Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Authors:
Brad Masters
Greg Frazier
E-mail: bmasters@uta.edu
Telephone number: 817 615-2339
Mailing address:
P.O. BOX 180011
Arlington, TX 76096
Acknowledgements: The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge Alan Cannon, Edmund
Prater, and Ken Price for their insightful comments and reviews of this manuscript.
Abstract:
A review of TQM and project quality activity (PQA) is presented. Six propositions are
presented based on the relationship of project quality activities (IV) and project performance
(DV). It is theorized that individual goal-setting mediates the IV/DV relationship, while goal
feedback serves as a moderator variable. Previous literature is presented for each of the
propositions, and two figures are presented for the moderator/mediator variables. Based on
the current literature and the propositions, future research areas for the advancement of
project quality activities and increasing project performance are proposed.
1
Project Quality Activities and goal setting in Project Performance Assessment
Introduction
The presence of small-group projects in organizations has been increasing since the early
1980s. The small-group project has different characteristics than the organization, including
According to Mantel et al (2005), the PMI (Project Management Institute) had 7,500
members in 1990. In mid 2000, there were 64,000 members, and there were more than 100,000
members by 2004. As the number of projects and the use of projects have increased, so have the
Logically, the primary reason their presence is growing is due to perceived increased
leaders perceive (or more importantly, interpret measures of) significant performance using this
approach as compared to more traditional work group structures. If more resources are expended
for project activity/management, there should be a higher rate of return for those activities than
the return using the resources elsewhere. Otherwise, the organization should abandon project
activities and concentrate on a more productive means of producing a product/service. Given the
increase in project participation over the past twenty years, it is likely that team projects are an
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Mirroring the presence of quality in organizations, quality activities in project
collaborative guideline between American Society of Quality (ASQ) and Project Management
communication, planning, and control of the project and its goals, resources, and timeframe.
The purpose of the current discussion is four-fold. First, using the industry standard and
prior research to identify Project Quality Activity (PQA), is there an increase in project
performance? Does the quality activity make a difference in time, cost, and product deviation?
management. While Kristof-Brown & Stevens (2001) supported a strong relationship between
goal-setting and measured performance outcomes should be examined for project environments.
relationship. The PQA that provide feedback to the individual regarding any deviation from goal
activities and project performance. Despite any up-front benefits of PQA, if the individuals in the
project do not have clear, challenging personal goals, and the individual goals are congruent with
the project planning goals, their performance in the project will not be as strong as when goal
The organization of the paper is as follows. First, a literature review of quality will be
made. Second, a brief review of available literature examining PQA and project performance is
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discussed, along with proposal development. Finally, a brief discussion of goals/goal setting will
Literature Review
Since the 1980s, quality has become a frontline topic in industry and in research
literature. As stated in Powell (1995) and Das et al (2000), 93% of 500 of Americas largest
firms have adopted TQM (Total Quality Management) in some form. As the presence of quality
has increased in American firms, the empirical literature has attempted to meet the growth with
objective research regarding quality. While much has been published regarding quality, there is
much research left to be completed, namely in the call for replication and theory building. The
empirical literature is attempting to bridge the gap between the anecdotal findings found in the
The importance of empirical research and sound theory in Quality cannot be understated.
The Academy of Management Review dedicated its July 1994 issue, to quality and its integration
with Management/Management Strategy. Of special interest in more than one article was the
call to develop theory for framing Quality and Total Quality Management. The articles state that
while quality and Total Quality Management is prevalent in the literature, it is heavy on the
practical observations, and light on the theory and empirical research. There is a need for more
empirical research examining the relationship of quality practices and firm performance. Too,
knowledge based of quality implementation can be increased (Sousa & Voss, 2002).
Total Quality Management was a concept influenced by Deming and Juran. The idea was
simple: To have the entire organization operate in terms of better assessing the quality
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requirements of a product, integrating the quality into the product, and evaluating the product for
TQM. It was necessary for TQM to be objectively measured. This lack of objectivity facilitated
problems with research, as the term quality can represent many things to many individuals (and
organizations). Beginning with the work of quality pioneers like Juran, Crosby and Deming,
Saraph et al (1989) developed a scale for assessing TQM. Given the use of previous quality
literature, the scale began with strong face validity. The scale was designed primarily to be used
with managers. Through rigorous assessment and statistical methodology, Flynn et al (1994)
proposed a useable scale with strong reliability and validity. Ahire, et al (1996) and Black &
Porter (1996), using as a basis the two scales, developed scales with reported higher reliability
and validity. With the presence of good scales, TQM could be reliably assessed and were
linked with increased firm performance (Curkovic et al, 2000; Powell, 1995).
Several studies linked the success of Total Quality Management with the Baldrige Award.
The Baldrige Award was introduced as industry recognition to significant success in TQM, not
only in execution, but also in implementation. The U.S. Malcolm Baldrige National Quality
Award criterion, for example, requires firms to develop a process for deploying and monitoring
strategic quality plans (Ittner and Larckner, 1997; for a more detailed discussion of the Malcolm
Baldrige Award, see Black and Porter, 1996, and Ittner and Larckner, 1997). Hendricks and
Singhal (1996) examined the relationship between the Baldrige Award and stock prices. They
concluded that there is a significant, positive relationship between the TQM (represented by the
Baldrige Award) and stock performance. The Baldridge Award remains as one of the primary
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Project Quality Activities
On the most fundamental level, organizations explore new initiatives for one primary
performance. There have been few studies, though, examining significant results in utilizing
reported a 4% cost savings through the use of design/information technology. Hong et al (2004)
investigated the process of minimizing uncertainty in the project environment. In citing Clark
and Wheelright, (1995) the authors assert that it is necessary to define performance outcomes
early in the project. These outcomes include total product quality, efficiency/cost, and speed. The
greater the uncertainty of the environment, the greater the need for mission and target
Transportation. A qualification model was developed to assess the quality level of contractors
prior to awarding bids. It was hypothesized, that while a company may well submit a lower
quotation for project completion, a lower level of quality can produce an inferior product, which
could lead to rework and eventually, higher costs. This further supports the proposal that PQA
Zwikael & Globerson (2004) identifies the importance of project planning as a significant
component of project success. A PMPQ (Project Planning quality Indicator) was developed and
tested using a questionnaire. These identified knowledge areas and planning processes are
identified in table 2:
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If extensive research has been conducted regard to TQM and performance, a similar
Juran (1988) and Gilmore (1990) agree that firms should improve the quality of the
product and increase performance. Quality is free, or stated differently, quality does not cause a
net increase in costs (Crosby, 1979; Deming, 1986). Rationally, this seems plausible: Any
increase in quality related costs would be offset by increased sales and decreased failure costs.
TQM and project quality activities should increase performance. multiple theories can be
Contingency theory has been used by other authors, and provides the basis for examining
Sitkin et al (1994) and Sousa & Voss, (2002) suggest the need to identify contingencies of TQM.
Sitkin et al (1994) identify three as task, organizational, and product/process uncertainty. Das et
al (2000) state that much of the quality literature has been written within a Resource-based view
of the firm. They propose a contingency view. Too, Reed et al (1996) view TQM in terms of
contingency theory and point out that there is a large amount of research that suggests successful
In light of the observation from Dean & Bowen (1994) and Sitkin et al (1994) of how the
universal nature of TQM contrasts with the contingency approach, Project Quality Activities
(PQA) are much smaller scale than TQM and are thus more likely to have identifiable factors
7
In addition to Contingency theory, the Resource-Based View of the firm has also been
proposed. According to this particular resource theory, firms gain unique resources that combine
with other unique resources, producing performance variance across different firms (Powell,
1995). These resources, however, are not easily replicated (imperfect imitability) by other firms
due to multiple factors. Too, if the firm expends resources to acquire these desired resources, the
Net Present Value of the acquisition is zero. Stated simply, if a resource gives a significant
advantage, everyone will acquire the resource, until no competitive advantage is inherent in the
resource. When the firms purchase the resource, the demand for the resource will increase the
This theory would suggest that TQM is not a universal resource that every organization
can utilize to gain a significant advantage. TQM would combine with other unique resources to
give a significant advantage. For example, because company A achieves increased firm
performance by utilizing TQM does not assure company B will achieve similar success by
employing TQM. Powell (1995) suggested that one of the reasons TQM has not had a universal
innovation occurs when the following conditions are satisfied: Perceived relative advantage,
organization as a whole. Project teams obviously have different dynamics than organizations as a
whole, which can accelerate the diffusion process. First, organizations often have long-standing
cultures, senior management, and methods which they have dealt successfully with issues in the
past. These are not likely to easily be changed in a short period of time. Projects, however, have
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an identified beginning and end, minimizing the possibility of having to overcome a culture
within a particular project. Second, PQA are more linked to the fundamental, direct goals of the
project: Increased performance on time, cost and product specifications. The simplicity of the
quality activities lend to easy applicability, and given the number of projects executed in an
organization. Finally, the quality activities have high similarity to the basic project activities
found in any Project Management handbook, thus lending to similarity of project tasks and
quality tasks. In summary, project environments have the potential for much higher Infusion of
Innovation, thereby increasing the adoptability of quality practices into project management.
Thus, it is reasonable that PQA should be at least, if not more strongly, associated with increased
Proposition Derivation
The literature on PQA is quite sparse, hence the reliance on the literature of TQM and
organizational/global basis. The activities encompass all departments of the organization. While
there are different dynamics present in an organization as opposed to the small group, it is
proposed that the relationship between quality activities and increased performance are similar.
Referring to Table 2, TQM factors are listed besides the PQA. As many of the constructs are
strikingly similar to one another, it is reasonable to assume TQM and PQA are similar variables
Proposition 1: If there are contingency factors identified for TQM, there are contingency
factors present for other quality activities.
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There is substantial research supporting the idea that goals which tend to be specific and
difficult lead to higher measures of performance, than less specific, difficult goals (just do your
best goals, no goals, or easy/specific goals (as cited in Lee et al, 1991). Too, the importance/
rationale of the assigned goals need to be adequately explained (Lee et al, 1991).
Locke & Latham (2002) said that there are four mechanisms to goals. First, goals serve as
a director for activities/ behaviors. Goals guide the behavior towards the desired activity/purpose,
and away from the non-goal activities. Second, high goals can be considered an energizer, with
better performance produced from high-goals activities than from low-goals activities. Third,
goals prolong the effort towards achieving the goal set. Finally, goals stimulate the discovery of
task-related knowledge, skills and abilities. This discovery may lead to skill-sets already known/
used for previous goals, the adaptation of skill-sets for similar goals, or the quest to acquire new
Given these descriptions of goal mechanisms, it can be argued that at least a portion of
the proposed PQA can be framed in terms of goals. For example, PQA outlining proposed
budgets, time-frames, and product requirements could reasonably be construed as goals. Whether
may affect the measured strength of the performance outcome. Generally, given increased
activities and project performance suggests significant relationships between the two. Also, given
the theoretical explanations of goal setting related to increased performance measures and
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TQMs similarity to project quality, suggest it is reasonable to propose that the greater the
presence of project quality goal-related activities, the higher the project performance.
goal-related activities.
Suggested in the literature is the need for feedback, in relation to the goals (as cited in
Lee et al, 1991). Goal setting would be less effective with minimized feedback. Goal feedback
has been suggested as a moderator of goal-setting and project performance (Locke & Latham,
feedback regarding the activities expended towards completing the goal. If the individual
receives no feedback regarding their efforts, how is one to adjust output/ performance more
accurately towards goal-completion? (Locke & Latham, 2002) While project quality goal-related
appropriate output is expended towards the completion of the goals. The greater the mechanisms
used to provide goal feedback (including feedback-related, PQA), the higher the success of goal
completion.
It is suggested that increased individual goal-setting (given they are specific and
performing in project groups should have similar need for goals/goal-setting as those in previous
goal-setting research. Given the vast amount of research on goals/goal-setting and performance,
it is reasonable to assume that increased goals/goal setting in project teams will have a positive
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relationship with project performance. The greater the individual personalizes the group-goals,
the greater the likelihood of increasing activities (or acquiring whatever skill set necessary) to
setting activities.
PQA provide clarity of direction and specificity of the project requirements. If the project
does not have clear guidelines/ objectives identified for the project, it is reasonable to assume
that individuals will have less of a point-of-reference from which to construct individual goals,
as they relate to their project efforts. A higher level of PQA can facilitate individual goals/goal
setting. The project resources will be framed in the context of the skills, tasks, training, etc.
required to complete the project requirements. When there is a higher level of individual goals/
goal setting identified, efforts have at least been made to provide feedback between the
supervisor and the individual as to what is to be expected, and how the goals are to be achieved.
Proposition 5: The stronger the individual goals/goal setting is identified within the
projcect, the more the individual project members will contribute to the project quality activities.
Kristof-Brown & Stevens (2001) investigated the relationship of goal congruency within
project teams. The authors found support of a positive relationship of congruence between
perceived team performance goals and personal goals and attitudinal/behavioral outcomes. A
congruency of personal mastery goals and performance goals was theorized to be significant.
The better the congruency, the higher reported satisfaction (Kristof-Brown & Stevens, 2001).
In short, this study found a significant relevance among goal congruency of the group and
the individuals. Given PQA, individual goal setting, and project performance, the relationship
between PQA and project performance is affected by individual goal-setting. If there has been
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high goal-setting activity, it is more likely that the process required to implement/execute the
project activities becomes a component of the individuals goals. The individual then identifies
with the value of their effort going towards the quality activities, and that effort being recognized
as a goal fulfillment. Too, if there is high individual goal setting, it is more likely that specific
rewards for goal completion have been identified. The individual then has incentive to complete
If there is high congruency between PQA and individual goal setting, given the results
from previous literature, personal satisfaction and performance will be higher, supporting
stronger project performance. If there is not high goal congruency between the individual goals
and group goals (a product of the PQA), then conflicting individual goals exist and the
relationship between PQA and project performance will be weak. Given this rationale and the
Proposition 6: Individual goals/goal setting will define the strength of the relationship
Variable (IV) Project Quality Activity, and the Dependant Variable (DV) Project performance.
The greater the level of PQA present in project management, more project activity will support
useful work endeavors, with minimal waste/ redundant/ activities. The better documentation that
is utilized through the duration of the project (refer to Table 2), activities within the project that
PQA can be explained in relation to individual goals, in that if the quality activities are to be
implemented, the individuals within the group have to identify those activities as a goal to be
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achieved. The effectiveness of PQA to increase project performance is highly dependant on
successful individual-ownership of the PQA; otherwise, they lose their benefit as an enhancing-
tool, and become a performance-reducing activity (or in more colloquial terms, a boat anchor).
Also, individual goals are related to project performance. Individual goals should align/
complement strong project performance. If the individual(s) is/are pursuing ulterior motives that
are not in alignment to project performance, that performance will be diminished by the
Goal-setting between the individual and project leader is not sufficient for maximizing project
performance. Strong goal-feedback will increase the salience of the identified goals (especially
given Locke and Lathams theory of goal-difficulty) on the part of the individual, serving as
motivation, and most likely maximizing the performance of the individual and the project.
While the proposals become somewhat interdependent as they progress, each proposal should
Figure 1 provides explanation for the moderator/mediator relationship for PQA, and
the IV and DV. Before an individual in a project setting might choose to engage in PQA, goals
will need to be clearly identified and aligned with the activities. Otherwise, the individual may
pursue activities within the project that have weak support, no support, or conflict with PQA.
14
Too, the individual goals should be aligned with the project performance, as measured by the
organization and/or project leader. While the organization/project leader goals may be in conflict,
further goal conflicts will be significantly stronger if the individual has measures of project
performance that are different than either the project leader or organization. Thus, individual
goals/goal-setting mediate the IV and DV. The mediator is moderated by goal feedback. While
goals may be clearly identified and congruent with the project leader/organizations goals,
minimal performance gains may be measured, if there is no goal feedback. Strong goal feedback,
which may include praise, correction, feedback, group recognition, challenges, and other
reinforcement measures found in goal/goal feedback literature, will assist the individual in the
project to maximum performance in executing the project quality initiatives, which will
Conclusion:
The purpose of this research endeavor is three-fold. First, terminology such as TQM,
quality, quality management, etc. is highly subjective and can create misunderstandings among
quality professionals, practitioners, and academics (Sousa & Voss, 2002). These
misunderstandings could create barriers for expanding on previous research. Project quality
activity can benefit through previous research on TQM and goals. Second, well-established (but
still quite relevant) theories regarding goals, goal-setting, and goal feedback are examined in the
light of a current trend in organizations: Project Management. Finally, the relationship between
PQA and project performance is not a simple relationship. Realistically, Intervening variables are
present, such as goals and goal-feedback. These two intervening variable can be evaluated/
measured by using validated scales, such as those developed by Locke and Latham, and variables
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Much future research is needed in quality/planning activities in Project Management.
While these activities have been identified in the literature, they have yet to be empirically tested
for any relationship to increased project performance. Given the different number of constructs
identified in the guidelines, it remains to be evaluated if all the constructs are significant, and of
the significant constructs, if any have higher predictive power of project performance than the
others.
ANSI/ISO/ASQ Project Quality guidelines (1997), while specific factors related to product
quality were identified in TQM factors and project quality literature. Research needs to be
conducted to develop valid constructs for assessing product quality in project management. This
Third, given the identification of external and internal fits for increased TQM
performance, it is not completely unreasonable to assume similar contingencies exist for project
that exist between PQA and project performance. In addition, given the amount of research
conducted into the goal setting/performance relationship, the relationship may provide
significant predictive power in Project Management. Further research should examine the role of
provide explanation of the necessary conditions where quality impacts performance and why.
Given the increased popularity of project management and its use in organization, better
indicators of project success will provide guidance for project managers. By focusing on the
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necessary up-front PQA, and investing time/energy in individual goals/goal setting, the
17
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Table 1: Summary of Research of TQM and Environmental Fit
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Table 2:
Summary of Quality/Planning Activities in Project Management, and TQM Factors
Figure 1:
Project Quality Activities and project Performance
MODERATOR:
Goal Feedback
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Figure 2:
Project Quality Activities vs. Project Performance in High/Low Goal Feedback
Project
Performance
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