
a
hard
and
fast
rule
prohibiting
all
transactions
was
unnecessary
and
could
be
unjust.
The
courts
should
examine
the
facts
and
then
determine
whether
setting
the
sale
aside
is
appropriate.
UNAUTHORISED
PROFITS
[1]
A
fiduciary
must
account
to
principal
for
any
benefit
obtained
by
reason
of
his
fiduciary
position
or
of
opportunity
or
knowledge
resulting
from
it
(Keech
v
Sanford,
affirmed
in
Chan
v
Zacharia).
[2]
A
trustee
who
receives
commission
for
introducing
trust
business
will
be
liable
to
account
for
the
commission
received
as
an
unauthorised
profit
(Williams
v
Barton).
Defendant
trustee
worked
as
clerk
in
firm
of
stockbrokers
on
terms
that
his
salary
would
consist
of
50%
commission
earned
by
the
firm
on
business
introduced
by
him.
Defendant
recommended
firm
to
value
his
testators
securities
and
earned
the
commission.
Co-
trustee
brought
an
action
for
unauthorised
profits.
Court
held
that
the
profit
earned
was
something
which
the
defendant
would
not
have
made
but
for
his
position
as
trustee,
and
he
was
therefore
liable
to
account
to
truste
estate.
[3]
As
a
fiduciary,
a
company
director
may
not
exploit
opportunities
properly
belonging
to
the
company
(Boardman
v.
Phipps).
This
is
so
even
if
the
principal
could
not
take
advantage
of
the
opportunity
himself
(Regal
Hasting).
[4]
A
fiduciary
may
not
take
secret
bribes
in
breach
of
his
obligations
(AG
v.
Reid).
see
below
#3: PRE-REMEDIES
CAUSATION
AND
REMOTENESS
-
Page
59
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
Y E S , T H E Y A P P L Y N O , T H E Y D O N T A P P L Y .
They
were
applied
in
However,
there
have
been
dicta
by
Street
J
in
Re
Dawnson
and
Selvam
J
in
Kumagai
(High
Court)
that
a
some
UK
cases
such
as
fiduciary
is
liable
to
make
restitution
and
consideration
of
causation,
foreseeability
and
remoteness
do
not
Bristol
v.
Mothew,
readily
enter
into
the
matter.
Re
Dawnson
could
be
rationalized
in
its
factual
context
because
it
involved
a
Swindle
v.
Harrison
trustees
duty
to
restore
money
that
he
misappropriated
and
should
not
be
used
as
support
for
a
broader
and
Target
Holdings
principle
as
suggested
by
Selvam
J.
and
also
in
the
Singapore
case
of
Ohm
Pacific
but
In
Kumagai
on
appeal,
while
the
Court
of
Appeal
did
not
disavow
Selvam
Js
point,
it
went
on
to
discuss
issues
of
the
claimant
only
needs
causation
and
remoteness,
which
would
seem
to
implicitly
endorse
the
application
of
those
principles.
to
show
that
the
breach
was
one
of
the
causes
Further,
in
John
While
Spring,
albeit
a
high
court
case,
the
court
interpreted
Kumagai
(High
Court)
to
mean
and
not
the
but-for
test.
that
once
liability
has
been
proven,
the
wrongdoer
has
to
compensate
the
principal
for
such
loss
as
was
occasioned
by
the
breach,
and
it
is
in
this
sense
that
foreseeability
and
remoteness
does
not
apply.
But
the
court
still
held
that
to
establish
liability
in
the
first
place,
plaintiffs
had
to
still
prove
that
their
losses
were
caused
by
or
linked
to
the
defendants
breaches
of
fiduciary
duties.
SHORT
&
SWEET:
In
Singapore,
Kumagai
(CA)
appears
to
implictly
endorse
causation
and
remoteness
and
the
High
Court
in
John
While
Spring
further
interpret
the
case
to
mean
that
once
liability
has
been
proven,
wrongdoer
has
to
compensate
principal
for
such
loss
as
was
occasioned
by
the
breach.
Furthermore,
it
is
submitted
that
causation
should
apply
because
it
is
unfair
for
the
fiduciary
to
bear
the
loss
when
the
principal
would
have
lost
the
money
anyways,
as
was
the
case
in
Target
Holdings.
Therefore,
applying
the
rules
of
causation
and
remoteness
to
the
present
facts
CONTRIBUTORY
NEGLIGENCE
[1]
Traditionally,
compensation
in
EQUITY
could
not
be
mitigated
by
LEGAL
defences.
[2]
However,
in
Day
v
Mead
(NZCA1987),
the
tortious
defence
of
contributory
negligence
was
applied
to
reduce
an
award
of
equitable
compensation
for
a
breach
of
fiduciary
duty.
The
allowance
of
legal
defences
in
mitigation
was
premised
on
the
fusion
of
law
and
equity.
On
the
facts,
the
court
recognised
that
knowledge
is
not
static
and
that
although
there
was
a
breach
of
fiduciary
duty,
claimant
could
only
recover
the
first
$20k
because
by
the
time
the
$80k
investment
was
made,
the
court
reasoned
that
Day
would
have
had
considerable
knowledge
of
the
affairs
of
the
company
and
thus
reduced
the
second
claim
by
50%.
#4: REMEDIES
RESCISSION
OF
CONTRACT
SM
Trading:
Kek
was
a
majority
shareholder
of
a
Pf
coy
involved
in
developing
a
site
into
a
columbarium
which
was
bought
by
Df.
Df
asked
for
recession
of
contract.
Held:
Kek
was
fiduciary
because
actively
involved
in
running
of
business
even
though
no
formal
position
position
of
conflict.
ACCOUNT
OF
PROFITS
An
account
of
profit
is
a
gain-based
remedy
that
makes
remedies
for
breach
of
fiduciary
duties
superior
over
contractual
remedies,
which
are
normally
compensatory,
reliance
or
expectation
measure.
As
such
an
account
of
profit
is
a
very
harsh
remedy
but
this
is
justified
given
the
particular
vulnerability
of
the
principal.
The
harshness
is
to
deter
errant
fiduciaries
and
to
extinguish
all
temptations
(VK
Rajah
JA
in
Ng
Eng
Ghee)
as
well
as
the
difficulty
for
principals
to
monitor
the
actions
of
the
fiduciaries
on
a
day-to-day
basis
(Mary
Adren
LJ
in
Murad
Al
Saraj).
EQUITABLE
ALLOWANCE
[1]
However,
in
order
to
mitigate
the
harshness
of
account
of
profits,
courts
have
in
some
instances
awarded
equitable
allowance
to
the
defendants.
Taking
into
account
the
trustees
own
personal
skill,
effort
and
resources
in
achieving
the
profits,
the
courts
may
impose
an
account
of
profits
for
only
a
limited
period
(Warman
v.
Dwyer
limited
to
one
year)
or
award
generous
remuerations
(Boardman
v.
Phipps).
-
Page
60
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
Cf
Hytech
Builders
where
court
did
not
award
equitable
allowance
F
chairman
of
H
(coy)
that
was
in
joint-venture
with
S
to
bid
for
contract.
In
breach
of
FD,
F
used
another
coy,
E,
to
bid
for
contract.
H
(coy)
unhappy
sues
F.
Held:
both
F
and
E
held
contract
on
constructive
trust
for
H.
o Difference
with
Warman:
(1)
Had
E
not
been
in
the
picture,
H
would
have
won
it,
unlike
in
Warman
where
W
was
already
going
to
lose
his
contract.
(2)
Here
is
just
ending
a
contract,
in
Warman
was
terminating
an
ongoing
business
**Similarly
in
FHR
European
v
Mankarious
(UKCA2013),
the
UK
Court
of
Appeal
held
that
the
power
to
grant
equitable
allowance
is
exercised
sparingly
out
of
concern
not
to
encourage
fiduciaries
to
act
in
breach
of
fiduciary
duty
and
that
it
is
unlikely
to
be
used
where
the
fiduciary
has
been
involved
in
surreptitious
dealing.
But
did
not
entirely
rule
out
the
possibility.
o In
that
case,
it
was
held
that
there
were
numerous
opportunities
opportunities
for
the
agent
to
inform
his
principals
about
the
existence
of
the
commission
and,
more
important,
the
amount,
but
none
were
taken.
o Hence
no
equitable
allowance,
but
was
allowed
to
retain
commission
from
work
in
relation
to
3
other
hotels,
presumably
on
the
basis
that
these
other
transactions
were
severable
from
the
tainted
transaction.
[2]
Can
the
doctrine
of
equitable
allowance
be
extended
to
other
fiduciaries
such
as
company
directors?
Considerations
as
per
Guinness
lc
v
Saunders
(UKHL1990)
include:
Fiduciarys
own
skill,
effort
and
resources
Whether
such
an
award
would
be
considered
interference
by
the
court
in
the
administration
of
a
company's
affairs
when
the
company
is
not
being
wound
up
If
the
relevant
articles
of
association
in
a
company
has
confided
the
power
to
award
equitable
allowances
to
the
board
of
directors,
the
court
would
be
precluded
from
exercising
such
power:
If
such
allowance
would
not
have
encouraged
the
fiduciary
to
act
in
breach
of
duty
o Similar
concern
was
raised
in
FHR
European
v
Mankarious
CONSTRUCTIVE
TRUST
Constructive
trust
is
a
proprietary
remedy
that
is
very
advantageous
to
the
beneficiary
because
it
ring-fences
the
assets
from
the
reach
of
creditors
during
insolvency
(first
priority),
and
it
also
allows
the
beneficiary
to
obtain
the
increase
in
the
value
of
the
asset.
REGARDING
BRIBES
OR
SECRET
COMMISSIONS:
Y E S , C O N S T R U C T I V E T R U S T ( P R O P R I E T A R Y C L A I M ) N O , A C C O U N T O F P R O F I T S ( P E R S O N A L C L A I M )
[1]
Sumitomo
and
AG
v
Reid
are
authorities
favourable
to
the
[1]
In
Lister
v
Stubbs
(1890)
45
Ch
D
1,
the
fiduciary
Stubbs
was
establishment
of
a
constructive
trust
over
the
bribes
or
secret
bribed
to
channel
business
to
a
third
party.
Court
held
that
the
Lister
commission
for
the
principal
on
the
basis
that
equity
would
treat
as
had
no
proprietary
right
to
money
or
land,
only
a
mere
personal
done
what
ought
to
be
done
and
on
the
policy
ground
that
bribery
is
right
to
the
bribe.
an
evil
practice.
Sumitomo
Bank
Ltd
v
Kartika
Ratna
Thahir
[2]
Affirmed
in
Sinclair
Investments
(UKCA2011)
and
rejected
Reid
[SGHC1993]
departed
from
Lister
v
Stubbs
because
it
is
as
being
inconsistent
with
authority,
principle
and
policy.
undesirable
for
the
fiduciary
to
be
only
under
a
personal
Facts:
Cushnie,
a
company
director
of
company
A,
made
use
duty
to
account.
Subsequently
approved
in
CA
cases.
of
As
funds
to
inflate
the
profits
and
returns
of
company
B.
In
AG
for
Hong
Kong
v
Reid
[NZPC1994]
AC
324
criminals
He
was
responsible
for
a
giant
Ponzi
scheme
and
was
a
paid
bribes
to
Reid,
a
Crown
Counsel
in
Hong
Kong,
to
major
shareholder
of
company
B.
He
sold
the
shares
in
obstruct
their
prosecutions.
Reid
invested
the
bribes,
company
B
for
a
profit
of
28.6m
pounds.
totalling
NZ$540,000
in
land
which
increased
in
value
to
AUTHORITY:
Earlier
decisions
of
the
Court
of
Appeal
e.g.
NZ$2.4m.
For
the
Crown,
the
A-G
(Hong
Kong)
claimed
that
Lister
v
Stubbs
Reid
was
a
fiduciary,
that
Lister
was
wrongly
decided,
and
PRINCIPLE:
The
court
distinguished
between
a
1)
fiduciary
therefore
that
Reid
held
any
land
purchased
using
bribes
on
enriching
himself
by
depriving
the
principal
of
an
asset
i.e.
constructive
trust
for
the
Crown.
The
Privy
Council
agreed,
misuse
of
an
asset
or
depriving
principal
of
an
opportunity
emphasising
that
Lister
itself
was
inconsistent
with
earlier
and
2)
a
fiduciary
committing
a
wrong
to
the
principal
i.e.
authority
not
cited
in
that
case
and
preferring
the
views
of
accepting
bribes.
Lai
Kew
Chai
J
in
Sumitomo
Bank
Ltd
v
Kartika
Ratna
o It
was
only
in
the
first
scenario
that
the
asset
Thahir
would
be
held
on
constructive
trust
because
it
should
be
treated
as
the
principal's
property
e.g.
Cook
v
Deeks
o Receipt
of
a
bribe
fell
within
the
second
scenario
-
Page
61
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
because
the
fiduciary
was
under
no
duty
to
obtain
it
for
the
principal,
who
consequently
had
no
proprietary
right
to
it.
POLICY:
o It
would
be
unfair
that
any
claims
of
the
fiduciary's
unsecured
creditors
should
be
defeated
[2]
Criticisms:
Proprietary
overkill
[3]
FHR
European
v
Mankarious
(UKCA2013)
affirmed
Sinclair
principle
(but
applied
it
Proprietary
remedy
only
differently)
to
mean
that
a
beneficiary
of
a
fiduciary's
duties
cannot
claim
a
proprietary
interest,
appropriate
when
defendant
but
is
entitled
to
an
equitable
account,
in
respect
of
any
money
or
asset
acquired
by
a
fiduciary
in
profited
from
interference
breach
of
his
duties
to
the
beneficiary
(CATEGORY
3),
unless
with
the
principal's
actual
or
1)
the
asset
or
money
is
or
has
been
beneficially
the
property
of
the
beneficiary
(CATEGORY
1)
or
putative
proprietary
rights.
2)
the
trustee
acquired
the
asset
or
money
by
taking
advantage
of
an
opportunity
or
right
which
Not
clear
why
deterrence
was
properly
that
of
the
beneficiary
(CATEGORY
2).
Accordingly,
to
allow
for
a
constructive
trust
could
not
be
served
by
a
mere
to
be
applied
over
secret
commission
received
by
Mankarious
duty
to
account
CONSTRUCTIVE
TRUST:
It
was
plain
that
in
reality
F's
money
funded
the
commission
Fear
that
money
would
be
paid
to
C.
o It
was
material
that
the
seller
was
in
fact
prepared
to
receive
a
net
sum
of
dissipated
can
be
cured
by
an
201.5
million
from
the
sale,
after
paying
C's
10
million
commission.
application
for
a
freezing
o That
fact
was
not
made
known
to
F.
order
i.e.
a
Mareva
injunction
o The
Commission
Agreement,
and
the
fact
that
it
was
not
disclosed
by
Cedar
to
Why
should
the
principal
be
the
claimants,
diverted
from
the
claimants
the
opportunity
to
purchase
the
preferred
over
third
party
hotel
at
the
lowest
possible
price,
that
is
to
say
a
price
lower
than
the
price
creditors
in
insolvency
they
ultimately
agreed
to
pay
proceedings?
o Those
facts
brought
the
instant
case
into
category
two
rather
than
category
three.
C's
agreement
with
the
seller
diverted
from
F
the
opportunity
to
purchase
the
hotel
at
a
lower
price.
C
therefore
held
the
commission
on
constructive
trust
for
F
EQUITABLE
ALLOWANCE:
Nor
was
this
the
type
of
case
in
which
it
would
be
appropriate
to
make
an
equitable
allowance
to
the
agent
(para
108).
Numerous
opportunities
had
arisen
for
the
agent
to
inform
the
principals,
but
none
of
these
were
taken.
The
agent
was,
however,
entitled
to
retain
the
commission
from
work
performed
in
relation
to
another
three
hotels,
presumably
on
the
basis
that
these
other
transactions
were
severable
from
the
tainted
transaction
Approach
in
Singapore?
Possibly
similar
to
AG
for
Hong
Kong
v
Reid
given
that
a
premium
is
placed
on
maintaining
a
corruption-free
society.
Alternatively,
it
could
adopt
FHR
European
v
Mankarious,
since
it
does
not
completely
rule
out
the
possibility
of
constructive
trust
and
even
recognised
the
various
situations
a
constructive
trust
will
arise.
Note
that
Sinclair
was
decided
by
then
Lord
Neuburger
who
has
since
been
elevated
to
be
President
of
the
Supreme
Court.
So
if
case
is
appealed
to
SC,
likely
that
Lord
Neuburger
will
support
his
own
position.
-
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62
of
86
-
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CONSTRUCTIVE
TRUST
G E N E R A L
There
are
2
types
of
constructive
trusts.
The
remedial
constructive
trust
is
imposed
by
courts
as
a
proprietary
remedy.
The
institutional
constructive
trust,
however,
arises
from
the
transaction
and
the
court
merely
declares
its
existence.
The
main
difference
between
the
2
constructive
trusts
is
that
for
the
RCT,
courts
have
the
discretion
to
decide
whether
to
impose
them
therefore
should
there
be
unfairness
to
any
third
parties
involved,
courts
can
choose
a
different
form
of
remedy.
However,
for
the
ICT,
once
the
elements
giving
rise
to
it
are
fulfilled,
courts
have
no
choice
but
to
declare
the
trust
and
this
may
thus
bring
unfair
results
to
third
parties.
In
Singapore,
courts
follow
the
English
courts
in
using
the
ICT.
However,
the
RCT
has
been
allowed
as
a
remedy
in
Singapore
in
recent
years.
3. PROPRIETARY ESTOPPEL
*HUSSEY
V
PALMER
A
person
who
paid
for
an
extension
to
be
added
to
the
legal
owner's
property
acquired
an
equitable
interest
in
the
property
because
justice
and
good
conscience
so
required;
the
court
would
look
at
the
circumstances
of
each
case
to
decide
in
what
way
the
equity
could
be
satisfied.
Since
the
payment
by
the
plaintiff
for
the
extension
to
the
house
was
not
intended
as
a
gift
and
there
were
no
arrangements
for
its
repayment
it
was
against
conscience
for
the
defendant
to
retain
the
benefit
of
it
without
repayment
and
he
held
the
property
on
a
resulting
or
(per
Lord
Denning
M.R.)
constructive
trust
for
the
plaintiff
proportionate
to
the
607
she
had
put
into
it
in
paying
for
the
extension
3
features
of
the
doctrine
that
merit
reference:
Inwards
v
Baker
[1965]
2
QB
29
Proprietary
estoppel
can
arise
even
outside
the
scope
of
contractual
relationships
Proprietary
estoppel
may
be
relied
on
as
a
sword;
conferring
rights
of
action
where
none
otherwise
exist.
-
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63
of
86
-
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J i e
Equity
arising
in
connection
with
proprietary
estoppel
may
bind
third
parties
and,
in
this
sense,
seems
to
constitute
a
substantive
equitable
proprietary
right,
albeit
that
the
benefit
flowing
from
the
estoppel
is
arguably
personal
to
the
original
estoppel
representee.
It
may
even
be
that
an
estoppel-based
equity
gives
rise
to
an
enduring
personal
liability
in
the
representor
even
after
a
transfer
or
the
land
to
a
third
party.
[1]
Primary
issue
is
whether
representations
of
testamentary
intent
can
be
construed
as
an
assurance
that
there
should
be
a
present
acquisition
of
future
right
by
the
representee
since
testamentary
dispositions
are
inherently
revocable.
Re
Basham:
o Representation:
deceased
owned
a
cottage
and
had
on
numerous
occasions
indicated
to
the
plaintiff
that
she
would
get
the
cottage
when
he
died
in
return
for
what
she
had
done
for
the
deceased
Reiterated
that
intention
on
his
deathbed
o Detrimental
reliance:
provided
nursing
care
/
paid
for
cost
of
hiring
a
solicitor
to
settle
neighbour
dispute
/
kept
the
garden
and
house
throughout
claimants
adult
life
Received
no
remuneration
except
for
the
understanding
that
she
would
inherit
o Stepfather
died
intestate
but
because
the
claimant
was
the
stepdaughter,
did
not
automatically
inherit
property
(nieces
were
next-of-kin
under
intestacy
regime).
Court
held
she
was
entitled,
by
proprietary
estoppel,
to
whole
of
estate
Gillet
v
Holt:
UK
Court
of
Appeal
held
that
if
there
were
consistent
and
unambiguous
intimations
of
testamentary
intent,
coupled
with
substantial
acts
of
reliance,
then
it
makes
clear
that
the
assurance
is
more
than
a
mere
statement
of
present
(revocable
intention)
and
is
tantamount
to
a
promise.
Furthermore,
it
is
not
essential
for
the
promise
to
be
irrevocable
since
it
is
the
other
partys
detrimental
reliance
on
the
premise
which
made
it
irrevocable.
o Representation:
Holts
repeated
promises
to
a
favoured
farm
worker
Gillett
that
all
this
will
be
yours
exceptionally
strong
claim
on
the
representors
conscience
which
could
not
be
disclaimed
o Detrimental
reliance:
40
years
of
underpaid
labour
on
the
party
of
that
farm
worker
/
substantial
amount
of
money
on
improving
farmhouse
o Holt
brought
a
claim
and
succeeded
but
full
expectation
interest
was
not
vindicated
Gillett
only
obtained
conveyance
of
one
farm
house
and
a
sum
of
money.
[2]
Domestic
v
Commercial
dichotomy
It
was
thought
by
some
practitioners
and
academics
that
the
decision
of
the
House
of
Lords
in
Yeoman's
Row
v.
Cobbe
[2008]
1
WLR
1752
had
severely
curtailed,
or
even
virtually
extinguished,
the
doctrine
of
proprietary
estoppel.
However,
following
the
decision
of
the
House
of
Lords
in
Thorner
v.
Major
[2009]
1
WLR
776,
it
is
now
clear
that
proprietary
estoppel
remains
alive
and
well
in
the
domestic
or
family
context,
although
it
may
be
fair
to
say
that
it
has
had
its
wings
clipped
in
the
commercial
context.
It
is
also
clear,
following
Thorner
v.
Major,
that
testamentary
proprietary
estoppel
has
survived
Yeoman's
Row,
as
has
the
established
body
of
law
in
relation
to
proprietary
estoppel
more
generally.
Different
context
o IN
A
COMMERCIAL
CONTEXT,
it
will
generally
be
difficult
for
a
claimant
to
succeed
because
the
court's
emphasis
is
likely
to
be
on
the
need
for
certainty
in
commercial
dealings.
The
arrangements
between
the
parties
are
more
likely
to
be
reduced
to
writing,
and
so
there
is
less
scope
for
relying
upon
assurances
arising
out
of
indirect
statements
and
conduct.
In
Cobbe
the
relationship
between
the
parties
was
at
arm's
length
and
commercial,
and
the
person
raising
the
estoppel
was
a
highly
experienced
businessman
and
the
parties
had
consciously
chosen
not
to
enter
into
a
contract.
Each
party
knew
they
were
not
bound
by
a
legal
relationship.
o In
contrast,
a
proprietary
estoppel
claim
IN
A
NON-COMMERCIAL
CONTEXT
will
generally
be
easier
to
establish.
The
court
in
that
context
is
more
likely
to
emphasise
the
need
for
fairness.
Whether
an
oral
representation
is
sufficiently
clear
will
depend
upon
the
context
in
which
it
is
given,
but
Thorner
suggests
that
the
court
is
likely
to
take
a
fairly
generous
approach.
It
is
also
likely
to
be
easier
to
argue
that
a
claimant
who
does
not
have
commercial
experience
was
reasonable
in
relying
on
an
assurance.
In
Thorner,
Lord
Neuberger
emphasised
that
the
relationship
between
Peter
and
David
was
familial
and
personal,
and
neither
of
them,
least
of
all
David,
had
much
commercial
experience.
Different
kind
or
extent
of
uncertainty?
o Lord
Neuberger
noted
that
in
Cobbe
there
was
no
doubt
about
the
physical
identity
of
the
property,
however
there
was
total
uncertainty
as
to
the
nature
or
terms
of
any
benefit
(property
interest,
contractual
right,
or
money)
and
if
a
property
interest,
as
to
the
nature
of
that
interest
(freehold,
leasehold,
or
charge)
to
be
accorded
to
Mr
Cobbe.
o However,
in
Thorner
the
extent
of
the
farm
might
change,
but
there
was
no
doubt
as
to
what
was
the
subject
of
the
assurance,
namely
the
farm
as
it
existed
from
time
to
time.
Accordingly,
the
nature
of
the
interest
to
be
received
by
the
nephew
was
clear
it
was
the
farm
as
it
existed
on
the
uncle's
death.
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#2:
SATISFYING
THE
EQUITY
[1]
The
upholding
of
a
claim
of
proprietary
estoppel
opens
up
the
courts
jurisdiction
to
fashion
new
rights
for
relevant
parties;
and
the
court
may
select,
in
the
light
of
individual
circumstances,
from
a
fairly
well
established
spectrum
of
remedial
possibilities.
[2]
The
history
of
proprietary
estoppel
is
marked
by
ambivalence
as
to
whether
the
proper
role
of
estoppel
doctrine
is
to
give
effect
to
the
expectations
(expectation
interest)
of
entitlement
engendered
by
the
parties
dealings
or
merely
to
protect
against
the
detrimental
consequences
(reliance
loss)
caused
when
these
expectations
are
undermined
by
an
unconscientious
insistence
upon
legal
rights.
The
distinction
between
these
remedial
perspectives
was
dramatically
demonstrated
in:
Commonwealth
of
Australia
v
Verwayen
(1990)
170
CLR
394
where
Deane
J
postulated
a
case
in
which
A,
the
owner
of
a
block
of
land
valued
at
$1m
induces
B
to
incur
expenditure
on
the
faith
of
a
wholly
gratuitous
verbal
representation
that
B
is
henceforth
the
fee
simple
owner
of
the
land.
B
erects
on
the
land
a
shed
worth
$100.
Under
an
expectation
based
approach
the
court
orders
A
to
transfer
the
fee
simple
estate
to
B
in
order
to
make
good
the
expectation
induced
in
B.
Under
a
compensation-based
approach
the
court
merely
orders
A
to
indemnify
B
in
respect
of
the
$100
loss
flowing
from
the
non-realisation
of
his
initial
expectation.
[3]
Thus,
in
a
series
of
recent
decisions
the
English
Court
of
Appeal
in
Jennings
v
Rice
[2002]
EWCA
Civ
159
has
confirmed
what
appears
to
be
a
graded
response
to
the
remedial
conundrum
depending
on
the
circumstances
of
the
case.
The
MINIMUM
RELIEF
required
is
the
minimum
necessary
to
do
justice,
to
relieve
the
unconscionability.
An
EXPECTATION-BASED
measure
of
relief
seems
most
relevant
where
the
representors
assurances
and
the
claimants
reliance
on
them
have
a
consensual
character
falling
not
far
short
of
an
enforceable
contract.
In
such
cases,
the
parties
would
have
reached
a
mutual
understanding
in
reasonably
clear
terms
and
the
consensual
element
suggests
that
both
parties
probably
regarded
the
expected
benefit
and
accepted
detriment
as
being
equivalent
or
at
any
rate
not
obviously
disproportionate.
A
COMPENSATION-BASED
approach
is
likely
to
be
relevant
where
the
dealings
between
the
parties
were
relatively
short-lived
and
the
change
of
position
undertaken
by
the
estoppel
claimant
is
both
fairly
insubstantial
and
readily
calculable
in
money
terms.
It
is
likewise
appropriate
where
the
estoppel
claimants
expectations
are
uncertain,
or
extravagant,
or
out
of
all
proportion
to
the
detriment
which
the
claimant
has
suffered.
M I N I M U M E Q U I T Y R E L I A N C E L O S S E X P E C T A T I O N L O S S
Sledmore
v
Dalby
(rent- Commonwealth
v
Verwayen
($100
shed
on
$1m
land)
Pascoe
v
Turner
(grant
of
fee
simple)
free
over
18
years)
Jennings
v
Rice
($200K
instead
of
grant
of
fee
simple)
Goh
Swee
Fang
(grant
of
50%
Chiam
Heng
Luan
(low
Gillett
v
Holt
(its
all
yours
-
but
only
granted
1)
proceeds/share
of
house)
rent
over
50
years)
LS
Investment
v
MUIS
(all
expenditure
incurred)
[4]
Menon
JC
in
Hong
Leong
Singapore
Finance
Ltd
v
United
Overseas
Bank
Ltd
[2007]
1
SLR
292
adopting
Jennings
v
Rice
drew
a
distinction
between
bargain
cases
and
non-bargain
cases.
He
also
thought
that
the
principle
of
proportionality
is
importance
on
the
facts
of
the
case.
In
awarding
damages,
courts
need
to
look
at
the
proportionality
between
the
detriment
suffered
in
reliance
as
opposed
to
the
expectation
interest
that
is
claimed.
In
this
case,
Menon
JC
granted
Yongnams
expectation
interest
i.e.
the
ability
to
purchase
at
a
particular
price
and
therefore
Yongnam
must
pay
the
difference
between
the
sale
price
and
the
value
of
the
work
they
did.
Developer
Ban
Hin
Leong
group
tried
to
develop
a
property
called
Springleaf
Tower
but
fell
into
financial
difficulty.
Bank,
financiers
of
Ban
Hin
Leong
group,
made
a
representation
that
they
would
give
subcontractor
Yongnam
one
floor
of
the
building
at
a
certain
favourable
price
if
they
did
the
steel
works
for
free.
Yongnam
granted
security
to
Hong
Leong
Finance
on
this
representation.
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65
of
86
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[1]
When
such
a
situation
arises
in
equity,
courts
have
sometimes
responded
by
declaring
B
as
a
constructive
trustee
for
X.
The
English
Court
of
Appeal
in
Ashburn
Anstalt
v
Arnold
(CA)
cited
Lyus
and
held
that
the
court
will
not
impose
a
constructive
trust
unless
it
is
satisfied
that
the
conscience
of
the
estate
owner
is
affected.
Rochefoucauld v Boustead [1897] Binions v Evans [1972 Lyus v Prowsa Developments Ltd [1982]
*first
established
the
proposition
Trustees
for
estate
sold
Bank
exercised
rights
as
mortgagee
and
sold
land
to
C
has
rights
in
property,
subject
estate
to
Binions;
contract
Prowsa
Developments,
which
included
a
clause
that
the
to
a
mortgage.
was
made
subject
to
Evans
sale
was
subject
to
Lyus
rights
Mortgagee
sold
property
to
D,
rights
to
live
in
cottage
rent- Prowsa,
through
solicitors,
made
express
undertakings
who
expressly
undertook
to
free
thus
B
paid
less
for
P
later
sold
to
another
subject
to
Lyuses
interest
hold
property
on
trust
for
C
property
Held:
a
constructive
trust;
the
mutual
intention
Held:
D
is
subject
to
Cs
rights
6
mths
later,
B
tried
to
turn
underlying
the
clause
was
to
create
something
like
an
even
though
undertaking
was
Evans,
79yo,
out
of
cottage
express
declaration
of
trust.
The
court
granted
Mr
and
not
in
writing,
which
was
Held
(Lord
Denning):
Evans
Mrs
Lyus
a
decree
of
specific
performance.
required
under
CLA
(oral
had
contractual
right
to
stay
It
was
fraudulent
for
Prowsa
to
deny
the
positive
undertaking).
Language
used
by
in
house
for
life.
stipulation
//
thus
CT
court
suggested
that
it
will
not
Unconscionable
to
turn
her
This
is
obviously
a
decision
that
depends
on
the
specific
allow
a
state
to
be
used
to
out
of
house,
hence
facts
of
the
case.
In
other
cases,
the
courts
have
perpetuate
a
fraud
constructive
trust
imposed
declined
to
impose
a
constructive
trust
on
what
appear
to
be
similar
facts.
[2]
The
difficulty
in
Singapore
is
that
there
appears
to
be
a
clash
between
a
declaration
of
a
constructive
trust
and
the
principle
of
indefeasibility.
Under
Torrens
jurisprudence
a
registered
proprietor
of
land
acquires
paramount
title
to
the
land.
However,
a
declaration
of
a
constructive
trust
in
favour
of
a
third
party
who
is
not
the
registered
proprietor
seems
to
derogate
from
the
principle
of
indefeasibility.
Ho Kon Kim v Lim Gek Kim Betsy [2001] Overseas Bank Ltd v Bebe bte Mohammad [2006]
This
decision
can
be
said
to
support
the
view
that
constructive
trust
Disagreed.
claims
may
be
accommodated
within
the
Torrens
land
system.
Ho
was
an
old
widow
who
sold
and
conveyed
her
home
which
was
sitting
on
a
large
plot
of
land
to
Betsy.
The
plan
was
that
Betsy
should
subdivide
the
land
into
3
lots
and
build
a
house
on
each
lot.
Betsy
will
then
transfer
one
of
these
houses
back
to
Ho.
The
easiest
solution
to
protect
Hos
interest
in
the
land
was
to
lodge
a
caveat
over
the
land
but
for
some
reason
it
was
not
done.
Betsy
ran
into
financial
difficulties
and
mortgaged
the
land
to
RHB.
Credit
application
stated
that
one
of
the
houses
is
meant
for
the
original
owner.
Internal
bank
memo
and
agreement
also
noted
original
owners
interest.
Property
was
also
valued
at
a
lower
price.
Eventually
Betsy
was
declared
bankrupt
and
the
project
was
not
completed.
Ho
commenced
an
action
against
Betsy
for
breach
of
trust
and
against
RHB.
LP
Thean
JA
applied
Binions
and
Lyus
and
found
the
following
Chan
Sek
Keong
CJ
said
the
language
of
this
subsection
[s
46(2)(c)
of
facts
to
be
material:
the
Land
Titles
Act]
seems
to
apply
only
to
express
trusts
and
not
o (a)
RHB
had
knowledge
of
the
agreement
between
constructive
trusts.
Although
the
Chief
Justice
did
not
overrule
Betsy
and
Madam
Ho;
Betsy
Lim,
Chan
CJ
preferred
to
rationalise
Betsy
Lim
as
a
case
o (b)
RHB
made
an
allowance
in
respect
of
Madam
Hos
which
could
be
understood
as
an
instance
of
Torrens
fraud.
In
other
interest
and
discounted
this
interest
in
their
words,
Madam
Hos
interest
prevailed
over
RHB
because
RHBs
evaluation
of
the
property;
and
conduct
could
be
characterised
as
fraudulent
within
Torrens
o (c)
in
the
agreement
between
RHB
and
Betsy,
RHB
jurisprudence.
acknowledge
and
committed
themselves
to
honour
Madam
Hos
interest
in
the
property.
It
would
thus
be
utterly
inequitable
to
renege
from
their
-
Page
66
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
obligation.
It
was
unconscionable
(though
not
fraudulent
or
dishonest)
and
equity
will
compel
RHB
to
honour
their
obligation
and
impose
a
constructive
trust.
[3]
Does
a
declaration
of
a
constructive
trust
remain
a
possibility
after
United
Overseas
Bank
v
Bebe?
THW
argues
that
not
all
forms
of
constructive
trust
claims
(which
arise
in
a
myriad
of
circumstances)
are
inconsistent
with
indefeasibility
of
title.
The
key
issue
is
to
determine
whether
the
claim
detracts
from
the
general
principle
of
indefeasibility.
C T / / W R O N G D O I N G C T / / P A I D V A L U E
For
example,
constructive
trusts
which
are
declared
on
the
basis
of
wrongdoing
by
the
However,
the
Torrens
statute
defendant
are
not
precluded
by
the
Torrens
statute.
This
is
because
indefeasibility
of
title
was
properly
precludes
a
never
meant
to
protect
the
registered
proprietor
from
his
or
her
own
wrongful
conduct.
constructive
trust
claim
by
a
Indefeasibility
of
title
was
devised
to
protect
the
registered
proprietor
from
a
prior
title-based
plaintiff
who
seeks
to
vindicate
claim.
his
or
her
equitable
title
against
On
this
analysis,
constructive
trusts
which
arise
from
situations
such
as
commonly
intended
a
registered
proprietor
who
has
beneficial
ownership
or
proprietary
estoppel
clearly
do
not
detract
from
the
principle
of
paid
value.
This
is
because
such
a
indefeasibility.
Indefeasibility
of
title
does
not
make
the
registered
proprietor
immune
from
claim
is
essentially
a
title-based
claims
stemming
from
such
conduct
as
the
formation
of
a
common
intention
to
share
property
claim
which
detracts
from
the
with
the
plaintiff
or
the
making
representations
to
the
plaintiff
which
the
latter
has
relied
on
to
principle
of
indefeasibility
of
title.
his
or
her
detriment.
U K S I N G A P O R E
[1]
In
the
case
of
a
mistaken
payment,
the
payer
retains
[1]
A
remedial
constructive
trust
was
a
restitutionary
remedy
which
the
court,
in
the
equitable
interest
in
the
money
and
the
conscience
appropriate
circumstances,
gave
by
way
of
equitable
relief.
In
order
for
a
remedial
of
the
recipient
is
subjected
to
a
fiduciary
duty
to
constructive
trust
to
arise,
the
payees
conscience
must
have
been
affected,
while
respect
the
payers
proprietary
right:
Chase- the
money
in
question
still
remained
with
him:
Ching
Mun
Fong
v
Liu
Cho
Chit
Manhattan.
On
this
basis,
the
payer
is
entitled
to
trace
(SGCA2001);
Westdeutsche.
the
money
founded
on
a
persistent
proprietary
interest.
Application:
The
relationship
between
Liu
and
Tan
was
wholly
Application:
CM
paid
a
London
bank
twice.
commercial,
and
there
was
no
dishonest
conduct
on
the
part
of
Liu.
It
The
London
bank
became
insolvent.
Goulding
was
never
intended
by
either
party
that
the
sum
paid
should
be
kept,
J
suggested
that
a
constructive
trust
may
be
and
it
had
never
been
kept,
distinct
as
an
identifiable
fund.
No
remedial
declared
and
he
premised
this
on
a
constructive
trust
could
and
should
be
imposed
on
the
facts
of
this
proprietary
analysis.
case.
However,
this
is
inconsistent
with
English
law
Note:
Did
not
rely
on
Chase-Manhattan
at
all.
on
passing
of
title.
In
most
cases,
especially
when
dealing
with
money,
both
legal
and
[2]
If
the
payee
learned
of
the
mistake
only
after
the
money
had
got
mixed
with
equitable
title
will
pass
upon
handing
over
the
other
funds
or
dissipated,
no
constructive
trust
in
respect
of
the
money
could
money
even
if
you
are
paying
on
mistake.
arise.
That
was
because
there
would
no
longer
be
an
identifiable
fund
for
the
trust
to
bite.
[2]
Criticised
by
Westdeutsche
and
re-interpreted
the
Application:
In
this
case
was
that
the
payment
was
not
kept
separate
as
rule
such
that
a
constructive
trust
may
be
declared
a
discrete
fund.
-
Page
67
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
when
you
possess
the
information
that
the
money
was
wrongfully
paid
to
you.
A
constructive
trust
is
declared
[3]
Other
vitiating
factors?
Attempt
to
extend
the
mistake
doctrine
leading
to
at
the
moment
you
have
prerequisite
knowledge:
constructive
trust
to
other
categories
of
vitiating
factors
such
as
total
failure
of
Westdeutsche.
consideration
i.e.
Ching
Mun
Fong
failed.
This
interpretation
is
affirmed
locally
in
Re
Pinkroccade
Educational
Services
Pte
[4]
Re
Pinkroccade
(SGHC2002)
followed
Westdeutsches
re-interpretation
of
Ltd
[2002]
and
applied
in
Ching
Mun
Fong.
Chase-Manhattan
as
an
unconscionability
analysis.
Lord
Browne-Wilkinson
in
Westdeutsche
Application:
The
persons
in
effective
control
of
the
company
(the
KPMG
Landesbank
Girozentrale
v.
Islington
officers)
had
knowledge
that
the
moneys
were
paid
by
mistake
before
LBC.
[1996]
A.C.
669
held
that
the
result
in
the
winding-up
resolution
was
passed.
Chase-Manhattan
Bank
was
correct
but
did
The
moneys
are
an
identifiable
fund
in
a
separate
account
that
is
not
not
approve
of
the
passing
of
title
analysis.
mixed
with
the
other
funds
of
the
company.
This
last
fact
puts
it
in
a
Instead,
he
used
an
unconscionability
analysis
stronger
position
than
the
Chase
Manhattan
case
where
there
was
no
when
he
said
that
when
the
money
was
paid,
finding
that
the
money
was
not
mixed
by
the
time
the
mistake
was
the
London
bank
knew
of
the
mistake
two
notified
to
the
defendant
two
days
after
the
payment
days
later
and
it
is
unconscionable
on
their
part
to
retain
the
money.
***Note:
If
using
Chase/Wesdesutsche
then
advice
client
to
inform
the
other
party
whom
mistaken
payment
was
made
to,
so
now
that
that
party
knows
it
is
unconscionable
for
him
to
keep
it.
**Whether
FUNDS
HAD
BEEN
MIXED
OR
NOT
is
an
important
factor
in
courts
decision
in
choosing
between
the
competing
considerations
of
commercial
certainty
and
fairness.
-
Page
68
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
Proceeds
upon
an
analogy
with
a
purchaser
who
had
contracted
to
buy
land.
It
is
textbook
law
that
the
vendor
who
has
entered
into
a
contract
for
sale
of
land
holds
the
land
as
a
constructive
trustee
for
the
purchaser
due
to
the
perceived
inadequacy
of
damages
as
a
substitute
for
the
performance
of
the
contract.
o (d)
an
action
for
breach
of
confidence
was
very
similar
to
a
breach
of
fiduciary
duty.
If
a
constructive
trust
could
be
declared
for
the
latter,
then
it
would
be
anomalous
that
a
constructive
trust
not
be
delcared
for
a
breach
of
confidence
Rejected
by
THW:
substantial
differences;
sui
generis
action
o (e)
it
would
be
unconscionable
for
LAC
to
retain
the
property
Analysis
(THW:
Confidence
and
the
Constructive
Trust):
o Reasoning
by
majority
unconvincing.
While
an
order
for
specific
restitution
for
a
wrongful
interception
of
a
unique
property
may
be
defensible,
there
appears
to
be
no
reason
why
priority
in
insolvency
should
be
granted
to
a
claimant
for
an
abuse
of
confidence.
[2]
Alternatively,
base
arguments
on
UNCONSCIONABILITY
or
BREACH
OF
FIDUCIARY
DUTIES
Breach
of
fiduciary
duty:
conflict
of
interest
/
unauthorised
profits
o Used
Boardman
v
Phipps
so
misusing
corporate
opportunities
Lord
Upjohn
said
that
CONFIDENTIAL
INFORMATION
was
not
'property
in
any
normal
sense,
but
equity
will
restrain
its
transmission
to
another
if
in
breach
of
some
confidential
relationship'.
o IDC
v
Cooley
case
Breach
continues
even
after
fiduciary
relationship
has
been
determined
B A N N E R H O M E S G R O U P P L C V L U F F D E V E L O P M E N T S L T D ( U K C A 2 0 0 0 )
-
Page
69
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
property
if
it
is
acquired;
the
acquiring
party
must
not
have
informed
the
non-acquiring
Application:
L
had
secured
an
advantage
because
B
had
party,
before
it
is
too
late,
that
it
no
longer
intends
to
honour
refrained
from
seeking
to
acquire
the
site.
It
did
not
matter
that
the
arrangement
or
understanding
(too
late
meaning
either
the
terms
of
the
shareholders
agreement
had
not
been
finalized
before
the
date
of
the
acquisition
or,
possibly,
before
it
is
too
even
though
it
had
been
anticipated
that
the
acquisition
would
late
to
undo
the
advantage
/
detriment
caused
by
the
non- be
in
the
name
of
the
joint
venture.
It
was
not
inequitable
for
acquiring
partys
reliance
on
the
arrangement
or
understanding);
the
joint
venture
company
to
retain
the
property
for
itself.
the
non-acquiring
partys
reliance
on
the
arrangement
or
Rather,
it
was
unconscionable
for
L
to
be
allowed
to
enjoy
sole
understanding
must
either
have
conferred
an
advantage
on
the
beneficial
owner
of
the
joint
venture
company;
L
held
the
shares
acquiring
party
in
relation
to
the
acquisition
of
the
property
or
of
the
company
(Stowhelm)
as
to
one
half
on
constructive
trust
imposed
a
detriment
on
the
non-acquiring
party
in
terms
of
its
for
B.
ability
to
acquire
the
property
on
equal
terms.
o It
is
this
presence
of
either
or
both
of
the
advantage
or
detriment
that
makes
it
unconscionable
for
the
acquiring
party
to
resile
from
the
arrangement
or
understanding.
[2]
In
a
recent
judgment
the
English
CA
suggested
that
the
Pallant
v
Morgan
equity
is
not
a
unique
category
but
is
simply
an
instance
of
a
common
intention
constructive
trust:
Crossco
No.4
Unlimited
&
Ors
v
Jolan
Ltd
&
Ors
[2011]
EWCA
Civ
1619
But
is
this
a
justified
rationalisation
of
the
common
intention
constructive
trust?
A
typical
common
intention
constructive
trust
arises
in
the
context
of
co-habiting
couples.
Can
we
also
use
the
common
intention
constructive
trust
in
the
context
of
two
commercial
parties?
The
judgment
contains
a
detailed
analysis
of
the
jurisprudential
basis
for
a
Pallant
v
Morgan
equity
which
may
be
of
more
interest
to
academic
lawyers
than
practitioners.
However,
it
may
also
indicate
an
inclination
on
the
part
of
the
courts
to
restrict
the
number
of
situations
in
which
common
intention
constructive
trusts
will
be
found.
This
would
be
consistent
with
the
stricter
approach
being
taken
in
relation
to
proprietary
estoppel.
-
Page
70
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
PERSONAL
LIABILITY
AS
A
CONSTRUCTIVE
TRUSTEE
G E N E R A L
[1]
Previous
topics
have
been
about
a
beneficiarys
remedies
against
a
trustee
in
breach
of
trust/
fiduciary
duties.
This
is
about
a
third
party/
strangers
liability
for
his
role
in
the
breach.
This
is
significant
when:
(i) Trustee
(T)
is
insolvent
and
Stranger
(S)
may
have
deeper
pockets
(ii) Beneficiary
(B)
may
enjoy
equitable
remedies
that
sometimes
may
be
proprietary.
[2]
Proprietary
remedies:
Knowing
Receipt
(KR)
/
Dishonest
Assistance
(DA)
does
not
always
provide
a
proprietary
remedy.
The
rationale
behind
a
proprietary
remedy
is
that
the
3rd
P
is
not
a
bona
fide
purchaser
for
value
without
notice
hence
he
gets
legal
title
but
holds
it
subject
to
Bs
equitable
interest.
rd
Thus,
conditions
for
a
proprietary
remedy
to
be
imposed
against
a
3
P:
rd
o 3
P
must
have
received
trust
property
rd rd
o 3
P
must
not
have
dissipated
trust
property
(ie.
no
more
asset
in
3
Ps
hands)
Note
that
dissipation
is
not
the
same
as
transforming
the
asset
into
another
form/mixing.
Such
can
be
saved
by
the
rules
of
Tracing
(see
next
topic).
When
a
personal,
as
opposed
to
proprietary,
remedy
is
granted,
the
trustee
is
said
to
account
as
constructive
trustee.
o Note
that
the
order
to
account
is
fault-based.
C A U S E S O F A C T I O N
(1) Trustee de son tort (2) Knowing Receipt (KR) (3) Dishonest Assistance (DA)
What
is
it?
S
takes
it
upon
himself
to
act
S
receives
trust
prop
+
knows
it
is
trust
prop
S
dishonestly
participates
in
a
BOT
as
a
trustee.
committed
by
the
Ts
Liability
- Liable
as
if
here
were
- A
CT
will
be
imposed
over
trust
prop
in
his
- Liable
personally
for
any
loss
the
real
trustee
hands
suffered
by
trust
- Primary
Liability
- If
dissipated,
liable
personally
for
value
of
- Secondary
liability
prop
- Primary
Liability
1. KNOWING RECEIPT
The
essential
requirements
of
knowing
receipt
were
stated
by
Hoffmann
LJ
in
El
Ajou
v
Dollar
Land
Holdings
plc
(UKHL1994):
1)
Disposal
of
his
assets
in
breach
of
fiduciary
duty,
2)
beneficial
receipt
by
the
defendant
of
assets
which
are
traceable
as
representing
the
assets
of
the
plaintiff,
and
3)
knowledge
on
the
part
of
the
defendant
that
the
assets
he
received
are
traceable
to
a
breach
of
fiduciary
duty
3 E L E M E N T S T O K R
Disposal
of
claimants
assets
in
breach
of
Beneficial
receipt
by
defendant
of
assets
which
are
Fault
element
trustee/fiduciary
duty
traceable
to
the
claimant
Some
cases
have
established
that
a
breach
of
This
effectively
exempts
receipt
of
property
received
The
third
element,
up
for
fiduciary
duty
will
also
suffice
in
satisfying
this
ministerially
e.g.
banks
and
agents
who
receive
contention,
is
the
degree
of
fault
element.
This
extends
liability
to
breaches
in
the
property
for
their
clients.
If
you
receive
merely
as
an
required
on
the
third
partys
part
realm
of
a
company
e.g.
directors
(cf
Belmont
agent,
like
a
bank,
you
are
not
liable
to
account
before
he
is
liable
for
knowing
Finance
where
KR
established
for
breach
of
dir
under
knowing
receipt.
receipt.
duties).
Hence
if
you
are
fighting
for
a
director,
you
will
try
and
limit
this
element
and
say
that
However,
if
the
bank
or
agent
behaves
dishonestly,
1. Dishonesty
knowing
receipt
is
only
for
breaches
of
trust,
not
there
may
be
liability
under
dishonest
assistance.
2. Unconscionability
breaches
of
fiduciary
duties.
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86
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3. Strict
liability
FAULT ELEMENT
Although
the
cause
of
action
is
framed
as
knowing
receipt,
the
In
Belmont
Finance,
dishonesty
has
been
held
not
to
be
a
degree
of
knowledge
is
traditionally
drawn
quite
high
such
that
it
necessary
prerequisite
of
knowing
receipt
cases.
almost
akin
to
dishonesty:
Carl-Zeis
Stiftung
v
Herbert
Smith
(1969).
Subsequently,
the
degree
of
fault
required
to
establish
liability
has
Gross
negligence
is
insufficient
been
lowered
to
that
of
unconscionability:
BCCI
v
Akindele
(2002).
Dishonesty
stemming
from
having
actual
knowledge
or
Affirmed
in
Singapore
in
David
Rasif
(SGCA2010).
Nelsonian
knowledge
(willful
blindness)
This
was
supported
in
Re
Montagus
Settlement
Trust
(1987),
where
it
was
held
that
constructive
notice
or
mere
negligence
is
insufficient,
and
that
actual
knowledge
is
needed
to
succeed.
L I A B L E N O T L I A B L E
Constructive
notice
based
on
unusual
commercial
practice:
David
Rasif
re-interpreting
Negligence
or
lack
of
knowledge:
Comboni
Akindele
Courts
would
not
readily
import
a
duty
to
inquire
in
commercial
transactions,
but
this
does
not
mean
that
commercial
man
could
plead
the
shelter
of
the
exigencies
of
commercial
life
if
there
is
no
justification
on
known
facts:
Westpac
Banking
A
commercial
recipient
may
only
be
put
on
inquiry
if
the
facts
immediately
known
to
him
make
it
glaringly
obvious
that
some
impropriety
is
afoot
(Bonus)
Furthermore,
recent
changes
to
UKs
Money
Laundering
Regulations
2007
in
mid-Febrary
this
year
has
placed
the
onus
on
businesses
in
financial
sector
to
conduct
appropriate
levels
of
customer
due
diligence.
Hence,
it
may
no
longer
be
a
defence
to
say
that
merchants
are
not
expected
to
make
searching
inquiries
since
there
is
now
a
statutory
obligation
to
do
so.
Whether
Singapore
adopts
these
practices
remain
to
be
seen,
but
given
our
anti-fraud,
pro-commerce
position
as
a
leading
financial
hub,
it
is
likely
that
we
may
gravitate
towards
a
similar
position.
Failure
to
appreciate:
David
Rasif
Gross
negligence
will
not
suffice:
Carl
Zeiss
There
is
failure
to
infer
when
a
person
who
knows
all
the
facts
relevant
to
a
given
Stiftung.
There
has
to
be
want
of
probity:
matter,
but
who
fails
to
appreciate
their
factual
or
legal
significance.
It
is
not
a
Comboni;
David
Rasif.
facet
of
constructive
notice
but
of
knowledge,
because
the
doctrine
of
notice
is
But
caveat:
not
every
situation
'wholly
founded
on
the
assumption
that
a
man
does
not
know
the
facts.'
where
probity
is
lacking
necessarily
It
is
not
a
failure
to
inquire
that
causes
the
person
to
be
bound
or
liable,
but
a
gives
rise
to
a
constructive
trust
failure
to
appreciate
or
infer.
(David
Rasif)
Example:
where
the
chairman
knew
of
the
facts
which
made
the
arrangement
illegal
even
if
he
believed
it
to
be
a
good
commercial
proposition
and
had
sought
legal
advice;
accordingly
there
was
sufficient
knowledge
attributed
to
ground
liability
in
knowing
receipt:
Belmont
Finance
Corp
v
Williams
Furniture
Ltd
Example:
David
Rasif
where
the
court
held
that
even
though
the
rules
governing
a
solicitor's
use
of
a
client's
account
were
not
known
to
all,
the
fact
that
it
was
an
account
belonging
to
the
solicitor's
clients
and
not
the
solicitor
had
to
have
been
plain
to
a
sophisticated
businessman
such
as
Ho.
Yet,
no
questions
were
asked
about
why
such
funds
were
used.
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Knowledge
not
static,
will
know
of
fraud
by
end
of
trial:
Comboni
Time
of
knowledge
or
fault
See
Re
Montague
ST
where
there
is
liability
only
if
However,
a
person
who
disposes
of
the
asset
upon
being
aware
of
the
fact
would
be
the
recipient
had
the
requisite
level
of
personally
liable
(see
Wesdeutsche).
knowledge
when
he
received
or
dispose
of
it.
Hence,
not
liable
if
he
had
been
aware
prior
to
receipt
but
forgotten
about
it.
In
re
Montagu
ST:
release
of
chattels
by
trustee
solicitor
to
th
defendant
10
Duke
was
a
breach
of
trust
but
Megarry
VC
held
that
the
tenth
duke
did
not
have
any
knowledge
of
the
breach
and
that
there
was
no
reason
why
his
solicitor's
knowledge
should
be
imputed
to
him
so
as
to
affect
his
conscience,
nor
did
his
failure
to
inquire
give
rise
to
the
imposition
of
a
constructive
trust.
PERSONAL
ATTRIBUTES
see
Royal
Brunei
COMMERCIAL
TRANSACTIONS
TIME
OF
KNOWLEDGE
OR
FAULT
See
Re
Montague
ST
Airlines
v
Tan,
where
the
PC
held
that
in
See
RBA
v
Tan
for
the
level
where
there
is
liability
only
if
the
recipient
had
the
determining
if
a
person
acted
dishonesty,
the
of
enquiry
for
commercial
requisite
level
of
knowledge
when
he
received
or
dispose
court
should
have
regard
to
the
personal
transactions:
whether
of
it.
Hence,
not
liable
if
he
had
been
aware
prior
to
receipt
attributes
of
the
person
concerned,
including
commercially
unacceptable
but
FORGOTTEN
about
it.
experience
and
intelligence.
conduct
was
present
in
the
particular
context
involved
However,
a
person
who
disposes
of
the
asset
upon
being
aware
of
the
fact
would
be
personally
liable
(see
Wesdeutsche).
Comboni:
Partys
state
of
knowledge
was
not
static
and
it
might
change.
By
the
end
of
the
trial,
the
defendant
must
have
known
that
the
remittances
were
tainted
by
fraud.
If
it
still
did
not
know
then,
it
must
know
it
now
in
view
of
this
decision.
R E M E D I E S F O R K N O W I N G R E C E I P T
[1]
Liability
to
restore
the
properties
immediately
(restore
property
in
specie;
or
current
monetary
value
of
the
property)
Since
the
recipient
is
under
a
primary
restorative
duty,
the
claimant
need
not
show
that
he
breached
his
duty
by
failing
to
return
the
property
(property
brings
obligation?)
Note
that
the
basis
for
liability
will
affect
the
extent
of
damages:
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o Unjust
enrichment
value
at
receipt
o Knowing
receipt
current
monetary
value
[2]
Proprietary:
For
a
claim
in
knowing
receipt,
if
the
defendant
retains
the
propery,
an
in
rem
remedy
would
be
available.
The
defendant
can
also
be
liable
in
personam.
The
difference
between
proprietary
and
personal
remedies
for
knowing
receipt
was
distinguished
in
Ultraframe
(UKHC2005)
where
the
court
stated
that
proprietary
remedies
depend
on
retention
of
trust
property
by
the
recipient
while
personal
remedies
do
not
depend
on
such
retention.
Volunteer:
will
hold
trust
property
or
traceable
proceeds
on
constructive
trust
for
the
beneficiary
(even
if
without
knowledge
of
breach).
But
there
will
be
no
personal
claim
against
an
innocent
volunteer.
rd
3
party
with
valuable
consideration:
will
hold
trust
property
or
traceable
proceeds
on
constructive
trust
for
the
beneficiary
(if
sufficient
knowledge
to
affect
conscience);
possible
knowing
receipt
or
dishonest
assistance
depending
on
facts.
Equitys
darling:
hold
property
free
of
any
interests;
no
personal
claim
against
innocent
volunteer.
ANALYSIS:
While
cases
such
as
Sinclair
and
Ultraframe
show
that
English
judges
tend
to
prefer
personal
remedies
and
are
less
willing
to
grant
remedies
that
are
proprietary
in
nature,
Singapore
judges,
on
the
other
hand,
seem
to
have
less
qualms
in
awarding
proprietary
remedies
as
seen
in
Comboni.
rd
[3]
Personal:
If
a
3
party
receives
trust
property
or
traceable
assets
in
breach
of
trust
and
subsequently
dissipates
it,
the
beneficiary
can
claim
a
personal
remedy.
The
liability
is
fault-based
i.e.
his
conscience
will
only
be
affected
if
there
is
sufficient
knowledge
to
render
it
inequitable
to
act
otherwise.
U N J U S T E N R I C H M E N T A S A S E P A R A T E C L A I M
It
is
possible
to
characterise
the
same
fact
pattern
as
an
action
in
either
knowing
receipt
or
unjust
enrichment.
Say
that
such
arguments
have
received
judicial
support
from
strong
dicta
from
Law
Lords
such
as
Lord
Nicholls
and
Lord
Millet,
as
well
as
extra-judicial
support.
1. Disposal
of
his
assets
in
breach
of
fiduciary
duty
1. Was
the
defendant
enriched?
2. Beneficial
receipt
by
the
defendant
of
assets
which
are
traceable
2. Was
the
enrichment
at
the
plaintiffs
expense?
as
representing
the
assets
of
the
plaintiff
3. Is
there
a
ground
for
restitution
on
the
facts
of
the
case
i.e.
was
3. Knowledge
on
the
part
of
the
defendant
that
the
assets
he
there
an
unjust
factor?
received
are
traceable
to
a
breach
of
fiduciary
duty
a. Undue
influence
b. Total
failure
of
consideration
c. Mistake
of
law
and
fact
d. Possibly
the
free
acceptance
of
benefit
while
there
had
been
a
reasonable
opportunity
to
reject
it
e. Ignorance
(Birks)
f. It
has
to
be
legally
recognised.
Some
categories
are
still
being
developed.
Most
well-developed
factor
from
which
law
of
unjust
enrichment
was
born
is
MISTAKE
4. Are
there
any
defences?
Primary
defence
in
an
unjust
enrichment
claim
is
that
if
the
defendant
has
changed
his
or
her
position
in
good
faith,
it
is
a
complete
defence
but
the
change
of
position
has
to
be
in
good
faith.
[Note:
Prior
to
Lipkin
Gorman,
you
had
no
defence.]
-
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a. Defence
not
available
to
money
spent
in
ordinary
course
of
things:
The
mere
fact
that
the
defendant
has
spent
the
money,
in
whole
or
in
part,
does
not
of
itself
render
it
inequitable
that
he
should
be
called
upon
to
repay,
because
the
expenditure
might
in
any
event
have
been
incurred
by
him
in
the
ordinary
course
of
things.
IN
PRACTICE:
Although
the
cases
have
established
in
accepting
that
knowing
receipt
is
premised
on
unconscionability
and
not
unjust
enrichment,
the
point
is
that
as
a
matter
of
practice,
litigants
are
claiming
in
most
situations,
or
framing
their
claims,
both
in
knowing
receipt
and
unjust
enrichment.
SUBSTANTIVE
SIGNIFICANCE:
It
is
possible
to
view
the
disparate
doctrines
as
a
matter
of
whom
the
onus
of
burden
of
proof
rests
on.
For
knowing
receipt,
plaintiff
first
has
to
prove
that
the
defendant
act
is
unconscionable
(defendant
was
at
fault);
for
unjust
enrichment,
(once
plaintiff
established
the
framework),
defendant
has
to
prove
that
he
changed
position
in
good
faith
(he
was
not
at
fault).
Hence,
for
both
claims,
arguments
will
likely
be
over
the
same
facts
and
the
main
difference
is
on
the
burden
of
proof.
SAY
THAT
EXACTLY
SAME
RESULT
WILL
BE
REACHED
EXCEPT
FOR
BURDEN
OF
PROOF.
In,
Comboni
Vincenzo
v
Shankars
Emporium
(Pte)
Ltd
[2007]
THW
suggests
that
this
ought
to
have
been
characterised
as
an
2
SLR
1020,
C
was
duped
by
a
scam
into
thinking
they
were
paying
unjust
enrichment
claim
instead
of
a
knowing
receipt
or
remedial
insurance
bonds.
Shankars
Emporium
(SE)
still
had
$100K
at
time
of
constructive
trust
claim.
It
falls
within
the
classic
core
example
of
an
trial.
C
claimed
that
an
express
trust
was
declared
in
favour
of
C.
unjust
enrichment
claim.
Alternatively,
they
sued
SE
for
KR.
Comboni
had
made
payments
under
a
mistake
which
is
a
Held:
rejected
Cs
claims
but
granted
them
judgment
for
clear
unjust
factor.
$100k
based
on
KR
because
the
sum
was
tainted
by
fraud.
Shankar
Emporium
entitled
to
argue
the
defence
of
change
Contrived
reasoning:
The
defendant
had
no
knowledge
of
of
position
in
good
faith.
the
fraud
when
it
received
this
sum,
and
did
not
receive
it
If
defence
fails,
they
must
pay
Comboni.
as
a
constructive
trustee.
However,
a
partys
state
of
knowledge
was
not
static
and
it
might
change.
By
the
end
of
the
trial,
the
defendant
must
have
known
that
the
remittances
were
tainted
by
fraud.
If
it
still
did
not
know
then,
it
must
know
it
now
in
view
of
this
decision.
Decision
in
Akindele
criticised
in
Criterion
Properties
(2004)
by
He
said
that
the
true
analysis
is
that
if
company
A
contracts
with
Lord
Nicholls,
a
person
who
is
persuaded
by
the
unjust
enrichment
B,
As
ability
to
recover
contractual
benefits
from
B
depends
on
reasoning,
attacked
the
unconscionable
receipt
analysis
suggested
by
whether
the
agreement
is
binding
on
A.
His
analysis
is
that
BCCI
Nourse
LJ
(see
below
for
facts).
v
Akindele
was
not
a
knowing
receipt
case
but
a
question
of
authority
granted
to
the
directors
of
ICIC.
[AGENCY]
If
the
ICIC
directors
had
no
authority
to
enter
in
the
contract
and
the
fact
was
known
to
Akindele
then
the
contract
may
be
rescinded
and
therefore
all
resultant
effects
of
payments
made
pursuant
to
the
contract
will
follow
from
the
rescission
of
the
contract
i.e.
all
payments
made
pursuant
to
the
contract
must
be
paid
back.
[UNJUST
ENRICHMENT]
Additionally,
and
irrespective
of
whether
B
still
has
the
assets
in
question,
A
will
have
a
personal
claim
against
B
for
unjust
enrichment,
subject
always
to
a
defence
of
change
of
position.
B's
personal
accountability
will
not
be
dependent
upon
proof
of
fault
or
'unconscionable'
conduct
on
his
part.
B's
accountability,
in
this
regard,
will
be
'strict'.
Significance:
Approved
of
the
unjust
enrichment
method
of
claim
but
does
not
go
as
far
as
to
say
that
KR
is
based
on
UE.
UE
is
simply
a
separate
ground
to
claim.
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K N O W I N G R E C E I P T A N D A G E N C Y
Thanakharn
Kasikorn
Chamkat
(Mahachon)
v
Akai
Holdings
Ltd
[2010]
HKEC
1692
accepted
the
BCCI
v
Akindele
test
and
held
that
there
was
no
inconsistency
between
a
knowing
receipt
claim
and
an
apparent
authority
claim.
This
parallels
Lord
Nicholls
criticism
of
Akindele
in
Criterion,
where
he
stated
that
the
true
analysis
is
that
if
company
A
contracts
with
B,
As
ability
to
recover
contractual
benefits
from
B
depends
on
whether
the
agreement
is
binding
on
A.
His
analysis
is
that
BCCI
v
Akindele
was
not
a
knowing
receipt
case
but
a
question
of
authority
granted
to
the
directors
of
ICIC.
Decision
in
Akindele
criticised
in
Criterion
Properties
(2004)
by
He
said
that
the
true
analysis
is
that
if
company
A
contracts
with
Lord
Nicholls,
a
person
who
is
persuaded
by
the
unjust
enrichment
B,
As
ability
to
recover
contractual
benefits
from
B
depends
on
reasoning,
attacked
the
unconscionable
receipt
analysis
suggested
by
whether
the
agreement
is
binding
on
A.
His
analysis
is
that
BCCI
Nourse
LJ
(see
below
for
facts).
v
Akindele
was
not
a
knowing
receipt
case
but
a
question
of
authority
granted
to
the
directors
of
ICIC.
[AGENCY]
If
the
ICIC
directors
had
no
authority
to
enter
in
the
contract
and
the
fact
was
known
to
Akindele
then
the
contract
may
be
rescinded
and
therefore
all
resultant
effects
of
payments
made
pursuant
to
the
contract
will
follow
from
the
rescission
of
the
contract
i.e.
all
payments
made
pursuant
to
the
contract
must
be
paid
back.
[UNJUST
ENRICHMENT]
Additionally,
and
irrespective
of
whether
B
still
has
the
assets
in
question,
A
will
have
a
personal
claim
against
B
for
unjust
enrichment,
subject
always
to
a
defence
of
change
of
position.
B's
personal
accountability
will
not
be
dependent
upon
proof
of
fault
or
'unconscionable'
conduct
on
his
part.
B's
accountability,
in
this
regard,
will
be
'strict'.
Significance:
Approved
of
the
unjust
enrichment
method
of
claim
but
does
not
go
as
far
as
to
say
that
KR
is
based
on
UE.
UE
is
simply
a
separate
ground
to
claim.
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2. DISHONEST ASSISTANCE
The
elements
of
a
claim
in
dishonest
assistance
are:
(a)
the
existence
of
a
trust;
(b)
a
breach
of
that
trust;
(c)
assistance
rendered
by
the
third
party
towards
the
breach;
and
(d)
a
finding
that
the
assistance
rendered
by
the
third
party
was
dishonest:
George
Raymond
Zage
III
(SGCA2010).
E L E M E N T S O F D I S H O N E S T A S S I S T A N C E
Existence
Breach
of
trust
or
Defendant
must
have
procured/assisted
the
breach
of
trust
or
Defendant
must
have
acted
of
a
trust
fiduciary
duty
fiduciary
duty
dishonestly
In
Brinks
Ltd
v
Abu-Saleh
(No
[1]
Trustee/fiduciary
need
not
have
acted
dishonestly
despite
the
Objective
test
(Royal
3)
[1996]
CLC
133
at
151
Rimer
J
breach
of
trust
or
fiduciary
duty.
Liability
is
based
on
fault
on
the
part
Brunei;
Barlow
expressed
the
opinion
that
a
of
the
accessory.
Clowes;
George
person
cannot
be
liable
for
Provided
it
is
established
that
the
breach
caused
the
loss,
there
is
Raymond
Zage)
dishonest
assistance
in
a
breach
no
need
to
prove
a
causal
link
between
the
assistance
and
the
Subjective
test
of
trust
unless
he
knows
of
the
loss.
(Twinsectra)
existence
of
the
trust
or
at
least
Claimant
must
at
least
show
that
the
defendants
actions
have
the
facts
giving
rise
to
the
trust.
made
the
trustee/fiduciarys
breach
of
duty
easier
than
it
would
But
their
Lordships
do
not
agree.
otherwise
have
been.
But
the
causation
requirement
for
dishonest
Someone
can
know,
and
can
What
is
the
objective
test?
assistance
is
no
stronger
than
this,
and
it
is
no
answer
to
a
claim,
certainly
suspect,
that
he
is
for
example,
that
the
claimants
loss
would
have
occurred
anyway,
assisting
in
a
misappropriation
because
the
wrongdoing
fiduciary
would
have
committed
the
of
money
without
knowing
that
breach
even
if
the
defendant
had
not
assisted
him.
the
money
is
held
on
trust
or
o Thus
a
defendant
can
be
liable
for
actions
or
omissions
what
a
trust
means:
see
which
precede
the
commission
of
the
breach.
Twinsectra
Ltd
v
Yardley
o However,
he
cannot
be
liable
if
his
actions
or
omissions
(Lord
Hoffmann
&
Lord
Millett).
And
it
was
not
necessary
to
only
occurred
AFTER
the
breach
was
FULLY
implemented.
know
the
'precise
involvement'
of
Mr
Cramer
in
the
group's
affairs
in
order
to
suspect
that
[2]
Assistance
requires
actual
participation:
George
Raymond
Zage
neither
he
nor
anyone
else
had
III
and
another
v
Rasif
David
and
others
held
that
assistance
the
right
to
use
Barlow
Clowes
requires
active
assistance
and
not
passive
receipt.
The
jeweller
was
a
money
for
speculative
passive
recipient,
thus
dishonest
assistance
was
held
to
be
inapplicable.
investments
of
their
own.
The
law
thus
distinguishes
between
malfeasance
and
nonfeasance.
BUT
the
line
to
be
drawn
is
a
fine
one.
CAN
ALWAYS
RE-
CHARACTERISE
ACTION
AS
ACTIVE
PARTICIPATION
OR
PASSIVE
RECEIPT
Cf
Brinks
Ltd
v
Abu-Saleh
(No
3),
where
wife
was
held
not
liable
since
she
did
not
actively
participate
because
she
was
just
in
the
car
Pearce
criticise
the
passive/active
participation
point
KL:
Jewellers
were
not
just
passively
awaiting
the
receipt
of
money;
they
were
actively
trying
to
sell
diamonds.
What
they
had
done,
one
could
say,
is
become
actively
involved
(they
would
arguely
innocent
whereas
judge
held
them
to
have
guilty
knowledge)
in
assisting
David
Rasif
get
his
hands
on
the
money
in
getting
it
out
of
the
jurisdiction.
He
started
off
with
chose
in
action,
with
his
control
over
law
firms
client
bank
account.
Ended
up
with
diamond
and
some
cash.
Hence,
he
did
get
some
assistance
from
jewellers.
Just
not
so
sure
if
this
principle
is
so
easily
applicable
in
Raymond
Zage
III
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T H E O B J E C T I V E T E S T O F D I S H O N E S T Y
[1]
In
determining
whether
defendant
acted
dishonestly,
recent
judicial
trends
point
towards
an
objective
test
which
takes
into
account
personal
characteristics:
Royal
Brunei
Airlines;
Barlow
Clowes;
Abou-Ramah
and
another
v
Abacha.
Adopted
in
Singapore:
George
Raymond
Zage.
Barlow
Clowes
re-interpreted
Twinsectra
to
mean
that
an
objective
test
of
dishonesty
should
be
adopted.
In
Abou-Ramah,
Treacy
J
at
first
instance
appeared
to
have
adopted
the
Barlow
Clowes
reinterpretation
of
Twinsectra
a
subjective
appreciation
that
ones
conduct
was
dishonest
by
normally
acceptable
standards
was
not
required.
On
appeal,
however,
the
correct
interpretation
of
Twinsectra
as
a
matter
of
English
law
has
been
put
in
some
doubt.
However,
each
of
the
judges
had
something
different
to
say.
[2]
How
does
court
take
into
account
personal
characteristics?
E.g.
if
youre
in
professional
capacity
such
as
lawyer,
easier
to
find
dishonesty.
Deceit:
Honest
people
do
not
intentionally
deceive
others
to
their
Carelessness
or
negligence:
is
not
dishonesty
(requires
conscious
detriment
as
per
Royal
Brunei.
impropriety)
as
per
Royal
Brunei.
In
Royal
Brunei,
P
appointed
BLT
as
its
agent
and
D
was
the
managing
director
and
principal
shareholder
of
BLT.
In
breach
of
trust,
BLT
used
the
money
for
its
own
purposes
and
did
not
pay
it
to
P.
Held
that
D
was
liable
because
he
caused
BLT
to
used
money
for
its
own
purposes
when
he
knew
it
was
not
entitled
to
do
so,
thus
amounting
to
dishonesty.
But
imprudence
carried
to
reckless
lengths
may
call
into
question
the
Imprudence:
(without
recklessness
or
self
interest)
is
not
dishonesty:
honesty
of
the
person
making
the
decision.
Royal
Brunei;
Banque
Nationale
de
Paris
v
Hew
Keong
Chan
This
is
especially
so
if
the
transaction
serves
another
Gary
(SG2003).
All
investment
involves
risk.
purpose
in
which
that
person
has
an
interest
of
his
own.
To
reduce
risks,
defendant
should
(as
per
Royal
Brunei)
Knox
J
stated
that
in
a
case
with
a
commercial
setting,
person
guilty
1. Flatly
decline
to
become
involved
of
commercially
unacceptable
conduct
would
be
considered
2. Ask
further
questions
dishonest:
Cowan
de
Groot
Properties
Ltd
(1942).
3. Seek
advice
or
insist
on
further
advice
being
obtained
4. Advise
trustee
of
the
risks
involved
before
proceeding
with
his
role
in
the
transaction
Knowledge:
Honest
people
do
not
knowingly
take
others
property.
Association
per
se:
is
not
dishonesty:
Caltong
(Australia)
Pty
Ltd
Unless
there
is
a
very
good
and
compelling
reason,
an
honest
person
v
Tong
Tien
See
Construction
Pte
Ltd
(SGCA2002)
does
not
participate
in
a
transaction
if
he
knows
it
involves
a
In
that
case,
the
appellant
was
merely
a
nominee
director
misapplication
of
trust
assets
to
the
detriment
of
the
beneficiaries:
of
Caltong
and
played
no
role
in
remitting
sums
to
Caltong.
Royal
Brunei.
This
association
per
se
could
not
mean
that
she
would
also
know
what
was
done
by
the
Tongs
as
far
as
siphoning
of
TTSC's
moneys
to
Caltong
was
concerned.
In
short,
there
was
nothing
to
implicate
Sally
to
the
wrongdoings.
Wilful
blindness:
Nor
does
an
honest
person
in
such
a
case
Motive:
lack
of
motive
may
help
courts
infer
that
defendant
was
not
deliberately
close
his
eyes
and
ears,
or
deliberately
not
ask
questions,
dishonest
(Lai
J
in
Banque
Nationale
affirming
Lord
Nicholls
lest
he
learn
something
he
would
rather
not
know,
and
then
proceed
statement
in
Royal
Brunei
in
the
context
of
taking
risks)
regardless.
Lai
J
observed
that
Lord
Nicholls
statement
suggests
that
See
Agip
(Africa)
Ltd
v
Jackson
(accounting
case)
where
the
court
in
deciding
the
liability
of
dishonest
assistance
court
held
that
wilful
blindness
or
indifference
in
the
face
of
would
look
at
the
motive
which
lies
behind
the
defendants
obvious
money
laundering
constituted
a
fraudulent
breach
act
or
ommission.
of
duty.
If
he
stands
to
gain
something,
the
touchstone
of
o Decision
also
based
on
the
fact
that
defendants
dishonesty
is
probably
triggered
as
an
ingredient
-
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-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
were
professional
men
constituting
the
equitable
wrong
of
a
dishonest
accessory.
In
Barlow
Clowes,
it
was
found
that
the
respondent
knew
On
the
other
hand,
if
he
is
driven
by
ties
of
kinship,
enough
about
the
origins
of
the
money
to
have
suspected
compassion,
altruism
or
an
exaggeratedly
credulous
or
misappropriation
and
that
he
acted
dishonestly
in
assisting
trusting
nature
or
disposition,
I
do
not
think
that
such
in
its
disposal.
The
first
instance
judge
further
found
that
traits
or
shortcomings,
however
lamentable,
amount
to
after
June
1987
Henwood
strongly
suspected
that
the
dishonesty
in
the
context
of
accessory
liability.
monies
passing
through
ITC
had
come
from
private
British
investors.
Consequently
it
was
held
that
no
honest
person
could
have
assisted
Peter
Clowes
and
Cramer
if
those
suspicious
were
correct.
Henwood
has
consciously
decided
not
to
make
inquiries
because
he
preferred
in
his
own
interest
not
to
run
the
risk
of
discovering
the
truth.
Privy
Council
affirmed
the
findings
and
allowed
the
appeal.
Recklessness:
Acting
in
reckless
disregard
of
others
rights
or
possible
Policy:
finding
of
dishonesty
is
grave
against
professionals
as
it
may
rights
can
be
a
tell-tale
sign
of
dishonesty
as
per
Royal
Brunei.
effectively
cripple
defendants
career
and
that
such
a
result
is
often
disproportionate
to
the
wrong
committed
(Lord
Huttons
concern
in
Twinsectra,
which
was
not
addressed
in
Barlow).
Lai
J
in
Banque
Nationale
addressed
such
concerns
by
bringing
up
motive
and
gain
as
factors
to
assist
judges
in
justifying
their
findings
Overzealousness
in
acting
on
clients
instructions:
is
dishonest:
Nature
of
trade:
Woo
J
in
Raymond
Zage
rightly
emphasised
that
Barlow
Clowes.
If
you
ought
to
have
known
better,
it
is
no
excuse
to
considerations
of
the
nature
of
the
trade
are
essential
in
preventing
say
that
youre
following
instructions.
judges
from
imposing
liability
too
readily
just
because
profit
margin
seems
high
or
deal
appears
unusual.
For
the
palm
olein
industry
in
Malaysia
International,
court
found
that
neither
factor
was
significant
as
the
deals
were
large
because
the
parties
were
eminent
corporations.
For
the
shipping
industry
in
Bansal,
it
was
a
stark
deviation
from
standard
shipping
procedure
to
obtain
goods
before
making
any
payment
which
should
have
alerted
recipient
that
something
was
amiss
Such
judicial
sensitivity
to
unique
fact
situations
ensures
that
liability
is
not
unduly
imposed
where
it
does
not
reflect
the
commercial
realities
of
a
particular
industry,
thus
PREVENTING
ACCESSORY
LIABILTIY
FROM
PARALYSING
TRADE.
R E M E D I E S F O R D I S H O N E S T A S S I S T A N C E
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TRACING
G E N E R A L
P R I N C I P L E S
**Remember
to
look
at
question
through
perspective
of
both
trustee
and
beneficiary
(different
claims
available)
[1]
Tracing
is
neither
a
claim
nor
a
remedy
but
a
precursor
to
a
claim
and
an
evidential
process
to
identify
a
new
asset
as
substitute
for
the
claimants
original
asset
for
the
subject
matter
of
his
claim
(per
Lord
Millet
in
Foskett
v.
Mckeown,
adopted
locally
in
Caltong).
[2]
Tracing
as
a
prerequisite
to
making
out
a
claim:
Although
tracing
does
not
make
out
the
claim
itself,
courts
sometimes
need
to
trace
successfully
before
a
claim
can
be
made
out.
This
happens
both
in
the
case
of
a
personal
claim
(El
Ajou)
and
proprietary
claim
(FC
Jones
v
Jones)
to
the
enforcement
of
a
legal
or
equitable
right:
Foskett
v
McKeown.
Vindication
of
equitable
title
may
be
done
by
way
of
a
constructive
trust
An
interference
of
legal
title
may
attract
liability
in
the
following
forms:
o Conversion
o Action
in
debt
o Unjust
enrichment
TRACING FOLLOWING
Identifying a new asset as a substitute for the old Following the same asset
Subject to defence of bona fide change in position Subject to bona fide purchaser for value without notice
Can
choose
between
Tracing
and
Following
(though
in
practice
his
choice
is
often
dictated
by
the
circumstances)
Where
one
asset
is
exchanged
for
another,
a
claimant
can
elect
whether
to
follow
the
original
asset
into
the
hands
of
the
new
owner
or
to
trace
its
value
into
the
new
asset
in
the
hands
of
the
same
owner.
Supposing
Bs
home
has
been
misappropriated
by
T.
T
then
sells
it
for
cash
to
X.
B
can
either
TRACE
the
cash
in
Ts
hands
to
the
home.
Or
B
can
FOLLOW
the
home
to
Xs
hands
and
try
and
sue
in
knowing
receipt.
P R E L I M I N A R Y ( B O T H L A W & E Q U I T Y ) : H A S P R O P E R T Y B E E N D I S S I P A T E D ?
In
the
first
place,
tracing
at
law
(and
in
equity)
requires
the
property
to
be
in
identifiable
form.
If
it
has
been
destroyed,
or
money
has
been
dissipated,
then
tracing
is
of
no
use:
the
property
and
the
legal
title
to
it
are
extinct.
DISSIPATED DESTROYED
Trustee
(third
party
recipient)
uses
trust
funds
to
buy
a
meal,
or
a
house
which
burns
The
law
deems
it
destroyed
in
three
down,
then
his
purchases
leave
no
traceable
residue
assuming
that
the
house
is
uninsured.
circumstances:
Nothing
is
left
in
his
hands
to
which
the
beneficiaries
might
assert
a
proprietary
claim.
1. Where
the
asset
is
physically
attached
to
another,
dominant,
asset
so
that
it
would
cause
serious
damage,
or
be
Issue:
Can
money
received
from
misappropriated
trust
funds
be
traced
into
the
flat?
disproportionately
expensive,
to
NO,
IF
VOLUNTEER
separate
the
two:
here
the
asset
is
Re
Diplock
concerned
a
will
for
such
charitable
institutions
or
other
charitable
or
said
to
accede
to
the
dominant
benevolent
object
or
objects
in
England
which
was
void
for
uncertainty.
However,
the
asset
executors
had
already
distributed
to
139
charities
and
one
of
the
charities
had
used
the
a. Case
law
suggests
that
monies
to
alter/improve
a
pre-existing
building.
It
was
held
that
one
cannot
trace
into
the
which
of
the
two
assets
building.
Recognised
special
defences
for
innocent
volunteer
accedes
to
the
other
is
spends
money
improving
his
land
there
can
be
no
declaration
of
charge
because
decided
impressionistically
the
method
of
enforcing
the
charge
would
be
to
force
him
to
sell
the
land
or
by
reference
to
overall
physical
significance
rather
uses
the
money
to
pay
off
a
mortgage
on
land
because
then
the
beneficiary
will
than
monetary
value
acquire
the
rights
of
a
mortgagee
and
may
force
him
to
sell
the
land.
-
Page
80
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
2. Where
the
asset
is
physically
attached
YES,
IF
WRONGDOER
to
land
in
such
a
way
that
it
would
In
situations
where
fiduciary
misappropriated
money
to
renovate
house,
an
equitable
cause
serious
damage,
or
be
charge
may
be
imposed
over
the
property,
either
to
the
value
of
the
money
spent
on
it
disproportionately
expensive,
to
(100,000)
or
in
the
proportion
that
100,000
represents
of
the
houses
value
after
separaet
the
two:
here
the
asset
is
improvement
(Re
Tilley
(1967);
Foskett
v
McKeown
(2000))
said
to
become
a
fixture
on
the
land
3. Mixed
to
create
new
product:
Borden
(UK)
Ltd
v
Scottish
Issue:
Innocent
donee
using
money
to
pay
off
debts
(CHARGE)
Timber
Products
Ltd
(1981)
a. In
this
case,
Borden
tried
to
In
Re
Diplock,
the
House
of
Lords
was
of
the
view
that
it
was
impossible
to
trace
money
claim
for
the
unpaid
resin
that
had
been
used
to
pay
off
a
debt,
both
because
the
creditor
could
be
regarded
as
a
supplied
to
Scottist
Timber
purchaser
for
value
and
because
the
money
effectively
ceased
to
exist
as
independent
through
tracing.
But
it
was
property.
However,
the
Court
of
Appeal,
in
Boscawen
v
Bajawa
(1995),
allowed
the
held
that
the
manufacturing
claimant
a
remedy
against
a
defendant
who
had
used
monies
traced
to
him
to
pay
off
a
process
had
amalgamated
mortgage.
In
Boscawen,
the
claimant
was
subrogated
to
the
creditor
who
had
been
paid
the
resin
with
the
other
off.
So,
in
our
case,
if
we
follow
Boscawen,
and
similar
reasoning
adopted
by
the
House
of
ingredients.
As
such
the
Lords
in
Banque
Financire
de
la
Cit
v
Parc
(Battersea)
Ltd
(1998),
the
claimants
resin
had
lost
its
identity
will
be
subrogated
to
Loanshark
Co,
and
may
be
able
to
recover
the
money
by
enforcing
and
ceased
to
exist,
it
the
debt
against
Ermentrude
as
creditors.
would
be
impossible
to
trace
the
resin
into
the
chipboard
Issue:
money
gone
to
hospital
to
buy
hospital
equipment
(NO)
Conversely,
however,
there
are
doubts
whether
the
500
paid
to
the
local
hospital
can
be
However,
in
scenario
(3),
these
rules
are
recovered
by
the
beneficiaries.
There
is
no
doubt
that
the
property
is
traceable
per
se;
the
modified
where
the
mixing
is
performed
by
a
facts
suggest
that
the
money
has
been
used
to
purchase
identifiable
equipment
and
there
wrongdoer:
Jones
v
De
Marchant,
where
is
no
suggestion
that
the
innocent
volunteer
(the
hospital)
had
contributed
any
of
its
own
defendant
stole
18
beaver
skins
from
wife
to
money
to
these
purchases.
Thus,
the
matter
is
not
entirely
within
the
Diplock
defences
make
new
coat;
court
held
that
following
was
referred
to
above
because
the
innocent
volunteer
has
not
mixed
its
property
with
that
of
allowed
(all
belonged
to
wife)
(common
law
the
beneficiaries.
Yet,
it
is
clear
that
the
court
has
a
general
discretion
to
deny
tracing
tracing)
where
it
would
be
inequitable
to
permit
it
and
this
may
prevent
recovery
from
the
hospital.
EXCEPTIONS
[1]
If
the
debt
is
secured
by
a
charge
over
the
defendants
property
then
equity
can
treat
the
debt
and
the
charge,
by
a
legal
fiction,
as
though
they
were
not
extinguished
by
the
payment,
thereby
enabling
the
beneficiaries
to
trace
the
value
inherent
in
their
money
into
the
value
inherent
in
the
creditors
fictionally
subsisting
chose
in
action
against
the
defendant.
[2]
Backward
tracing:
Exceptionally,
if
the
defendant
borrows
money,
used
it
to
buy
an
asset
and
used
trust
money
to
repay
the
creditor,
then
the
beneficiaries
can
trace
backwards
through
the
loan
transaction
into
the
asset
and
identify
the
value
inherent
in
the
asset
as
the
proceeds
of
the
value
inherent
in
the
trust
money
IF
there
is
sufficient
connection
between
the
misappropriation
of
trust
money
and
the
acquisition
of
the
asset
i.e.
trustee
intended
to
use
trust
money
to
acquire
the
asset:
Bishopsgate
Investment
Management
Ltd
v
Homan;
Shalson
v
Russo;
Foskett
v
McKeown.
S T E P 1 : C O M M O N L A W T R A C I N G
[1]
Need
for
legal
title:
Tracing
at
law
requires
the
claimant
to
have
had
legal
title
to
property.
Therefore,
as
a
matter
of
principle,
it
is
not
available
to
a
beneficiary
under
a
trust
who
is,
of
course,
a
person
with
a
pure
equitable
title.
Moreover,
it
must
be
clear
that
the
claimant
has
retained
legal
title
to
the
property.
o MONEY:
Given
that
title
to
money
usually
passes
with
possession,
it
is
often
easy
to
defeat
a
claim
at
law,
as
in
Box
v
Barclays
Bank
(1998)
where
the
legal
title
had
passed
from
the
claimants.
o On
the
other
hand,
some
cases
for
example,
Lipkin
Gorman
v
Karpnale
(1991)
and
Jones
v
Jones
(1996)
have
sidestepped
the
claimants
apparent
lack
of
title
(that
is,
the
claimants
may
have
had
title
to
a
chose
in
action:
a
debt
now
-
Page
81
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
representing
the
money)
and
allowed
the
claim
to
proceed
AGENCY:
E.g.
This
would
not
appear
to
be
a
problem
in
this
case,
especially
since
James
received
the
money
as
agent
(see
Lipkin
Gorman
v
Karpnale
(1991)).
Thereafter,
James
could
not
transfer
the
shares
beneficially
to
his
daughter
under
the
equitable
maxim
nemo
dat
quod
non
habet.
o Application:
In
addition,
there
is
no
doubt
that
a
claim
to
trace
at
law
will
survive
changes
in
the
nature
of
the
property,
providing
that
it
is
not
mixed
with
any
other
property
(Taylor
v
Plummer
(1815)).
Thus,
Charles
will
be
able
to
trace
his
legal
title
to
the
property
through
James
to
his
daughter.
Charles
will
be
able
to
maintain
an
action
against
Jamess
daughter
personally
for
wrongful
interference
with
goods
and
can
expect
damages
to
the
value
of
the
property
she
has
received.
This
liability
will
persist
even
if
she
has
disposed
of
the
shares
and
may
be
defeated
only
if
she
can
rely
on
the
defence
of
change
of
position,
recognised
in
Lipkin
Gorman
v
Karpnale
(1991).
This
is
unlikely
in
the
circumstances
as
there
is
no
evidence
that
Jamess
daughter
has
in
any
way
acted
to
her
own
detriment
in
innocent
reliance
on
her
receipt
of
the
shares.
[2]
Personal
claim:
The
personal
nature
of
tracing
at
law
may
cause
problems
if
the
defendant
has
gone
bankrupt
because,
in
theory,
the
personal
claim
of
the
tracer
will
rank
equally
with
other
personal
claims
made
on
the
bankrupts
estate.
[3]
Tracing
into
clean
substitutes
and
products:
A
claim
to
trace
at
law
will
survive
changes
in
the
nature
of
the
property,
providing
that
it
is
not
mixed
with
any
other
property:
Taylor
v
Plumer
[4]
No
tracing
into
mixed
substitutes
and
products:
Although
there
has
been
much
debate,
it
seems
that
tracing
at
law
is
not
available
if
the
claimants
property
has
been
mixed
with
that
of
another
person
and
then
passed
on.
The
essence
of
the
matter
is
that
mixing
at
law
renders
the
legal
title
to
the
property
unidentifiable,
in
much
the
same
way
as
if
the
property
had
actually
been
destroyed:
Agip
(Africa)
Ltd
v
Jackson.
This
is
a
serious
practical
drawback
to
the
efficacy
of
common
law
tracing
and
is
a
major
reason
why
successful
actions
are
rare.
Note,
however,
that
this
is
an
inability
to
trace
against
a
recipient
of
the
property
after
it
has
been
mixed.
There
is
nothing
to
stop
the
claimant
tracing
at
law
against
the
person
who
does
the
mixing
because,
prior
to
that
persons
possession,
the
property
was
identifiable.
Application:
James
has
mixed
the
trust
money
with
his
own
money
before
purchasing
the
shares
and
giving
them
to
his
son.
This
is
fatal
to
a
claim
of
tracing
at
law
against
Jamess
son
because,
as
far
as
the
common
law
is
concerned,
the
mixing
of
property
before
it
is
passed
to
the
recipient
makes
it
unidentifiable
(AGIP
(Africa)
Ltd
v
Jackson
(1992)).
Despite
much
criticism
of
this
rule
and
possible
contrary
authority
(Banque
Belge
pour
LEtranger
v
Hambrouk
(1921)),
it
appears
to
have
been
confirmed
by
the
House
of
Lords
in
Lipkin
Gorman.
Bonus
(agent
as
constructive
trustee):
It
is
possible
that
Charles
could
argue
that
James
became
a
constructive
trustee
for
him
on
the
basis
that
James
must
have
known
that
he
was
behaving
in
breach
of
trust
and
so
became
a
trustee
on
the
basis
of
conscience,
following
dicta
in
Westdeutsche
Landesbank
Girozentrale
v
Islington
LBC
(1996).
This
would
trigger
a
claim
in
equity
by
Charles
the
trustee
and
now
beneficiary.
then
go
on
to
tracing
claim
in
equity
by
beneficiaries
[5]
Tracing
into
profits:
Being
traditionally
regarded
as
a
personal
claim,
an
innocent
defendant
in
an
action
supported
by
common
law
tracing
should
not
normally
be
required
to
disgorge
profits
made
by
use
of
the
property
wrongfully
received.
The
claim
is
for
the
value
of
the
property,
not
the
property
(compare
tracing
in
equity).
However,
in
Jones
v
Jones
(1996),
the
Court
of
Appeal
held,
on
general
restitutionary
principles,
that
if
the
defendant
had
no
title
to
the
money
she
had
received,
then
she
had
no
title
to
the
profits
she
made
by
using
it.
In
that
case,
the
defendant
was
compelled
to
return
the
value
of
the
initial
sum
plus
the
considerably
greater
profits
she
made
by
investing
it
in
the
futures
market.
This
may
well
indicate
the
way
ahead,
although
we
should
note
that
it
involves
seeing
tracing
at
law
as
simply
a
device
for
reversing
unjust
enrichment.
Alternatively,
it
is
possible
to
frame
a
claim
in
equity
as
the
the
trial
judge
in
Jones
v
Jones
had
considered
that
Mr
Jones
was
a
partner
and
therefore
a
fiduciary.
[6]
Defence
of
change
of
position:
A
defendant
may
be
able
to
plead
change
of
position
as
a
defence
to
an
action
triggered
by
common
law
tracing
(Lipkin
Gorman
v
Karpnale
(1991)).
Defence
not
available
to
money
spent
in
ordinary
course
of
things:
The
mere
fact
that
the
defendant
has
spent
the
money,
in
whole
or
in
part,
does
not
of
itself
render
it
inequitable
that
he
should
be
called
upon
to
repay,
because
the
expenditure
might
in
any
event
have
been
incurred
by
him
in
the
ordinary
course
of
things.
-
Page
82
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
S T E P 2 : T R A C I N G I N E Q U I T Y
GENERAL
SHORT
&
SWEET:
There
is
no
doubt
that
[CLAIMANT]
would
be
able
to
satisfy
the
preconditions
for
tracing
in
equity
identified
in
Re
Diplock
(1948):
as
[STATUS:
principal,
beneficiary]
they
have
an
equitable
proprietary
interest
and
there
is
a
clear
fiduciary
relationship
between
them
and
[FIDUCIARY/TRUSTEE].
[1]
Equitable
proprietary
interest:
The
trigger
for
a
claim
of
equitable
tracing
is
that
the
claimant
must
have
an
equitable
proprietary
interest
in
property
and
only
an
equitable
proprietary
interest
(Re
Diplock
(1948)).
Consequently,
a
beneficiary
under
a
trust
may
trace
in
equity,
but
a
trustee
(legal
title
only)
and
an
absolute
owner
may
not.
[2]
Fiduciary
relationship:
Second,
unlike
the
position
at
law,
it
seems
that
tracing
in
equity
can
occur
only
if
there
was
in
existence
a
fiduciary
relationship
between
the
equitable
owner
and
some
other
person
before
the
events
giving
rise
to
the
tracing
claim
occurred
(AGIP
(Africa)
Ltd
v
Jackson
(1992);
and
confirmed
in
Westdeutsche
Landesbank
Girozentrale
v
Islington
LBC
(1996)).
This
will
always
be
the
case
where
the
claim
arises
out
of
a
trust
and
it
is
clear
that
courts
may
do
their
utmost
to
find
the
required
fiduciary
relationship
in
order
to
facilitate
the
tracing
claim
(Chase
Manhattan
Bank
v
Israel-British
Bank
(1981)).
However,
the
principle
is
that
there
must
have
been
an
initial
fiduciary
relationship.
Furthermore,
it
is
argued
that
this
requirement
is
artificial
because
in
most
cases
courts
will
construe
an
artificial
fiduciary
relationship
if
it
feels
that
tracing
is
justified.
For
example
in
Chase
Manhattan
where
there
was
no
pre-existing
fiduciary
relationship
and
the
court
imposed
one
based
on
the
mere
fact
that
payment
had
been
made
by
mistake,
thereby
allowing
equitable
tracing.
Also,
Lord
Browne-Wilkinson
in
Westdeutsche
suggested
that
even
a
thief
can
be
construed
as
a
fiduciary,
and
this
further
demonstrates
the
artificialness
of
the
fiduciary
requirement.
[3]
Wrongful
act:
Third,
it
is
inherent
in
the
equitable
tracing
claim
that
the
property
of
the
beneficiaries
must
have
been
transferred
to
another
person
wrongfully.
Otherwise,
the
equitable
owner
has
no
right
or
reason
to
claim
its
return.
The
simplest
case
is
where
a
trustee
wrongfully
misappropriates
trust
property
and
uses
it
exclusively
to
acquire
other
property
for
his
own
benefit.
In
such
a
case,
the
beneficiary
is
entitled
at
his
option
either
to
assert
his
beneficial
ownership
of
the
proceeds
OR
to
bring
a
personal
claim
against
the
trustee
for
breach
of
trust
and
enforce
an
equitable
lien
or
charge
on
the
proceeds
to
secure
restoration
of
the
trust
fund.
He
will
normally
exercise
the
option
in
the
way
most
advantageous
to
himself:
If
traceable
proceeds
have
increased
in
value
and
are
worth
more
than
the
the
original
asset,
he
will
assert
his
beneficial
ownership
and
obtain
the
profit
for
himself
If
traceable
proceeds
are
worth
less
than
the
original
asset,
it
does
not
usually
matter
how
the
beneficiary
exercises
his
option.
He
will
take
the
whole
of
the
proceeds
on
either
basis.
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83
of
86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
In
both
law
and
equity,
an
innocent
recipient
who
receives
misappropriated
property
by
way
of
gift
obtains
no
better
title
than
his
donor.
Hence
if
a
proportionate
sharing
is
inappropriate,
the
wrongdoer
and
those
who
derive
title
under
him
take
nothing:
Jones
v
De
Marchant;
Foskett
v
McKeown.
In
Jones
v
De
Marchant,
husband
wrongfully
took
18
beaver
skins
belonging
to
his
wife
and
used
them,
with
four
skins
of
his
own,
to
have
a
fur
coat
made
up
which
he
then
gave
to
his
mistress
who
knew
nothing.
Court
held
that
the
wife
was
entitled
to
recover
the
coat
and
mistress
innocence
was
immaterial.
She
was
a
gratuitious
donor
and
could
stand
in
no
better
position
than
the
husband.
Becausee
the
coat
was
a
new
asset
and
was
not
reducible
to
a
divisible
fund,
it
was
an
all
or
nothing
case.
But
it
does
not
exclude
a
pro
rata
division
where
appropriate,
as
in
the
case
of
money
and
other
fungibles
like
grain,
oil
or
wine.
Pro
rata
division
is
the
best
that
the
wrongdoer
and
his
donees
can
hope
for.
If
a
pro
rata
division
is
excluded,
the
beneficiary
takes
the
whole;
there
is
no
question
of
confining
him
to
a
lien.
MIXED
FUNDS
Moreover,
so
long
as
the
beneficiaries
equitable
proprietary
interest
is
identifiable,
it
is
irrelevant
that
the
property
is
no
longer
in
its
original
form
or
that
it
has
been
mixed
with
other
property
(Re
Hallett
(1880);
Re
Oatway
(1903))
When
T
withdraws
$
from
mixed
acct,
B
may
presume
that
T
used
his
When
T
withdraws
$
from
mixed
acct,
B
may
presume
that
Bs
money
own
money
first.
was
used
first.
Used
when
$
withdrawn
has
been
dissipated
or
led
to
losses.
Used
when
$
withdrawn
has
led
to
profit
OR
B
simply
wants
to
claw
something
because
T
is
insolvent.
***As
to
how
the
withdrawals
in
the
mixed
fund
will
be
attributed,
because
T
is
a
wrongdoer,
equity
resolves
any
evidential
problem
against
the
trustee
by
allowing
the
beneficiary
to
cherry-pick
between
the
two
rules
(Re
Hallet
and
Re
Oatway)
to
reach
the
best
result:
Shalson
v
Russo
(UKHC2003).
In
fact,
these
presumptions
could
be
said
to
have
been
superceded
by
ruling
in
Foskett
v
McKeown
where
the
Millet
LJ
held
that
beneficiaries
may
trace
the
withdrawals
as
he
pleases
on
the
principle
that
all
inferences
will
be
made
against
the
wrongdoer
whose
own
act
had
caused
the
factual
difficulty
in
the
first
place.
In
essence,
you
can
use
Re
Oatway
first
then
switch
to
Re
Hallet
for
a
subsequent
withdrawal
to
maximise
your
gains.
APPLICATION
Where
there
is
profit:
In
this
case,
the
beneficiaries
may
trace
trust
fund
money
into
[NAME
OF
TRUSTEE]s
bank
account,
and
following
the
rule
in
Re
Oatway,
[NAME
OF
TRUSTEE]
will
be
presumed
to
have
spent
$[AMOUNT]
of
the
trust
money
on
the
[e.g.
shares
of
Z
Ltd]
(not
following
Re
Hallett
(1880)
because
there
are
no
monies
left
in
the
bank
account
which
could
satisfy
the
beneficiaries
claim)
It
should
also
be
noted
that
the
beneficiaries
are
entitled
to
the
increase
in
the
value
of
Z
Cos
shares
because
tracing
in
equity
gives
the
claimants
a
proprietary
right
to
property
and
any
increase
in
its
value
(Foskett)
EXAM
TIP
If
youre
told
that
its
a
current
account,
apply
Claytons
case
first
(work
the
figures
out)
then
suggest
that
if
courts
find
it
impractical
or
unjust
as
per
Barlow
Clowes,
then
pari
passu
(again,
work
the
figures
out)
If
youre
told
its
any
other
account
e.g.
savings
account,
straight
away
pari
passu.
If
youre
not
told
what
account
it
is,
apply
both
and
do
calculations
for
both.
[1]
First
in,
first
out:
Claytons
case
(mainly
for
current
account)
presumes
that
where
trustee
places
monies
from
two
innocent
volunteers
into
the
same
account,
any
withdrawals
that
made
from
the
account
is
deemed
to
be
made
on
a
first
in,
first
out
basis.
However,
even
if
it
is
clear
that
trustees
account
is
an
active
bank
account
within
the
Clayton
rule,
Barlow
Clowes
that
Claytons
rule
is
one
of
convenience
only
and
should
not
be
applied
either
where
the
property
of
the
respective
claimants
is
identifiable
or
where
it
would
achieve
an
inequitable
result.
A
similar
view
was
echoed
in
Commerzbank
v
IMB
Morgan
(2004).
[2]
Pari
passu:
If
both
the
beneficiaries
and
the
innocent
volunteer
(be
it
the
beneficiary
of
another
trust
or
just
an
innocent
volunteer)
are
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86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
equally
innocent
victims
of
the
trustees
wrongdoing,
then
the
beneficiaries
will
generally
have
equally
strong
claims
to
a
rateable
share
of
gains
and
equally
weak
claims
to
avoid
taking
a
rateable
share
of
losses,
to
the
mixed
fund.
Hence,
gains
and
losses
are
generally
shared
between
the
beneficiaries
pari
passu:
Re
Diplock;
Barlow
Clowes;
affirmed
in
Commerzbank
AG.
[3]
Rolling
charge:
Woolf
and
Leggatt
LJJ
in
Barlow
Clowes
indicated
that
a
rolling
charge
solution
might
be
fairer
than
pari
passu
so
that
claimants
should
share
losses
and
gains
to
the
fund
in
proportion
to
their
interest
in
the
fund
immediately
prior
to
each
withdrawal.
This
has
also
received
the
support
of
Rimer
J
in
Shalson
v
Russo
who
prefers
the
rolling
charge
rule
in
such
situations
because
the
pari
passu
rule
ignores
evidence
of
what
has
actually
happened
to
the
claimants
money.
Example:
o Suppose
that
a
trustee
pays
$2000
from
Trust
A
and
then
$4000
from
Trust
B
into
an
empty
current
bank
account.
HE
then
withdraws
$3000
and
loses
it.
He
then
pays
in
$3000
from
Trust
C
before
withdrawing
another
$3000
to
buy
shares
whose
value
increases
tenfold.
He
then
withdraws
the
remaining
$3000
and
loses
it.
o Applying
the
rolling
charge
rule,
the
first
loss
must
be
borne
by
A
and
B
in
the
ratio
1:2,
and
C
need
not
bear
this
loss
at
all.
Immediately
after
the
first
withdrawal,
the
remaining
$3000
would
be
attributable
to
A
and
B
in
the
ratio
1:2.
After
the
next
deposit,
the
$6000
in
the
account
would
be
attributable
to
A,
B
and
C
in
the
ratio
1:2:3.
Hence,
the
shares
should
be
attribued
to
them
in
the
same
proportion,
leaving
A
with
shares
worth
$5000,
B
with
shares
worth
$10,000
and
C
with
shares
with
$15,000.
o In
contrast,
the
pro
rata
rule
would
attribute
all
gains
and
losses
in
proportion
to
the
total
considerations
made
by
each
trust,
givig
a
ratio
of
2:4:3
and
leaving
A
with
shares
with
$6667,
B
with
shares
worth
$13,333
and
C
with
shares
worth
$10,000.
o The
FIFO
rule
would
preduce
result
that
A
of
As
money
is
lost,
$1000
of
Bs
money
is
lost,
that
all
the
shares
belong
to
B,
and
that
all
of
Cs
money
is
lost.
Criticism:
This
rule
may
be
administratively
unworkable,
impractical
or
so
expensive
as
to
be
prohibitive,
leaving
claimants
with
the
rought
justice
of
pari
passu
rule,
or
the
rougher
justice
of
FIFO.
Being
a
claim
in
equity,
equitable
tracing
is
Likewise,
it
appears
that
It
is
felt
that
this
discretionary
limitation
in
Re
Diplock
is
now
not
possible
against
a
person
who
is
a
bona
the
court
has
a
discretion
subsumed
in
the
developing
defence
of
change
of
position
fide
purchaser
for
value
of
the
property,
to
disallow
tracing
against
advocated
by
Lord
Goff
in
Lipkin
Gorman
(1991)
although
it
may
still
be
possible
to
trace
an
innocent
volunteer
if
to
Lord
Goff
formulated
the
defence
on
a
broad
basis.
against
the
person
who
has
sold
the
trust
do
otherwise
would
be
The
defence
will
not
be
available
to
a
defendant
who
property
to
the
purchaser
(Re
Diplock
inequitable
in
all
the
has
changed
his
position
in
bad
faith;
e.g.
a
defendant
(1948)
circumstances:
Re
who
spends
the
claimants
money
after
knowledge
of
Diplock
facts
entitling
the
claimant
to
restitution.
Similarly,
the
defence
will
not
be
available
to
a
wrongdoer,
such
as
a
defendant
who
has
acted
in
breach
of
his
fiduciary
duties.
The
requirement
the
defence
being
bona
fide
was
later
added
in
Niru
Battery
Manufacturing
Co
and
Abou-Ramah
v
Abacha.
Absent
any
payment
in
of
money
with
the
intention
of
making
good
earlier
depredations,
tracing
cannot
occur
through
a
mixed
account
for
any
larger
sum
than
is
the
lowest
balance
in
the
account
between
the
time
the
beneficiarys
money
goes
in,
and
the
time
the
remedy
is
sought:
James
Roscoe
(Bolton)
Ltd
v
Winder
[1915]
1
Ch
62;
affirmed
in
Bishopsgate
Investment
Management
Ltd.
v
Homan
In
other
words,
after
mixing
trust
monies,
T
introduces
his
own
money,
it
does
not
count
as
part
of
Bs
money.
Exception:
T
adds
own
money
so
as
to
make
good
his
wrong.
o Note
that
even
though
under
trust
law,
even
if
it
is
proven
that
the
wrongdoer
intended
to
make
good
earlier
depredations
and
that
tracing
rules
apply,
it
might
still
be
attacked
by
bankruptcy
law
i.e.
unfair
preference!
Rationale:
Premised
on
the
fact
that
limits
must
be
placed
on
the
beneficiarys
proprietary
interests
i.e.
you
cannot
give
beneficiaries
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86
-
N i c h o l a s
T o n g
W e i
J i e
indestructible
property
rights
at
the
expense
of
other
creditors.
P E R S O N A L C L A I M A G A I N S T T R U S T E E F O R B R E A C H O F F I D U C I A R Y D U T I E S
That
which
they
cannot
claim,
and
where
they
still
suffer
a
loss,
can
be
recovered
only
in
a
personal
action
against
trustee
or
against
any
of
the
third
parties
who
may
have
had
such
an
awareness
of
the
material
facts
as
to
make
them
liable
as
constructive
trustees.
L I A B I L I T I E S O F C O N S T R U C T I V E T R U S T E E S H I P
For
the
sake
of
completeness,
it
should
also
be
noted
that
[PERSONS
INVOLVED]
may
incur
the
additional
liabilities
of
constructive
trusteeship
if
they
have
knowingly
received
trust
property
in
breach
of
trust
and,
furthermore,
the
bank
which
cashed
Charless
cheque
could,
in
theory,
be
liable
for
assisting
Charles
in
a
breach
of
trust,
provided
they
were
dishonest
(Royal
Brunei
Airlines
v
Tan
(1995)).
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