1.

Core Analysis
1.1 Definition:
Core analysis is defined as the laboratory determination of the petrophysical properties of
recovered rock core samples for the purposes of different technical branches (see Figure 1 for
core analysis requirements). A reservoir geologist, as for example, uses core analysis for rock
core description, mineral identification, diagenesis & clay typing or to get depositional
information, facies analysis, formation age, and form static reservoir models. A reservoir
engineer needs basic rock properties, relative permeabilities, capillary pressure, residual oil
saturation, pore volume compressibility (PVC) and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) for the
comprehensive study of fluid flow characteristics in field applications in order to design &
optimize the recovery processes. A production engineer would use well injectivity, sand
control parameters, rock mechanical data for fracture design and mineralogy or geochemistry
data for acid stimulation.

Core Analysis Requirements

Reservoir Geology Reservoir Engineering Production Technology

Rock or core description
Microscopic analysis
Mineral identification
Diagenesis & clay typing
Depositional information
Formation age
Facies analysis
Basic rock properties Well injectivity
Relative permeability Sand control parameters
Capillary pressure data Rock mechanics data
Residual oil saturation Mineralogy or geochemistry
Rock or pore volume data
compressibility study
Enhanced oil recovery study

Figure 1: Core Analysis Requirements for Different Technical Disciplines

Core analysis is of two general types: (i) RCAL and (ii) SCAL.
Type of analysis Use of results
Routine core analysis (RCAL)
Defines storage capacity for reservoir fluids. A factor in volume &
Porosity
storage determinations
Permeability-horizontal Defines reservoir flow capacity, general flow ability, cross-flow
Defines presence of mobile HCs (hydrocarbons) (productive zones &
Saturations contacts), type of recovery HCs & it's probable contents by test,
completion interval
Rock type, fractures, vugs, laminations, shale content used in log
Lithology
interpretation, recovery forecasts, capacity estimates
Supplementary tests
Defines gas & water coning and relative profile capacity of different
Vertical permeability
zones, pay & non-pay zones, gravity drainage
Core gamma ray log Relates core & log depth, identify lost core sections
Grain (matrix) density Used in density log calibration & lithology
Table 1: RCAL Tests and Supplementary Measurements
 Type of test/studies Use of results or Data/Properties
Static tests
Capillary pressure or Capillary pressure vs. saturation. Defines irreducible fluid content,
Capillarity contacts
Contact angle & wettability index. Used in capillary pressure
Wettability
interpretation and recovery analysis-relative permeability
Rock compressibility Permeability & porosity vs. pressure. Volume change caused by
studies pressure change
Petrographic studies Mineral & clay identification, diagenesis, GSD, pore geometry etc.
Mineral identification Used in log interpretation
Diagenesis Origin of oil & source bed studies
Clay identification Origin of oil & log analysis
(GSD) - sieve analysis Selection of screens, sand grain size
Visual inspection Core/Rock description & geological study
Electric tests Water or brine resistivity, partially & fully saturated rock resistivity,
formation factor & index, cementation & saturation exponents
Dynamic tests
Flow studies Relative & liquid permeability and end point saturations.
Relative permeability Used to obtain values for effective permeability to each fluid when
gas-oil two or more fluids flow simultaneously; relative permeability
gas-water enables the calculation of recovery vs. saturation & time while values
water-oil from flood-pot test give only end-point results.
oil-special fluids thermal
Air, water & other liquid Evaluates completion, workover, fracture & injection fluids; often
permeability combined with flood-pot test
Table 2: Special Core Analysis (SCAL or SPCAN) Tests
The elements of Wahid's Core Analysis program and final report, provided by our company
(i.e., BAPEX) are summarized below:
1.2 Important of Core Analysis: Core analysis data developed on rock samples recovered
from a formation and it plays a vital role in:
i. exploration programs,
ii. well completion,
iii.development or workover operations and
iv. reservoir evaluations & estimation.
1.3 Types of Core Samples:
Working purposes Visually
(i) Conventional Core Plugs or Samples
(i) Cylindrical cores
(ii) Sidewall Core (SWC) Samples
(ii) Cubic cores
(iii) Whole Core Samples
Table 2: Core Sample Types
(i) Conventional Core Plug: Core plugs are typically 1" to 1.5" in diameter & 1" to 4" long.
Core plugs are ordinarily cut perpendicular to the axis of the core or parallel to the axis,
called horizontal & vertical plugs, respectively, when cut from a vertical wellbore.
(ii) Sidewall Core: A core taken from the side of the borehole, usually by a wireline tool. Up
to 75 plugs can be recovered on one run. With full recovery, cores from percussion tools
are 1" in diameter by 1.75" long, while those from mechanical tools are 0.91"/0.94" in
diameter by 2" / 1.75" long.
(iii) Whole Core: A complete section of a conventionally drilled core may be up to about 2'
in length, with typical core diameters lying between 1.75" & 5.25".
1.4 Making of Cylindrical Cores: For the determination of permeability it is necessary to
have sample of standard dimensions: Cylindrical cores are 25.4 mm (1 inch) in diameter and
length of it may range from 25.4 mm (1 inch) up to 100 mm (4 inch). Samples are drilled by a
vertical drilling machine.
1.5 Plug Allocation or Basic Requirements for Sample Selection for Core Test: Table 3
provides a general schematic guide of the plugging requirements for core analysis, rock
mechanics & formation damage testing.
Sample Type Analysis Type Sampling Spacing
porosity, density (volumetric & grain), permeability 20 - 30 cm
Laboratory
& residual water/oil or 0.5 - 1 m
samples
vertical permeability 6 m (20 ft)
Lithology based Capillary pressure curves 12 m (40 ft)
sampling Other SCAL 12 - 30 m (40 - 100 ft)
Table 3: Frequency or Spacing for Sample Selection
1.6 Core Analysis Laboratory Procedure for Plug Preparation
1.6.1 General: Plug selection is dependent on the type of the measurements to be conducted.
1.6.1.1 Plug Drilling: A whole core is slabbed into two pieces. Prior to slabbing phase,
selected sections of the core may be preserved for whole core analysis or for certain SCAL
experiments.
1.6.1.2 Plugging Fluids: Typical plugging fluids are:
Fresh water is used for clean sandstones & carbonates.
Brine is used for cores containing clays or from high salinity environments.
Kerosene is used for shale & halite bearing samples.
Compressed air
Unconsolidated cores are often kept as frozen and plugs are drilled using liquid nitrogen.
1.6.1.3 Plug Cleaning: Before porosity & permeability measurements take place, plugs
should be thoroughly cleaned of reservoir fluids. Cleaning is achieved by a hot solvent
extraction (Soxhlet) technique. Toluene is the most commonly used solvent to extract the
water & HCs followed by extraction of the salt with a chloroform/methanol mixture.
1.6.1.4 Plug Drying: After the saturation measurement is conducted and cleaning is
performed, the core is dried. Prior to porosity & permeability measurements, all the
remaining solvent & the salt must be removed. There are several drying techniques; oven
drying is the most common, inexpensive & the quickest one. Multiple core plugs can be
simultaneously dried in a vacuum convection oven. The temperature is set at around 95C and
each core sample should be dried until constant weight is obtained.
1.6.2 Conventional Core Analysis Procedures for Plug Preparation in Step by Step:
Measure depth of sample collection / drilling sight. Frequency of sample
selection is about 1' or 1 m (depends on the core owner request).
Note depth, sample no. & orientation of core by, for example, an Arran &
hammer out a piece of stone about 3" (5-10 cm) long. One sample (30-40 g)
is selected for fluid saturation measurement.
Horizontal &/or vertical plugs or samples are drilled separately.
Return core sample to the exact same place & orientation.
For accommodating laboratory equipment, plugs must be sawn to practical
lengths (e.g., about 1"). Return plugs trimmings to holes where plugs were
drilled in the core.
Before cleaning in extractor, plugs are washed in water to remove saw dust
or mud. Dry plugs slightly to allow permanent marking of plug or sample
no. with a felt pen.
After marking, they are placed in a soxhlet extractor and cleaned using
methanol, then toluene and again with methanol in that order [one day (7-8
hrs) for 1st methanol wash, two days (14-16 hrs) for toluene wash, final
methanol wash to last about 4-6 hrs].
When clean, the plugs must be dried at 30-60C (average: 50C) overnight; and then plugs
must be cooled to ambient (i.e., room temperature) conditions before petrophysical analysis.
1.7 Rock or Core Description:
Both qualitative & quantitative core descriptions provide the basis for RCAL sampling, facies
analysis & further reservoir studies. The core description serves as a permanent record useful
for future geological studies.
1.7.1 Apparatus: The following equipment is used in standard core descriptions:
a. Logging form for systematic data collection.
b. Microscope or hand lens.
c. Length measurement scale & grain size scale.
d. Appropriate chemicals such as: i. Brine or water to improve visibility of geological
structures. ii. Dilute HCl acid to identify carbonate minerals. iii. Alizarin red to differentiate
calcite & dolomite. iv. HC solvents to facilitate the detection of oil stain related fluorescence
under UV light.
e. Coring log, drilling report, mud logs, well site information on lost core.
f. Core gamma logger for core gamma log. g. Core photography system for UV & white light.
1.7.2 Procedures
The following trials should be used:
a. Lay out the core to be analyzed on a viewing table.
b. Check the amount of core with the coring report and ensure that no core object is lost
during transportation.
c. Check the numbering & order of boxes against cumulative depth.
d. Check core continuity & orientation with respect to the top of the core. If the core is
marked in relation to the core marking system, the top of the core is up when the red scribe
mark is on the left.
e. Check the order of core segments in the boxes; look for matching breaks or scribe marks
from one piece to the next and from one box to the next.
f. Measure & mark footage on each box. Mark core to the nearest inch (1 cm).
g. Record major features in accordance with standardized nomenclature & abbreviations:
i. Core lithology (sandstone, shale, limestone, etc.) or type of rock.
ii. Color.
iii. Bedding (thickness, bed contacts & erosional markers).
iv. Obvious sedimentary rock structures (size & form of grains).
v. Texture (grain size, angularity/roundness & sorting) or features of grains.
vi. Composition (mineral content, cement structure, quantity & type, organic remains).
vii. Porosity types.
viii. Diagenetic features or fracturing (formation of new minerals, occurrence of open
fracture, degree of cementation).
ix. Note any oil stain & related fluorescence.
j. Minimize centimeter-by-centimeter descriptions.
k. Record non-reservoir rocks, e.g., mudrocks with potential pay sequences. Abrupt changes
in lithology may assist correlation between core & well logs.
l. Record fracture information viz, width, extent, density, fracture orientation if core is
oriented, and presence of cementation or mud.
1.8 Core Gamma Logger (both Surface & Spectral)
The main purpose of core GR logging is to match the logging depth to the core depth or
drillers depth by comparing log & core natural GR traces. The spectral GR can be used to
differentiate shale in sandstone cores with large amounts of potassium feldspar & mica.
Spectral GR data can also be used to assess sediment provenance in sedimentological studies.
 Figure 2: Core Gamma Ray Logger (Source - Snapshots)

Figure 3: Illustration of the variation of equivalent total gAPI, K, U, Th and interpreted from
the calibration versus the sample depth (Source - Colin McPhee et. al., June 2015)
1.8.1 Core Photography System
1.8.1.1 Principle: Core photography is done by Core Photography (Scanning) System Unit.
This enables the user to produce professional quality white light & UV core photographs of
whole or slabbed core samples.
1.8.1.2 Procedures: The fully automated core photography system is designed for complete
core photography and archiving purposes, producing high quality white & UV color images
of full diameter whole or slabbed cores. The operator positions the core samples on a four
rows rack and a digital camera mounted above the core samples under white or UV lighting
takes a high-resolution picture. The images are then automatically digitized, displayed &
recorded in the high-speed computer. The software includes calibration functions for the
camera, image processing capabilities as well as files compression, storage & transfer
facilities. The innovative concept is in the use of a digital camera which can produce very
high resolution color images up.
1.8.2.3 Application: Oil show indicators are found by the examination of rock samples for
oil fluorescence or stain. Fluorescence or stain is the trace of asphaltic material left behind
on drill cuttings after the oil has been washed off during drilling. Fluorescence left by high
quality oil has a typical iridescent sheen, visible in normal light. Fluorescence represents oil's
distinctive capability of discharging light in the visible range when viewed to UV light.

Figure 4: Digital Core Photography System and Core WL & UV Photograph of Whole-
slabbed Core (Source - Vinci Technologies)
For oil shows to note the amount, intensity & color of the fluorescence due to HCs, core
analysts note the present of fluorescence (under UV light) in the total representative sample,
the intensity of fluorescence (weak, fair, or strong) and the color of the fluorescence (brown,
yellow-brown, yellow-orange, blue-white etc.). Fluorescence colors range from orange-
brown for heavy oils, to bright yellow for high-gravity (low density) oils. Condensates can
appear as a very light white to blue-white color. Non-HC-bearing zones will generally appear
as dark purple, but some common minerals in reservoir rocks can also show fluorescence.
Calcite has been known to fluoresce red, blue, white, pink, green & orange.
(i) Darker color (orange-brown) - associated with low gravity crudes,
(ii) Yellow color - is medium gravity oils,
(iii) Lighter color (yellow-white or pale blue-white) - indicative of high gravity oils.

It should be noted for its volume & its intensity, and efforts made to distinguish introduced
oil. Stain or bleeding often indicates low permeability. Light oils are more prone to show
iridescence, while dark stains tend to interpret heavier crudes.
1.9 Basic Core Analysis - Core Sampling and Preparation
1.9.1 Principle: The basic core sampling preparation procedure for analysis is measured by
the type of information required. Sampling will generally take into account one or more of
the following: a. lithological distribution b. porosity & permeability variations within the
lithological units c. distribution of HCs. Plug samples should be removed from sections of
whole core oriented either horizontally or vertically with respect to whole core axis or with
respect to the normal of the bedding planes.
1.9.2 Sample Cutting, Trimming and Mounting
1.9.2.1 Principle: The core should be cut & trimmed to provide regularly shaped samples,
most commonly right cylinders.
1.9.2.2 Apparatus: The following equipment & supplies are used in core sample cutting &
trimming operations:
a. Large slab saw & trim saw with a diamond blade.
b. Drill press with diamond-edged core drills.
c. Dressing wheel or saw for squaring plug ends.
d. Fluid pumps for delivering various coolants (H2O, brine, oil, air, liquid N2).
e. Indelible marking medium such as India ink.
1.9.2.3 Procedures: The following procedures for preparing plug core samples should be
followed:
i. Drill straight plugs at specified points using the appropriate size bit. Trim plugs to the
required length making sure that the ends are parallel. Keep & label trimmed ends.
ii. Label, preserve &/or store samples, as required.

Figure 5: Core Cutting Saws (Source - Vinci Technologies)

Figure 6: Core Drill Press/Plugging Machine-left, Trimming Saw & Endface Grinder-middle
and Radial Core Slabbing Saw-right (Source - Vinci Technologies)
1.10 Core Cleaning
1.10.1 Principle: Prior to most laboratory measurements of porosity & permeability, the
original fluids must be removed completely from the core sample. This is normally
accomplished through flushing, flowing, or contacting with various solvents to extract HCs,
water & brine.
1.10.2 Reagents as solvent: Selected solvents are those most frequently used for extracting
samples for RCAL are listed in Table 4.
Solvent Boiling Point, C Solubility
Acetone** 56.5 (134F) oil, water, salt
Chloroform / Methanol 53.5 (128F) oil, water, salt
azeotrope1*
Cyclohexane** 81.4 (179F) oil
Ethylene Chloride 83.5 (182.3F) oil, limited water
Hexane ~59.2 (139F) oil
Methanol* 64.7 (148F) water, salt
 Methylene Chloride** 40.1 (104F) oil, limited water
Tetrahydrofuran** 65.0 (149F) oil, water, salt
Toluene* 110.6 (231F) Oil
Benzene 80.1 Oil
Trichloro Ethylene 87.0 (189F) oil, limited water
Xylene ~141 (286F) oil
Note: *commonly used 1: (Chloroform/Methanol 78.7/21.3 vol);
**occasionally used; others less commonly used.
Table 4: Selected solvents & their use
1.10.3 Measurement Methods or Procedures for Cleaning: Various techniques &
apparatus for cleaning are described in the procedures below:
a. Soxhlet Distillation Extraction Method: Solvent (toluene) in the distillation flask (left) is
gently heated until it vaporizes (at 1100C approx.). The solvent vapors rise from the flask and
cool when they reach the condenser. The cooled liquid solvent drips onto the core to saturate
the sample. The solvent condensate carries away the HCs & brine from the sample. When
distilled solvent in the extractor reaches its spill point, the used solvent siphons back into the
flask to be redistilled (right). This process is repeated continuously and can be continued as
long as needed. The HCs from the core are retained & concentrated in the distillation.

Figure 7: Soxhlet Distillation Extractor

(Source - Mark A. Andersen, Brent Duncan, Ryan McLin, 2013 Schlumberger)
b. Dean-Stark Distillation-Extraction: The oil & water area extracted by dripping a solvent,
usually toluene or a mixture of acetone & chloroform, over the plug samples. In this method,
the water & solvent are vaporized, recondensed in a cooled tube in the top of the apparatus
and the water is collected in a calibrated chamber (Figure 8). The solvent overflows & drips
back over the samples. The oil removed from the samples remains in solution in the solvent.
Oil content is measured by the difference between the weight of water recovered & the total
weight loss after extraction & drying.
c. Direct Injection of Solvent
d. Centrifuge Flushing
e. Gas Driven Solvent Extraction
f. Vacuum Distillation
g. Liquefied Gas Extraction
1.11 Core Drying:
When hydrated minerals such as clays are present, humidity ovens may be used to minimize
sample alteration. Humidity ovens can be set at 60C & 40% relative humidity (RH). Drying
is performed in a regular vacuum oven at temperatures between 500C to 1050C commonly.
Conventional core samples can be dried by the methods listed in Table 5. Each core sample
should be dried until the weight becomes constant. Drying times may vary substantially, but
are generally in excess of four hours.
Rock Type Method Temperature, RH
Conventional oven 116C
Sandstone (low clay content)
Vacuum oven 90C
Sandstone (high clay content) Humidity oven 63C, 40% RH
Conventional oven 116C
Carbonate
Vacuum oven 90C
Humidity oven 60C, 40% RH
Shale or other high clay rock
Conventional vacuum
Table 5: Core Sample Drying Methods

Figure 9: Humidity Oven-left, Vacuum Oven-middle and Hot Drying Oven-right

(Source - Panterra and Vinci Technologies)
Fluid Saturation
2.1 Definition:
Fluid (liquid/gas) saturation is the fraction of the effective porosity which is occupied by
reservoir fluid remaining in the pores when brought to the surface and at the time of
extraction or retorting in suitable apparatus. Fluid saturation determinations are generally
done either by distillation/extraction (Dean Stark) or by retort (or vacuum distillation
method). The Dean Stark technique is the more favored method since fluid saturations,
permeability & porosity are determined on the same sample. Summation of fluids requires the
destruction of the sample being used for fluids.
2.2 Distillation Extraction (Dean & Stark, 1920) Method for Plug Samples
2.2.1 Objective: The objective of the Dean-Stark apparatus for measuring initial fluids
experiment is to determine the oil, water & gas saturation of a core sample.
2.2.2 Principles: The Dean-Stark extraction is an extraction method of determining fluid
saturation depends upon the water fraction distillation and the oil fraction solvent extraction
from the sample. The core sample is weighed and the water fraction is vaporized by boiling
solvent, condensed & collected in a calibrated receiver. Vaporized solvent also condenses,
soaks sample & extracts the oil. The oil content is determined by gravimetric difference while
the water content is volumetrically calculated by the receiving tube.
2.2.3 Apparatus: The apparatus consists of distillation glassware unit & a heating mantle
with thermostatic controller and is illustrated in Figure 10. The glassware is composed of
boiling flask with extractor, a sample support screen, volumetrically graduated water
receiving tube, condenser & desiccant drying tube. Flexible plastic tubing is also used to
connect the condenser to the water cooling unit. All these devices are mounted on a mounting
rack. Other accessories are boiling flask, trap or sidearm, adapter, graduated liquid receiving
tubes, condenser, spacer, marble chips, silica gel desiccant, and friable (cellulose, glass &
ceramic) sample thimbles.

Figure 10: Dean-Stark Apparatus (Source - V. S. Suicmez, et al.)

2.2.4 Procedure:
i. Weigh a clean, dry thimble. Use tongs to handle the thimble.
ii. Place the cylindrical core plug inside the thimble, then quickly weigh the thimble &
sample.
iii. Fill the extraction flask two-thirds full with toluene. Place the thimble with sample into
the long neck flask.
iv. Tighten the ground joint fittings, do not apply any lubricant to create tighter joints.
Commence circulating cold water in the condenser.
v. Turn on the heating jacket and adjust the rate of boiling so that the reflux from the
condenser is a few drops of solvent per second. The water circulation rate should be adjusted
so that excessive cooling does not prevent the condenser solvent from reaching the sample.
vi. Continue the extraction until the solvent is clear. Change solvent if necessary.
vii. Read the volume of collected water in the graduated tube. Turn off the heater & cooling
water and place the sample into the oven (from 105 to 1200C), until the sample weight does
not alter. The dried sample should be stored in a desiccater.
viii. Obtain the weight of the thimble & the dry core.
ix. Calculate the loss in weight WL, of the core sample due to the removal of oil & water.
x. Measure the density of a separate sample of the oil.
xi. Calculate the oil, water & gas saturations after the Vp of the sample is determined.
2.2.5 Data and Calculation Table:
Sample No: Porosity, :
Wr g Wd g w g/cm3 o g/cm3 Vw cm3 Wo g Vo cm3 Vp cm3 So Sw Sg

Where, Original saturated sample or reservoir sample weight (sample + water + oil) = Wr,
Weight of desaturated & dry sample = Wd, Weight of saturants (water + oil) = WL,
Water Density = w, Density of Oil = o,
Volume of Water = Vw, Volume of Oil = Vo,
Weight of Water = Ww, Weight of Oil = Wo,
Bulk Volume = Vb, Pore Volume = Vp,
Oil, water & gas saturations = So, Sw, Sg.
2.2.6 Equations:
WL = Wr Wd, Wo = WL Ww,
2
Vb = (D/2) L, Vp = Vb
Where, D & L are diameter & length of the core sample, respectively.
2.2.7 Calculations: The following calculations are appropriate for this method:
W V
Wpw (Gravimetric) w 100 Or Wpw (Volumetric) w w 100 (1)
Wi Wi
W
Wps (Gravimetric) d 100 (2)
Wi
Wpo (Gravimetric) = [(Wi Wd Ww)/(Wi)] 100 (4.3)
Where: Weight % Water = Wpw, Weight % Solids = Wps, Weight % Oil = Wpo,
Initial sample weight = Wi = Wr,
The saturations are normally stated as percentages of the sample pore space. Therefore, the
sample porosity, water density & oil density are required. If the connate water is a highly
concentrated salt solution, the water density should be corrected for the salt in solution. The
following Equs apply:
V
%Water w 100 (4)
Vp
Or, Sw = (Water volume / Pore volume) 100%
W /
%Oil o o 100 (5)
Vp
Or, So = [(Wr Wd Ww) (VpDo)] 100%
Sg = 1 Sw So
The variables that must be determined are the following:
i. Reservoir or wet sample weight
ii. Bulk volume of reservoir sample
iii. Volume of water collected (from reading)
iv. Water weight (from water volume collected during extraction)
v. Dry, extracted & clean sample weight (after heating)
 vi. Oil gravity or oil density (Do / o) is determined by alcohol balance procedure or
refractometer or even measured by using a pycnometer or other means
vii. Porosity
viii. Oil volume (Vo) = (Wr Wd Ww)/o
ix. Grain density obtained from one-inch diameter sample plug collected for permeability,
porosity & grain density measurements
x. Pore volume of sample extracted & dried
VP = bulk volume grain volume = Porosity bulk volume
VP = bulk volume dry weight/grain density.
An Exemplary Calculation:
Say, Reservoir sample weight (sample + water + oil) = Wet sample weight (Wr) = 30.10 gm,
Core diameter (D) = 2.52 cm 2 = 5.04 cm,
Core Length (L) = 2.8 cm.
Bulk volume of reservoir sample (VB) = D2/4 L cm3
= 3.1416 [(2.52)2/4] 2.8 cc = 13.9653 cc.
Volume of water collected (from reading), Vw = 0.15 cc.
Water weight (Ww) = 0.15 1 = 0.15 gm.
Dry sample weight (after heating), Wd = 29.76 gm.
Do or o = 0.80,
Porosity () = 20 % = 0.20
Oil volume (Vo) = (Wr Wd Ww)/o = (30.10 29.76 0.15)/0.80 = 0.19/0.80 = 0.24 cc
Pore volume of rock sample (VP) = VB = 0.20 13.9653 = 2.793 cc
Water Saturation (Sw) = (Vw / VP) 100 % = (0.15/2.793) 100 % = 5.37 %
Oil Saturation (So) = (Vo/VP) 100 % = (0.24/2.793) 100 % = 8.593 %
We know, Sw + So + Sg = 100%
Gas Saturation (Sg) = 100 (5.37 + 8.593) = 86.04 %.
Well name ................................ Date ..............................
Sample No. ............................... Core No. ........................
Depth of core sample .................... Instrument Reading/ Parameters:
Wr g Vw cm3 Weight of oil & water Wd g Ww Wo g VB () % VP = V B

Table: Fluid Saturation Measurement by Dean Stark (per sample)

Well name:................................
Core No. ..................................
Instrument Reading/Parameters:
Sample Sample Date Sw =Vw100/ Vp o So = (Wr Wd Ww)/ Vp.o Sg = 100 (Sw + So)
No. Depth

Table: Fluid Saturation Measurement by Dean Stark (for all samples)

2.3 Retort Method at Atmospheric Pressure - Retorting or Basic Procedure
2.3.1 Objective and Principles: The core retort unit is used to extract water and water from
core samples through a heating (i.e., retorting) & distillation process to a final temperature of
650C (1,200 F). Distilled water & oil are collected in volumetrically calibrated glassware. It
is equipment for measuring liquid content of a fresh sample such as water & oil volume.
Retort analysis is ultimately used to measure the fluid & gas content of a plug sample.
2.3.2 Apparatus: The equipments are designed to hold 100-175 gm of crushed core material.
Each retort is equipped with a threaded cap that in turn is equipped with a gasket to prevent
condensable gases leakage. A long, stainless steel tube (condensing) is connected to the
opposite end of the retort. A coarse mesh screen is placed in the bottom of the retort to
prevent crushed core material from entering the tube. The following items describe suitable
apparatus also used in the basic retort method:
a. Oven: These are capable of holding multiple retorts. Strip-type heating elements are
preferred.
b. Temperature controller: A temperature controller, thermo-couple & temperature readout
device (Temp. Range: 1000 - 1200F or 538 - 649C) are also required.
c. Water bath: A water bath should be set so that the condensing tubes cross it, thereby
enhancing condensation of the evolved gases.
d. Calibrated glass receiving tube: A common 15-ml centrifuge tube is generally suitable,
although a tube with a larger capacity may be required.
e. Rock hammer & crusher: A geologists or similar type hammer may be used.
f. Diamond saw: A variety of viable core saws, equipped with diamond saw blades, is used.
g. Mercury pump: These pumps are furnished with a cell, lid & valve arrangement. Typical
cells can lodge a sample with a bulk volume of 10 to 15 cm3. The mercury pump is furnished
with a vernier caliper graduated in 0.1 cm3 increments. A pressure gauge indicative of
pressures to 1,000 psi (6.895 MPa) is joined to the system.
h. Centrifuge: A hand-crank centrifuge capable of holding four of the 15-ml centrifuge tubes
is suitable.

Figure 11: Multiple Samples Retort System - The High Temperature Retort Distillation
Method (Source - Noah, et al., 2014 and J.R. Ursin & A. B. Zolotukhin Stavanger, 1997)

Figure 12: Core Retort Ovens and Core Saturation Measurement

(Source - Vinci Technologies & Core Lab)
2.3.3 Procedures: The retort oven is designed to measure fluid saturation by high
temperature retorting process in which the fluid (oil & water) contained in a fresh sample of
crushed core material are vaporized, condensed & collected in calibrated glassware. The
samples are heated at 205C (400F) progressively to remove water and then heat up to
650C (1,200F) to remove oil from the sample.
The system contains a retort cabinet comprising two chambers of five sample bombs capable
of holding crushed core material. Each bomb is furnished with a sealed threaded cap and is
joined to a long, stainless steel condensing tube. The tube passes through a water bath thereby
improving condensation of the evolved gases. Calibrated glass receiving tube is attached to
each condensing tube with a rubber stopper to collect the water & oil produced from it.
A charge of about 120-125 grams of each sample is weighed and put in the retort cup. The
retort is pre-heated to 1000-1200F (540C-650C) and the cups are loaded. The free water in
the core is distilled out in 10-20 minutes. This reading is recorded as total water and the retort
is heated to 1200F to drive off the heavier fractions of the oil.
N.B.: The sample bulk volume may be determined by mercury immersion of the sample, or it may be computed
from grain density data from an adjacent plug.
There two main steps to measure waters & oils content of samples are as follows:
(a) By heating retort at 205C (400F), read the initial water of the sample.
(20 minutes after moving the power switch to the ON position)
(b) By heating retort at 650C (1200F), the oil & water will drop out. After that calculate:
Pore volume = Gas volume + Oil volume + Water volume.
The final retorting temperature of 1,000-1,200F (540-650C) may yield incorrect oil
volumes. Oil volume correction curves (See Figure 13) must be employed routinely.

Figure 13: Oil and Water Corrections or Calibrations with Retort (Source - Core Lab)
2.3.4 Calculations: The corrected oil (See Figure 13) & pore water collected for each sample
along with the gas volume may be expressed as a percentage of bulk volume as follows:
(i) nHg = WtHg/VbHg (6)
(ii)VbRet = WtRet/nHg (7)
(iii) GB = (Vg100)/VbHg (8)
(iv) OB = (Vo100)/VbRet (9)
(v) WB = (Vw100)/VbRet (10)
(vi) = OB + WB + GB (Summation Method) (11)
(vii) Sg = (GB100)/ (12)
(viii) So = (OB100)/ (13)
(ix) Sw = (WB100)/ = [( GB OB)100]/ (14)
(x) s = (WtHg + Vg)/VbHg = g (1 0.01) + 0.01 (15)
(xi) g = (WtHg Vw Vo0.85)/(VbHg Vw Vo Vg) (16)
Where: nHg = natural density of mercury pump sample, g/cm3.
WtHg = initial weight of mercury pump sample, g (i.e., Sample weight)
VbHg = bulk volume of the mercury pump sample, cm3.
WtRet = weight of the retort sample, g.
 Vg = volume of injected Hg corrected by pump calibration factors, cm3 (i.e., Gas
volume)
Vo = volume of recovered oil corrected with oil calibration curves, cm3 (i.e., Core Oil)
Vw = volume of initial water recovered, cm3 (i.e., Initial water)
VbRet = bulk volume of the crushed retort sample, cm3.
GB = gas saturation as a percentage of bulk volume (i.e., Gas Bulk)
OB = oil saturation as a percentage of bulk volume (i.e., Oil Bulk)
WB = water saturation as a percentage of bulk volume (i.e., Water Bulk)
= Porosity,
g & s = grain & saturated density respectively,
Sg = gas saturation as a percentage of pore volume (i.e., Saturated gas)
So = oil saturation as a percentage of pore volume (i.e., Saturated oil)
Sw = water saturation as a percentage of pore volume (i.e., Saturated Water).
GD may be calculated from the data obtained during the testing procedure.
Porosity
3.1 Definition:
Porosity, a measure of space available for hydrocarbon storage, is one of the most important
parameters for the development of petroleum reservoirs. It is defined as the ratio of the pore
volume to bulk volume, and is may be expressed as either a percent or a fraction.
3.2 Basic Theory:
The core analysis methods are applicable to cylindrical core plugs drilled from consolidated
& relatively homogeneous rock. There are several different methods developed for porosity
measurements (Table 7). These methods calculate three critical parameters: (i) bulk volume,
(ii) grain volume & (iii) pore volume.
Measurement of bulk volume (VB) & grain volume (VG) yields pore volume (VP) by
difference, and porosity () by: VP = (VB VG).
V V
B G 100 (17)
VB
Direct measurement of pore volume (VP) & grain volume (VG) yields:
VP
100 (18)
VP VG
Direct measurement of pore volume (VP) & bulk volume (VB) yields:
V
P 100 (19)
VB
One may distinguish the following types of porosity, namely (I) absolute or total (II) open or
interconnected & (III) effective.
I. Absolute (total) porosity t (if all of the pores are not interconnected)
II. Effective Porosity e (if all of the pores are interconnected)
The methods commonly in use for measuring porosity are:
I. Absolute or Total Porosity
A) Bulk volume measurement by (i) actual measurement if sample is regular (ii) mercury
(Hg) pycnometer method (displacement of mercury which does not penetrate sample)
B) Grain volume measurement by (i) Crushing (ii) Calculation from known GD
II. Effective porosity
A) Bulk volume measurement
B) Interconnected pore volume measurement by: (i) Boyle's Law porosimeter (ii) Mercury
Injection Method (iii) Fluid saturation method.
3.3 Interpretation or Utility Limits of Porosity, or Porosity Range

Table 6: Porosity Utility Limits at ambient (left) and at reservoir (right) condition
3.4 Porosity Measurements on core plugs by different description methods
It is utilized as a primary indicator of reservoir quality, and along with a few other factors, to
calculate HC volume in place & recoverable reserves. Petrophysicists use core porosity
values to help calibrate porosity derived from well log data.
 a. Bulk Volume of a Rock, Vb = Vg + Vp (20)
b. Porosity, t = Vp / Vb = (Vb Vg) / Vb (21)
Title /Method Purpose Advantages
Bulk volume
1. Calliper System Rapid, Sample may be used for other tests
measurement
Very rapid; Employed as part of the Summation of Fluids
2. Mercury Pycnometer Bulk volume
porosity measurement; Samples suitable for subsequent
System measurement
tests if no mercury penetration or adsorption occurs
3. Mercury Immersion Bulk volume Very accurate, Samples can be used for subsequent tests
System measurement if no mercury penetration occurs
Accurate; Sample can be totally saturated with liquid for
4. Archimedes' other tests which may be desired, If the sample is 100-%
Bulk volume
(Buoyancy) with Fluids saturated with a single fluid prior to the measurement of
measurement
Other than Mercury bulk volume, the pore volume, grain volume & grain
density can be calculated from recorded weights
5. Bulk Volume by Measure the volume of gas, oil & water present in the
Bulk volume
Summation of Grain & pore space of a fresh or preserved (peel-sealed) core of
determination
Pore Volume known bulk volume
6. Total Pore Volume from Grain volume Fast; Requiring disaggregated sample; Sample can be
Disaggregated Sample GD measurement used for supplemental measurements
Very accurate; Rapid (after cleaning & drying), simple &
7. Boyle's Law Double- Grain volume has excellent repeatability; Samples can be used for further
Cell Method measurement testing; Grain density readily determined; Irregularly
shaped, fractured &/or vuggy samples easily measured
Very accurate; Rapid (after cleaning & drying) and simple;
Direct pore
8. Boyle's Law Single- Porosity can be determined at reservoir stress; Porosity &
volume
Cell Method permeability can be run in sequence with a single loading
measurement
of the sample to avoid stress hysteresis
Summary bulk Accurate for most rock types and rapid; Porosity &
9. Summation of Fluids
& pore volume saturation determined on sample splits; Requires no
Porosity
measurements cleaning or drying
Direct pore Accurate; Many samples can be handled at one time;
10. Liquid Saturation
volume Saturated samples available for further testing and
Method
measurement saturation time is dependent on permeability
11. Gas Expansion Grain Density The only method employed to determine absolute
Pycnometer Method Measurement porosity
Table 7: Bulk, Grain & Pore Volume Directory
The properties Vb, Vg & Vp can be measured in the lab on full diameter core or on smaller
core plugs drilled from the whole core. In the following sections, we will discuss how to
estimate pore-, grain- & bulk-volumes from core plugs.
Hence, porosity may be determined in one of three Eq's 17, 18 & 19 ways and this considered
(3) composition of a core sample is measured in following determinations ways:
3.4 A Bulk Volume Measurement (Plug Size)
The bulk volume of a sample selected for porosity measurement should preferably be at least
10 cm3. Normally, samples are a right cylinder with diameters from 2.54 to 3.81 cm (1 to 1.5
inch) and lengths of at least 2.54 & 3.81 cm (1 to 1.5 inch), respectively.
Bulk Volume determinations may be made by way of several methods, such as
(i) Direct Measurement of the dimensions of a regular solid, i.e., Physical callipering of
the length & diameter of a core sample and then calculating the volume, or
(ii) Fluid displacement using pycnometer (Calibrated container) i.e., Calibrated
displacement method, or
(iii) Fluid (buoyancy) displacement using Archimedes' Principle.
3.4 B Grain Volume Measurement
Grain Volume determinations may be made by way of several methods, such as
(i) Direct measurement with the porosimeter while sample is contained in a matrix cup
 (ii) Boyle's Law Double-Cell Method
(iii) Archimedes' Principle, i.e, Displaced fluid method.
3.4 C Pore Volume Measurement
All the techniques measuring pore volume yield effective porosity. Pore Volume
determinations may be made by way of several methods, such as
(i) Direct measurement with the porosimeter while the sample is sealed in a Hassler CH,
(ii) Boyle's Law Single-Cell Method
(iii) Gravimetrically, by saturating the pore space known density liquid.
3.4.1 Effective Pore Volume of Aggregated Samples
Effective pore volume can be calculated by deducting the measured grain volume from the
sample bulk volume, or by direct measurement of sample void volume.
3.4.1.1 Grain Volume Measurement
3.4.1.1.1 Boyle's Law Double-Cell (Matrix Cup) Method for Grain Volume
3.4.1.1.1.1 Principle: According to the Boyle's law, when the temperature rests on stable
condition, the volume of a given mass of ideal gas varies inversely with its absolute pressure.
V1 / V2 = P2 / P1 or P1V1 = P2V2 (22)
To account for temperature variation and non-ideal gas behavior, the equation is extended as:
P1V1 / z1T1 = P2V1 / z2T2 (23)
Where: z1 = z-factor of gas at P1 & T1, z2 = z-factor of gas at P2 & T2.
This later equation should be used with a double-cell device when determining sample Vg.
Gas is admitted into a reference cell of known volume (Vr) at a predetermined reference
pressure (100 to 200 psig). Reference cell gas is then vented into a connected chamber of
known volume holding a sample. This results in a lower equilibrium pressure, from which Vg
is calculated. The Vg is subsequently deducted from Vb to yield VP and thence porosity.
3.4.1.1.1.2 Apparatus: Double-cell Boyle's law helium porosimeter (comprising of two
connected chambers of known volumes).

Figure 14: Schematic Diagrams of Double-cell Boyle's Law Helium Porosimeter for Grain
Volume Measurement [the left is the reverse to the right] (Source - API & AAPG Wiki)
3.4.1.1.1.3 Procedure: The porosimeter is first calibrated, yielding the Vr & Vc. A core plug
is then placed in the sample chamber. Helium gas is admitted into the reference chamber (Vr)
at a predetermined pressure (p1), typically 100 to 200 psig (690 to 1380 kPa). About 30
seconds should be permitted for pressure equilibrium and then p1 is recorded. The gas is then
permitted to expand into the sample chamber. The resultant lower pressure (p2) is measured
after the system has got equilibrium. The Vg of the sample is calculated by using the gas law
equations discussed in calculations.
3.4.1.1.1.4 Calculations: The Vg of the sample is calculated from the initial reference
chamber pressure and the final system pressure by means of the the ideal-gas equation. The
following equation is derived by a mass balance of gas within the reference & sample
chamber:
P1V1 Pa (Vc Vg ) P2Vr P2 (Vc Vg Vv )
(24)
z1T1r z aT1c z 2T2 r z 2T2c
Where: P1 = absolute initial reference volume pressure.
P2 = absolute expanded pressure.
Pa = absolute atmospheric pressure initially in sample chamber.
z1 & z2 = same as in Eq. 23.
za = z-factor of gas at T1 & atmospheric pressure (Pa).
T1r = absolute temperature of reference volume at P1.
T1c = absolute temperature of sample chamber at P1.
T2r = absolute temperature of reference volume after P2 is stabilized.
T2c = absolute temperature of sample chamber after P2 is stabilized.
Vc = sample chamber volume.
Vr = reference chamber volume.
Vv = valve displacement volume (from closed to open position).
p1 = initial reference volume gauge pressure (pressure indicated by the transducer digital
readout).
p2 = final system gauge pressure.
If isothermal conditions exist (T1 = T2 = T1r = T1c = T2r = T2c) and z = 1.0, the equation
reduces to:
Vg = Vc Vr(P1 P2) / (P2 Pa) + VvP2 / (P2 Pa) (25)
If absolute pressures P1 & P2 are expressed as equivalent gauge pressures (i.e., P1 = [p1 + Pa]
and P2 = [p2 + Pa]) and are replaced in the above equation, the following results:
Vg = Vc Vr(p1/p2 1) + Vv (1 + pa/p2) (26)
If a zero-displacement volume ball valve is used and valve is always vented to the
atmosphere before closing, Vv is included in the sample chamber volume, Vv = 0.0 and the
equation further simplifies to:
Vg = Vc Vr(p1/p2 1) (27)
3.4.1.2 Direct Pore Volume Measurement
3.4.1.2.1 Boyle's Law Single Cell Method at Elevated Confining Stress
3.4.1.2.1.2.1 Principle: In this measurement, porosity is determined at stipulated overburden
pressure (i.e., elevated stress). Historically, most routine VP measurements at elevated stress
are made with an isostatic (equal in all directions) confining stress. Subsequently data are
presented as versus effective (confining pressure minus pore pressure) isostatic stress.
These laboratory data in turn are used to estimate reservoir porosity at in-situ reservoir stress
conditions.
3.4.1.2.1.2.2 Apparatus: Single cell (isostatic load cell) Boyle's law helium porosimeter for
direct pore volume determination. High confining stress measurements apparatus require a
sleeve material made of a tough elastomer (rubber) that can endure forces imposed during
confining stress application and yet will follow to the sample at low stress.
3.4.1.2.1.2.3 Procedures: The porosimeter is first calibrated, yielding the Vr & Vd. A clean,
dry core plug is then inserted into an elastomer (rubber) sleeve. An end stem with diameter
equal to that of the plug is placed in contact with each end of the sample. A confining stress
of 400 psi or more is applied to the external surface of the elastomer. If the sample is
confined in an isostatic CH, an equal confining stress is also applied to the outside surface of
the end stems (see Figure 15). Helium gas is admitted to the reference chamber (Vr) at a
predetermined pressure (p1), typically 100 to 200 psig (690 to 1380 kPa). Pressure is noted &
recorded, and the reference chamber is vented into the void volume of the sample. The
resultant lower equilibrium pressure (p2) is noted & recorded. The Vp of the sample is
computed utilizing equations below.
Typically, sample pore volume is determined at selected levels of increasing confining stress.
Equilibrium pressure within the sample pore space at each confining stress is normally vented
prior to subsequent pore volume measurement.

Figure 15: Schematic Diagrams of Single Cell (Isostatic Load Cell) Boyle's Law Helium
Porosimeter (Source - API & AAPG Wiki)
3.4.1.2.1.2.4 Calculations: The volume of sample is determined by expanding helium from a
reference cell at known initial pressure directly into the porous rock. The following VP
equation is derived by mass balance of gas within Vr, Vd, Vv & VP.
PV P (V V ) P (V Vp Vd Vv )
1 r
a p d 2 r (28)
Z1T1r Z aT1 Z 2T2
Where: P1, P2, Pa, T1r, Vr, Vv are the same parameters as in Eq. 24.
Z1 = gas deviation factor at P1 & T1.
Z2 = gas deviation factor at P2 & T2.
Za = gas deviation factor at Pa & T1.
T1 = absolute temperature of sample pore volume at Pa.
T2 = absolute temperature of reference volume and sample after P2 is stabilized.
Vd = VL = system dead volume,
VP = sample pore volume.
If isothermal conditions exist, (T1 = T2 = T1r):
P1Vr/Z1 + Pa(Vp + Vd)/Za = P2(Vr + Vp +Vd + Vv)/Z2 (29)
and grouping terms yields:
Vp = [{Vr(P1Z2/P2Z1 1) Vv} / (1 PaZ2/P2Za)] Vd (30)
The basic equations for VP calculation are the same as above measurements, but calculation
of must also account for reduction in sample Vb as confining stress increases. Approaches
that can be used include the following:
= Vp /(Non-stressed Vb Vp) (31)
Where Vp = reduction in pore volume between initial Vp & Vp at any stress. This assumes
the Vb reduction at any stress equals the Vp reduction at the same stress.
= Vp /(Vg + Vp) (32)
Where Vp = pore volume at any stress. This assumes Vg as determined at zero stress is
constant at all applied confining stress levels.
= Vp /calculated Vb (33)
Measure Vp sample diameter & length at each stress imposed and calculate Vb.
3.5 Experiment
3.5.1 Effective Porosity, Grain & Bulk Density Determination by HEP (Experiment 1)
Description: The HEP enables one to measure the volume of the grains in a sample by
helium expansion in a chamber containing the sample. Figure 16 presents a grain volume
instrument schematic. The apparatus consists of two calibrated chambers, viz, a reference
chamber of volume Vr or V1, and a measurement chamber of volume Vs or V2, connected to
one another by a valve. Initially, the reference chamber contains helium at known pressure &
volume (Pr or P1, Vr or V1), whereas the sample chamber is depressurized using a vacuum
pump. The helium in the reference chamber then expands into the measurement chamber; the
system of the two connected chambers thus reaches a thermodynamic (new) equilibrium,
characterized by pressure Px or P2. In this state, the volume occupied by the helium is equal
to (V1 + V2 Vg). Specifically, by applying Boyles law to states 1 & 2, the following
equation is obtained:
P1V1 = P2(V1 + V2 Vg) from which we have: Vg = V1 + V2 P1V1/P2 (see Eq. 27)
Or, PrVr = Px(Vr + Vs Vg) from which we have: Vg = Vr + Vs PrVr/Px.

Figure 16: Helium Grain Volume Instrument Schematic (Source - Colin McPhee, Jules Reed
& Izaskun Zubizarreta, June 2015)
Also, in this case, the bulk volume associated with non-interconnected pores is considered to
form part of the grain volume. The HEP thus measures effective porosity, but the bulk
volume of the sample is measured in other ways through geometrical methods.
= [(Vb Vg) / Vb] 100 = (1 Vg /Vb) 100
Variable designation: P1 = helium pressure (initial), P2 = helium pressure (final),
V1 = reference or source chamber volume, V2 = sample chamber volume,
Vg = grain volume of core sample, Vb = bulk volume of core sample.
Grain density, g, is determined from:
g = Wd/Vg
Easy Procedure of Porosity Measurement:
(i) Keep cylinder pressure into 150, Bring porosimeter needle 100 by turn supply & source
(exhaust on open) open and close.
(ii) Open (with sample) CH.
(iii) Line volume determination: (a) Open Supply & Source valves when Cell1, Cell2 & CH
valves is in Close. (b) Set Regulator to 100 psig; tap the porosimeter lightly. (c) After
closing the Source, Supply & Exhaust valves Open the CH valve & notice counter-
clockwise needle deflection. (d) Tap the porosimeter lightly (when the needle comes to
rest), then read line value on the outermost scale that is coincident with the needle (this
line value represents all of the internal volume between the CH valve & the capped end of
the Saran tubing). Record this gauge value. (e) Close the CH valve (to conserve helium)
& then Open the Exhaust valve to exhaust line pressure to atmospheric pressure (0 psig).
(iv) Check dead volume so that it stands 4.85, then exhaust open > close.
(v) Place sample & repeat the process.
To exert sample- Exhaust open, bring sample then close all knob > cylinder pressure keeps at
0 > gas source close.

Figure 17: Diagram of a Double Chamber Helium Porosimeter for effective porosity
measurement (Source - Encyclopaedia of HC)
Result calculation: Helium porosimeter is equipment for measuring porosity of a core
sample. The pore volume is measured by amount of helium that is penetrated into the sample,
and the bulk volume can be calculated by measuring the length & diameter of samples.
Vg = Dead (line) volume (Vd) + volume of plug out (Vo) gauge reading (G)
= Vo void volume = Vo (G Vd).
Pore volume (Vp) = Bulk volume (Vb) void or grain volume (Vg).
= (Vp / Vb) 100
Dry weight ( Specific gravity of oil Vb Ob )
Dg = (see Eq. 13 & 16)
Vb (1 0.01 )
Ds = Dg (1 0.01 ) + 0.01 . (see Eq. 15)
Slope = Volume of plug out / Void volume = Vo / (G Vd)
Where: Dg & Ds = grain & saturated density respectively, Ob = Oil Bulk.
Porosity Measurement
Name of well: Date: ... ...
Core No: ... ... Sample No: ... ...
Depth G (sample + Vd Volume steel disk out Vg = Vo (G Vb Vp in cc = (Vp/Vb)
(M) disk vol.) (cm) Disk No. Total Vol. Vo Vd) (Vb Vg) 100 (%)

Table: Porosity Measurement Table by Helium Porosimeter (for all samples)

3.5.2 Porosity Determination or Measurements by KEYPHI instrument (Experiment 2)
Description: The KEYPHI is an instrument, a fully automated multi-samples porosimeter
(and also permeameter) dedicated to measure the porosity & permeability to helium/nitrogen
of plug sized core samples at multiple confining pressures ranging from 400 psi to 10,000 psi.
The instrument is provided with a data acquisition & calculation computer station. Porosity &
pore volume measurements are completed by using the Boyle's & Charles' law technique.
Procedures: When the unsteady state mode is chosen, the reservoir, manifold & sample are
filled with gas. After a few seconds for thermal equilibrium, the outlet valve is unlocked to
start the pressure transient. When the upstream pressure has decayed to about 85% of the seal
pressure, during which time a smooth pressure profile is established throughout the core
sample, data collection is commenced. The instrument uses an upstream gas manifold that is
attached to the CH. An upstream gas reservoir of calibrated volume is linked to, or isolated
from, the calibrated manifold volume by means of a valve. An accurate pressure transducer
that determines gauge pressure is linked to the manifold upstream of the CH. The outlet port
from the CH is vented to the atmosphere through an outlet valve.
 Figure 18: Schematic of an Isothermal Experiment of PoroPerm - KEYPHI and a Symbolic
PoroPerm Operational Components Illustration (Source - Vinci Technologies)
(T2-4: Reference chambers; P, P1, P2, Confi: manometers; AV1-8: valves)
A. Procedure to start sensor calibration: a) select transducer calibration tab panel b) select
auto and 270 psi for Pmax & 10 psi for P in configuration c) install standard volume N0>1
d) confine e) connect at outlet instruments pressure calibrator f) click on start calibration
panel.
B. Procedure to start tank or volume calibration: a) click on clear calibration tank
panel/button b) install standard n02 c) select in the table the line n01 d) confine e) click on
start calibration button f) wait for availability of start calibration button g) vent the
confining h) replace the standard by the next one h) select next line in the table i) repeat
step d-I j) when last standard is finished, click on validate calibration tank button.
Finally, Vd, Vt & the correlation coefficient may be obtained.
Procedure to measure Vd0 parameter by using measure tab panel: a) install standard n01
(without hole) b) click porosity option c) confine d) click on start button e) when porosity
measurement is finished, a negative number for Vp (cc) field (for example 3.6) will be found
f) click on cancel button g) put absolute value in Vd0 field of the volume calibration panel (for
example 3.6); this value is positive.
C. Procedure to start measurement sample: a) in measure tab panel, fill the fields Name,
Diameter, Length, Weight, Confining Pressure b) fill the Pore volume, if porosity option is
not checked c) choose measures to do on the sample (porosity &/or permeability) by
checking or not the porosity option d) install the sample e) click on start button f) wait for
availability of start button g) go to the calculation tab panel to view results.
Experiment Operation in KeyPhi in Step by Step:
i. Connect the keyphi to the main power supply. Connect the air to the air inlet. Connect the
N2 or He cylinder to the gas inlet.
ii. Connect the 3 ways valve of the confining pump to refill position. Start the pump in Start/
Empty mode, piston is in the top position. Connect a reservoir containing the driving oil to
the valve Start the pump in Refill mode until the pump is full.
iii. Connect the 3 ways valve of the confining pump to confining position. The pump is ready
to transfer driving fluid into the CH.
iv. Select the carousel corresponding to the core diameter. Put the core samples in the
carousel up to 16 maxima. Mount the carousel on its position and screw the crank of the
carousel and then close the door.
v. Open the calibrated file you want to use to make your measures in the directory.
vi. Select the "Info" sheet.
vii. Fill the fields Sample ID, Weight, Atmospheric Pressure, Sample Position (in the Sample
Holder), Confining Pressure, Inlet pressure, Stability Set Point and Vacuum Time Set Point.
viii. Choose the measures you want to do on each sample (porosity or permeability or both).
ix. In case for a sample you only want to perform a permeability measure you have to fill the
field pore volume.
x. Save and close your file.
xi. Start the measurement from software.
To shutoff procedure, switch off the poroperm and unplug it from the main power.

Figure 19: Initial and Final Conditions in KeyPhi (Source - Vinci Technologies)
3.5.3 Porosity Determination by Mercury Injection Porosimeter method (Experiment 3)
Description: The principle consists of forcing mercury under relatively high pressure in the
rock sample pores. A pressure gauge is connected to the cylinder for reading pressure under
which measuring fluid is forced into the rock pores. Figure 21 (right) shows a curve from the
mercury injection porosimeter method. The volume of mercury entering the rock sample is
obtained from the device with accuracy up to 0.01 cm3.

Figure 20: Mercury Porometer (Source - Mohsen Masihi, Vinci Technologies)

Equipment: Tool designed to measure the gas space & bulk volume of a freshly recovered
core sample. The instrument consists of a hand operated pump, a sample cell set with a
needle valve mounted on its lid. The cell can accommodate a sample with a bulk volume of
10 to 15 cm3. The pump consists of a core chamber, pump cylinder with piston & wheel,
scales & gauges.

Figure 21: Mercury Injection Pump-left and Porosity vs. Mercury Saturation Graph through
Mercury Porometer or Injection-right (Source - Torster, O. & M. Abtahi)
There are different types of mercury injection porosimeter e.g., A) Mercury pump or B)
Ruska universal porometer.
A) Mercury pump: Boyle's Law Porosimeter i.e., Kobe Method: The mercury pump is a
high-pressure volumetric displacement pump and done by Boyle's law (gas expansion
principle) of isothermal expansion. Other is air expansion technique: Archimedes' Principle
basis.
B) Ruska universal porometer: It consists of a 100-cc volumetric mercury pump, a
pycnometer, stainless steel plunger, others as like as Boyle's Law Porosimeter.
A) Measurement (Lab) Procedure
The procedures of measurement are as follows:
i. Calibrate the pump.
ii. Put the sample into a sample chamber, turn the handle anticlockwise until mercury in the
needle valve can be seen. (The bulk volume was read from the scale.).
Close the needle valve, then turn the handle/anticlockwise until pressure gauge 750-psi,
monitored the gas volume.
B) Procedure for determination of bulk volume
i. First mercury is brought to a fixed mark above the sample chamber and the pump is
brought to zero reading.
ii. The piston is removed withdrawing mercury from the chamber.
iii. The sample is then placed in the chamber and mercury is brought back to the fixed mark.
iv. The reading of the pump scale gives the bulk volume of the sample.
C) Procedure for determination of Porosity by Ruska Universal Porometer
i. Weigh dry, clean sample.
ii. Fill Pycnometer to window by pumping Hg IN and close valve.
iii. Zero all scales.
iv. Increase pressure to 750 psig to obtain correction factor and repeat it to get stable
value.
v. Turn wheel out to beyond 0 pressure in Pycnometer. Open valve to allow
atmospheric pressure IN.
vi. Zero all scales again by filling Hg to window on in-stroke.
vii. Pump Hg OUT to about 30 cc and install sample in Pycnometer.
viii. Pump Hg IN and measure bulk volume (Vb) on in-stroke when Hg in window.
ix. Close valve, set pore volume scale and wheel scale to 0 and increase pressure to 750
psig. Record value when stable.
x. Repeat 5 and then pump Hg OUT about 30cc and remove sample.
 xi. Calculate porosity from viii & ix by = (Vp / Vb) 100% + 2% (correction factor, Cf)
(Remember that: True Vp = Recorded Vp Cf + 2%)
GD = Sample dry weight / Grain volume = Wd / (Vb Vp).
Kobe Method (Boyle's Law - gas expansion Principle basis)
Ref. Pressure: 30 psig, Ref. Pycnometer volume: 30 cc. Atm. Pressure: 750 mHg. (Cf = 1).
Ref. Air volume Simulated grain volume Final volume reading Compression volume or true
(VR) in cc (VG) in cc (VF) in cc VF' (col.2+col.3)
30 0.00 8.785 8.785
28 2.00 8.195 10.195
26 4.00 7.510 11.510
24 6.00 6.875 12.875
22 8.00 6.300 14.300
Sample bulk volume (VB) = 5.19, Sample VF = 12.
Calculation: VG = R4C2 + [2(VF R4C4) / (R5C4 R4C4)]
= 4 + [2 (12 11.51)] / [(12.875 11.51)]
= 4 + 2 0.49/1.365 = 4.718.
VP = VB VG = 5.19 4.718 = 0.472.
Porosity () = (VP/VB) 100% = (0.472/5.19) 100% = 9.10%.
Porosity Measurement (Kobe Method - Boyle's Law Gas Expansion Principal Basis)
Name of well: .......................... Date: ...................
Core no. ..................... Sample no. ................................. Depth: .................................
Instrument Reading (Per Sample): In table, Reference Pressure: 30 psig,
Atmosphere Pressure: 750 mHg, Ref. Pycnometer Vol.: 30 cc
Ref. Air Volume Simulated Grain Final Volume Reading Compression Vol. or Comments
(VR) in cc Volume (VG) in cc (VF) in cc True V'F(Cl.2+Cl.3)

Table: Porosity Measurement by Mercury Injection Porosimeter

Name of well: ............. Core no. .............. Sample no. ...................
Date Depth Vb in cc Vg in cc Vp in cc Porosity () in %

Table: Porosity Measurement Table (for All Samples)

3.5.4 Effective Porosity Determination by Micrometric Porosimeter method (Exp. 4)
Description: This instrument consists of a chamber (or pycnometer), inside which the sample
to be measured is placed, connected to a micrometric piston pump (see Figure 22). The
chamber contains air (to measure the grain volume) & water (to measure the bulk volume), or
air & mercury; in both cases, the water or mercury can be considered incompressible fluids
relative to air. If water is used, the sample is first coated with an impermeable shield to
prevent liquid entering its pores. The micrometric porosimeter can be used to calculate
effective porosity, given direct measurements of the porous mediums bulk volume (Vb) &
grain volume (Vg). Given the methodologies used for measurement, the total volume
associated with non-interconnected pores is considered part of the grain volume, thus
obtaining a measurement of effective porosity:
= Vpi/Vb = 1 Vg/Vb.
Mercury Injection Method - Archimedes' Principle Basis
Recommended injection or reference pressure = 750 psig/50 atm (approx.),
Machine expansion/ reading (correction factor) Ve = 0.345 due to error.
Mercury Level (initial) = 00, Mercury Level (final) = 0.55,
Bulk volume (Vb) = 0.98, Measured core bulk volume (Vb) = 0.98 0.00 = 0.98 cc,
Mercury (Hg) displacement = 0.98 0.55 = 0.43,
Pore volume = Mercury displacement Machine expansion,
Mercury Injected or Pore volume, Vp = 0.43 0.345 = 0.085 cc.
Calculation: Porosity = (Vp/Vb) 100% = (0.085/0.98) 100% = 8.70%.
 Figure 22: Micrometric Porosimeter (Source - Encyclopaedia of Hydrocarbons)
Machine expansion/ reading Bulk Volume Pressurized volume Pore Volume (Vp) = Porosity
(correction factor) Ve (Vb) Reading (Vpr) (Vb Vpr) Ve ( )
PERMEABILITY
4.1 Definition:
Permeability is defined as the ability of a formation to transmit fluids. In conventional core
analysis, this rock property is determined in respect of a single-phase fluid (gas or liquid).
4.2 Permeability Range: Conventional Limits
Permeability: Conventional Limits
Differential Permeability Value (mD) Quantitative Description
>1000 Excellent
250-1000 Very Good
50-250 Good
15-50 Moderate
<1.0-15 Poor to Fair
A general permeability ranges at ambient condition
Differential Permeability Value (mD) Quantitative Description
420-37000 High Permeability
1-420 Medium Permeability
0.01-1 Low Permeability
According to Core Laboratories Inc. 1981 at laboratory ambient condition
Differential Permeability Value (mD) Quantitative Description
>500 Excellent
200-500 Good
50-200 Average
10-50 Mediocre
1-10 Low
<1 Very Low
Another permeability ranges at reservoir overburden condition
Table 9: Permeability Range at Different Conditions
N.B: Vertical permeability is generally far lower than permeability horizontal to the bedding.
4.3 Basic Theory:
Darcys law states that, an incompressible single phase fluid flows through the pore space of
the rock with a volumetric flow rate of:
kA( P1 P2 ) QL
Q k (34)
L A.P
Where, k = The constant, Darcy termed this property the coefficient of permeability, which
was later called simply the permeability.
Q = Volumetric flow rate (cc/sec.) under laminar flow = gas (N2) flow rate = quantity
of transmitted flow in unit time (cc/sec),
P = P1 P2 = Driving force or volumetric depletion drive or pressure drop over the
sample (atm.) or differential pressure between two points separated by distance or
pressure difference or gradient on manometers M1, M2 (P1 & P2 are inlet & outlet
pressures in atm respectively),
= Viscosity (dynamic) of fluid / N2 gas (cp) (From Viscosity-Temp. Curve) = 0.018,
A = Cross-sectional area (cm2) of the core sample at right angles to the flow direction,
L = Length (of the core sample) along which pressure differential is measured.
Air permeability (ka) is given by:
Qa LPa
ka = 2 (35)
A( P12 P22 )
Where, Pa = Atmospheric pressure, Qa = (Atmospheric) Flow rate (cc/sec)
(P12 P22)/2 = [(P1 + P2)/2] (P1 P2),
[Here, (P1 + P2)/2 = Mean Pressure, MP &
(P1 P2) = Differential pressure, DP or Pressure gradient].
Usually, permeability of reservoir rock varies from 20 mD's to 1 D.
Darcy's equation for gas permeameter:
Q P / R
Or, Q (P1 P2) / (L/A)
Q = k(P1 P2)A / L
k = QL / [(P1 P2)A] (see Eq. 34) (36)
Where, Resistance, R = L/A, Gas Supply = 50 psi.
Darcy's equation for compressible fluids:
Pa (1000) QL
k= a (37)
( P1 P2 ) A
( P1 P2 )
2
Where, Pa = Atmospheric Pressure = mmHg/760 (mmHg = barometric pressure in mm.),
(P1 + P2)/2 = Mean Pressure (psia), MP,
(P1 P2) = (Inlet-Outlet) Differential Pressure (psia), DP.
The equation used to calculate plug or core sample permeability using the data obtained from
the Permeameter could be stated as:
Orifice Q Value Orifice Water Sample Length
Permeability C Value
(38)
Mercury column 200
Sample Area
Overburden Pressure (psi )

Pa (1000) Orifice Q Value Orifice Water (mm)

Where, C and Qa
( P1 P2 ) 20
0
( P1 P2 ) NOB Pressure Calibration constant
2
This equation says that 1 Darcy is the permeability that allows 1cm/sec of a fluid having a
viscosity of 1 cp to pass through a cross sectional area of 1 cm2 under a pressure gradient of 1
atmos/cm. (flow is laminar and inertia can be ignored).
After the permeability to air/absolute permeability is measured, calculate apparent
permeability using klinkenberg correction:
O W L
ka C 1.09 (39)
200
A
k
Where, C = Mercury Column, O = Orifice reading, W = Water Column,
200 = Net Over burden (NOB) pressure or or net confining stress (NCS), psi,
1.09 = Calibration factor of equipment.
Air Permeability. mD Klinkenderg Correction Factor Equivalent Liquid Permeability
1000 0.95 950
100 0.88 88
10 0.78 7.8
1 0.68 0.68
0.18 0.66 0.12
4.4 Permeability Measurement
The Permeameter is used in RCAL & SCAL to measure specific air Permeability of a core
sample. Air Permeability is generally used by the petroleum industry as a corelator of the
flow capability of a rock formation.
4.4.1 Theory of Permeability Measurements
Core-based direct single-phase permeability measurements. Tables 10 & 11 are quick
selection & reference guides for gas & liquid permeability measurements, respectively, using
both SS & USS techniques.
4.5 Steady-State Permeability Measurements for Gases
4.5.1 Axial, Steady-State Flow of Gases
4.5.1.1 Principle: Permeability is measured in the laboratory by enclosing a cleaned & dried
cylindrical core plug of known length & diameter in an air/gas-tight sleeve (the Hasseler
Sleeve) in a horizontal position. A fluid of known viscosity is injected into a sample, and for
applying radial confining stresses. Axial stress can be spread to the plug or sample by
applying force to one or both end plugs, by mechanical, pneumatic or hydraulic means. If the
magnitudes of the radial & axial stresses are equal, the sample is said to be isostatically or
hydrostatically stressed. If the magnitudes are unequal, sample is biaxialy stressed.
Type of Apparatus or
Major Advantages
Measurement Application
Low-pressure Hassler CH
Simple & an industry standard, a large historic data base for direct
with manometers, orifice-
1. Axial flow, comparison; low capital costs; Simple manual data acquisition system
type volumetric flow device
SS in core
Upgraded apparatus with
plugs high pressure hydrostatic Automated control & data acquisition systems
or biaxial CH
Pressure-falloff gas
2. Axial flow, permeameter; Control
Well adapted for automation; flowmeters are not required; slip-corrected
measurement times for a
pressure permeability, Klinkenberg gas slippage factor & Forchheimer coefficient
wide range of
falloff in core of inertial resistivity can all be determined from a single pressure falloff
permeabilities; medium to
plugs test; non-slip-corrected permeability can also be calculated.
high stress measurements
with corrections for b &
3. Axial flow, Well adapted for automation & for application of reservoir-condition
High stress (pulse decay
pulse-decay in permeability) apparatus
stresses; flowmeters are not required; applicable to very low permeabilities
core plugs measurement; porosity can be determined in same apparatus
4. Probe SS probe (mini-) Automated or handy - planned for portable well site service; Nondestructive
permeameter; Zero stress, (no need to cut core plugs) - plug preparation no require (recommend core
perm., SS, on
high density, localized slabbing); relatively fast & low cost; only a small volume of rock
whole core measurement for investigation, well suited for investigation of spatial permeability variation
(WC) heterogeneous cores in cores containing thin laminations & small scale heterogeneity
Automated; very fast; flowmeters and plug preparation are not required
5. Probe Pressure-falloff probe
(recommend core slabbing), nondestructive, both k & kg permeabilities
permeameter; Zero stress,
perm., are obtained from a single pressure falloff test; & b are eliminated &
high density, localized
pressure corrected; The volume of rock sample investigated by a single test can be
measurements for
falloff on WC varied somewhat by varying the size of the probe tip seal dimensions, in
heterogeneous cores
general this volume is quite small
6. Transverse, Large volumes of rock involvement (permit considerable permeability
Hassler-types CH with a
averaging, minimizes the effect of small scale heterogeneity); made
SS perm. in rubber sleeve (or an
orthogonal measurements to determine directional permeability in whole
WC (or plug) elastomer sleeve)
core for kmax & k90
Full-diameter radial flow
permeameter consists of
7. Radial, SS Measures average permeability throughout the length of the sample & in
three parts: the cell, a
perm. in WC all radial directions
piston and the floating
plate assembly.
Table 10: Quick Selection & Reference Guide for Permeability Measurements using Gases
Type of Apparatus or
Major Advantages
Measurement Application
Automated; reservoir stresses approximated; gas slippage
correction & sample drying (potentially damaging operation)
1. Axial flow, SS Apparatus with electronic sensors,
are not required; more representatives of reservoir
in plug cores high pressure. CH, imposed
permeabilities; The used plug can be saturated with the same
liquid for further analyses
2. Axial flow, Well adapted for automation; flowmeters & corrections for
High stress apparatus (liquid
pulse-decay in slippage are not required; and. useful for measurement of
pulse-decay permeameter)
plug cores ultra-low permeability rocks
3. Transverse
flow, in WC
4. Radial flow, in
WC
Table 11: Quick Selection & Reference Guide for Permeability Measurements using Liquids
 Figure 23: Schematic of Permeability Apparatus for axial flow of gas (Source - API)
The two end plugs are given with an axial port for transferring gas to & from the sample.
Each should have radial & circular channels or other means for distributing gas to its entire
injection face, and for collecting gas from all parts of its outflow face. Preferably, each end
plug also contains a second port for measuring upstream & downstream pressures, P1 & P2,
respectively; and P1, P2 & differential pressure, p, are illustrated in Figure 23. However,
lines for connecting the pressure-measuring devices can be tied into the flow lines near the
axial ports, provided that the latter are large not to cause significant pressure drops
sufficiently between each top and the corresponding end face of the sample.
The outflow line can be vented to atmospheric pressure directly, connected to a flow rate
measuring device or to a back-pressure regulator for the purposes of creating confined mean
pore pressures. In latter case, the flow meter can be either upstream of the sample or
downstream of the back-pressure regulator. The volumetric flow rate, qr, can be measured at
the upstream or downstream pressure or some other pressure, which in all cases is denoted as
Pr, an absolute pressure. The temperature at which flow rate is measured is assumed to be the
same as the flowing gas temperature. Alternatively, the group (qrPr)/(zrTr), which is
proportional to mass flow rate, can be determined by a mass flow meter.
4.5.1.2 Procedure at elevated confining stress and Apparatus
4.5.1.2.b: A CH for applying hydrostatic stresses, typically to a maximum of 10,000 psi, is
shown in Figure 24. Air or hydraulic oil can be used to apply the sleeve elevated pressure required
to seal the core. Axial stress in this CH is reduced by the cross-sectional area of the tube
connecting the internal end plug to the outer pressure vessel. Axial stress is generated by a
stress intensifier. Either pneumatic or hydraulic pressure bears on a piston of larger diameter
than that of the end plug. The resulting force is transmitted by the lower end plug to the
sample. The pressure required is inversely proportional to the ratio of areas. Viz, if the larger
piston has an area 10 times that of the end plug, a pressure of 600 psig applied to the large
piston would transmit a stress of 6,000 psi to the core plug. If axial stress is equal to hydraulic
pressure applied to the rubber sleeve, then the core plug is hydrostatically stressed.
Otherwise, it is biaxialy stressed. Confining pressure is relieved (and often a vacuum applies
to expand the sleeve), the lower end plug is withdrawn, the previous sample is separated, and
the new sample is added.
4.5.1.3 Calculations: Gas permeability, kg, is calculated from:
2C2 Pr qr z m
kg =
C1 z r G f ( P1 P2 )( P1 P2 )
If the multiple measurements are made at different mean pore pressures, k & b are obtained
from a Klinkenberg plot or linear regression. If b is found from a correlation, then k is
calculated from:
2C2 Pr qr z m
k =
C1 z r G f ( P1 P2 )( P1 P2 2b)
Where, C1 & C2 are conversion constants from following Table to allow for various sets of
units for the variables. P1 & P2 are the injection & outflow absolute gas pressures
respectively.
Units or Values of Constants
Variable or Constant SI Preferred SPE Traditional Common Usage
C1, in Darcy or Forch. eq. 1.0 1.0 1.0 6.8046E-2
C2, in Darcy or Forch. eq. 1.0 1.0E+12 1.0 1000.
Table: Constants in Forchheimer or Darcy Equation with various sets of units
The geometric factor for axial flow in above two relations is:
Gf = D2/4L (40)
To obtain b, from which rb is calculated using rb = (99.5/b)(T/M), apparent gas
permeability, kg, is measured at a minimum of three (& preferably at least four) different
mean pore pressures.

Figure 24: Schematic Cross-sectional Illustration of the High-Pressure CH Assembly for

Hydrostatic or Biaxial Stresses & Loading (Source - decarboni.se)
4.6 Unsteady-state Permeability Measurements for Gases
4.6.1 Transient Pressure Techniques for Gases
4.6.1. Pressure-Falloff, Axial Gas Flow
4.6.1.1.1 Apparatus: Transient measurements use fixed-volume reservoirs for gas. These
may be located upstream of the sample, from which the gas flows into the core sample being
measured. The pressure falloff apparatus (Figure 25) uses an upstream gas manifold that is
closed to a sample holder capable of applying hydrostatic stresses to a cylindrical plug of
diameter & length. An upstream gas reservoir of calibrated volume can be linked to the
calibrated manifold volume by using a valve.
 Figure 25: Schematic of Pressure-Falloff Gas Permeameter (Source - Vinci Technologies)
4.6.1.1.2 Procedure: The downstream end of the sample (i.e., the outlet port from the sample
holder) is vented to the atmospheric pressure. An accurate pressure transducer is linked to the
manifold immediately upstream of the sample holder. The reservoir, manifold & the core
sample are filled with gas. After a few seconds for thermal equilibrium, the outlet valve
opens to initiate the pressure transient. The pressures & times are recorded.
N.B.: This technique has a useful permeability range of 0.1 mD to 5 D's.
4.6.1.1.3 Calculation:
4.6.1.1.3.1 Calculation of Gas Permeability from Klinkenberg Permeability
The permeability of gas is uncorrected for gas slippage. It is obtained from the following
relation:
bm c Tc M m

m Tm M c
k g k 1 (41)
Pm c


Where, (i) subscript m = the measurement gas or condition,
(ii) subscript c = desired gas (theoretical) or condition for which kg is to be calculated,
(iii) b = Klinkenberg slippage factor, psi,
(iv) = gas viscosity, cp,
(v) M = gas molecular weight (g/mol),
(The constant 99.5 becomes 6.77 if b has the unit of atm)
(vi) T = absolute temperature of the gas during the measurement of b, 0K,
(vii) Pm = mean pressure (psia).
Pm c 1/ 2Pg Pa ,
Where, Pg = geometrical mean pressure, psia,
Pa = atmospheric pressure, psi.
4.7 Permeability Experiment
4.7.1 Permeability Measurement by KEYPHI Instrument (Experiment 1)
Description: The KEYPHI instrument is a totally computerized multi-samples porosimeter &
permeameter committed to measure the porosity & permeability to helium/nitrogen of plug
sized samples at multiple confining pressures ranging from 400 psi to 10,000 psi. The
instrument is designed with a data acquisition & calculation computer station. Permeability
measurements can be made using the USS pressure drop method. This data is used to
determine the equivalent liquid permeability, slip & turbulence factors. Equivalent air
permeability at a user specified pressure is also computed.
Procedure and Calculation: Same as like as Porosity Measurement.
Resistivity
5.1 Definition:
Data include all resistivities (Rw, Ro & Rt), formation factor (F), resistivity index (I),
cementation & saturation exponents (m & n) and CEC, effective concentration of clay
exchange cations (Qv), and Co-Cw analysis for clay-corrections.
5.2 Main Basic theory
5.2.a Resistivity: The electrical property of reservoir rocks which resist the flow of current
through it and is measured accordingly by resistivity meter at ambient temperature &
pressure. All core plugs (for overall rock resistivity determination) are thoroughly saturated
by prepared brine of 15,000 - 30,000 ppm concentration. Brine solution with 30,000 ppm
concentration has been used for all rock samples brine saturation which reflects formation
water properties most.
The resistivity of a porous material is defined by
R = rA/L (42)
2
Where r = resistance, , A = cross-sectional /cube face area of the sample, m , L = length of
the sample, and resistivity (R) is expressed in Ohm-meter (.m).
A 1
Rc Cr . (43)
L 100
Where, Cr = Measured resistance of partially/brine saturated sample in .
Resistivity of brine mater (Rw) used in the test is also directly measured by the resistivity
meter using four (4) cell electrodes.
Rw = Wr C (44)
Where, Wr = Measured brine water resistance, C = Dipcell constant (0.001 meter).
All resistivities of this test are corrected at 25C, as for example, R25 = (measured Rc,w at tC)
(tC + 21.5C)/(25C + 21.5C) {using the Arps equation: Rr = R1 (T1 + 21.5) / (Tr + 21.5)}.

Figure 26: Common Formation Factor versus Porosity Relationship (Source - Core lab)
5.2.b Formation or Electrical-Resistivity Factor: It is a characteristic of the formation, a
function of the pore space distribution and independent of Rw. It is a ratio of resistivity of
100% brine saturated sample (Ro) to the resistivity of the saturating brine (Rw).
F = Ro/Rw (45)
Where F = formation resistivity factor
Ro = the resistivity of the fully saturated rock or Overall rock resistivity or the
resistivity of the rock when saturated 100% with water, .m
Rw = the resistivity of the saturating solution or resistivity of fluid formation or the
water resistivity, .m.
The above equation may be reported as a function of porosity by the equation:
 F = a/m (46)
Where, m = cementation exponent/factor (varies 1.3 - 2.4), is a function of rock lithology &
the type of porosity distribution, most commonly 2.
= porosity (fraction),
a = rock consolidation factor = a coefficient (depends formation lithology) = intercept
= proportionality constant varying from 0.5 to 3.0, but often equal to 1.
5.2.c Formation Resistivity Index: The second fundamental notion of electrical properties
of porous rocks containing both water & HCs is the resistivity index. It is a ratio of the
resistivity of a partially saturated sample (Rt) to the resistivity of the 100% brine saturated
sample (Ro):
I Rt Ro (47)
Where Rt = The resistivity of the rock containing HCs or Partially saturated sample resistivity
or the resistivity of the rock when saturated partially with water, .m.
Ro = The resistivity of the rock when completely water saturated or Resistivity of core
sample 100% water or brine or the resistivity of the same rock when saturated with
100% water, .m.
The above equation may be reported as a function of water saturation by following equation:
I 1.00 Swn (48)
Where, Sw = water saturation, n = saturation exponent; often n = 2.
5.2.d Tortuosity: Wyllie (52) developed the relation between the formation factor & other
properties of rocks, like porosity & tortuosity . Tortuosity can be defined as (Le/L)2, where
L is the length of the core & Le represents the effective path length through the pores. Based
on simple pore models the following relationship can be derived:
F (49)
Where = tortuosity of the rock (irregular path), = porosity of the rock.
Rw Le L
2

Le L
2
Ro
F
Rw Rw
The ratio Le/L is the ratio of the length of the tortuous path through the rock to the length of
the rock element. It is commonly termed tortuosity, and in clean, uniform sandstones the
square of this value is approximately equal to the reciprocal of porosity.

Figure 27: Formation Factor vs. Porosity illustrating variation in slope m

(Source - Keelan, D. of CoreLab)
5.2.e Cementation Factor: It is the characteristics of rocks which depending upon the state
of cementation of rocks and which reflects the number of open pores & the rate of their
linkage by the channels. The amount of this rate indicator has been calculated as the ratio of
formation factors logarithms to logarithms of fractional porosity:
m log F log (50)
Its value, depending upon rock cementation, deviates from 1.30 to 2.4.
Archie suggested a slightly different relation between the F & by introducing the m:
F = m (51)
Archie (1942) observed the range in value of m in sandstones: 1.3 for unconsolidated
sandstones, 1.4-1.5 for very slightly cemented, 1.6-1.7 for slightly cemented, 1.8-1.9 for
moderately cemented, 2.0-2.2 for highly cemented sandstones.
5.2.f Saturation Exponent: The Archie's equation gives the relationship of resistivity index
with water saturation (Sw) of rocks:
I Sw n (52)
Where, n = saturation exponent, range: 1.4 - 2.2 (n = 2.0 if no data are given).
5.3 Significance of Resistivity and its related parameters:
Reservoir rocks maintain the following significance/prognosis:
When the formation contains HCs its resistivity will be very high. So, it is indicative that
high resistivity values may be a porous HC bearing formation (Low resistivity with
moderate to high porosity usually indicates water or shale and high resistivity with
moderate to high porosity usually indicates HCs).
The more salty the brine, the lower the resistivity (i.e., Fresh-water muds are
characterized usually by high resistivity, salt-water muds by a low resistivity).
The higher the temperature, the higher the conductivity & the lower the resistance.
When a formation is porous and contains salty water the overall resistivity (Ro) will low.
The true resistivity (Rt) may be quite low when F is small (large ) and the connate
water resistivity is low.
The higher the water saturation, the lower the resistivity index. Hence, resistivity index (I)
is used as a guide to possible production (1/Sw).
Resistivity ratios > 10 may well produce clean oil.
F will not vary with changes in formation water salinity. Its range exists between 5-500
and the average value around 10.
The resistivity of an oil-bearing reservoir rock is a function of water saturation:
Sw ( Ro Rt )1/ n .
The resistivity of the formation water is needed for the HC saturation estimation.
Formation or electrical-resistivity factor is a characteristic of the formation, a function of
the pore space distribution and independent of Rw.
The formation factor shows a relationship between water saturated rock conductivity &
bulk water conductivity. Obviously, the factor depends on the pore structure of the rock.
The second fundamental notion of electrical properties of porous rocks containing both
water & HCs is the resistivity index. The constant of proportionality formation resistivity
factor describes the effect of the presence of the rock matrix. The resistivity index varies
between unity & infinity depending upon the degree of saturation of the rock.
Application of core-derived Archie m & n values is generally straight forward and
understood by most log analysts.
The m- rate indicator reflects the degree of cementation, pore openness & channels
connecting thereof. In I Sw n equation, Rt & Ro can be obtained from well logging data,
experimentally the saturation exponent n is determined in laboratory. Therefore, the in-
situ water saturation can be calculated with Archies equation. Based on the material
balance equation for the formation, Sw+So+Sg = 1.0, the HC reserve in place may be
 calculated. This parameter is important in reserve estimation, commercial evaluation &
oil production prediction.
Tortuosity is an important media property and estimated from electrical resistivity
measurements usually. The tortuosity is in the range of 2 to 5 for most reservoir rocks.
5.4 Measurement of F, m, I and n
5.4.1 Measurement of formation resistivity factor and cementation factor:
Both the F & the m can be measured on plug core samples in the laboratory. This is done
in the following way for a single plug core sample:
i. Clean & dry the plug core sample.
ii. Measure the porosity of the plug core sample with helium or with a fluid saturation
technique.
iii. Saturate sample with a conductive fluid if not already done in the porosity determination
step.
iv. Measure the bulk resistivity of the core sample saturated with the fluid (Ro).
v. Measure the resistivity of the fluid that saturates the rock in a separate vessel (Rw).
vi. Rearrange & apply Eq. Ro = FRw, to obtain the F.
vii. Rearrange & apply Eq. Ro = Rw m, to obtain the m.
If there is a suite of such measurements from core plugs from a particular formation, a mean
m can be obtained graphically by plotting F against on log-log graph paper, which gives a
straight line for a particular lithotype, which intersects F = 1 when = 1, and with a gradient
equal to m. This is shown in Figure 28.
viii. Methods of detecting the cementation exponent value:
a. A log-log plot of F versus gives in a straight line that can be extrapolated to = 1 to
find a value. The slope of the line is m (Due to that Log always will be with (-value).
b. A best fit line drawn through the points intersects the representing = 1, at a value. The
slope of the line is m.
c. a value is detected at the point of the intersection between the drawn line and (X = 1).

Figure 28: An Illustration of the Cementation Exponent Estimation

(Source - Dr. Paul Glover)
5.4.1.1 Depiction of measurement of formation resistivity factor and cementation factor:
In the core laboratory, the F is measured on a sample set with varying porosity on plugs
from the same reservoir. The different values for the F reflect the change in pore geometry
caused by cementation effects. The porosities & measured Fs are plotted on a double
logarithmic scale. For clean sands, this provides a straight line of which the slope m is known
as the lithological exponent or the m, according to Eq. 9.10. This is shown in Figure 29.
Once the m for a specific lithology is known, the resistivity of the formation water can be
calculated from the resistivity & porosity logs taken in a water-bearing leg of the reservoir.
This is done for average F versus average of different plugs.

Figure 29: Cross-Plots of Formation Resistivity Factor versus Porosity reflecting the first
Archie equation (Source - V. S. Suicmez, et al. and Theodoor Wouter Fens)
5.4.2 Measurement of resistivity index curve and saturation exponent:
The saturation exponent value can be obtained from laboratory experiments on core samples.
The procedure is as follows only for a single core sample:
i. Follow the procedure to measure the resistivity of a sample saturated completely with a
fluid (conductive) as outlined in section 5.4.1 (Ro).
ii. Replace in a step-wise manner some of the conductive fluid in the rock with a non-
conductive fluid (e.g., gas) allowing for equilibrium to be attained at each step.
iii. Measure the resistivity of the sample (Rt) when equilibrium is attained at the end of each
step.
iv. Calculate from measurements of the changed fluids and prior knowledge of the pore
volume of the sample, the conductive fluid saturation in the sample at the end of each step.
v. Rearrange and apply Eq. Rt = IRo, to calculate the I.
vi. Rearrange and apply Eq. Rt = Ro Sw-n, to calculate the n.

Figure 30: An Illustration of the Saturation Exponent Estimation (Source - Dr. Paul Glover)
These tests or experiments are really time consuming as one has to stay a long time for the
samples to come to equilibrium. As before, a mean n can be computed from such tests or
measurements on a suite of cores. In this case, the I is plotted against the Sw, again on log-
log paper (Figure 30). The result is a straight line intersecting I = 1 when Sw = 1, and with a
gradient equal to n.

Figure 31: Cross-Plots of the Formation Resistivity Index versus Water Saturation in the
pores reflecting the second Archie equation (Source - V. S. Suicmez, et al. and T. W. Fens)
5.4.2.1 Depiction of measurement of resistivity index curve and saturation exponent:
During this measurement, the conductive water is replaced by the non-conductive oil in small
volume steps. The resistivity index is measured as a function of decreasing water saturation.
Similar reasoning as for the formation resistivity factor can be followed for partly oil-
saturated samples and is given by Eq. 52. Fig. 31 illustrates the relation of water saturation &
resistivity index. The saturation exponent n is required in the relation between the resistivity
measured in the well and the water saturation in the formation. The procedure is as follows as
above for average I versus average n of different core samples.
9.5.1 Resistivity Measurements of Fluid-Saturated Rocks (Experiment 1)
Description: The objective of this experiment is to measure the main electrical properties of
porous rock like water resistivity, formation resistivity factor, cementation factor, resistivity
index, saturation exponent & tortuosity.

Figure 32: Electrical Properties System at ambient (left) & overburden conditions (right)
with Calibrated Electrical Resistance Check Plugs (middle) (Source - Vinci Technologies)

Figure 33: The Resistance Measurements Electrical Circuit with 4 & 2 Electrodes
(Source - Torster, & Abtahi of NTNU and Vinci Technologies)
N. B.: To avoid contact resistance due to oil on the electrodes, a technique with 4 electrodes is preferred.
Procedure: Resistance measurements in our laboratory are a ratio of voltage reduce
technique that is the ratio of voltage reduce between a reference resistor & a sample (to be
measured) in series (Figure 33). The following steps are taken in carrying out this
experiment:
i) Clean & dry the core sample.
ii) The resistance of the core samples of different length is calculated.
iii) The weight of the core samples when dried is measured.
iv) The length & the diameter of the core samples are measured.
v) Saturate completely the core samples with water Sw = 100%, desaturate Rcore = Ro.
vi) The weight when saturated with water is measured.
vii) Desaturate the core samples by 15 to 20 % until Sw < 100%, desaturate Rcore = Rt.
viii) Determine the resistivity index (I) using (Rt/Ro), of the different core samples.
ix) Determine the saturation exponent (n) by rearranging the saturation equation
Sw ( Ro Rt )1/ n or plotting a graph of log (Rt/Ro) vs Swlog I vs log Sw.
x) The resistivity of water (Rw) is measured.
xi) Rearrange & apply equation of (Ro = FRw) to get formation factor (F).
xii) The porosity () is determined.
xiii) Rearrange & apply Ro = Rw m to get the cementation factor (m) or plot a graph of log F
against log on log-log graph.
xiv) The tortuosity () is determined by rearranging the equation F .
Calculations and Report:
1. Calculate water resistivity, Rw.
Equation: R = rxA/L = rxD2/4L
Reference resistance (rR): , Cell volume/Reference volume (VX/VR):
Water Cell diameter D (m) Cell length L Cell resistance, rx() Rw (.m)
(m)
36 g NaCl/l
2. Calculate I & n.
Reference resistance (rR): , VX/VR:
Core no. Core L (m) Core D (m) rx () Rt (.m) Ro (.m) Sw I n

3. Calculate F, m & .
Reference resistance (rR): , VX/VR:
Core no. Core L (m) Core D (m) rx () Ro (.m) m F

9.5.2 Resistivity Measurements of Brine-Saturated Rocks (Experiment 2)

Description: The objective of this experiment is to measure the main electrical properties of
porous rock like true (i.e., total) & overall rock resistivity, brine resistivity, formation factor,
cementation factor and resistivity index.
Procedures for the Determination of Core Resistivity:
a. At first, prepare a brine solution for an expected salinity or for brine system to core sample
analysis.
b. Saturate clean & dry core sample in this brine for 3 or 4 days using a covered glass vessel
as the saturating chamber.
Note: In case of Automated Saturator for core saturation, it needs only10-20 minutes (Figure 34).
c. Before machine power switch turning, turn meter performance test switch (Sw-4) to test
position; then turn to resistance range selector switch (Sw-1) when X-1 on multiplier
position and turn output control potentiometer (R-1) & resistance reading potentiometer (R-
2) fully counterclockwise to zero.
d. Turn power switch (Sw-3) to on position.
e. After 2 minutes warm up, turn R-1 clockwise until potential reading meter (M-1) reads
exactly center scale, null position.
f. Press potential matching switch Sw-2 and adjust R-2 until M-1 reads exactly center scale.
g. Repeat adjustment in R-2 as needed to cause M-1 to read the same with Sw-2 in either
position. Final resistance reading on R-2 times a multiplier (X-1) should be 510 ohms.
h. Obtain a glass beaker thoroughly flushed with distilled water and then air dried. Pour
sufficient brines in the glassware to completely cover the dip cell electrodes furnished
using the same solution in which the core samples are saturating.
i. Connect current (red) & potential (black) jumpered leads of dip cell to test unit, grouped
CA/PA & PB/CB respectively.
j. Turn Sw-4 to measure position; turn Sw-1 to X-100 on multiplier and turn R-1 & R-2 fully
counterclockwise. Then turn Sw-3 to on position.
k. After 2 minutes warm up, turn R-1 clockwise until M-1 reads approximately mid-scale, or
turn range multiplier Sw-1 to lower position until the first range is found where the mid-
scale reading is possible.
l. Press Sw-2 and adjust R-2 until M-1 reads mid-scale as before.
m. Repeat adjustment in R-2 as needed to cause M-1 to read the same null with Sw-2 in either
position.
n. Multiply R-2 reading by Sw-1 range multiplier to obtain brine resistance in ohms.
Resistance of the brine multiplied by the dipcell constant gives resistivity in ohm-meters.
o. Remove the 2 Bakelite retainer rings, from each side of the CH. Remove the 2 chamois
skin discs from these retainer rings and soak them in brine in which the core samples are
saturated. Remove chamois discs from the brine, squeezing out the excess water before
placing over each brass plate electrode of the CH. Install a Bakelite retainer ring over each
chamois disc to hold it in place on the brass disc.
p. Remove the core from its brine container, wiping off all excess brine from the surface
with the hand, and carefully place it between the 2 electrodes of the CH.
q. Connect CH electrical leads to the resistivity measuring unit. Current leads CA & CB are
attached to screws located on the rear of each CH end plug and provide a current path
across the entire end section of the sample. Voltage leads PA & PB are attached to each
platinum wire installed in chamois retainer rings. Insure that CA/PA & PB/CB are used in
pairs at each end of the sample.
r. Measure core resistance (Rc) using the same steps as outlined above for measuring
resistance of brine solution (i.e., step no. n).
Calculation:
Rw = Wr C = R-2 Sw-1 0.001
Where, Rw = water or brine resistivity (ohm-meters)
Wr = water or brine resistance () measured by Resistivity test meter

C = dip cell constant (0.001 meter for dip cell supplied) L between two electrodes
A of dip cell electrodes

A 1
Rc Cr in ohms-meter (-m).
L 100
Where, Rc = Resistivity of brine (partially/fully) saturated core (-m)
Cr = Resistance measured on brine saturated core ()
A = Cross sectional area of sample (m2), L = Length of sample (m).
R Overall rock resistivity, Ro
Formation factor (Resistance) of core, F c =
Rw Resistivity of the fluids, Rw
 (For partially Rc = Rt, fully Rc = Ro)
R
Resistivity index, I t
Ro
Resistivity of core sample containing HCs or Resistivity of partially brine saturated sample

Resistivity of core sample 100% brine or Resistivity of fully saturated sample

Figure 34: The Vacuum Pump and Manual & Automatic Saturator
(Source - NTNU, Vinci, Coretest Systems)
Resistivity Measurement Data /working sheet
Name of the well: Date:
Core No: Sample No:
Depth: Temperature at ambient condition, i.e., at room temperature:
Test meter resistance Resistance Measured brine Dip cell constant in Water/Brine
in ohm (R-2) multiplier (Sw-1) resistance (Wr) meter (C) resistivity in ohm
meter (Rw)

Table: Resistivity measurement for water/brine sample

Name of the well: Date:
Core No: Sample No:
Depth: Temperature at ambient condition i.e., at room temperature:
Test meter Resistance 100% brine Cross sectional Length of Cell constant Resistivity of 100%
resistance multiplier saturated (Cr) /Cube face area the core (C=A/100L), brine core (Rc = Cr
(R-2), (Sw-1) = R-2 Sw-1 of core (A), cm2 (L), cm m A/100L) here, Rc = Ro

Table: Resistivity measurement for core sample (100% brine saturated)

Name of the well: Date:
Core No: Sample No:
Depth: Temperature at ambient condition i.e., at room temperature:
Test meter Resistance Partially saturated Cross sectional Length of Cell Partially saturated
resistance in multiplier core resistance area of core the core constant in core resistivity (Rhc
ohm (R-2) (Sw-1) (Cr) = R-2 Sw-1 (A) in cm2 (L) in cm m (C=A/L) or Rc) here, Rc = Rt

Table: Resistivity measurement for core sample (Partially saturated)

In case of partially saturated core correction may be required such as R25 = (measured Rc,w at tC) (tC +
21.5C)/(25C + 21.5C) {using the Arps relationship: Rr = R1 (T1 + 6.77) / (Tr + 6.77)}.
Resistivity Measurement Final Sheet
Name of the Well: Core No:
Sample Depth Date Rw Ro Rt Formation Resistivity Cementation Factor,
No. Resistivity Factor Index, I = Rt/Ro m = log F/log
F = Ro/Rw ( a = 1)

Table: Resistivity measurement for Water/Brine & Core Sample

Core Analysis Reporting
Introduction of Reporting
Tabular Report
Statistical Graphical Report
i. Porosity versus Permeability Crossplot
ii. Core Data Profiles
iii. Grain Density vs. Depth and Bulk Density vs. Depth Crossplot
iv. Formation Resistivity Factor vs. Fractional Porosity Crossplot
v. Core Porosity versus Resistivity Crossplot

Figure 35: Exemplary Crossplot of Permeability vs. Porosity of Core # 1 of Srikail well # 3
of BAPEX, Bangladesh

Figure 36: An Exemplary Sketch of Core Interval Log of a Petroleum Well

(Modified from Schlumberger, Boyd et. al., 1995; Tabanou & Antoine, 1995)
Figure 37: Formation Factor-Porosity Crossplot for various values of the cementation
exponent (from Dr. Paul Glover)

Figure 38: Formation Factor Versus Percent Porosity for various reservoir characters or
cementation classes (from Pirson)
Figure 39: Core Porosity versus Resistivity Crossplot (from CoreLab)

Table 13.3: Basic Core Analysis Laboratory Data (Modified from API)