Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE
4
Conference on Computer Aided Control Systems Design
Munich, Germany, October 4-6, 2006
Global Evaluation of the Drivability of Calibrated Diesel Engine
Maps
Adrian Nessler , Carsten Haukap, Karsten Roepke
AbstractThis paper presents the method Design of
Experiments (DoE) in the engine calibration process shortly.
Modern Diesel engines are controlled via maps that have to be
calibrated using measurements from an engine test bench. The
maps have to fulfill various soft and hard constraints like
smoothness and drivability. Therefore two criteria for smooth
and drivable calibrated Diesel engine maps are defined and
evaluated. The criteria are used to create optimal and drivable
engine maps. Optimization and smoothing are combined in one
step of the engine calibration process.
I. INTRODUCTION
M odern combustion engines are equipped with a great
number of controllable components like variable valve
timing, variable inlet ducts and flexible injection systems,
for which an optimized setting is determined constantly
during operation. Only this approach gives the possibility to
comply with stricter legislation regulations and to meet
customer requirements for performance and driving comfort
at the same time.
Against this background the number of variable values
has increased in conjunction with shorter development
times. As a result, the limits of the conventional
methodologies like full factorial experiments, expert-guided
measurements and graphical optimizing have been reached.
One new, increasingly established approach in the field of
engine development is the method of Design of Experiments
(DoE). DoE comprises the design of experimental plans
according to statistical aspects, the creation of mathematical
models as well as the optimization using the models and
provides solutions for non-trivial optimization tasks based
on mathematical procedures. This occurs regardless of the
degrees of freedom of the investigated systems, by utilizing
the increasing calculation speed of modern computers.
II. MODEL SUPPORTED CALIBRATION PROCESS
Design of Experiments can be applied during many stages
of the engine development process including the base
development, the engine management, and the calibration
process as well as for emission optimization.
One example of a calibration process is the adjustment of
A. Neler (phone: +49 30 399789 546; e-mail: adrian.nessler@iav.de), C.
Haukap (phone: +49 30 399789 402; e-mail: carsten.haukap@iav.de) and
Dr. K. Rpke (phone: +49 30 399789 703; e-mail: karsten.roepke@iav.de)
are with the IAV GmbH, Carnotstrae 1, 10587 Berlin, Germany, ,
www.iav.de
0-7803-9797-5/06/$20.00 2006 IEEE
FrB02.
the engine to different combinations of vehicles and
transmission systems as well as the optimization of
emissions or of the engine power, respectively. Also, all
criteria like a sporty or comfortable vehicle adjustment and
considerations of country-specific conditions are part of the
calibration process.
The goal of the process is to sufficiently model the system
response with a small number of measurements that is as
small as possible by using a mathematical function, e.g. a
polynomial or a radial basis function.
A. Design of Experiments for a Diesel Engine as an
Example
In the following, the design plan creation of the DoE
process is illustrated for the characteristic map range of a
turbo-charged diesel engine equipped with exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) and a pre-injection system constant over
time (fig. 1). The map range, that is to be planned; covers
the emission relevant region of the whole engine map
depending on the main inputs speed and torque and includes
the calibration inputs start of injection, rail pressure, EGR
rate and boost pressure. Thus, the design space has six input
parameters (dimensions).
1) Design plan creation: In the following example, the
main operating ranges are known from initial investigations,
which allow the design space to be divided into three
regions, see figure 1. Thus, a multiple-region model is
created for a subsequent evaluation. For an optimal design
plan the maximal operating limits of all inputs have to be
determined, which define the corner points of all regions
inside the whole design space. Once the operating limits are
found, the design space can be defined. Here, the model is
fitted on the basis of a third order polynomial model with six
input factors to achieve a small number of measuring points
and thus noticeably reduced measurement expenditure
compared to classical grid measurement.
2) Measurement and automation: The primary goal
regarding the adjustment of engine management systems on
the test bench is to increase the degree of automation. One
prerequisite is a combination of a detailed design planning
process and a sophisticated test bench management. In
addition the real-time monitoring of the tested components
and the instrumentation is required. The main reasons for
test bed automation are first economical considerations, e.g.
an increased speed for processing design plans, and
improved test bench utilization. The second reason is the
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verification and increase of data quality through the
integration of appropriate functionalities. In turn, high data
quality is a fundamental condition to obtain high-quality
DoE models.
Fig. 1. Three Defined Regions for a multiple-region Model of a Diesel
Engine
In the following, the automation of design space
measurements at the test bed is in the focus of attention,
instead of considering the automation of the entire process.
3) Modeling: Although the term DoE in the original
meaning of the word only relates to the design planning
process, in practice the word is also used to describe the
modeling process and thus the evaluation of the data. Every
created model reproduces the measured responses, which
depend on the input parameters chosen during the design
plan creation. As models, polynomials, RBF networks or
neural networks are used. Several commercial software tools
are available, which the user can apply for this task.
Data conditioning: As described, a high quality model
requires high-quality data. For every model, the raw data is
initially checked for systematic and random errors. A
practical method for evaluation of measurements is the
representation of the residuals defined as deviation
between the expected responses and the measurements. In
most cases, several sporadically occurring outliers indicate
the presence of random measurement errors.
If the residuals can be described by a statistical
distribution, evaluation of the systematic error is possible.
Furthermore, the calculation of the leverages is a useful
method to determine the significance of one or all
measurements for the model. The leverage describes the
influence or the weight of one measurement on the
response value or the model, respectively.
Model creation: The model creation is understood as a
process for fitting the model and possibly reducing the
coefficients of the chosen mathematical approach. To
eliminate the coefficients of polynomials and radial basis
functions (RBF), stepwise regression approaches are
frequently used. For neural networks these methods are not
available. Instead, a training process performs the fitting. In
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practice, the model fitting process requires a high degree of
experience in the application field, in which it is used. For
polynomial models the choice of the order of the input
factors and the consideration of their interactions is of
tremendous importance. For the RBF approach the choice of
the number of necessary center points is critical. Despite a
very small model error, the risk of a wrong reproduction of
the physical influences is present. The same problem exists
for neural networks.
Due to the risk of over-fitting, the exclusive evaluation of
a model on the basis of statistical characteristics is not
sufficient in most cases. Hence, 5 % up to 10 % of the
measurements should not be used for the model fitting, but
should be applied for the model validation instead.
Moreover, the comparison of different model approaches
can be used for evaluation and the choosing of the best
model. If various models show similar or equal results, the
chosen model is then considered to be of good quality.
4) Model-based optimization: One of the main application
fields of modeling in the calibration process is engine
optimization according to various criteria. Various optimal
setting can be determined depending on the optimization
requirements, e.g. for minimal fuel consumption, maximal
power or minimal emissions. When using an appropriate
graphical diagram, even highly complex relations can be
presented in an illustrative way. However, one crucial
advantage of the model-based approach is the possibility to
carry out an optimization with different targets. As a classic
example, the reverse trends of NOx and soot particulates that
are observed for all diesel engines, is also called the trade
off. The goal of the optimization in this case can only be a
compromise between the targets. If other models are
available for application, e.g. temperature patterns of critical
components, a protection of these components can be taken
into account in the optimization process as well.
B. Map Calibration
The engine control unit (ECU) contains the software that
controls all parts of the engine. Normally, the engine
specific desired values for the open-loop and closed-loop
controls, the monitoring functions and diagnosis functions
are presented as a map. A map is a look-up table that
contains a value that is indexed with two other values in
most cases. The indices of the main engine characteristics
are often the rotational speed and the load. The above
defined calibration process is used to fill the maps of the
ECU with correct values. Map calibration depends on
certain conditions. Some variables may not be subject to
major steps, but this is not always guaranteed during the first
global optimization process. Boost pressure and rail
pressure, in particular, which are required to have a
monotonous curve both in relation to engine speed and mean
effective pressure, do not yet comply with the calibration
conditions. Furthermore the so-called drivability plays an
important role. The drivability means the harmonic ones divided by 9 to keep a constant gain of the value one.
transition for the driver between different speed and load 1 1 1
points during the real vehicle drive. That means the constant 1
power supply avoiding sudden reduction of torque mainly in f p ,q 1 1 1 p, q 0,1, 2 (3)
9
acceleration phases. 1 1 1
So, maps have to be smooth to keep them drivable. On the
other hand the quantification of the observed drivability is This filter matrix is applied to every pixel of the original
very difficult, because the evaluation is subjective and picture. The value of the filtered pixel ~z m,n is the mean of
depends on experience of the calibration engineer and the the original pixel and the 8 adjacent pixels. The filtering
philosophy of the car manufacturer. Therefore the evaluation equals the 2D convolution (4). The application of the mean
of drivable smooth maps requires a real vehicle or complex filter leads to a smoothing of the picture.
2 2
software, normally. The main target is to estimate the ~
drivability of the maps in terms of closed-loop control and
z m ,n f
p 0q 0
p ,q z m  p ,n  q (4)
harmonic transient driving behavior with a simple method.
Big differences in the map between adjacent data points
For this purpose, a method for map smoothing will be
do not lead to a smooth behavior. Therefore it seems to be
presented.
useful to filter out and evaluate the big differences. A simple
high pass filter is the Laplace operator (5). The Laplace
III. A CRITERION OF THE MAP DRIVABILITY
operator computes pixel by pixel the sum of the discrete
The aim of the map calibration is to get smooth maps second derivatives in x- and y-direction with negative sign.
directly from the optimization. A smoothing of maps after This filter is used for edge detecting in image processing.
the optimization process causes a loss of the optimum, since The bigger the difference between adjacent pixels, the
any change of the map values are done without regard to the lighter is the edge after the filtering. The average of all
optimization target.
picture values, i.e. the constant component, is suppressed
A. Filter Techniques and Variance completely.
The map is treated as function that depends on two input 0 1 0
dimensions and delivers one output dimension. That kind of  1 4  1
functions describes pictures, in which every pixel has a gray
f p ,q p, q 0,1, 2 (5)
tone value and two coordinates of the position. The 0  1 0
continuous function z (1) can be sampled with a constant The variance (6) of the picture can be calculated after
sample rate of each input dimension. So you get a grid of the filtering using the Laplace operator. A smooth picture or
samples in which the function zm,n (2) has a value. The data map should have a small variance, because it only has soft
points of the calibration maps correspond with the samples edges, in comparison to a picture that is not smooth but
of the function. rough:
z f ( x, y ) f : 2 o (1) 1 N 1 M 1 ~ 1 N 1 M 1 ~ .(6)
V2 ( zm,n  z )2 with z zm,n
z m,n f (m 'x, n 'y ) m, n = (2) MN  1 n 0 m 0 MN n 0 m 0
The sample rates in each dimension are called x and y The variance (6) represents the energy that is stored as
in this equation (2). The sample rates are the differences differences in the picture. M and N are the number of data or
between the data points of the map. The function value z can sample points, ~z m,n represents the pixel values of the filtered
also be sampled. Therefore the function value z exists only picture at the position m and n, z is the average of all pixel
on discrete points and the function is ready for use with values.
digital computers. Figure 2 shows a map example of the B. Curvature
emission calibration of a Diesel engine boost pressure over
Additionally, another way to quantify the smoothness is
speed and torque. Map values between the data points are be
to analyze the frequent changes of the map values between
obtained using linear interpolation in a same way the engine
adjacent data points, which can be expressed with the
control unit interpolates data in practice. This approach
curvature. The curvature is mainly the evaluation of the
leads to the application of image processing algorithms for
second derivative, normalized in a way that, for example,
the smoothing process. There are a lot of filters to
the curvature of cycle equals a constant and positive value.
manipulate pictures. For example, the filters could be
The curvature is zero in a turning point and in straight
matrices of 3 x 3 or 5 x 5 elements and are comparable to
sections of a line. It leads to high absolute values around an
finite impulse response filters for a time dependent signal in
extremum. The sharper the camber, the higher the absolute
a one-dimensional space. One simple filter fp,q is the two-
value of the curvature is. Thus smooth sections have low
dimensional mean filter (3). It consists of a 3 x 3 matrix of

2685
absolute values of the curvature. The curvature can also be
defined for two-dimensional functions, so it can be applied
to maps. The Gaussian curvature K of the function z can be
used for this purpose (7):
rt  s 2
K with z f ( x, y ) and
(1  p 2  q 2 ) 2 (7)
wz wz w2z w2 z w2 z
p ,q ,r ,s ,t
wx wy wx 2 wxwy wy 2
The Gaussian curvature is created with first and second
directional derivatives of z. In case of a discrete function
zm,n. a difference quotient (8) has to approximate the
derivative. The discrete Gaussian curvature can be
calculated using the following approximation:
z k 1  z k 1
pk (8)
2( xk 1  xk 1 )
The use of the previous and the following sample for the
approximation of the derivative gives a better estimation of
the real derivative compared with the simple difference
Fig. 2. Example of a map of a Diesel engine containing the boost pressure
between two adjacent samples. The formula (7) computes
over speed and torque.
the local curvature of every sample or data point. A global Figure 2 shows an example of a boost pressure map
value derived from the local curvature to evaluate the whole indexed by speed and torque of a 2 L Diesel engine. This
map is needed. The average of the squared values of the map was created for a mid size family car. The map bases on
local curvature for all data points can be defined as measurements collected on an engine test bench varying
normalized curvature energy (9): speed and torque using the calibration settings in the ECU.
M 1 N 1
1 2 The important map set consists of start of main injection
EK
NM
K
m 0n 0
n, m . (9)
map, air mass flow map that controls the exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) and the boost pressure map. So a
Thus, smooth maps should lead to smaller energy values
different set of values of start of injection, air mass flow and
than rough maps.
boost pressure is defined for every operating point. Further,
IV. APPLICATION OF THE CRITERIA TO MAPS this base calibration is supposed to be drivable. The
smoothness criteria are applied to these maps to get the
The drivability depends on objective and subjective grade of smoothness of this calibration.
criteria. The calibration of the maps has to find optimal TABLE I
settings that fulfill the legal restrictions and the drivability MAP VARIANCE AFTER LAPLACE FILTERING
constraints. The subjective constraints depend on the vehicle Calibra- of start of of air mass of boost
concept, e.g. sporty or comfortable, country-specific tion injection map flow map pressure map
conditions and the possible compromise between the legal 1 1.263 1485 1923
2 1.175 4000 3035
restrictions and the ease. Thus an existing map set of the 3 1.006 1011 3353
vehicle concept is needed to graduate the drivability. This 4 1.009 983 2173
map set can be taken from a former calibration of a similar Mean 1.113 1870 2621
vehicle or a different legislation. Then the drivability Table I contains the variance evaluations of 4 different
criteria, i.e. the variance after the high pass filtering and the calibrations of the same engine and numbered in column
curvature energy, are applied to the maps. one. It shows the variances of the maps calculated after the
Laplace high pass filtering. The high pass filter reduces the
low frequencies, i.e. the constant mean value and the small
changes between data points. The variances of start of
injection map and boost pressure map differ slightly. The
diversity of the variances of air mass flow map is a little bit
higher, but the mean value in the last row characterizes the
scale of the smoothness of each map well enough. Table II
contains the curvature energy of the same maps.

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 TABLE II including the calibration inputs start of injection, air mass
LOGARITHM BASE 10 OF CURVATURE ENERGY OF THE MAPS
flow and boost pressure.
log10(Ek) of log10(Ek) of
Calibra- log10(Ek) of start
air mass flow boost pressure
tion of injection map
map map
1 -15.56 -10.99 -11.46
2 -15.80 -9.77 -10.81
3 -16.19 -11.32 -11.21
4 -16.12 -10.56 -10.95
Mean -15.92 -10.66 -11.10

The logarithm permits a better estimation of the occurring

scale of the energy. The mean value in the last row
characterizes it well. The diversity of the energies of the air
mass flow maps is higher than these energies of the other
maps similar to the variances in table I. The physical units of
the map values z are substituted dividing the values by the
unit the same map content. The comparison of the
smoothness criteria of the different calibrations shows that
these criteria could be useful for the general measurement of
a drivability, which is caused by certain smoothness.

V. GLOBAL MAP OPTIMIZATION

As in [5], [7] and [8] described, the DoE models can be
used for a global map optimization. The authorization of a
passenger car in terms of its exhaust emission behavior is
made driving a given test cycle. A cycle defines a velocity
profile over the time. It is carried out on a roller test bench
with the real vehicle. The roller test bench simulates the road
resistance, like friction and aerodynamic drag. All legal
limited emissions are collected and quantified after the test.
A characteristic speed and load scatter plot of operating
points results that covers a wide range of the map indices
speed and torque, figure 1. A multiple-range DoE model that
reproduces the emission relevant map range can be used to
calibrate maps that have an effect to the emissions in a
cycle. In the actual example, start of main injection, air mass
flow and boost pressure of a turbo-charged Diesel engine
belong to them. Thus, a target function containing all
emissions over the relevant map range is built. The target
function depends on the sum of the emission mass being
produced in the operating points of the drive cycle. The DoE
emission model is used for computing the emission mass in
the operating points of the cycle. So the optimization
criterion can be formulated as an equation (9).
* * *
F ( x) min! g i ( x ) d 0 x n ; i (9)
* the original calibration maps are inserted as nonlinear
F stands for the target function depending on x that
integrates the data points of speed and torque, and the
calibration inputs of the DoE model. F has to be minimized.
gi are the constraints of the optimization. The constraints
have to be regarded while the optimization is looking for the
minimal target function.
A. Map Optimization without regard to Smoothness
The global map optimization is applied to the example.
The target function consists of all important data points
Fig. 3. The engine map after global optimization without regard to
smoothness.
The importance of the data points corresponds with the
frequency of them in the drive cycle determined using a
histogram. The optimization target is a combination of
lowest nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulates emission over
the drive cycle. The performed optimization without regard
to the smoothness and drivability constraints leads to lowest
emissions. But the optimal maps are not drivable, figure 3.
Compared to the original smooth map of boost pressure in
figure 2 the optimized map of figure 3 has higher differences
between adjacent data points and more peaks. There are
many manual steps necessary to make them drivable and
smooth. For instance, if the low pass filter of formula (3) is
applied to the optimized maps, the maps will loose their
optimality. Table III shows the results of the optimization
without regard to the smoothness criteria on the example of
the boost pressure map.
B. Map Optimization with regard to Smoothness
On the other hand a global map optimization with regard
to the smoothness criteria is performed. The target function
is not changed but the variance and the curvature energy of
constraints gi.

2687
 the whole interested multi-dimensional test space. It is
automatically measured on the engine test bench. After the
collection of the measurement a statistical model is built.
This model can be used to calibrate the engine. Thus
different and complex optimizations have to be carried out.
Further, the map calibration of a Diesel engine has been
described shortly. The engine maps have to meet many
different conditions, like low exhaust emissions, low noise,
high efficiency and drivability. The drivability is an
important constraint. Thus two criteria to measure the
subjective impression of the drivability of Diesel engine
maps are defined and evaluated. The criteria are the
variance, evaluating the differences between adjacent data
points, and the curvature energy that uses the Gaussian
curvature formula applied to the engine map. Both criteria
are applied to a global map optimization as constraints
successfully. This procedure will make the calibration faster
and easier.

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