Unit X.
Drilling Fluid Program
Drilling Fluids are
distinguished by base
fluid
- water-base
- non-water-base
Air / Mist / Foam as
drilling fluids
Water-base drilling
fluids categorized by
type of viscosifier
Further explanation -
Bentonite-base fluids
Drilling Engineering
2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost
Drilling Fluid Types & Cost
The two primary categories of drilling fluids are water-base and non-
water-base.
Water-base includes brines and other miscible materials. Water
is the continuous phase, and there is typically no emulsion
present.
Non-water-base includes oil-base and synthetic base. Oil or
synthetic is the continuous phase which is immiscible with water,
but water droplets are typically emulsified into the oil.
Air, mist or foam can be used, but will not be discussed in detail
here. Due to their very low viscosity, they are used in hard, typically
dry rock drilling situations to provide fast drilling. If a water influx
is expected, they cannot be used, and a water-base or oil-base /
synthetic fluid should be selected.
Water-base drilling fluids are divided into fluids with low-shear rate
viscosity and suspension provided by either:
Bentonite (other terms: smectite or montmorillonite clay or gel)
Extended-bentonite (often incorrectly called non-dispersed)
Polymer (typically biogum polymers, usually in brine)
The reason for this distinction is that rheological profile,
susceptibility to contamination and temperature stability all relate to
the selection of viscosifier.
Bentonite or clay-base drilling fluids rely on well-dispersed and
deflocculated bentonite clay to simultaneously provide rheology and
filtration control.
Because clays are sensitive to salinity, divalent cations or
hardness and carbonate ions, bentonite-base fluids are typically
prepared as freshwater- or seawater-based (the latter with
hardness ions removed). Many drilling fluid properties must be
monitored to ensure continual rheological stability.
1 revised October 1998
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Drilling Fluid Types & Cost (contd)

Because 15 to 25 lb/bbl of prehydrated bentonite is used, the fluid

has higher PV (plastic viscosity) than either extended-bentonite
or polymer-base fluids.
Because clay is inexpensive (about 5 - 10 per pound),
bentonite-base fluids are typically an inexpensive fluid, provided
they are selected for appropriate wells and are well-maintained.

Dual function of Bentonite that is not well-deflocculated is required for rheological

bentonite control. Bentonite is added to provide carrying capacity and
suspension, as measured by an increased YP (yield point).
However, filtration control requires the deflocculation of bentonite
clay to create a thin, slick filtercake.
Because bentonite is inexpensive, using it to provide two primary
functions of a drilling fluid is an inexpensive approach for less-
critical wells.
However, because providing both rheology and filtration control
appear to be incompatible requirements, it is difficult to have
completely independent control of rheology and filtration with
bentonite-base fluids.
The other types of drilling fluids allow more independent control of
rheology and suspension, by using bentonite only for rheology (if it is
in the formulation) and adding polymers to control filtration, in the
presence of small quantities of bentonite or hydratable fine drill
solids.

Further explanation - Extended-bentonite drilling fluids rely on the interaction of a

Extended-bentonite smaller amount of well-dispersed bentonite clay with an additional
fluids long-chain polymer or mineral to jointly provide rheology. Filtration
control is achieved with small additions of filtration control additives
that work in conjunction with the smaller quantity of bentonite clay.

Drilling Engineering 2 revised October 1998

2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost

Drilling Fluid Types & Cost (contd)
Further explanation -
Polymer-base fluids
Drilling Engineering
2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost
Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program
The most common type of extending polymer is PHPA (partially
hydrolyzed polyacrylamide). MMH (mixed-metal hydroxide) and
HP-007 (cellulose viscosifier) are specialty extenders.
Because both clays and PHPA are sensitive to salinity, hardness
and pH, these fluids are typically freshwater- or seawater-based
(with hardness ions removed), and maintained below pH 10.0.
The rheological profile is intermediate between bentonite-base
and polymer-base fluids, because about 5 to 10 lb/bbl bentonite is
required.
The cost is usually intermediate between bentonite-base and
polymer-base fluids.
Polymer-base drilling fluids rely on biogum polymers such as
xanthan to provide rheological stability. Xanthan is a rigid, rod-like
polymer, with two to three strands coiled into a stiff helix. The helix
can be uncoiled by either higher temperature and/or lower salinity,
loosing its viscosifying character. The well-defined temperature of
uncoiling is called the transition or melting temperature, Tm..
Filtration control is managed independently with available specialty
additives.
Because biogums are insensitive to salinity, they are typically
used for brine-base applications. In fact, xanthan biogum
becomes more stable at increasing salinity. For example,
although xanthan biogum begins to uncoil around 150F in
freshwater, it is stable to at least 250F in typical KCl and NaCl
brines, and can be stabilized to 350F in K-formate brines
(75 wt% brine).
Because about 1-2 lb/bbl of biogum is required, the fluid has a
lower PV than bentonite-base fluids, and can be readily
formulated with low PV-high YP rheology.
Because xanthan is a semi-synthetic chemical, these fluids are
more expensive.
3 revised October 1998
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Drilling Fluid Types & Cost (contd)

Fluid Type Composition

Examples of bentonite- Spud mud Bentonite clay (20-30 lb/bbl) with caustic or
base drilling fluids lime added to raise carrying capacity (YP).
No filtration control

Freshwater deflocculated- Prehydrated bentonite (20-25 lb/bbl),

bentonite fluid lignosulfonate deflocculant (1-5 lb/bbl),
lignite (1-5 lb/bbl) for deflocculation and
filtration control, pH >10

Seawater deflocculated- Prehydrated bentonite (10-15 lb/bbl) in

bentonite fluid seawater (hardness removed with soda
ash/bicarbonate), lignosulfonate deflocculant
(1-5 lb/bbl), additional PAC or lignite
(2-4 lb/bbl) for filtration control, pH >10

Lime-base or gyp-base Prehydrated bentonite (15-25 lb/bbl) in

bentonite fluids freshwater or seawater, lignosulfonate
deflocculant, additional PAC or starch for
filtration control, LOW LIME: pH >10,
HIGH LIME: pH >12: with lime; GYP: pH
9-10, with gypsum

Bland coring fluid Prehydrated bentonite (10-15 lb/bbl), PAC

(2-4 lb/bbl) for filtration control, NO
lignosulfonate or lignite, pH<8.5

Fluid Type Composition

Examples of bentonite- Freshwater PHPA-bentonite Prehydrated bentonite (5-12 lb/bbl), PHPA

extended drilling fluids (1-3 lb/bbl active), starch or PAC (1-2 lb/bbl)
(PHPA is partially-hydrolyzed for filtration control, pH < 10
polyacrylamide)

Seawater PHPA-bentonite Prehydrated bentonite (5-12 lb/bbl), PHPA

(1-3 lb/bbl active), more starch or PAC
(2-4 lb/bbl) for filtration control, pH < 10

MMH - bentonite Prehydrated bentonite (5-10 lb/bbl), MMH

(1 lb/bbl), specialty (nonionic) filtration
(MMH is mixed-metal control polymer, pH 10.5. AVOID all
hydroxide) anionic additives.

EXXHIT Prehydrated bentonite (5-10 lb/bbl), HP-007

(1-2 lb/bbl) specialty HT filtration control
(HT drilling fluid, extended with polymers (4-5 lb/bbl), pH 9.5-10.5. ONLY
HP-007 cellulose viscosifier, or NEEDED for TEMP >300F.
other HT polymer)

Drilling Engineering 4 revised October 1998

2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Drilling Fluid Types & Cost (contd)

Fluid Type Composition

Saturated saltwater (NaCl) Saturated saltwater (23-26 wt% NaCl), XCD

fluid (1 lb/bbl), carboxymethyl starch (2-4 lb/bbl),
PAC (1 lb/bbl), pH 8-10
(hydrate-inhibitive for
deepwater drilling )
Saturated saltwater (NaCl)- Saturatedsaltwater (23-26 wt% NaCl),
polyglycol/polyglycerol fluid polyglycol or polyglycerol (5-10+ vol%),
(extra hydrate-inhibitive for XCD (1 lb/bbl), carboxymethyl starch (2-4
deepwater drilling ) lb/bbl), PAC (1 lb/bbl), pH 8-10

KCl inhibitive fluid KCl (3-18 wt% KCl determined by wellbore

stability requirements), XCD (1 lb/bbl),
carboxymethyl starch (2-4 lb/bbl), PAC
(1 lb/bbl), pH 8-10

KCl-polyglycol inhibitive KCl (3-18 wt% KCl determined by wellbore

fluid stability requirements), polyglycol (may or
may not be a cloudpoint glycol; 3-10 vol%
determined by wellbore stability
requirements), XCD (1 lb/bbl), carboxymethyl
starch (2-4 lb/bbl), PAC (1 lb/bbl), pH 8-10

KCl/NaCl-silicate inhibitive KCl (2-10 wt%) or NaCl (20-26 wt% NaCl),

fluid sodium silicate (5 vol%), XCD (1-2 lb/bbl),
carboxymethyl starch (2-4 lb/bbl), PAC
(1 lb/bbl), pH >12. NOTE HIGH pH.

Methyl-glucoside-base Freshwater / 70 vol% MEG or 10 wt% NaCl /

inhibitive fluid 35 vol% MEG, XCD (1 lb/bbl),
carboxymethyl starch (2-4 lb/bbl), PAC
(MEG) (1 lb/bbl), pH 9-11

Any other monovalent salt Na-formate (saturated = 45 wt% = 11 ppg) or

brine-base fluids, such as K-formate (saturated = 75 wt% = 13.1 ppg) or
sodium or potassium K-acetate/K-carbonate/NaBr, XCD (1 lb/bbl),
formate-base fluid carboxymethyl starch (2-4 lb/bbl), PAC
(1 lb/bbl), pH 8-10

Calcium brine-base fluid CaCl2 (saturated = 40 wt% = 11.7 ppg),

viscosifier (1-2 lb/bbl), filtration additive (2-4
lb/bbl), pH 7-10. POLYMERS WILL BE
HARD TO YIELD IN CONCENTRATED
CaCl2 BRINES.

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2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost

Drilling Fluid Types & Cost (contd)
Why oil-base or
synthetic drilling fluids
Oil-base or synthetic
drilling fluids
categorized by base
liquid
All types are invert
emulsions
Drilling Engineering
2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost
Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program
Drill-in fluid Brineas base liquid to prevent fines migration
from clay swelling
(very clean, low-invasion,
non-damaging, brine-base Bridging agent such as sized calcium
fluids used to drill reservoir carbonate or sized salt (in satd NaCl only) to
create an external filtercake
rock)
XanVis (1-2 lb/bbl), or other purified biogum
(usually prepared fresh for the
reservoir section) Carboxymethyl starch (2-4 lb/bbl), PAC
(1 lb/bbl) to create ultra-thin filtercake with
bridging agent
pH 8-10
Oil-base / synthetic drilling fluids are generally more expensive than
water-base fluids. In addition, they often require special attention to
waste management and discharge.
However, there are sufficient drilling challenges that may motivate
selection of an oil-base / synthetic fluid:
Troublesome swelling shales
Highly deviated wellbores that require increased lubricity
Intervals at high risk for differential sticking
High temperature drilling
Salt or other evaporite intervals
Typical base liquids comprise:
Diesel oil-base
Mineral oil-base (e.g., Exxons Escaid 110 mineral oil)
Synthetic-base
All non-water-base drilling fluids are prepared as invert emulsions,
that is an oil or synthetic base liquid with emulsified water droplets
stabilized by emulsifiers and surfactants. A representative
formulation range is listed in the Table below.
6 revised October 1998

Drilling Fluid Types & Cost (contd)
But, most formulation
issues are very similar
Except for two
different formulation
issues
hUnit 10. Drilled Solids
synthetic formulations
Drilling Engineering
2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost
Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program
However, the properties and functions of these drilling fluids remain
the same as water-base fluids. Low-shear-rate viscosity and
suspension must be provided, and filtration rate must be controlled.
To incorporate several volume percent of low-gravity solids and be
compatible with weight material, sufficient oil-wetting agents must
be added to oil-wet all the mineral surfaces.
To maintain a tight, stable water-internal emulsion, surfactants and
emulsifiers are needed and emulsion stability is monitored.
To provide inhibition to shale hydration, the activity of the
internal-phase water must be lowered, by addition of CaCl2.
Material / Additive Concentration
OIL: diesel, mineral or synthetic 60 vol% to 100 vol% liquid phase
WATER: >25 wt% CaCl2 preferred 0 vol% to 40 vol% liquid phase
or Aw < 0.75
Primary emulsifier: fatty acid soap 1-10 lb/bbl
Lime: emulsify fatty acid 5-15 lb/bbl
Secondary emulsifier: amide 1-10 lb/bbl
compounds
Wetting agent: fatty acid amide 1-4 lb/bbl
Clay gellant: organo-bentonite 2-10 lb/bbl
Low-shear-rate rheology modifier: 0-1 lb/bbl
dimer fatty acid
Filtration control agent: organo- 5-15 lb/bbl
lignite, gilsonite, asphalt
Thinner: sulfonate surfactant 1-2 lb/bbl
7 revised October 1998
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Drilling Fluid Types & Cost (contd)

Distinction between
synthetic base and
diesel or mineral oil
There are presently
several types of
synthetic fluids in use
around the world
A synthetic base is generally one that has been created by reaction or
synthesis of some feedstock, as distinguished from a diesel or mineral
oil that has been directly refined from crude oil or feedstock.
However, the specific definition of what is synthetic is usually
determined by the local regulatory environment.
Current classes and examples of synthetic fluids are:
Esters, such as Petro-Free and Fina-Green
Poly alphaolefins (PAO), such as Novasol
Linear alphaolefins (LAO), such as Ultidrill, Petrofree LE and
Novalite
Isomerized olefins (IO), such as Synteq and Novaplus
Paraffins (NP), such as Saraline (and maybe XP-07)

Synthetic Density Viscosity Flash Pour Aniline

or Oil (sg) (cSt@40C) Point (F) Point (F) Point (F)

First and second Ester 0.85 5-6 354 -22 77-104

generation synthetics PAO 0.80 5-6 347 -85 225

differ by base liquid, LAO 0.78 2-2.5 237 10 156

viscosity and cost IO 0.78 3 279 -11 178

NP 0.80 2.5-3.5 221 14 199

Mineral 0.80 1.7 176 -42 169

Diesel 0.85 3-4 176 14 140

Key properties of base Flash Point determines the fire hazard potential of the fluid. It
oil / synthetic should be at least above 150F (66C), preferably 170F (77C).
Flash points above 200F (93C) are favored in environments
with closed drilling fluid compartments.
Pour Point, of interest only in colder climates or deepwater
drilling, defines the lowest temperature at which a liquid will
freely flow.

Drilling Engineering 8 revised October 1998

2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Drilling Fluid Types & Cost (contd)

Aniline Point is a measure of the dissolving power of an oil or

synthetic. The lower the temperature, the more likely the liquid
will degrade rubber goods. An aniline point of 150F (66C) or
higher is preferred.

Alternate categories of An alternate categorization of oil-base and synthetic drilling fluids

oil-base and synthetic would be as either:
fluids
Invert emulsion (that is, hydrocarbon continuous phase with
internal emulsified water phase, which is the most common)
All oil, usually reserved for bland coring or drill-in fluid
applications, that require a minimum of surfactants and
emulsifiers.
All oil is actually a misnomer, because even if a 100% oil or
synthetic liquid phase were used to prepare the fresh drilling fluid,
some water will enter the fluid as water-wet rock is drilled. In
addition, it is likely that rain or water from a hose will inadvertently
enter the fluid. Thus, all oil fluids are prepared by formulating
with a low concentration of surfactants, available to eventually
incorporate drilled water into emulsified droplet.

Special considerations Two approaches are used to formulate a minimum-damaging oil-base

for oil-base coring coring fluid. The goal is to reduce the quantity of surfactants in use
fluids in the fluid.
The first is the all-oil fluid described above. In this case, a
100% oil-base fluid is prepared with a small quantity of
primary emulsifier and lime, and a large quantity of filtration
control material. The fluid used to drill the earlier portions of the
well may be changed out to this new fluid.
The second approach is to use the available drilling fluid at
whatever oil-water-ratio (OWR) or synthetic-water-ratio (SWR)
is prescribed in the drilling program, but use monitoring by
Interfacial Tension (IFT) measurement as a means of ensuring
minimum excess surfactant.

Drilling Engineering 9 revised October 1998

2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Drilling Fluid Types & Cost (contd)

Interfacial Tension The interfacial tension (IFT) between oil and water is quite high,
measurement as a in the 30 - 40 dyne/cm range, in the absence of surfactants.
monitor of surfactant
The IFT in the presence of surfactants may be as low as
excess
1-2 dyne/cm.
IFT is measured between representative formation water and oil-
base drilling fluid API (room temperature) filtrate.
To obtain filtrate from an oil-base drilling fluid, the whole fluid
should first be centrifuged, and then the supernatant (top liquid
layer) poured into an API filtration cell for filtrate preparation.
A target IFT value would be at least one-half of the IFT between
pure base oil or synthetic and the formation water. For example,
the IFT of pure Novaplus (IO) and seawater is 35 dyne/cm.
Therefore, a target IFT when coring with a Novaplus system
would be to maintain IFT > 18 dyne/cm.

JEB / X-Drilling Fluid Program / 2-Drilling Fluid Types & Cost

Drilling Engineering 10 revised October 1998

2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost
 Unit X. Drilling Fluid Program

Drilling Fluid Cost

Drilling fluid cost is Drilling fluid costs vary from <US$5./bbl to >US$300./bbl.
highly variable depending upon fluid type. In addition, adding substantial quantities
of weight material impacts cost.
All costs described here are approximate retail costs for unweighted
fluids.

Drilling Fluid Type Cost (US$/bbl)

Water-base fluid costs Spud mud $3.

are highly variable Clay-based fluids: freshwater $10.
Clay-based fluids: seawater $15.
Coring fluid $20.
PHPA polymer-extended clay fluids $25.
EXXHIT (high-temperature) $40.-$50.
MMH-clay fluid $20.
Saturated salt (NaCl)-polymer $30.
KCl-polymer $40.
KCl-glycol-polymer $60.-$80.
KCl-silicate $30.
Na-formate $90.
K-formate $300.

Drilling Fluid Type Cost (US$/bbl)

Oil-base and synthetic- Diesel $60.

base fluid costs are Escaid mineral oil $90.
less variable
Saraline 185 (paraffin) $100-150.
Synteq / Novaplus / Ultidrill $200-225.
Petrofree (ester) $225-250.

But ... The focus should never be only on drilling fluid cost per barrel. The
focus belongs on total drilling cost. A simple, stable, trouble-free
Total well cost is most drilling fluid that does not contribute to NPT is always more cost-
important cost issue! effective.
JEB / X-Drilling Fluid Program / 2-Drilling Fluid Types & Cost

Drilling Engineering 11 revised October 1998

2. Drilling Fluid Types & Cost