Porcelain

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Porcelain /prsln, prsln/ is a ceramic material made by heating

materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between
1,200 and 1,400 C (2,200 and 2,600 F). The toughness, strength, and
translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises
mainly from vitrification and the formation of the mineral mullite
within the body at these high temperatures.

Porcelain slowly evolved in China and was finally achieved (depending

on the definition used) at some point about 2,000 and 1,200 years ago,
then slowly spread to other East Asian countries, and finally Europe
and the rest of the world. Its manufacturing process is more demanding
than that for earthenware and stoneware, the two other main types of
pottery, and it has usually been regarded as the most prestigious type of
pottery for its delicacy, strength, and its white colour. It combines well
with both glazes and paint, and can be modelled very well, allowing a
huge range of decorative treatments in tablewares, vessels and
figurines. It also has many uses in technology and industry.

The European name, porcelain in English, come from the old Italian
porcellana (cowrie shell) because of its resemblance to the translucent
surface of the shell.[1] Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine
china in some English-speaking countries, as it was first seen in
imports from China.[2] Properties associated with porcelain include low
permeability and elasticity; considerable strength, hardness, toughness,
whiteness, translucency and resonance; and a high resistance to Ming Dynasty Xuande archaic porcelain
chemical attack and thermal shock. vase, early 15th century

Porcelain has been described as being "completely vitrified, hard,

impermeable (even before glazing), white or artificially coloured,
translucent (except when of considerable thickness), and resonant."[3]
However, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has "been
applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds
which have only certain surface-qualities in common".[4] Traditional
East Asian thinking only classifies pottery into low-fired wares
(earthenware) and high-fired wares (often translated as porcelain),
without the European concept of stoneware, which is high-fired but not
generally white or translucent. Terms such as "proto-porcelain",
"porcellaneous" or "near-porcelain" may be used in cases where the
ceramic body approaches whiteness and translucency.[5] A high
proportion of modern porcelain is made of the variant bone china.

Contents
Nymphenburg porcelain group modelled
1 Materials
by Franz Anton Bustelli, 1756
1.1 Methods
1.1.1 Forming
1.1.2 Glazing
1.1.3 Decoration
1.1.4 Firing
2 History
 2.1 Chinese porcelain
2.2 Japanese porcelain
2.3 European porcelain
2.3.1 Meissen
2.3.2 Soft paste porcelain
2.3.3 Other developments
3 Types
3.1 Hard paste
3.2 Soft paste
3.3 Bone china
4 Other uses Soft-paste porcelain swan tureen, 1752-
4.1 Electric insulating material 6, Chelsea.
4.2 Building material
4.3 Bathroom fittings
4.4 Loudspeakers
5 Manufacturers
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links

Materials
Kaolin is the primary material from which porcelain is made, even
though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the Flower centrepiece, 18th century, Spain.
whole. The word "paste" is an old term for both the unfired and fired
material. A more common terminology these days for the unfired
material is "body"; for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from
a vendor.

The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the clay mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other
raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse and alabaster.

The clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive
(sticky) and have high plasticity; short clays are less cohesive and have lower plasticity. In soil mechanics,
plasticity is determined by measuring the increase in content of water required to change a clay from a solid
state bordering on the plastic, to a plastic state bordering on the liquid, though the term is also used less
formally to describe the ease with which a clay may be worked. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower
plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays. They wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in
the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of water content within which
these clays can be worked is very narrow and consequently must be carefully controlled.

Methods

The following section provides background information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze,
and fire ceramic wares.

Forming

Glazing
Unlike their lower-fired counterparts, porcelain wares do not need glazing to render them impermeable to
liquids and for the most part are glazed for decorative purposes and to make them resistant to dirt and staining.
Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the celadon wares of Longquan, were designed
specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Bisque porcelain is unglazed.

Decoration

Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that
include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels.
Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at
around 1,000 C (1,830 F), coated with glaze and then sent for a
second glaze-firing at a temperature of about 1,300 C (2,370 F) or
greater. Another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to
the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation.

Firing

In this process, green (unfired) ceramic wares are heated to high

temperatures in a kiln to permanently set their shapes. Porcelain is fired
at a higher temperature than earthenware so that the body can vitrify
and become non-porous.

History Song Dynasty celadon porcelain with a

fenghuang spout, 10th century, China.
Chinese porcelain

Porcelain originated in China, and it took a long time to reach the modern material. There is no precise date to
separate the production of proto-porcelain from that of porcelain. Although proto-porcelain wares exist dating
from the Shang Dynasty (16001046 BC), by the time of the Eastern Han Dynasty period (206 BC 220 AD),
glazed ceramic wares had developed into porcelain, on a Chinese definition as high-fired ware.[6][7] By the late
Sui Dynasty (581618 AD)and early Tang Dynasty (618907 AD) the additional Western requirements of
whiteness and translucency had been achieved,[8] in types such as Ding ware. The wares were already exported
to the Islamic world, where they were highly prized.[7][9]

Eventually, porcelain and the expertise required to create it began to

spread into other areas of East Asia. During the Song Dynasty (960
1279 AD), artistry and production had reached new heights. The
manufacture of porcelain became highly organised, and the kiln sites
excavated from this period could fire as many as 25,000 wares.[10]
While Xing Ware is regarded as among the greatest of the Tang
Dynasty porcelain, Ding Ware became the premier porcelain of Song
Dynasty.[11]
Bowl with dragons, phoenixes, gourds,
By the time of the Ming Dynasty (13681644 AD), porcelain wares
and characters for happiness. From
were being exported to Europe. Some of the most well-known Chinese
Peabody Essex Museum.
porcelain art styles arrived in Europe during this era, such as the
coveted blue-and-white wares.[12] The Ming Dynasty controlled much
of the porcelain trade, which was expanded to Asia, Africa and Europe
via the Silk Road. In 1517, Portuguese merchants began direct trade by sea with the Ming Dynasty, and in
1598, Dutch merchants followed.[9]

Some porcelains were more highly valued than others in imperial China. We can identify the most valued types
by their association with the court, either as tribute offerings, or as products of kilns under imperial
supervision.[13] Some of the best-known examples are of Jingdezhen porcelain. During the Ming dynasty,
Jingdezhen porcelain become a source of imperial pride. The Yongle emperor erected a white porcelain brick-
faced pagoda at Nanjing, and an exceptionally smoothly glazed type of white porcelain is peculiar to his reign.
Jingdezhen porcelain's fame came to a peak in the Qing dynasty.

Japanese porcelain

Although the Japanese elite were keen importers of Chinese porcelain

from early on, they were not able to make their own until the arrival of
Korean potters taken captive during the Japanese invasions of Korea
(159298). They brought an improved type of kiln, and one of them
spotted a source of porcelain clay near Arita, and before long several
kilns had started in the region. At first their wares were similar to the
cheaper and cruder Chinese porcelains with underglaze blue decoration
that were already widely sold in Japan; this style was to continue for
cheaper everyday wares until the 20th century.[14]

Exports to Europe began around 1660, through the Dutch East India
Company, the only Europeans allowed a trading presence. Chinese
exports had been seriously disrupted by civil wars as the Ming dynasty
fell apart, and the Japanese exports increased rapidly to fill the gap. At "Figurine ("Okimono") of a Lion with a
Ball", Japan ca. 19th century.
first the wares used European shapes and mostly Chinese decoration, as
the Chinese had done, but gradually original Japanese styles developed.
Nabeshima ware was produced in kilns owned by that family of feudal
lords, and used decoration in the Japanese tradition, much of it related
to textile design. This was not initially exported, but used for gifts to
other aristocratic families. Imari ware and Kakiemon are broad terms
for styles of export porcelain with overglaze "enamelled" decoration
begun in the early period, both with many sub-types.[15]

A great range of styles and manufacturing centres were in use by the

start of the 19th century, and as Japan opened to trade in the second
half, exports expanded hugely, and quality typically declined. Much
traditional porcelain continues to repeat older methods of production Nabeshima ware dish with Hydrangeas,
and styles, and there are several modern industrial manufacturers.[16] c. 1680-1720, Arita, Okawachi kilns,
hard-paste porcelain with cobalt and
European porcelain enamels

These exported Chinese porcelains were held in such great esteem in

Europe that in the English language china became a commonlyused synonym for the Italian term porcelain.
The first mention of porcelain in Europe is in Il Milione by Marco Polo in XII sec.[17] Apart from copying
Chinese porcelain in faience (tin glazed earthenware), the soft-paste Medici porcelain in 16th-century Florence
was the first real European attempt to reproduce it, with little success.

Early in the 16th century, Portuguese traders returned home with samples of kaolin, which they discovered in
China to be essential in the production of porcelain wares. However, the Chinese techniques and composition
used to manufacture porcelain were not yet fully understood.[10] Countless experiments to produce porcelain
had unpredictable results and met with failure.[10] In the German state of Saxony, the search concluded in 1708
when Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus produced a hard, white, translucent type of porcelain specimen with
a combination of ingredients, including kaolin and alabaster, mined from a Saxon mine in Colditz.[18][19] It was
a closely guarded trade secret of the Saxon enterprise.[19][20]

In 1712, many of the elaborate Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets were revealed throughout Europe by
the French Jesuit father Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles and soon published in the Lettres difiantes et curieuses
de Chine par des missionnaires jsuites.[21] The secrets, which d'Entrecolles read about and witnessed in
China, were now known and began seeing use in Europe.[21]
 Meissen

Von Tschirnhaus and Johann Friedrich Bttger

were employed by Augustus II the Strong and
worked at Dresden and Meissen in the
German state of Saxony. Tschirnhaus had a
wide knowledge of science and had been Section of a letter fromFrancois
involved in the European quest to perfect Xavier d'Entrecolles about
porcelain manufacture when in 1705 Bttger Chinese porcelain
was appointed to assist him in this task. manufacturing techniques, 1712,
Bttger had originally been trained as a re-published by Jean-Baptiste
pharmacist; after he turned to alchemical Du Halde in 1735.
research, he claimed to have known the secret
of transmuting dross into gold, which
attracted the attention of Augustus.
Imprisoned by Augustus as an
Fonthill vase is the earliest incentive to hasten his research,
Chinese porcelain object to have Bttger was obliged to work with other
reached Europe. It was a alchemists in the futile search for
Chinese gift for Louis the Great transmutation and was eventually
of Hungary in 1338. assigned to assist Tschirnhaus.[18] One
of the first results of the collaboration
between the two was the development
of a red stoneware that resembled that of Yixing.

A workshop note records that the first specimen of hard, white and
vitrified European porcelain was produced in 1708. At the time, the Meissen plate from the huge and famous
research was still being supervised by Tschirnhaus; however, he died in Swan Service, 1737-42
October of that year. It was left to Bttger to report to Augustus in
March 1709 that he could make porcelain. For this reason, credit for the
European discovery of porcelain is traditionally ascribed to him rather than Tschirnhaus.[22]

The Meissen factory was established in 1710 after the development of a kiln and a glaze suitable for use with
Bttger's porcelain, which required firing at temperatures of up to 1,400 C (2,552 F) to achieve translucence.
Meissen porcelain was once-fired, or green-fired. It was noted for its great resistance to thermal shock; a visitor
to the factory in Bttger's time reported having seen a white-hot teapot being removed from the kiln and
dropped into cold water without damage. Evidence to support this widely disbelieved story was given in the
1980s when the procedure was repeated in an experiment at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Soft paste porcelain

The pastes produced by combining clay and powdered glass (frit) were called Frittenporzellan in Germany and
frita in Spain. In France they were known as pte tendre and in England as "soft-paste".[23] They appear to
have been given this name because they do not easily retain their shape in the wet state, or because they tend to
slump in the kiln under high temperature, or because the body and the glaze can be easily scratched.

Experiments at Rouen produced the earliest soft-paste in France, but the first important French soft-paste
porcelain was made at the Saint-Cloud factory before 1702. Soft-paste factories were established with the
Chantilly manufactory in 1730 and at Mennecy in 1750. The Vincennes porcelain factory was established in
1740, moving to larger premises at Svres[24] in 1756. Vincennes soft-paste was whiter and freer of
imperfections than any of its French rivals, which put Vincennes/Svres porcelain in the leading position in
France and throughout the whole of Europe in the second half of the 18th century.[25]
The first soft-paste in England was demonstrated by Thomas Briand to
the Royal Society in 1742 and is believed to have been based on the
Saint-Cloud formula. In 1749, Thomas Frye took out a patent on a
porcelain containing bone ash. This was the first bone china,
subsequently perfected by Josiah Spode.

In the twenty-five years after Briand's demonstration, a number of

factories were founded in England to make soft-paste table-wares and
figures:

Chelsea (1743)[26][27] Saint-Cloud manufactorysoft porcelain

Bow (1745)[28][29][30] bowl, with blue decoration under glaze,
St James's (1748)[30][31] 17001710.
Bristol porcelain (1748)
Longton Hall (1750)[32]
Royal Crown Derby (1750 or 1757)[33][34]
Royal Worcester (1751)
Lowestoft porcelain (1757)[35]
Wedgwood (1759)
Spode (1767)

Other developments

William Cookworthy discovered deposits of kaolin in Cornwall,

making a considerable contribution to the development of porcelain and
other whiteware ceramics in the United Kingdom. Cookworthy's Chantilly porcelain, soft-paste, 1750-
factory at Plymouth, established in 1768, used kaolin and china stone to 1760
make porcelain with a body composition similar to that of the Chinese
porcelains of the early 18th century.

Types
Porcelain can be divided into the three main categories (hard-paste,
soft-paste and bone china), depending on the composition of the paste
used to make the body of the porcelain object and the firing conditions.

Hard paste

These porcelains that came from East Asia, especially China, were
some of the finest quality porcelain wares. The earliest European
porcelains were produced at the Meissen factory in the early 18th
century; they were formed from a paste composed of kaolin and
alabaster and fired at temperatures up to 1,400 C (2,552 F) in a wood-
fired kiln, producing a porcelain of great hardness, translucency, and
strength.[19] Later, the composition of the Meissen hard paste was Chinese Imperial Dish with Flowering
changed and the alabaster was replaced by feldspar and quartz, allowing Prunus, Famille Rose overglaze enamel,
the pieces to be fired at lower temperatures. Kaolinite, feldspar and between 1723 and 1735
quartz (or other forms of silica) continue to constitute the basic
ingredients for most continental European hard-paste porcelains.

Soft paste
Soft-paste porcelains date back from the early attempts by European
potters to replicate Chinese porcelain by using mixtures of clay and
frit. Soapstone and lime were known to have been included in these
compositions. These wares were not yet actual porcelain wares as they
were not hard nor vitrified by firing kaolin clay at high temperatures.
As these early formulations suffered from high pyroplastic
deformation, or slumping in the kiln at high temperatures, they were
uneconomic to produce and of low quality. Formulations were later
developed based on kaolin with quartz, feldspars, nepheline syenite or
other feldspathic rocks. These were technically superior, and continue
Demonstration of the translucent quality
to be produced. Soft-paste porcelains are fired at lower temperatures
of porcelain
than hard-paste porcelain, therefore these wares are generally less hard
than hard-paste porcelains.[36][37]

Bone china

Although originally developed in England in 1748[38] in order to compete with imported porcelain, bone china
is now made worldwide. The English had read the letters of Jesuit missionary Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles,
which described Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets in detail.[39] One writer has speculated that a
misunderstanding of the text could possibly have been responsible for the first attempts to use bone-ash as an
ingredient of English porcelain,[39] although this is not supported by researchers and
historians.[40][41][42][43][44] In China, kaolin was sometimes described as forming the 'bones' of the paste, while
the 'flesh' was provided by the refined rocks suitable for the porcelain body.[36][39] Traditionally, English bone
china was made from two parts of bone-ash, one part of kaolin and one part china stone, although this has
largely been replaced by feldspars from non-UK sources.[45]

Other uses
Electric insulating material

Porcelain and other ceramic materials have many applications in engineering,

especially ceramic engineering. Porcelain is an excellent insulator for use at
high voltage, especially in outdoor applications, see Insulator
(electricity)#Material. Examples include: terminals for high-voltage cables,
bushings of power transformers, insulation of high frequency antennas and
many other components.

Building material

Porcelain can be used as a building material, usually in the form of tiles or

large rectangular panels. Modern porcelain tiles are generally produced by a
number of recognised international standards and definitions.[46][47]
Manufacturers are found across the world[48] with Italy being the global
leader, producing over 380 million square metres in 2006.[49] Historic Porcelain insulator for medium-
examples of rooms decorated entirely in porcelain tiles can be found in several high voltage
European palaces including ones at Galleria Sabauda in Turin, Museo di
Doccia in Sesto Fiorentino, Museo di Capodimonte in Naples, the Royal
Palace of Madrid and the nearby Royal Palace of Aranjuez.[50] and the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing. More
recent noteworthy examples include The Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, and the Gulf Building in
Houston, Texas, which when constructed in 1929 had a 21-metre-long (69 ft) porcelain logo on its exterior.[51]
A more detailed description of the history, manufacture and properties of porcelain tiles is given in the article
Porcelain Tile: The Revolution Is Only Beginning.[51]
Bathroom fittings

Because of its durability, inability to rust and impermeability, glazed porcelain

has been in use for personal hygiene since at least the third quarter of the 17th
century. During this period, porcelain chamber pots were commonly found in
higher-class European households, and the term "bourdaloue" was used as the
name for the pot.[52]
Dakin Building, Brisbane,
However bath tubs are not made of porcelain, but of porcelain enamel on a California using porcelain
metal base, usually of cast iron. Porcelain enamel is a marketing term used in panels
the US, and is not porcelain but vitreous enamel.[53]

Loudspeakers

Porcelain has been used for loudspeaker casings. [54]

Manufacturers
Europe Denmark
Austria Aluminia Porcelain Chamber Pots from Vienna.
Vienna Bing &
Porcelain Grndahl
Manufactory Danmark
Czech Republic porcelain
Haas & P. Ipsens
Czjzek, Enke
Horn Kastrup
Slavkov, Vaerk
(1792 Kronjyden
2011) Porcelnshaven
Thun Royal
1794, Copenhagen Spherical porcelain speakers from
Klterec (1775 Austrian manufacturer mosound
nad Oh, present)
(1794 Finland
present) Arabia
esk
porceln
a.s., Dub,
Eichwelder
Porzellan
und
Ofenfabriken
Bloch &
Co.
Bhmen,
(1864
present)
Rudolf
Kmpf, Porcelain wares, such as those similar to these
Nov Yongle-era porcelain flasks, were often
Sedlo presented as trade goods during the 15th-
(Sokolov century Chinese maritime expeditions. (British
District), Museum)
(1907
present)
France Hungary Porcelain
Rouen Herend
porcelain, Porcelain Chinese
(1673 Manufacture, Transcriptions
1696), (1826
Standard Mandarin
faience present)
Nevers Hollhza Hanyu Pinyin c
porcelain, Porcelain IPA [ts ]
(1600 Manufacture,
1789), (1777,1831 Yue: Cantonese
faience present) Yale Romanization chh
Saint- Zsolnay
Cloud Porcelain Jyutping ci4
porcelain, Manufacture, Southern Min
(1693 (1853
1766) present) Ti-l hi
Strasbourg Italy
faience, Richard-
(1721 Ginori
1784) 1735
Chantilly Manifattura
porcelain, di Doccia,
(1730 (1735
1800) present)[55]
Vincennes Capodimonte
porcelain, porcelain,
(1740 (1743
1756) 1759)
Mennecy- Manifattura
Villeroy Italiana
porcelain, Porcellane
(1745 Artistiche
1765) Fabris,
Svres (1922
porcelain, 1972)
(1756 Mangani
present) SRL,
Revol Porcellane
porcelain, d'Arte
(1789 (Florence)
present) Japan
Limoges Narumi
porcelain Noritake
Haviland Lithuania
porcelain Malaysia
Germany Royal
Current Selangor
porcelain
manufacturers
in
Germany
Netherlands Switzerland
Boerenbont Suisse
Gouda Langenthal
Koninklijke Sweden
Porcelyne Rrstrand
Fles Gustavsberg
Loodsrechts porcelain
Porselein Gefle
Regina porcelain
Royal Gteborgs
Tichelaar porcelain
Weesp Hackefors
Porselein porcelain
Norway Karlskrona
Egersund porcelain
porcelain Lidkpings
Figgjo porcelain
(1941 Mariebergs
present) porcelain
Herrebe Stralsunds
porcelain porcelain
Porsgrund Upsala-
Stavangerflint Ekeby AB
Poland Russia
Polskie Dulevo Farfor
Fabryki (1832present)
Porcelany
mielw
i Imperial
"Chodzie" Porcelain
S.A.[56] Factory (1744),
Kristoff Oranienbaum
Porcelana[57] Gzhel
Lubiana (ceramics)
S.A.[58] (1802), Gzhel
Portugal (village)
Vista Turkey
Alegre Yildiz Porselen
Sociedade (1890- 1936 /
Porcelanas 1994present)
de Ktahya
Alcobaa Porselen (1970
Costa present)
Verde Gral Porselen
(company), (1989present)
located in Porland Porselen
the district (1976present)
of Aveiro Istanbul
Romania Porselen (1963-
Spain early 1990's)
Buen Smerbank
Retiro Porselen (1957-
Royal 1994)
Porcelain
Factory
(1760
1812)
 United Kingdom United States
Aynsley China, Blue Ridge
(1775present) CoorsTek, Inc.
Belleek, (1884 Franciscan
present) Lenox
Chelsea Lotus Ware
porcelain factory Brazil
Coalport Germer
porcelain Porcelanas Finas
Davenport Porcelana
Goss crested Schmidt
china Iran
Liverpool Maghsoud
porcelain Factories Group,
Mintons Ltd, (1993
(17931968, present)[59]
merged with Zarin Iran
Royal Doulton) porcelain
New Hall Industries,
porcelain (1881
Plymouth present)[60]
Porcelain Sri Lanka
Rockingham Dankotuwa
Pottery Porcelain
Royal Crown Noritake Lanka
Derby, Porcelain
(1750/57- Royal Fernwood
present) Porcelain
Royal Doulton, United Arab Emirates
(18152009 RAK Porcelain
acquired by South Korea
Fiskars) Haengnam
Royal Chinaware
Worcester, Hankook
(17512008 Chinaware
acquired by Vietnam
Portmeirion Minh Long I
Pottery) porcelain,
Spode, (1767 (1970
2008 acquired present)[61]
by Portmeirion
Pottery)
Wedgwood,
(1759present
acquired
Fiskars)

See also
Blue and white porcelain (Qinghua, )
Lithophane
Sea pottery
Faience

Notes
 1. Oxford English Dictionary: "The ceramic material was apparently so named on account of the
resemblance of its translucent surface to the nacreous shell of the mollusc. [] The cowrie was probably
originally so named on account of the resemblance of the fissure of its shell to a vulva (it is unclear
whether the reference is spec. to the vulva of a sow)."
2. OED, "China"; An Introduction to Pottery. 2nd edition. Rado P. Institute of Ceramic / Pergamon Press.
1988. Usage of "china" in this sense is inconsistent, & it may be used of other types of ceramics also.
3. Harmonized commodity description and coding system: explanatory notes, Volume 3, 1986, Customs Co-
operation Council, U.S. Customs Service, U.S. Department of the Treasury
4. Definition in The Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities defines, Burton, 1906
5. Valenstein, S. (1998). A handbook of Chinese ceramics (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoun
dobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/38422/rec/3) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2016090902524
6/http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/38422/rec/3)
September 9, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., pp. 22, 59-60, 72, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York. ISBN 9780870995149
6. Kelun, Chen (2004). Chinese porcelain: Art, elegance, and appreciation (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=zOEfZtcSaFEC). San Francisco: Long River Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-59265-012-5.
7. "Porcelain" (http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/porcelain.aspx#3). Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth
Edition. 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
8. Vainker, 66
9. Te-k'un, Cheng (1984). Studies in Chinese ceramics (https://books.google.com/books?id=3die4xQmNzQ
C). Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. pp. 9293. ISBN 978-962-201-308-7.
10. Temple, Robert K.G. (2007). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention (3rd
edition). London: Andr Deutsch, pp. 104-5. ISBN 978-0-233-00202-6
11. Wood, Nigel (2011). Chinese Glazes: Their Origins, Chemistry, and Recreation. London: A. & C. Black.
ISBN 978-1-4081-4025-3.
12. Cohen, David Harris; Hess, Catherine (1993). Looking at European ceramics : a guide to technical terms
(https://books.google.com/books?id=PLAh5fomv2cC). Malibu: The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal.
p. 59. ISBN 978-0-89236-216-5.
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2446-9
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References
Smith, Lawrence, Harris, Victor and Clark, Timothy, Japanese Art: Masterpieces in the British Museum,
1990, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0714114464
Vainker, S.J., Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, 1991, British Museum Press, 9780714114705
Watson, William ed., The Great Japan Exhibition: Art of the Edo Period 16001868, 1981, Royal
Academy of Arts/Wiedenfield and Nicolson

Further reading
Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities EC Commission in Luxembourg, 1987 .
Burton, William (1906). Porcelain, its Nature, Art and Manufacture. Batsford, London
Le Corbeiller, Clare (1985). Eighteenth-century Italian porcelain. New York: The Metropolitan Museum
of Art. ISBN 0-87099-421-2.
Finlay, Robert (2010). The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History. Volume 11 of California
World History Library (illustrated ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-94538-7. Retrieved
24 April 2014.
Guy, John (1986). Guy, John, ed. Oriental trade ceramics in South-East Asia, ninth to sixteenth
centuries: with a catalogue of Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai wares in Australian collections (illustrated,
revised ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Valenstein, S. (1998). A handbook of Chinese ceramics, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. ISBN
978-0-87099-514-9

External links
How porcelain is made
How bisque porcelain is made
ArtLex Art Dictionary Porcelain

Rackham, Bernard. A Book of Porcelain at Project Gutenberg

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