INTRODUCTION TO

ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATIONS
by
Engr. M.V.C. Padilla
TUP - Manila
Subject outline

1. Introduction
2. Power measurements
3. Electronic communication systems
4. Modulation and Demodulation
5. The Electromagnetic spectrum
6. Bandwidth and Information Capacity
7. Noise
1.Introduction

Electronic communications is
Transfer of information from one place
to another
Transmission, reception and processing
of information between two or more
locations
2. Power Measurements
decibel ((dB)
- A logarithmic unit that can be used to
measure ratios of anything
- Basic yardstick for calculating power
relationships and performing power
measurements in communications system
- Ex: magnitude of earth (through Richter
scale); sound pressure level; power,
voltage or current ratios
Example 3
Example 4

Convert a power level of 200mW to

dBm.
Example 5

Convert a power level of 23dB to

an absolute power.
1-2. Power levels, Gains,
Losses
When power levels are given in watts and
power gains are given in absolute values, the
output power is determined by simply
multiplying the input power times the power
gain.
When power levels are given in dBm and
power gains are given in dB values, the
output power is determined by simply adding
the individual gains to the input power.
Example 6

A three-stage system comprised of two

amplifiers and one filter. The input power Pin
= 0.1mW. The absolute power gains are
Ap1=100, Ap2=40, and Ap3=0.25. Determine
(a) the input power in dBm,
(b) output power in watts and dBm,
(c) the dB gain of each of the three stages, and
(d) the overall gain in dB.
 To combine two power levels in watts,
simply add the two wattages together.
When powers are given in dBm, they
cannot be combined through simple
addition
Example 7

Determine the total power when a

signal with a power level of 20 dBm is
combined with a second signal with a
power level of 21 dBm.
Seatwork

1. Three cascaded amplifiers have power gains of 5, 2, and 17.

The input power is 40 mW. What is the output power?
2. A two-stage amplifier has an input power of 25 W and an
output power of 1.5 mW. One stage has a gain of 3. What is the
gain of the second stage?
3. What is the gain of an amplifier with an output of 1.5 V and an
input of 30 V?
4. Three amplifi ers with gains of 15, 22, and 7 are cascaded; the
input voltage is 120 V. What are the overall gain and the
output voltages of each stage?
COMMUNICATIONS
SYSTEM
Topic No. 3
Communications system

A general model of all communication systems.

Electronic communication
systems
the message, in the form of an electronic signal, is
fed to the transmitter, which then transmits the
message over the communication channel. The
message is picked up by the receiver and relayed to
another human.

Noise is the general term applied to any

phenomenon that degrades or interferes with the
transmitted information.
A Transmitter is a collection of electronic
components and circuits designed to convert
the electrical signal to a signal suitable for
transmission over a given communication
medium.
- made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and
filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency
synthesizers, and other circuits.
.
The communication channel is the
medium by which the electronic signal is
sent from one place to another.
wire conductors
fiber-optic cable
free space
A receiver is a collection of electronic
components and circuits that accepts the
transmitted message from the channel and
converts it back to a form understandable by
humans.
contains amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits
and filters, and a demodulator or detector that
recovers the original intelligence signal from the
modulated carrier.
Transceivers are communication
equipment incorporates circuits that both send
and receive.
Ex: telephones, handheld radios, cellular
telephones, and computer modems
 Signal attenuation, or degradation, is inevitable
no matter what the medium of transmission.
Attenuation is proportional to the square of the
distance between the transmitter and receiver.
Noise is experienced in the receiver part of any
communications system.
The measure of noise is usually expressed in terms
of the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR), which is
the signal power divided by the noise power and
can be stated numerically or in terms of decibels
(dB).
Types of Electronic Communication
1. Simplex
The simplest way in which electronic communication
is conducted is one-way communications, normally
referred to as simplex communication.
2. Full Duplex

- The bulk of electronic communication is two-way,

or duplex communication.
3. Half Duplex
- The form of two-way communication in which only
one party transmits at a time is known as half duplex
communication . The communication is two-way, but
the direction alternates: the communicating parties
take turns transmitting and receiving.
Analog Signals
is a smoothly and continuously varying
voltage or current

Analog signals. (a) Sine wave

tone. (b) Voice. (c) Video (TV)
signal.
 Digital Signals

- do not vary continuously, but change in steps or in

discrete increments. Most digital signals use binary or
two-state codes.

Digital signals. (a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave (CW)

code. (c) Serial binary code.
MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION
Topic No. 4
Modulation and Multiplexing

Modulation makes the information

signal more compatible with the
medium
Multiplexing allows more than one
signal to be transmitted
concurrently over a single medium
Baseband Transmission
Baseband information signals can be
sent directly and unmodified over the
medium or can be used to modulate a
carrier for transmission over the
medium.
Putting the original voice, video, or
digital signals directly into the medium
is referred to as baseband transmission.
Broadband Transmission

Modulation at the transmitter.

Broadband Transmission
Modulation is the process of having a baseband
voice, video, or digital signal modify another, higher-
frequency signal, the carrier.
The information or intelligence to be sent is said to be
impressed upon the carrier.
The carrier is usually a sine wave generated by an oscillator.
The carrier is fed to a circuit called a modulator along with
the baseband intelligence signal.
The intelligence signal changes the carrier in a unique way.
The modulated carrier is amplified and sent to the antenna
for transmission.
Three ways to make the baseband signal
change the carrier sine wave:
to vary its amplitude,
vary its frequency, or
vary its phase angle.
Types of modulation
(a) Amplitude modulation..
(b) Frequency modulation
Two common examples
of transmitting digital data by
modulation
frequency-shift keying (FSK)
the data is converted to frequency-varying
tones
phase-shift keying (PSK)
the data introduces a 180-phase shift
Transmitting binary data in
analog form (a) FSK (b) PSK
Recovering the intelligence
signal at the receiver
Multiplexing
three basic types of multiplexing
1. frequency-division multiplexing - the intelligence
signals modulate subcarriers on different frequencies
that are then added together, and the composite signal
is used to modulate the carrier.
2. time-division multiplexing- the multiple intelligence
signals are sequentially sampled, and a small piece of
each is used to modulate the carrier.
3. code-division multiplexing- the signals to be
transmitted are converted to digital data that is then
uniquely coded with a faster binary code.
Multiplexing at the
transmitter
Demultiplexing at the receiver
 THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
Topic No. 5
Electromagnetic Spectrum

The range of electromagnetic signals

encompassing all frequencies
The frequency is measured in cycles
per second (cps) or hertz (Hz).
All electrical and electronic signals
that radiate into free space fall into
the electromagnetic spectrum.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum used in electronic communication.
Frequency and Wavelength

Frequency
is the number of times a particular
phenomenon occurs in a given period of time.
the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that
occurs in a given time period
the unit of frequency is the hertz, named for
the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, who
was a pioneer in the field of electromagnetics
 Wavelength
is the distance occupied by one cycle of a
wave
it is usually expressed in meters
(1 m = 39.37 in)
is measured between identical points on
succeeding cycles of a wave
Frequency and
wavelength.
(a) One cycle.
(b) One wavelength.
Wavelength
Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of
light, or 299,792,800 m/s
speed of light and radio waves in a vacuum or
in air is usually rounded off to 300,000,000
m/s (3 3 108 m/s), or 186,000 mi/s.
represented by the Greek letter (lambda)

= 300,000,000/f (m)

(m) = 300/f (MHz)

(ft) = 984/f (MHz)
Example 1

Find the wavelengths of

(a) a 150-MHz,
(b) a 430-MHz,
(c) an 8-MHz, and
(d) a 750-kHz signal.
Example 2

A signal with a wavelength of 1.5 m

has a frequency of
Example 3

A signal travels a distance of 75 ft

in the time it takes to complete 1
cycle. What is its frequency?
Frequency Ranges from 30
Hz to 300 GHz
Extremely low frequencies (ELFs)
30- to 300-Hz range.
Include ac power line frequencies (50 and 60
Hz are common)
those frequencies in the low end of the
human audio range.
Frequency Ranges from 30
Hz to 300 GHz
Voice frequencies (VFs)
in the range of 300 to 3000 Hz. (the normal
range of human speech.
Although human hearing extends from
approx. 20 to 20,000 Hz, most intelligible
sound occurs in this range
Frequency Ranges from 30
Hz to 300 GHz
Very low frequencies (VLFs)
extend from 9 kHz to 30 kHz
include the higher end of the human hearing
range up to about 15 or 20 kHz.
musical instruments make sounds in this
range as well as in the ELF and VF ranges.
also used in some government and military
communication. (e.g. VLF radio transmission
is used by the navy to communicate with
submarines)
Frequency Ranges from 30
Hz to 300 GHz
Medium frequencies (MFs)
in the 300- to 3000-kHz (0.3- to 3.0-MHz)
range.
AM radio broadcasting (535 to 1605 kHz).
various marine and amateur radio
communication.
Frequency Ranges from 30
Hz to 300 GHz
High frequencies (HFs)
in the 3- to 30-MHz range
known as short waves
simplex broadcasting and half duplex two-
way radio communication take place in this
range.
two-way communication of government
and military services
Frequency Ranges from 30
Hz to 300 GHz
Very high frequencies (VHFs)
encompass the 30- to 300-MHz range.
mobile radio, marine and aeronautical
communication, FM radio broadcasting (88
to 108 MHz), and television channels 2
through 13.
Radio amateurs also have numerous bands
in this frequency range
Frequency Ranges from 30
Hz to 300 GHz
Ultrahigh frequencies (UHFs)
encompass the 300- to 3000-MHz range
a widely used portion of the frequency
spectrum.
UHF TV channels 14 through 51
for land mobile communication and
services such as cellular telephones as well
as for military communication.
Radar and navigation services
radio amateurs
Frequency Ranges from 30
Hz to 300 GHz
Microwaves and SHFs
Frequencies between the 1000-MHz (1-GHz) and
30-GHz range are called microwaves.
Microwave ovens usually operate at 2.45 GHz.
SHFs are in the 3- to 30-GHz range
satellite communication and radar
Wireless local-area networks (LANs)
cellular telephone systems also occupy this
region
Frequency Ranges from 30
Hz to 300 GHz
Extremely high frequencies (EHFs)
extend from 30 to 300 GHz
Electromagnetic signals with frequencies
higher than 30 GHz are referred to as millimeter
waves
Equipment is extremely complex and
expensive
growing use for satellite communication
telephony, computer data, short-haul cellular
networks, and some specialized radar.
The Optical Spectrum
Infrared
is between the highest radio frequencies
(i.e., millimeter waves) and the visible
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
occupies the range between approximately
0.1 millimeter (mm) and 700 nanometers
(nm), or 100 to 0.7 micrometer (m). (1 m
= 1/1,000,000 m)
Infrared wavelengths are often given in
micrometers or nanometers.
The Optical Spectrum
Infrared
Signals can be generated by special
types of light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) and lasers.
used in astronomy to detect stars
and other physical bodies in the
universe,
Fiber optic communication
TV remote-control units
The Optical Spectrum

The Visible Spectrum

ordinarily refer to as light
has a wavelength in the 0.4- to 0.8-
m range (400 to 800 nm)
expressed in terms of angstroms ()
(1 = 10^-10 m)
visible range is approximately 8000
(red) to 4000 (violet)>
The Optical Spectrum

Light waves can be modulated and transmitted

through glass fibers
Advantage: very high frequency gives them the
ability to handle a tremendous amount of
information.
Light signals can also be transmitted through
free space.
Lasers generate an extremely narrow beam of
light, which is easily modulated with voice,
video, and data information.
The Optical Spectrum
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet light (UV) covers the range from
about 4 to 400 nm.
generated by the sun (causes sunburn) and
by mercury vapor lights and some other
types of lights such as fluorescent lamps
and sun lamps.
not used for communication; its primary
use is medical.

END
BANDWIDTH
Topic No. 6

Engr. M.V.C. Padilla

TUP - Manila
Bandwidth
Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal.
It is also the frequency range over which a receiver or
other electronic circuit operates.
It is the difference between the upper and lower
frequency limits of the signal or the equipment
operation range.
Ex: the voice frequency range from 300 to 3000 Hz.
Bandwidth
Example 1: What is the bandwidth (BW) of
voice frequency?
Example 2:
A television signal occupies a 6-MHz bandwidth. If
the low-frequency limit of channel 2 is 54 MHz,
what is the upper-frequency limit? Draw its
frequency spectrum.
Channel Bandwidth

Sidebands signals generated at frequencies

above and below the carrier frequency by an
amount equal to the modulating frequency.
channel bandwidth refers to the range of
frequencies required to transmit the desired
information.
bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies
that contain the information.
% of Spectrum

percentage of the spectrum at the higher frequencies than at

the lower frequencies.
example, at 1000 kHz, the 10-kHz-wide AM

at 1 GHz, or 1,000,000 kHz,

Spectrum Management
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Allocate bands of frequencies
Set limitations on broadcast power for different types of
radio and TV operations.
Monitors broadcasts to detect unlicensed operations and
technical violations
International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
an agency of the United Nations that is headquartered
in Geneva, Switzerland,
comprises 189 member countries that meet at regular
intervals to promote cooperation and negotiate national
interests.
World Administrative Radio Conferences, held
Spectrum Management
National Telecommunications Center
an attached agency of the Department of Information
and Communications Technology
supervision, adjudication and control over all
telecommunications services throughout the country
Standards
Organizations that maintain standards for communication systems:

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)www.ansi.org

Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)www.eia.org
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
www.etsi.org
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)www.ieee.org
International Telecommunications Union (ITU)www.itu.org
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)www.ietf.org
Optical Internetworking Forum (IF)www.oiforum.com
Telecommunications Institute of America (TIA)www.tiaonline.org
Assignment No. 2

Visit the websites of the different

organizations and provide a short summary
of each site.
Determine the different AM radio stations in
the Philippines, their operating frequencies
and operating power.
Information Capacity
Information theory a highly theoretical study
of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate
information through electronic communication
system.
Information capacity is a measure of how
much information can be propagated through a
communication system and is a function of
bandwidth and transmission line.
Expressed in binary digit or bit
Bit rate the number or bits transmitted
during a second (bits per second or bps)
Hartleys Law
Developed by R. Hartley of Bell Telephone
Laboratories in 1928
Relationship among bandwidth, transmission
time and information capacity

I B x t
Where:
I=information capacity (bits per second)
B=bandwidth (hertz)
t= transmission time (seconds)
Shannon limit for information
capacity

The higher the

signal-to-noise
ratio, the better
the performance
and the higher the
information
capacity
Shannon limit for information
capacity

= B 2 (1 + )

= 3.32B 10 1 +

Where: I=information capacity (bits per second)

B=bandwidth (hertz)

= signal-to- noise power ratio (unitless)

Example:

For a telephone circuit with a signal-to-noise

power ratio of 1000 (30dB) and a bandwidth
of 2.7 kHz, determine the Shannon limit for
information capacity.
NOISE
Topic No. 7

Engr. M.V.C. Padilla

TUP - Manila
General categories

Uncorrelated noise present all the

time whether there is a signal or not
Categories: external and internal
Correlated noise exists only when a
signal is present
Produced by non-linear amplification
External Noise
Generated outside the device
Sources:
1. atmospheric-commonly called static electricity;
naturally occurring electrical disturbances (e.g.
lightning)
2. extraterrestrial also called deep space noise;
types are solar and cosmic noise
3. man-made produced by mankind from spark-
producing mechanisms (e.g. electric motors,
automobile ignition system, fluorescent light,
etc); also called industrial noise
Internal Noise
Generated within the device or circuit
Kinds:
1. Shot noise occurs in diodes, FETs, BJTs
2. Transit time - irregular, random variation produced from
modification to a stream of carriers (holes, electrons) as they
pass from input to output of device; a.k.a. transistor noise
3. Thermal noise- random motion of free electron within a
conductor caused by thermal agitation; a.k.a. Brownian noise,
Johnson noise, white noise
Noise Power
Johnson proved that thermal noise power is proportional
to the product of bandwidth and temperature.
Mathematically,

N = KTB
where:
N = noise power (watts)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
K=Boltzmanns constant (1.38 x 10^-23 J/K)
T=absolute temperature (Kelvin) ; T=degC +273

N(dBm) = 10 log (KTB/0.001)

Example
Calculate the thermal noise power in watts
and dBm or the following bandwidths and
temperatures:
1. B = 100 Hz, T = 17C
2. B = 100 kHz, T = 100C
3. B = 1 MHz, T = 500C
NOISE VOLTAGE

2
= = /R
2

2
N=
4

2 = 4R N = 4RKTB

Vn = 4 k T B R
Noise source
Correlated Noise
Correlated to signal; no signal, no noise
TYPES:
1. Harmonic distortion occurs when unwanted harmonics are produced through
non-linear amplification
Integer multiples of the original signal
Fundamental frequency is called first harmonic
Second harmonic is two times the original signal frequency
Third harmonic is three times the original signal freq and so on
Degrees of harmonic distortion
Second-order harmonic distortion ratio of the rms amplitude of
the 2nd harmonic to the rms amplitude of the fundamental
Third-order harmonic distortion ratio of the rms amplitude of the
3rd harmonic to the rms amplitude of the fundamental
 Total Harmonic Distortion ratio of the quadratic
sum of the rms values of all the higher harmonics to
the rms value of the fundamental.

% THD = 100

Where:
%THD = percent total harmonic distortion
Vhigher = quadratic sum of rms voltages of the hramonics aove the
1
fundamental frequency = 22 + 32 + 2 2
Harmonic distortion
Example
Determine
a. 2nd, 3rd, and 12th harmonics for a 1-kH
repetitive wave
b. percent 2nd-order, 3rd-order and THD for
a fundamental frequency with an amplitude of
8 Vrms, a second harmonic amplitude of 0.2
Vrms and third harmonic amplitude of 0.1 Vrms.
2. Intermodulation distortion

- generation of unwanted sum and difference

frequencies produced when two or more
signals mix in a non-linear device.

Cross products = mf1 n f2

Where:
f1, f2 = fundamental frequencies where f2>f1
m, n = positive integer between 1 and infinity
Intermodulation distortion
Example

For a non-linear amplifier with two frequencies, 3kHz and

8kHz, determine
a. First three harmonics present in the output for each input
frequency
b. Cross-product frequencies produced for values m and n o
1 and 2.
Impulse Noise

High amplitude peaks of short duration in

the total noise spectrum
Sudden bursts of irregularly shaped pulses
that last between few microseconds and
several milliseconds.
Sources: electromechanical switches
(relays, solenoids), fluorescent, automotive
ignition system, lightning..
Interference

Mostly occur when harmonics or cross

product frequencies from one source
fall into the passband o a neighboring
channel.
Signal-to-noise ratio
the ratio of signal power level to the noise
power level. mathematically expressed as

= =

at any particular point in an amplifier.

() = 10 10

Example

The output of an amplifier is 1 mV rms

and noise 0.514 mV rms, determine
S/N.
Since: P= 2 /
12 /
= = 3.79
0.5142 /

1010 3.79 = 5.78

 Noise Factor and Noise Figure
Figures of merit used to indicate how much the
signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a signal
passes through a circuit or series of circuits.
Noise factor (F) is the ratio of input signal-to-noise
power ratio to output signal-to-noise power ratio.
Noise figure (NF) is simply the noise factor
expressed in dB
 Noise Factor and Noise Figure
/
F= (unitless)
/

/
NF (dB) = 10 10 = 10 10
/

Where:
Si/Ni = signal-to-noise power ratio at the devices
input
So/No = signal-to-noise power ratio at its output
 Example:
A transistor amplifier has a measured S/N
power of 10 at its input and 5 at its output.
(a) Calculate the transistors F.
Equivalent Noise Temperature

- A hypothetical value that cannot be

directly measured; used in low-noise,
sophisticated VHF, UHF, microwave
and satellite radio receivers

Teq= To (F - 1)
F = 1 + Te/To
Example

Determine
a. Noise figure for an equivalent noise
temperature of 75K
b. Equivalent noise temperature for a noise
figure of 6 dB.