Introduction to Rock Mechanics

2014/2015
Contents:
HistoricalNotes
The Study of Rock Mechanics
Definition of Rocks
Terminology in Rocks
Rocks Nature
Historical Notes on Rock Mechanics
Since prehistoric times, various strength properties of
rocks have been recognized by primitive man.
-Caveman was aware of stability of the roof of his
cave when choosing his shelter. Stone-Age man chose
the right rock to strike a piece of rock when carving
tools and etc.
-Subsurface excavation mining started some 15 000
years ago. From a mere pit to a mining shaft.
-The building of pyramids
Historical Notes on Rock Mechanics

About almost 50 years ago, European engineers and

geologists are credited for their efforts in developing the
principles of rock mechanics.
In the US, in 1964, the ASTM discussed testing of rocks in
their standards.
The Study of Rock Mechanics
The study of the theoretical and applied behavior of rocks.
Applications in many areas: geology, mining, petroleum and civil
engineering.
Example of process related to rock mechanics:

designing/constructing in rock for underground openings (tunnel)

underground garages
underpinnings of structures
storage spaces
earth and massive dams
foundations
cut slopes for highways, railways and pipelines

In general, geotechnical engineers must know the physical,

mechanical and strength properties of rocks with which he/she
encounters.
 ROCK TUNNELING

DAM
CONSTRUCTION

CUT BY ROADS
The Study of Rock Mechanics
However, rock is a very complex material. It is very
difficult to describe and most difficult to define. Therefore,
study of rocks is particularly important in this course
(geology).

Fault in Rocks Normal

Rock Folds
fault (top of fault, the
Joints subdivide rock masses layer is going downward)
into individual blocks.
Problems Related to Rock Structures
Definition of Rocks
An aggregate of minerals or mass of mineral matter,
whether or not coherent, constituting an essential part of
the earths crust.
To the geologist, rock applies to all constituents of the
earths crust.
To civil engineer, rock is understood to apply to the hard
and solid formations of the earths crust.
 Rocks fall into three classes:

1. Igneous - formed by crystallization from a magma.

Magma molten or partially molten rock with dissolved gasses. Rocks
formed from deep within the crust or from erupted magma on the surface
of the earth. Melt rock at high temperature and pressure.
General characteristics:
Rule of thumb - fast cooling magma produces
finer grains while slow cooling form coarser grain.
Bowens reaction series magma cools and consolidates and those
minerals crystallize in sequence based on their level of solubility.
classification based on its texture,
phanerite component grains distinguishable
aphanite grains cannot be distinguishable macroscopically
(polarising microscope)
aphanite porphyries aphanitic igneous with large crystals
(phenocrysts)
typical rocks gabbro, granite, basalt
2. Sedimentary made up of materials derived
from the physical and chemical breakdown of
preexisting rocks and from diverse organic processes.
Physically deposited as rock fragments; water, glacial
ice or wind;
Chemically as the result of precipitation from
solution. Percolating water causes rearrangement of
constituent ions or add or substract substances from
the rock materials being weathered subsequently
producing new minerals.
General characteristics - stratification
- existence of fossils
Typical rocks limestone, mudstone, claystone, shale
3. Metamorphic - formed by recrystallization in the solid state
(without melting) due to heat and pressure.
metamorphism meta means change while morphism means
form, applies to all of the processes which, under changing
temperatures and pressure cause sedimentary and igneous
rocks to be transformed to metamorphic rocks.
General characteristics
bulk chemical composition depends on the composition of
original rock
hornfels typically from shale
marble limestone
slate shale
Has range in grain size from submicroscopic to coarsely
crystalline.
Typical rocks hornfels, marble, slate
 The four processes:
Rock Cycle Lithification is the
weathering, crystallization,
lithification and
transformation of loose
sediment into a rock by a metamorphism are the links
Weathering is slight heating and/or between the rock types,
the gradual cementation.
sediment and magma
wearing down
of all rock (molten rock).
types once
they are
exposed at
the surface.
Metamorphism occurs when
a rock is subjected to heat
and pressure, transforming
a rock, but not melting it.
This can occur on any rock,
even a metamorphic rock.

Crystallization is the cooling of

magma to form an igneous rock.
Definition of Rocks

Minerals-the constituents of rocks, and hence of the

Earth (at least the crust and mantle).
Minerals consist of molecules and atoms arranged in
an orderly manner and are therefore crystalline.
There are hundreds, if not thousands, of different
minerals. There are dozens of groups of minerals,
each with its own type of structure.
Definition of Rocks

Geologic time scale is also referred

rocks have been created and destroyed throughout geologic
time,
an absolute calendar which progressive developments of
animals and plants may be related,
Era, period, epoch and age are divisions of time. Period is the
time interval during which a group of rocks was deposited. It is
named after the regions where the rocks at that age were first
studied. The interval of earths history is from the Cambrian
period.
The age of the oldest rocks discovered is 3 billion years.
Engineers tend to ignore the age portion of a rock description.
Information on this is available from the Department of Mineral and
Geoscience Malaysia.
 Era Period Epoch Age
Holocene 10,000 Ya
Quaternary
Pleistocene 1.6Ma
Pliocene 5.14Ma
Neogene*
Cenozoic Miocene 23.5Ma
Oligocene 35.5Ma
Paleogene* Eocene 56Ma
Paleocene 65Ma
Late Cretaceous 97Ma
Cretaceous
Early Cretaceous 146Ma
Late Jurassic 155Ma
Jurassic Middle Jurassic 175Ma
Mesozoic Early Jurassic 205Ma
Late Triassic 230Ma
Triassic Middle Triassic 242Ma Geologic time scale
Early Triassic 251Ma
Zechstein 260Ma
Permian
Rotliegendes 290Ma
Stephanian 302Ma
Westphalian 313Ma
Carboniferous Namurian 323Ma
Visan 341Ma
Tournaisian 353Ma
Late Devonian 371Ma
Devonian Middle Devonian 380Ma
Early Devonian 409Ma
Prdol 411Ma
Paleozoic 423Ma
Silurian
Wenlock 430Ma
Llandovery 439Ma
Ashgill 443Ma
Caradoc 464Ma
Ordovician Llandeilo-Llanvirn 476Ma
Arenig 493Ma
Tremadoc 510Ma
Merioneth 515Ma
Cambrian St Davids 528Ma
Caerfai 550Ma

Precambrian Contains Archean and Proterozoic Eons 4600Ma

Definition of Rocks
Rocks from Precambrian era: exist for the longest time, very hard,
crystalline materials, with many fractures and microstructures.
A sandstone from the pliocene series: almost a porous as a soil,
easily excavated by machine without blasting
Ordovician shale: durable, highly fractured rock
Cretaceous shale: tend to deteriorate into uncemented silt and clay
sediment when exposed to atmospheric elements (rain)
However there are some exceptions: soft clay seams are found
among rocks from Paleozoic period, hard units are also found
among rocks form the Tertiary period.
Terminology in Rocks:
Bedrock: formation at some depth below a mantle of soil.

Competent rock: strong to transmit, under any given conditions, compressive force.
Sandstone, quartzite, igneous rocks. Shale and slate are commonly incompetent.

Competent ground: ground that does not need support when an underground
opening is excavated through it.

Intact rock: rock material that can be sampled and brought to lab for testing (free of
large-scale features)

Regolith (mantle rock): loose fragments of rock and soil covering the bedrock

Rock mass: in situ larger rock with discontinuities.

Bedding plane: Plane dividing sedimentary rocks of the same or different lithology.
The planes separate individual layers, beds, strata marking the boundary between beds.
Terminology in Rocks:
Extrusive: Applied to igneous rocks which emerge at the surface. From magma
poured out or ejected at the earths surface.

Intrusive: Igneous rocks that have been injected into older rocks at depth and
never reached surface.
Fracture: A general term for discontinuities. Fresh break in the continuity of a
body of rock. A surface of discontinuity formed by rock failure under stress.
Fracture includes faults, joints, cracks and other breaks.

Fault: A fracture in the rock of any dimension and along which there has been
some displacement.

Joint: A fracture or parting plane along which there has been little or no
noticeable movement parallel with the walls.

Fissure: An extensive crack, break or fracture in the rock. A term that is used if
the walls of joint separated.

Lithology: The physical character of rock. The composition and texture of rock.
Igneous Rocks
Intrusive

Extrusive
Rocks Nature

Rocksare nonideal because they are not always

continuous due to existence of pores or fissures.
Pores-cavities found between grains of sedimentary rocks.
Microfissures-small planar cracks common in hard rocks
undergone internal deformation
Macrodiscontinuities-cracks, fractures, joints, bedding
plane partings, faults
These discontinuities may lead to low tensile strength,
restrict shear strength and create pronounced anisotropy.
Rocks Nature
Anisotropy directional properties. Could also occur in
rocks without discontinuities. Due to the orientations of
mineral grains or directional stress history. i.e. bedding
makes shales highly anisotropic.
In general, different material types of rocks shall lead to
different characteristics: granite (brittle and elastic),
carbonate rocks (plastic at moderate pressures),
compaction shales and friable sandstones (weakened
when immersed in water), gypsum and rock salt (plastic
at low confining pressure and highly soluble).
It is the responsible of engineers when dealing with
construction that involves rocks to identify the types of
rock and its characteristics.
References:
1. E.G., Richard, Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 2nd
Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Canada.
2. http://www.geologyrocks.co.uk/tutorials.php?keywords
=general