Exp 04 The dArsonval Galvanometer

To be Read: Note 06
In this experiment you will study the meter movement of a dArsonval galvanometer as a harmonic
oscillator. The experiment has four parts. In Part A you will find the internal resistance and deflection
sensitivity of the meter movement. In Part B you will investigate the steady state and transient responses
of the meter movement. In Part C you will study how altering the resistance of the external circuit
connected to the galvanometer affects the dynamic response of the meter movement. In Part D you will
study the ballistic property of the galvanometer, that is, its response to a current impulse of duration
short compared to the natural period of the meter movement. You will use the ballistic response of the
galvanometer in two practical applications of your choosing.

Getting Started
In this experiment you will need the following
apparatus:
1 galvanometer Walden Precision Apparatus WPA
K120 series (K121, K122 or K123)
1 resistance box 1 k maximum
1 resistance box 10 k maximum
1 specially designed 3 M resistance box
1 1.25V standard voltage source
1 plastic coil form (2-3 cm diam., 0.5 cm length)
3 metres enameled Cu wire 26 A.W.G.
1 stopwatch
1 specially designed capacitor box with single pole
double throw switch (0.47F or 0.5 F)
You will also need access for a few minutes to a large
magnet (either permanent or electromagnet).
wire above and a light metal spiral below. When the
coil rotates from its equilibrium position, the upper
suspension exerts a restoring torque on the coil. The
rotation is measured by means of an optical lever,
which consists of a light source, a mirror attached to
the coil, and a scale.
Rotation of the coil is induced by magnetic forces
exerting a torque on the coil proportional to the cur-
rent flowing through it. Under steady state condit-
ions, the angular deflection of the coil and light spot is
proportional to the DC current flowing in the instru-
ment. The galvanometer is ingeniously made. For
details on its construction see the appendix at the end
of this note.

In this experiment you will study the movement of

the galvanometer as a mechanical torsional oscillator.
It is therefore important for you to know the equation
of motion of this oscillator. The theory below is
expressly developed for the meter movement and is
edited from the WPA manual. The basic mathematics
is given in Note 06. Figure 4-1. Galvo coil in a radial magnetic field B.

Preview of the dArsonval Galvanometer

You have already studied the DC characteristics of
one example of a d'Arsonval meter movement in
Experiment 01, DC Circuits and Measurements.
Currents required for full scale deflection (FSD) for
that instrument were typically 50 A. The galvan-
ometer you will use in this experiment is much more
sensitive, giving FSD for currents of the order of 1 A.
This kind of sensitivity makes the instrument useful
in more demanding applications.
The meter movement of a d'Arsonval galvanometer
is a rectangular coil of wire suspended in a horizontal
radial magnetic field (Figure 4-1. The current to be
measured flows through the coil via the suspension
Theory: Equation of Motion
of the Galvanometer Coil
The coil (Figure 4-1) is a rectangular coil of N turns of
wire with vertical sides of length l and horizontal
sides of length x. The coil is immersed in a radial
magnetic field B produced by an internal permanent
magnet. This means that when a current i flows in the
coil a torque i is exerted on the coil given by 1
i = NlxBi = NABi , [4-1]
1
We use the symbol i here for current to avoid confusion with the
symbol I that is reserved for the moment of inertia.
E4-1
Exp 04

where A is the area of the coil. When the coil twists by (show this in your report). Writing R eq + R I R the
an angle (radians) from equilibrium the suspension deflection is related to the current i by
wire exerts a restoring torque on the coil given by the
angular version of Hookes law: d
v = Ri + v g = Ri + NAB . [4-6]
dt
S = k , [4-2]
Substituting i from eq[4-6] into [4-4], eq[4-4] becomes
where k is the torsion constant of the elastic
suspension. There is also a torque, proportional to the d 2
angular velocity of the coil, which is mainly due to air
(NAB) 2 d NABv
I 2 + + + k = . [4-7]
resistance when the coil is moving. This damping dt R dt R
torque can be expressed as:
This is an equation in . It is somewhat more conven-
d ient to express it in terms of the scale deflection s,
m = . [4-3]
dt which for small deflections is related to by s 2L
(see note 3 in Part A below). The result is
If the coil has a moment of inertia I, then the coils
equation of motion is: d 2s (NAB) 2 ds 2LNABv
I 2
+ + + ks = [4-8]
dt R dt R
d 2 d
I 2
= NABi k . [4-4]
dt dt In what follows we shall solve this equation for a
number of special conditions.
To eliminate i from eq[4-4] we must find a second
equation linking the mechanical variable and the Static (Steady State) Response
electric
current i. The current i that flows is supplied When the galvanometer deflection is steady so that all
by an external circuit, which can always be denoted the time derivatives in eq[4-8] are zero, v = Ri, and
by its Thevenin equivalent. Neglecting the normally eq[4-8] has the solution
tiny effects of the self inductance and capacitance of
the coil, the equivalent circuit of the external circuit
2LNAB v 2LNAB
and coil can be indicated as shown in Figure 4-2. R eq is s= = i. [4-9]
the source resistance and R I is the resistance of the k R k
coil.
We define the deflection sensitivity of the galvanometer
to be a constant K, where s = Ki. Substituting this
definition
into eq[4-9] we get an explicit expression
for K:
2LNAB
K= . [4-10]
k
Thus if K is known then the current i can be calculated
from a measurement of s. This is arguably the most
commonuse of the galvanometer.
Figure 4-2. Equivalent circuit of galvometer coil and
external circuit. Dynamic (Oscillatory) Response
For convenience we rewrite eq[4-8] in the standard
form of a second order differential equation:
When the coil moves in a field B an emf vg is induced
in the coil given by
d 2s ds v
2
+ + 02 s = 02K , [4-11]
d dt dt R
v g = NAB . [4-5]
dt

E4-2
 Exp 04
2
(NAB)
+
where = R , [4-12]
I

k
and 02 = . [4-13]
I

This is the well known equation of a damped harmon-
ic oscillator. is called the damping constant of the
galvanometer coil, and 0 the natural frequency of Figure 4-3. Typical displacement or deflection of an under-
free oscillations of the coil.
damped oscillator as a function of time. X and Y mark suc-
Suppose we start the coil moving, for example, with
cessive maxima in the coils displacement.
a step function or impulse, and then set v = 0 (or a
constantthis would be equivalent to a shift of the
origin for s). Eq[4-11] then reduces to the homo-
geneous equation: Case 2: Critical Damping

In the case of a special amount of damping, that is, if

d 2s ds 2 = 402, the solution of eq[4-14] is
2
+ + 02 s = 0 . [4-14]
dt dt
s = (A + Bt)et / 2 , [4-17]
Solutions of this equation take three different forms
depending on the relative magnitudes of and 0. We where A and B are determined by initial conditions.
shallcall these cases 1, 2 and 3. This is the most desireable motion for a meter move-
ment as we have stated, since the movement, once
Case1: Underdamping changed, takes a minimum time to come to a new
steady state.
If the damping is small, that is, if 2 < 402, then the
solution of eq[4-14] is Finally, it is possible for the amount of damping to be
greater than that necessary for critical damping. This
s = s0et / 2 sin(t + ) , [4-15] leads to what is known as an overdamped condition.

where s 0 and are determined by the initial condit- Case 3: Overdamping

ions, and
2 If the damping is large, that is, if 2 > 4 02, then the
2 = 02 . [4-16] solution of eq[4-14] is:
4
Eq[4-15] is plotted in Figure 4-3. This is the classical s = A1e 1 t + A2e 2 t , [4-18]
representation of the displacement of an under-
damped harmonic oscillator as a function of time. You 1 2
where 1 = + 4 02
will be observing this kind of motion in Parts B and C. 2 2
When a working galvanometer is used in a practical [4-19]
non-ballistic application, underdamping is usually of 1 2
only academic interest (as here). It is more important and 2 = 4 02 .
that the galvanometer be critically damped so that it 2 2

takes up a new equilibrium position as quickly as
Note that one of the time constants (1 here) is always
possible to enable the deflection to be read.
larger than /2, and the other is smaller. This case is
seldom
of practical interest in the context of galvan-
ometers, and you will not be concerned with this kind
of motion in this experiment.

E4-3
Exp 04

Now that we have completed the theory of motion of yourself, since to do so you would have to open
the galvanometer meter movement we can move on to up the case of the instrument and we cannot allow
the first activity. you to do that.)

Part A
Measuring Internal Resistance
and Deflection Sensitivity
Before you do anything read the caution and the notes
following.

*** CAUTION ***

A d'Arsonval galvanometer is an extremely delicate
instrument. It must be moved gently, always upright
and level, and ALWAYS with the switch turned to
Figure 4-4. Geometry of the moving mirror deflection system
SHORT. (As you will see in part B, this gives the
maximum damping to the movement). NEVER pass showing the meanings of L, s and .
steady currents greater than about 1A directly
through the galvo coil; in particular, never connect a
battery directly to the galvo terminals! If you damage Measuring Internal Resistance
an instrument through lack of attention to these pre- Measure the internal resistance of the galvanometer in
cautions, you will be held responsible for the cost of a manner similar to that employed in Experiment 01,
repair or replacement (approximately $200). DC Circuits and Measurements. As shown in Figure
4-5a, connect the 1.25V standard voltage source in
series with the 3 M resistance box and select a
NOTES:
resistance value to give a reasonable deflection.
1 The galvanometers have a switch with several
positions, including SHORT, DIRECT and
1, 10, etc.. The SHORT position is used for R s R s

protection. Do all of your final measuring at the

DIRECT position, where the terminals on the 0. 5 t o 3 . 0 M
+ +
front of the instrument are connected directly to 1.25 v RI 1.25 v R P RI

the galvanometer coil. All the other positions con-

nect damping and current dividing resistors into
the circuit. You can use these other positions to (a) (b)
help settle down your galvo before you make a Figure 4-5. Circuits used in measuring a deflection (a) and
measurement, but make your final measurements a half-deflection (b).
on the DIRECT position.

2 Check the zero of the galvanometer before each
measurement, and adjust it if necessary.
3 The galvanometer scale is graduated in milli-
meters. As a convenience, the position s of the
light spot on the scale is taken to be proportional
to the deflection angle , and is taken as a
measure of . As you can see from Figure 4-4, s =
Ltan2 2L if <<1 (radian), or if s/L << 1. The
error is about 1% if s=L/4. From the value of L
given on the case of your instrument, estimate at
what scale reading you would expect significant
departure from linearity. (You cannot measure L
Note the deflection and the resistance R S. Now
connect a 1000 resistance box across the galvo ter-
minals, as shown in Figure 4-5b and find the value of
this parallel resistance R p which reduces the deflection
to half of the former value. Half is to be interpret-
ed as half the angular deflection, so you must correct
for the difference between 2 and tan2 as described
in note 3 above. Having done this you can calculate
the internal resistance RI from the expression
R p RS
RI = [4-20]
RS R p

E4-4


Measuring Deflection Sensitivity
Now remove R p and measure the deflection for a
series of values of R S. Plot deflection versus current
i. Is there evidence of non-linearity associated with the
difference between 2 and tan2? If so, correct for it,
and determine the deflection sensitivity (for small de-
flections) in mm/A. Do this in a professional manner
with a program like pro Fit as described in Experiment
01. Before proceeding, verify that your value is in
reasonable agreement with the manufacturer's
specification given in Table A-1 in the appendix to
this guidesheet.
Part B
Dynamic Response
with No External Damping
In this part you will embark on the study of the gal-
vanometer coil as a torsional oscillator. Connect the
1.25V standard voltage source in series with the 3 M
resistor box as shown in Figure 4-6 and set R S to give a
reasonable deflection. Open the series switch and
verify that the subsequent motion is oscillatory.
(Opening the series switch drops the driving current
to zero in a step function with the initial condition
shown in Figure 4-3.) Time the oscillations; repeat
several times to estimate the statistical uncertainty of
your measurement of the period. Calculate .
switc h
Rs
() 0. 5 t o 3 . 0 M
+
Ga lv o
se t t o
1. 2 5 v
di r e c t
Figure 4-6. Circuit to measure underdamped response (exter-
nal damping is zero).
If the damping is not too large (a reasonable criterion,
corresponding to uncertainties of order 1%, is /2 0 <
1/7, i.e., 1/7 of critical damping), the deflection
maxima can be considered to occur at the maxima of
sin(t+), and from eq[4-15], the ratio of amplitudes
at successive maxima (points X and Y on Figure 4-3) is
Exp 04
SY
= eT / 2 = e . [4-21]
SX
The constant = T/2 is called the logarithmic decre-
ment. Record the amplitudes of as many successive
oscillations
as you can measure with reasonable
accuracy. Repeat several times. Determine the
amplitude ratio of all pairs of successive oscillations,
and calculate the logarithmic decrement for free
oscillations of the galvanometer.
In this part of the experiment, the external resistance
R which enters in eq[4-12] is infinite. Hence, from
eq[4-12], is given by:
= 0 . [4-22]
I
We introduce the notation 0 for this special value of
. Calculate 0 and 0 for the galvanometer from your
experimental
results.
Part C
Dynamic Response
with External Damping
It should be evident from eq[4-12] that an external
resistance R can provide additional damping of the
oscillatory motion, because of the coupling between
the electrical and mechanical systems. Connect a 10
k resistance box across the galvanometer, and
measure the logarithmic decrement in the same way
as in Part B, for a number (about 6 or 8) resistance
values (choose values approximately equally spaced
in 1/R). Start by determining the resistance required
to give an amplitude ratio for successive oscillations
of about 3; you would find it hard to study more
heavily damped oscillations by eye. Determine the
damping constant and period T self-consistently
from eq[4-16] and [4-21]; note that it is more accurate
to use eq[4-16] than to measure in a heavily damped
situation.
To calculate self-consistently, calculate the first
estimate 0 = 2/T0 where T 0 = 2/ 0. Then use this
first estimate 0 to find a corrected 1 using 12 = 02
(0/2)2. From 1 calculate a corrected T 1 (=2/1),
calculate a new estimate of (1 = 2/T1) and repeat
the iteration until the desired precision is achieved.
One or two iterations should suffice.
Plot vs. 1/R; don't forget to include the point 0 at
1/R = 0. According to eq[4-12], your plot should be
linear. Fit a straight line by least squares (using pro
E4-5
Exp 04
Fit). From the slope you can determine (NAB)2/I. Since
you know 02 = k/I (eq[4-13]), K = 2L(NAB)/k (eq[4-10])
and L (given on the instrument), you can calculate the
spring constant k, the moment of inertia I, and the
product NAB for your galvanometer. Extrapolate your
plot to estimate the critical damping resistance R 0, i.e.,
the external resistance for which = 2 0.
No doubt you have noticed that an undamped
galvanometer is awkward to use for measurement,
since it overshoots and takes a long time to settle.
Critical damping gives the fastest settling (recall that
in overdamped motion one exponential is always
slower than the critical exponential). Hence the critical
damping resistance is normally connected across the
galvanometer coil. Since R 0 is typically 10 or more
times larger than the coil resistance R I, the overall
sensitivity is reduced only by 10% or less. Such a
resistance is, in fact, connected when you turn the
selector switch to 1, 10, etc.. can calculate the total charge flowing in the current
Part D
The Galvanometer
as a Ballistic Instrument
In this part of the experiment you will use the
galvanometer as a ballistic instrument, that is, as an
instrument that responds to an impulse (short burst)
of charge. It is in this kind of application that the
galvanometer is superior to digital instruments. You
are expected to complete two of the three activities
below.
1 Measuring a Charge Pulse
Suppose we pass an impulse of current through the
galvanometer coil over an elapsed time much less
than the natural period of the coils motion T0 =
2/ 0. The coil will start to move. If the galvanometer
coil starts from rest and is fairly well underdamped,
(again < c /7 is the criterion for 1% accuracy) then
the subsequent motion will be a damped sinusoid:
t / 2
s = s0e sin(t) . [4-23]
The initial velocity resulting from the impulsive
torque produced by the impulsive current will be:
ds 2
= KQ , [4-24]
dt t
0
= 0+
where Q= idt ,
E4-6
is the total charge which flows through the galvan-
ometer coil. (Prove this for yourself, and include the
proof in your report). From eq[4-23]
ds
= 0 s0 = 02KQ. [4-24]
dt t = 0+
Therefore s0 = 0KQ . [4-25]
You can use the approximation 0 which is valid
for low damping. The first maximum of oscillation is
reached att T/4 and the peak deflection is
smax = 0KQe( / 2)(T / 4 ) = 0KQe / 4 . [4-26]
So, by (quickly) measuring the peak deflection s max,
and knowing the numerical values of 0, K and , you
pulse through the galvanometer. The ballistic galvan-
ometer enables you to measure charge in a way that is
not possible with a conventional digital multimeter.
2 Measuring Charge on a Capacitor
To measure the charge on a capacitor, connect a 1.25V
standard voltage source to the capacitor box which
contains an SPDT switch, 1 M resistor, and 0.5 F
capacitor as shown in Figure 4-7. Charge the capacitor
by switching to the battery side for a few seconds.
With the galvanometer coil initially at rest at zero,
discharge the capacitor through the galvanometer.
Quickly record the amplitudes of successive maxima,
determine , and calculate the charge Q which passed
through the coil. How does Q compare with the
product CV?
ba t te r y Gal vo
1 M
Gal vo
+
C = se t t o
1.25 v 0.5F di r e c t
c a p a c i to r b o x
Figure 4-7. Circuit to measure the charge on a capacitor.
Verify, by switching out the capacitor after it has dis-
charged, that its presence has a negligible effect on the
motion of the galvanometer.
 Exp 04

3 Measuring the Field of a Magnet If the coil is moved from a region of field B to one of
To use the galvanometer to measure the magnetic zero field, then
field of a magnet you need a search coil. To make one
wind 10 turns of 26 AWG enamelled Cu wire onto the dB
coil form provided. Leave about 1/2 meter extra wire vdt = nA dt
dt = nAB . [4-28]
at each end. Tape the coil so it won't unravel, cut the
ends to equal length, and twist them uniformly. (Ask But this emf produces an impulsive current i in the
your demonstrator to help you do this with an electric coil and galvanometer given by
drill.) Bare the metal at the free ends.
Connect this coil in series with a resistance R s > 7R 0 v
to the galvanometer as shown in Figure 4-8. Note that i= , [4-29]
in this case a series resistor must be provided; other- R
wise the total resistance would be effectively the galvo
coil resistance and the galvo would be heavily over- where R is the total series resistance R s + RI. Hence the
damped. Move the coil swiftly by hand into (or out of) impulsive charge which flows is
a magnetic field; for accurate measurements, hold the
axis of the coil in your fingers parallel to the direction vdt = nAB .
of the field. Q= idt = R R
[4-30]

Note the response of the galvo. If it goes off scale, then

RS
increase R s . From the amplitudes of successive oscilla-
tions,
calculate the decrement and then calculate the
Galvo
B set to charge Q which flowed through the coil. Measure the
direct
diameter of the search coil, calculate the area A, and
finally calculate the strength of the magnetic field B
coil from your measured Q.
n turns
area A

Figure 4-8. Measuring the field of a magnet with a search CHALLENGE: Do an internet search for a similar
coil. experiment done at another university, and from
which this experiment might be improved upon.

The emf generated in a coil of n turns of area A by a Tidying Up

changing magnetic field is given by Faraday and Before leaving your station in the lab, turn off all the
Lenzs laws: powered equipment. Put away all connecting wires so
your work station looks the same as when you found
d dB it. Thank you.
v = n = nA . [4-27]
dt dt

E4-7
Exp 04

Appendix
The Walden Precision Apparatus
WPA K120 Series Galvanometer
The following description is extracted and modified from the WPA manual.

Optics Movement

The sensitivity of a galvanometer can be improved in The delicate parts of the movement are protected by a
two ways: either by decreasing the strength of the sus- metal outer case, the sectional drawing in Figure A-2
pension or increasing the scale-to-movement distance. illustrates the arrangement.
The optical system of the K120 series galvanometer
(Figure A-1) is double reflecting, a return mirror gives
an effective pointer length of almost twice that of the
instrument case.

Figure A-1. Optical arrangement of the K120 series galvan-

ometer. For more details of the suspension positioned in the
lower left of the instrument case see Figure A-2.

The light Source is a Krypton-filled low Volt, 1 Amp

Figure A-2. The galvanometer suspension.
bulbproduced according to Ministry Specification.
A spare bulb is fitted in the case and a further supply
can be obtained on request. Instructions for changing
Coil. The coil is wound with non-magnetic or spec-
the bulb are printed on the inside of the lid. The lamp
trographically pure copper wire, where the ferrous
indicator shows the bulb to be alight and is a highly
impurities are controlled down to two parts per
refractive plastic light pipe which carries the light
million, and the basic material is more precious than
through a 90 bend to the front panel. Illumination of
gold. The coil is bonded in epoxy resin for maximum
the light spot is outstandingly high, giving a comfort-
strength and stability.
able view even in a sunlit laboratory.
Tangs. Tangs are carefully proportioned to ensure a
The galvanometer mirror is spherical of 11 cm focal
firm grip on the coil. The material is as critical as the
length.
coil wire.
Mains feed is to a built-in double wound transformer
Suspension. The suspension is made from non-corrod-
with tapped primary 115, 200 and 240 Volts, AC., 50-
ing noble metal alloy supplied to our specification and
60 cps.
rolled to a strip by a specially designed mill. The

E4-8
 Exp 04

breaking strength of this alloy is 73 tons per sq. inch, Direct position. The movement is connected straight
so that a wire as thick as an average human hair will to the terminals without any shunts, giving the
safely hold half-a-pound. highest sensitivity with no interior damping.

Pre-Twist of suspension. A plainly rolled and anchor-

ed suspension strip causes perceptible hysteresis and
thus zero error. The WPA pre-twisted suspension is
unique and provides outstanding zero stability.

Anti-Vibration stops. Anti-Vibration stops limit the

sideways movement of the coil. With the well design-
ed vibration stops a K120-type galvanometer can be
dropped from 1 ft., on to a wooden bench, or in the Figure A-3. Circuit for x1 position.
delivery packing 14 drops from 4 ft. on to concrete,
without ill effects.

Oil-Bead Damping. Oil-bead damping smooths out

any unwanted vibration of the coil so that our galvan-
ometers can even be used under slightly vibrating
conditions.

Slow motion zero setting. Several turns of the zero

knob move the light spot from one end of the scale to Figure A-4. Circuit for x.03 and .001 positions.
the other. The hair line can, of course, be set to any
point of the scale.
As can be seen in Table A-1, WPA K120-type galvan-
Circuit ometers differ as to sensitivity, internal resistance and
critical damping resistance.
The sensitivity is controlled by a 2-pole 6-way switch
with silver contacts. The resistors are of 1% accuracy.
Table A-1. Manufacturers Data on WPA K120-type
The switch positions are: Galvanometers. The value of L is given on the case of the
instrument.
Shorted position. The input circuit is broken and the
movement is shorted for its protection in transit. Critical
Internal
Sensitivity Damping Period
Type Resistance
1 position. The galvanometer movement is shunted (mm/A) Resistance (s)
RI ()
by an internal damping resistor as shown in Figure A- ()
3. This setting provides the maximum sensitivity with K121 25 12 30 2
near critical damping. K122 60 25 300 2
K123 120 52 1000 2
.03 and .001 positions. The current sensitivity is
reduced by an Ayrton-Mather shunt by .03 and .001
with respect to the 1 range. In addition, series
resistors are introduced to keep the same input
resistance as on the 1 range. Figure A-4 shows the
circuits.

Series position. To be used if the exterior circuit

resistance is so low that the light spot would creep. At
this switch settting a series resistance is introduced to
improve the speed of response.

E4-9
Exp 04

E4-10