5006 Magnetism and Magnetic Materials

Chapter 1: Introduction

1. A Brief History of Magnetism

2. Magnetism and Hysteresis
3. Magnet Applications
4. Magnetism, Physics and Technology

Comments and corrections please: jcoey@tcd.ie

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Some introductory texts:

David Jiles Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Chapman and Hall 1991; 1997
A detailed introduction, written in a question and answer format.

Stephen Blundell Magnetism in Condensed Matter, Oxford 2001

A new book providing a good treatment of the basics

History:

A. Kloss Geschichte des Magnetismus, VDE, Berlin 1994

Light reading:

J. D. Livingstone. Driving Force, Harvard University Press 1996.

Alberto Guimaraes, From Lodestone to Supermagnets, Wiley 2005

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1. A Brief History of Magnetism
-1000 0 1500 1820 1900 1935 1960 1995

ic en
t
ific e tic ing cy s s
t n d en on ic
An cien m
ag
stan qu c a t i
tro
n
ys ro er fre p li c
rl ct d - p ele
E a
Ele Un Hi gh A
p in
S

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Age Date Names Driver Achievements Materials Applications

Ancient -1000 to 1500 Shen Kua, Petrus State Force field, Iron, lodestone South pointer,
Peregrinus induced magntism, Compass
TRM

Early scientific 1500 to 1820 Gilbert, Navy Earths field Iron, lodestone Dip circle, Horse-
Descartes shoe magnet
D.Bernouilli

Electromagnetic 1820 to 1900 Oersted, Industry/infra- E-M induction, Electrical steel Motors
Ampere, Faraday, Maxwells =ns generators,
Maxwell structure telegraph,
wireless, magnetic
recording

Understanding 1900 to 1935 Weiss, Bohr, Academy Spin, Exchange [Alnico]

Dirac, interactions
Heisenberg,
Pauli, Landau

High-frequency 1935 to 1960 Bloch,, Pound, Military Microwaves, epr, Ferrites Radar, television
Purcell fmr, nmr

Applications 1960 to 1995 Gorter, Sagawa, Consumers New materials, Sm-Co, Nd-Fe-B Consumer
Croat miniaturization electronics

Spin electronics 1995 to ?? Fert, Parkin . Consumers Thin film devices Multilayers High-density
recording, MRAM?

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 The Ancient Age
-1000 to 1500

Key names
Applications
Shen Kua
Petrus Peregrinus
South-Pointer
Compass

Scientific achievements
Force field
Induced magnetism Driver
Thermoremanence The State
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 1820

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 The Electromagnetic Age
1820 - 1900

Applications
Key names Motors, Generators
Oersted, Ampere Telegraph, Wireless
Faraday, Maxwell Magnetic recording
Hertz

Scientific Achievements Driver

Electromagnetic Induction Industry
Maxwells Equations
(Infrastructure)
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Maxwells equations
From a long view of the history of
!.B=0 mankind, there can be little doubt that
"0 ! . E = # the most significant event of the 19th
(1/0 )! $ B = j + "0%E/%t century will be judged as Maxwells
discovery of the laws of electrodynamics.
! $ E = -%B/%t Richard Feynmann

Written in terms of two fields B (kg C-1 s-1 ) and E (V m-1), they are valid
in free space.
They relate these fields to the charge density # (C m-3) and the current
density j (A m-2) at a point.

c = ("0 0)1/2 c = 2.998 108 m s-1 c = &'

Also, the force on a moving charge q, velocity v

F = q(E + v $ B)
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 The Age of Understanding
1900 - 1935

Applications
Key Players
Weiss, Bohr
Heisenberg H = -2JSiSj
Dirac, Pauli
Landau

Scientific Achievements
Mean Field Theory, Spin, Driver
Exchange Interactions Academy

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 The 1930 Solvay conference consecrated our physical understand-ing of
magnetism in terms of quantum mechanics (exchange) and relativity (spin)

The m-J paradigm:

1930 Solvay Conference
m represents the
magnetic moment,
mainly localized on
the atoms
J represents the
exchange coupling
of electron spins.
Dirac Heisenberg
At this point it seems that the whole of chemistry and much of physics is understood in principle. The problem is
that the equations are much to difficult to solve.. P. A. M. Dirac
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 The Age of Applications
1960 - 1995
Key Players
Gorter,
Sagawa,
Croat
Applications
Consumer
Electronics

Scientific Achievements
New materials Driver
Miniaturisation of Magnetic Circuits Industry
(Consumer)
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How many magnets do you own?

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 The Age of Spin Electronics
1995 - ?

Albert Fert
Peter Gruneberg
Stuart Parkin Applications
High-density
recording
MRAM ?

Scientific Achievements
Thin film devices Driver
Industry
(Consumer)
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2. Magnetism and Hysteresis
2.1 The hysteresis loop

spontaneous magnetization

remanence

coercivity virgin curve

initial susceptibility

major loop

The hysteresis loop shows the irreversible, nonlinear response of a ferromagnet to a

magnetic field . It reflects the arrangement of the magnetization in ferromagnetic domains.
The magnet cannot be in thermodynamic equilibrium anywhere around the open part of
the curve! M and H have the same units (A m-1).
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Soft and hard magnets.
The area of the hysteresis loop represents the energy loss per cycle. For efficient soft
magnetic materials, this needs to be as small as possible.

M (MA m-1) M (MA m-1)

1 1

-50 0 50 H (A m-1) -1 0 1 H (MA m-1)

-1 -1

For a useful hard magnet.

Hc > Mr/2
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 2.2 Curie temperature

Ferromagnetic materials possess a spontaneous magnetization M, which

falls to zero at the Curie point TC - a phase transition.
M(T)/M(0)

TC (K) M(0) MA m-1

Fe 1043 1.8
Co 1390 1.3
Ni 631 0.5
Gd 293 2.0

A specific heat anomaly appears at TC

(Smag = )(C/T)dT ! R ln 2

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 2.3 Coercivity

The progress in magnetism in the

20th century which has spawned so
many magnet applications has been
due to mastery of coercivity.

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The shape barrier.

N < 0.1

Shen Kwa 1060

S N

Daniel Bernouilli Gowind Knight 1760

1743

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 2.4 Anisotropy

The direction of magnetization M(r) in a macoscopic ferromagnetic

domain lies along one or other easy axes.
Ea = K1sin2*
Easy axis
M
1 kJm-3 < K1 < 10 MJm-3
10 mK < K1 < 10 K
*

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 2.5 Susceptibility

Above TC the ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic. The susceptibility + is defined in

small fields as

,+ = M/H.

Note that + has no units. It is known as the relative or dimensionless susceptibility. It is a

number which is characteristic of a particular material.

At temperatures above TC, the susceptibility often follows a Curie-Weiss Law

,+ = C/(T-Tc).

The Curie constant is of order 1 K.

Solids that do not order magnetically are either paramagnetic or diamagnetic. Their
susceptibility is small and positive or negative, repectively. (magnitude 10-3 - 10-7).

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 2.6 Other Types of Magnetic Order

Ordered
T < TC

M"0 M=0

Disordered
T > TC

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2.7 Magnetic elements

Eight elements (blue) and many compounds are ferromagnetic. They possess a
spontaneous magnetization - eleven elements (purple) are antiferromagnetic

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3. Magnet Applications
3.1 The world market
Magnet applications; A 30 B# market

Others
Soft ferrite
Amorphous
Hard ferrite Hard
Ni-Fe/Fe-Co Magnets
Nd-Fe-B
Fe-Si (oriented) Sm-Co
Alnico

Others

Soft Co- ! Fe 2 O 3
(tapes, floppy discs)
Magnets CrO2 (tapes)
Iron (tapes)

Fe-Si
Co-Cr (hard discs)

Magnetic
Iron
Recording
Others Ni-Fe/Fe-Co (heads)

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 Global domestic product 2000

Continent GDP Population GDP/person

(T$) (millions)($)
Asia (incl. Australia) 14.6 3716 3930
Europe (incl. Russia) 10.9 728 14970
North America 10.5 316 33200
South & Cent America 3.4 525 6100
Africa 0.2 819 1730
39.6 6104 6488

Average production per person (approximate):

30 g hard ferrite, 2 g rare earth magnet, 1 m2 flexible medium, 1/10 hard disc, 1/10 read/write head, 0.25 m2
electrical sheet steel, 30 g soft ferrite, 0.1 g metallic glass.

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3.2 Economics

Abundances of magnetic ions in the O

Fe
Earths crust Si
Al3+ Al
Fe
Mg
Iron (Fe2+/Fe3+) is most abundant O2- Ca
magnetic element. It is 40 times as Si4+
K
abundant as all other magnetic Na
elements together.
H
Others

Composition in atomic % of the

Earths crust. Iron (Fe2+/Fe3+) is the
fourth most abundant element.

Cr Mn

Price scales roughly inversely with abundance.

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 A useful magnetic material needs to
be able to operate from -50 C to 120
C.
The Curie temperature needs to be >
500 K

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Core losses in electrical machinery

Global energy production 18 1012 kW hr

Efficiency of transformers > 99%

yet losses cost > 10 B$ per year.

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Energy Product of Permanent Magnets

A permanent magnet is useful because of the stray field it produces.

A useful figure of merit is the maximum energy product (BH)max. This is twice the
maximum energy in the stray field produced by unit volume of magnet.
B (T)

Working point

(BH)maz

H (A m-1)
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New icon for permanent magnets! -

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 Magnetic recording density

160 Gb

40 Mb

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3. Magnetism, Physics and Technology

30,000 people worldwide

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Typical values of B Human brain 1 fT

Earth 50 T

Helmholtz coils 0.01 Am-

Electromagnet 1 T
Magnetar 1012 T

Superconducting magnet 10 T
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