Algebra SG Notes V 3 16

Abstract Study Group (sG) Notes
(August 2017)
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August 10, 2017
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2017/openbook.png 2017/openbook.png
Contents
0.1. General Set-Up for the smooth running of sG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
I. GROUPS 9
1. Groups 10
1.1.
1.2.
Sub-Groups
Cyclic Groups (Self Study)
Permutations and Symmetric Groups

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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19
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2. 23
2.1. Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2. Transpositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3. Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3. Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem 31

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3.1. Cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2. Lagrange's Theorem (Very Very Very Important!!! - Very ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4. Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms 35
4.1. Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2. Isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3. Ordered pairs and Direct Product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5. Normal Subgroups & Quotient Gp. 42
5.1. Normal Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.2. Quotient Group or Factor Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
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Contents Contents
II. RINGS 48
6. Rings 49
6.1. Subrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.2. Ring Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.3. Ideals and Ring Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.4. Some Denitions to End with: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7. Euclidean Rings. 55
7.1. Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
III. FIELDS 60
Field Extensions
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8. 61
9. Questions. 65
9.1. Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
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9.2. Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
IV. Appendix 69
9.3. Mathematical Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.3.1. The if-then statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

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9.3.2. If and only if statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.4. Methods of Proof: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.4.1. Direct Proof Walkthrough: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.4.2. Proof by Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.4.3. Proof by contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.4.4. More on Rings: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.4.5. Principal ideals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.5. Ideals and Quotient Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3 (2017) Abstract Study Group (sG)

Contents Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Many thanks and appreciation go out to my colleagues in developing this project and to those who
have willingly assisted by volunteering their time and expertise. I would like to especially thank all of
the facilitators, past and present, of the Abstract Study Group:
Amaal Ali
Rajesh Lakhan
Diana Munro-Mulchan
Sach Mulchan
esTariq Osman
Jagdesh Ramnanan
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Chandra Rajaram
for their continued input in this venture. A special thanks to the students who attended and who will
attend, without whom this project would have not been successful. Sincere thanks to all of them. Also
a very special thanks to those who assisted in the compilation of these notes, for their advice, time and
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eorts in ensuring that these notes are accurate and correspond to a basic course in modern algebra.
Ultimately, my greatest appreciation goes out to Jay who facilitated and created the sG sessions,
which I was a participant o - Thank you.
The mathematical sciences
particularly exhibit order,
symmetry, and limitation; and
these are the greatest forms of beauty.
-Aristotle

INTRODUCTION
In modern algebra we study three basic algebraic structures, namely,
1. groups 2. rings 3. elds.
The study of groups is referred to as group theory.
Why learn group theory?
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In short : group theory is the systematic study of symmetry; when a physical system or mat-
hematical structure possesses some kind of symmetry, its description can often be dramatically
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simplied by considering the consequences of that symmetry. When we are dealing with an
object that appears symmetric, group theory can help with the analysis. We apply the label
symmetric to anything which stays invariant under some transformations.
The purpose of these notes is to provide readers with some basic insight into group theory
as quickly as possible. Simplicity and working knowledge are emphasized over mathematical
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completeness. As a result, proofs are very often sketched or omitted in favor of examples and
discussion. Readers are warned that these notes are not a substitute for a thorough study of
modern algebra. It is assumed that the reader has a working knowledge of basic set theory
notions, that is have completed a course in introductory Set Theory and Number Systems.
We start this study with group theory as it is a basic building block for other algebraic structu-
res. Notes on both Ring theory and Field theory are also provided to be read at the convience
of the student. However it is recommended that these be read before any futher course in
Modern Algebra. Part I of these notes deals with the introduction of group theory - this is an
important part in developing knowledge in modern algebra. Part II intoduces the concepts of
ring theory which are used in Part III to develop the notion of eld theory. Part IV (The
Appendix) of these notes covers basic set theory - a review of what is needed to succeed in a
course of this nature. It also contains the list of videos to be viewed before each sG session.
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0.1. GENERAL SET-UP FOR THE SMOOTH RUNNING OF SG Contents
Goals of sG:
+ Ignite the ablity of its participants to think in an abstract manner.
+ Expose its participants to Group Theory and what is a Ring.
+ Gain a deep understanding of problem solving / proof construction with respect to Abstract
Algebra.
Note: The list of YouTube Videos to view before each session is in the appendix.
0.1. General Set-Up for the smooth running of sG
Things that must be done\have on rst day of sG:
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Explain a little about sG, the name and continutiy, it is monetarily free, the cost will be dealth
with at the end of the sessions :) Nothing to be afraid of though.

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+ This is a study group not a lecture, we have study sessions, not classes, we are facilitators and
not teachers. Call us by our rst names, not sir or Ms! :) If you family or friends ask what are
you doing or where are you going, the answer is to sG, no to class!
+ Elect a sG representative - the person must attend all the sessions, as they will keep the register
and if possible they will give out their phone number. If they have served as a class rep before this
will be helpful. Females are preferred over males. Males slack of to much from my experience...
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:P
+ Printed:
Register, to be left with the sG representative for all days
Course Guide for sG
Course Guide for formal course Abstract Algebra (Math 2272)
Past Papers for Math 2272
+ Pass around a contact informaiton sheet: Name, Id, email, Contact Number.
+ Explain dierent days, dierent individuals,
+ Ice breaker session - House building :) Ask Rajesh this.

Start of Facilitating
Start with the proof that:
Question 0.1. Suppose f : A B, g : B C, and gf : A C are functions. Prove that:
1. If f and g are injective, then gf is injective
2. If f and g are surjective, then gf is surjective.
3. If f and g are bijective, then gf
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Proof.
1. Suppose f and g are injective.
Let x, y A such that (g f ) (x) = (g f ) (y),
g(f (x)) = g(f (y))

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f (x) = f (y). ( injectivity of g )
x = y. ( injectivity of f )
gf is injective.
2. Suppose f and g are surjective.
Let z C.
By surjectivity of g, there exist yB such that g(y) = z.
Again, by surjectivity of f, there exist some xA such that f (x) = y.
Thus, (g f ) (x) = g(f (x)) = g(y) = z.
We have proven that every zC has a pre-image in A via (g f ).
gf is surjective.
3. This is a direct consequence of 1. and 2.
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0.1. GENERAL SET-UP FOR THE SMOOTH RUNNING OF SG Contents
This would introduce the students with the idea of abstractness as well as proofs. Explain this to
them.
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Part I.
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GROUPS
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1. Groups
Denition 1.1. A non-empty set of elements G is said to form a group if associated with G
there is a binary (closed) operation called product and denoted by such that:
For each of the points below, give examples to illustrate, one at a time, go slow,
take your time.
1. Closure: For all a, b G = a b G
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Use possible a*b=a/b is not closed in Z, as we would get fractions
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2. Associativity : For all a, b, c G = a (b c) = (a b) c
Addition(is associative) vs a*b=|a-b| is not associative,
a*b=(a+b)/2 is commutative but not associative,
Rock Paper Scissors multiplication table is commutative but not associative,
Matrices is not commutative, but it is associative.

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3. Identity : There exists an element eG such that ea=ae=a for all aG .
0 for addition and 1 for multiplication,
or you could use, x y = 1 + x + y, on Z, that is a group... e = 1, a1 = a 2
4. Inverse : For each element a G there exists an element a1 such that aa1 = a1 a = e.
Negative numbers for addition and inverses for multiplicaiton,
or use above eg
NOTE:
+ We say that (G, ) or (G, ?) or (G, ) is a group. We generally write G is a group and take
the operation to be . Eg. ab=a+b
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CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Emphasis that the operation for a group is called multiplication regardless if
it is addition.
+ Also, the normal rules for an = a + a + a + . . . + a ( n times) if the operation is addition.
+ 1 or e may be used to denote the idenity element of a group.
+ a a1 may also be written as aa1 .
+ Clearly all groups must have at least one element. The group with exactly one element is
called the trivial group.
Denition 1.2. A group G is said to be abelian or commutative i the binary operation is
commutative. i.e. ab = ba for all a, b G.
Denition 1.3.
by |G|.
The number of elements in
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A group is said to be nite if |G|is nite, and innite if |G| is innite.
Example 1.4. The following are some examples of groups:
1. The set of all integers is an abelian (or commutative) group under the operation of addi-
tion. (Additive notation is of course normally employed for this group.)

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2. The set of all rational numbers is an abelian group under the operation of addition.
(Additive notation is of course normally employed for this group.)
3. The set of all real numbers is an abelian group under the operation of addition. (Additive
notation is of course normally employed for this group.)
4. If G = {1, 1, i, i} is a set of complex numbers and denotes usual multiplication then
(G, ) is an abelian group. It can be shown that G satises all properties of a group
(Denition 1.1) and is also commutative under usual multiplication. Since G contains
four elements, the group formed is said to have order of four ie. |G| = 4.
5. (e, ) is a group, where is dened by e e = e.

CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
6. Let G consist of the real numbers 1, 1 under the multiplication of real numbers. Is G a
group? If so, what is the order of G?
G is an abelian group of order 2
Ask them about {i, 1} or {i, i} with multiplication, are groups, ans no, not
closed
7. The set of all 22 matrices is an abelian group under the operation of addition. (Additive
notation is of course normally employed for this group.)
Ask if (N, +) forms a group.. ans is no because of no inverse, let them give the
answer...
Ask if (Z, +) forms a group... ans is yes... then ask if Z with multiplicaiton forms
a group, ans is no bec 0 does not have an inverse...
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Go through with them all but the last two, let them tell you about the last two
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examples, if they are indeed groups or not.
Lemma 1.5. An element x of a group G has exactly one inverse x1 .
Proof. This is a uniqueness proof, the standard method is to assume that another
item exists, in this case an element that acts as the inverse of x, say z, and then
show that x^-1 is equal to z.

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We know from the axioms that the group G contains at least one element x1 which satises
xx1 = e and x1 x = e.
If z is any element of G which satises xz = e (right inverse ) then
z = ez = (x1 x)z = x1 (xz) = x1 e = x1 .
Similarly if w is any element of G which satises wx = e (left inverse ) then w = x1 .
In particular we conclude that the inverse x1 of x is uniquely determined, as required.
Lemma 1.6. Let x and y be elements of a group G. Then (xy)1 = y 1 x1 .

CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Proof. Emphasis the general method of proving that something is an inverse. That
is: if you have to show that is the inverse of then you show that i) = e and
ii) = e, since we are unsure if the operation is commutative.
It follows from the group axioms that
(xy)(y 1 x1 ) = x(y(y 1 x1 )) = x((yy 1 )x1 ) = x(ex1 ) = xx1 = e.
Similarly (y 1 x1 )(xy) = . . . = e, and thus y 1 x1 is the inverse of xy , as required.
Extend this to ask them to show that (ABC)1 = C 1 B 1 A1 , give them time to
physcially do this. Walk around the room, peak in their books, make small talk
etc.. if you want you could ask them to come up on the board and write the
solution...
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Theorem 1.7. Let G be a group and a, b, c G. If either ab = ac or ba = ca, then b = c.
Proof. Suppose that ab = ac, then
a1 (ab) = a1 (ac)
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= a1 a b = a1 a c

= eb = ec
= b = c.
Also, suppose that ba = ca, then
ba = ca
ba a1 = ca a1

b aa1 = c aa1

b= c
Hence proven.

CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Remark. This theorem implies that we can cancel elements in a group.
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1.1. SUB-GROUPS CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
1.1. Sub-Groups
Denition 1.8. Let (G, ) be a group. Let HG such that (H, ) is also a group.
Then (H, ) is called a subgroup of (G, ) .
Proposition 1.9. Let H be a non-empty subset of G, then H is a subgroup of G only if the
following conditions hold:
1. e H,
2. ab H for all a, b H ,
3. a1 H for all a H.
Denition 1.10.
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A subgroup H of G is said to be proper if H is a proper subset of G.
Example 1.11. The following are some examples of subgroups:

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1. The group of integers is a subgroup of the groups of rational numbers, real numbers and
complex numbers under addition.
2. The group of non-zero rational numbers is a subgroup of the groups of non-zero real
numbers and non-zero complex numbers under multiplication.

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3. The group of all 2 2 matrices of real numbers with determinant equal to 1 is a subgroup
of the group of all 22 matrices of real numbers with non-zero determinant under the
operation of matrix multiplication.
Example 2.2.6. Herstein page 31 and 32 is the solution

cos sin
4. Consider the collection of all 22 matrices that are of the form for
sin cos
some real number . This is a subgroup of the group of all 22 matrices with non-zero
determinant under matrix multiplication. Indeed the above matrix is the identity matrix
when = 0.

cos sin cos sin cos( + ) sin( + )
Also =
sin cos sin cos sin( + ) cos( + )

(as can be seen from the well-known formulae giving sin( + ) and cos( + ) in terms
of and ), and
1
cos sin cos() sin()
=
sin cos sin() cos()
for all real numbers and . Thus the denition of a subgroup is satised. The cor-
responding geometrical result states that the set of all rotations of the plane about the
origin is a subgroup of the group of all linear transformations of the plane that send a
point (x, y) to (ax + by, cx + dy) for some real numbers a, b, c and d satisfying ad bc 6= 0.
Theorem 1.12. G be group and H G, such that a, b H, ab1 H .
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Let a non-empty subset of
Then H is subgroup of G.
Emphasis that order matters in this proof, a rare proof.

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Proof. Identity: Let h H. Then hh1 = e H (where e is the identity in G).
Therefore, the identity belongs to H.
Inverse: Let h H. Since e, h H, then eh1 = h1 H. Hence every element hH has an
inverse h1 H.
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Closure: Let a, b H. Then b1 H (from above), and a, b1 H = a(b1 )1 = ab H.
Therefore H is closed under the group operation.
Associativity: This follows because H G.
Hence H is a group and is therefore a subgroup of G.
Theorem 1.13. Let G be a group and H a non empty subset of G.
Then H is a subgroup if and only if a, b H, ab1 H.
Proof. Suppose that the condition holds, then from Theorem 1.12, H is a subgroup of G.
Conversely, if H is a subgroup of G, then a, b H, a and b1 H. It then follows,

by closure that ab1 H.
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Theorem 1.14. Let G be a group and H a nite non-empty subset of G such that H H = H.
Then H is a subgroup of G.
Proof. Left an an exercise
Theorem 1.15. Let G be a group and H a nite non-empty subset of G.
Then H is a subgroup of G if and only if H H = H.
Proof. Left an an exercise.
Example 1.16. Determine whether
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({1, 1} , ) is a subgroup of ({1, 1, i, i} , )
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Remark 1.17. Handout from Herstein page 39, example 2.4.7. The solution is in my handwriting.
Below is extra notes for students to go through at their own leisure.
Lemma 1.18. Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. Then H K is also a subgroup of G.

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Proof. The identity element of G belongs to H K since it belongs to the subgroups H and K.
If x and y are elements of H K then xy is an element of H (since x and y are elements of
H ), and xy is an element of K, and therefore xy is an element of H K.
Also the inverse x1 of an element x of HK belongs to H and to K and thus belongs to
H K, as required.

1.2. CYCLIC GROUPS (SELF STUDY) CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
1.2. Cyclic Groups (Self Study)
Denition 1.19. A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g G such that G=
{g n : n Z}, where Z is the set of integers and

ggg (n times) if n>0

n
g = if n = 0 .

e

g 1 g 1 g 1 (|n| times) if n < 0
The element g is called the generator of the cyclic group.
Remark 1.20. If a nite group G can be generated from one of its elements, g together with its
inverse g 1 then it can be generated from g only.
Example 1.21.
1. The group
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The following are some examples of cyclic groups:
of integers under addition is a cyclic group, generated by 1.

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Z
2
2. The group of all rotations of the plane about the origin through an integer multiple of
n
radians is a cyclic group of order n for all positive integers n.

2
This group is generated by an anticlockwise rotation through an angle of radians.
n
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Denition 1.22. The order of an element gG is the smallest positive integer n such that
gn = e (the identity in G), if such n exists. Otherwise, g is said to be of innite order.
Proposition 1.23. Cyclic groups are abelian.
[Exercise: Prove this proposition.]
Lemma 1.24. Let G = hgi be a nite cyclic group, where g has order n. Then the powers
{1, g, . . . , g n1 } are distinct.
Proof. Since g has order n, g, g 2 , ..., g n1 are all dierent from 1.
Now I'll show that the powers {1, g, . . . , g n1 } are distinct.
Suppose gi = gj where 0 j < i < n.

Then 0<ij <n and g ij = 1. This is a contradiction, since the order of g is n.
Therefore, the powers {1, g, . . . , g n1 } are distinct.
Proposition 1.25. All groups of prime order are cyclic.
Lemma 1.26. Let G = hgi be an innite cyclic group.
If m and n are integers and m 6= n , then g m 6= g n .
Proof. Suppose without loss of generality that m > n.
We are required to show that g m 6= g n ; suppose this is false, so gm = gn.
Then g mn = 1 , so g has nite order.
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This contradicts the fact that a generator of an innite cyclic group has innite order.
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Therefore, g m 6= g n .
Problem 1.27. (Finding the order of an element.) Find the order of the element a6 in the cyclic
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group G = {1, a, a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a7 }.
Solution: If n is the order of the group, then n = 8. Since gcd(6, n) = gcd(6, 8) = 2 , a6 has
n 8
order = = 4.
gcd(6, n) 2
Check:
(a6 )1 = a6 , (a6 )2 = a12 = a4 , (a6 )3 = a18 = a2 , (a6 )4 = a24 = 1.
Exercise 1.28. Find the order of the element 18 Z30 .

Theorem 1.29. Subgroups of cyclic groups are cyclic.
Proof. Let G = hgi be a cyclic group, where gG .
Let H G. If H= {1} , then H is cyclic with generator 1.
So assume H 6= {1}.
required to show H is cyclic,must show that there is a generator for H.
What is a generator? It is an element whose powers make up the group. A thing should be
smaller than things which are "built from" it for example, a brick is smaller than a brick
building. Since elements of the subgroup are "built from" the generator, the generator should
be the "smallest" thing in the subgroup.
What should I mean by "smallest"?
Well, G is cyclic, so everything in G is a power of g.
Let m be the smallest positive integer such that
es gm H .
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Why is there such an integer m? Well, H contains something other than 1 = g0 ,
since H 6= {1} . That "something other" is either a positive or negative power of g.
If H contains a positive power of g, it must contain a smallest positive power, by
well ordering.
On the other hand, if H contains a negative power of g say g k , where k>0

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then gk H , since H is closed under inverses.
Hence, H again contains positive powers of g, so it contains a smallest positive power, by Well
Ordering.
So gm, the smallest positive power of g in H.
I claim that gm generates H. I must show that every hH is a power of gk . Well,
hH<G , so at least I can write h = g n for some n.
But by the Division Algorithm, there are unique integers q and r such that
n = mq + r, where 0 r < m.
It follows that
g n = g mq+r = (g m )q g r , so h = (g m )q g r or g r = (g m )q h.

Now gm H , so (g m )q H . Hence, (g m )q h H ,
so gr H . However, gm was the smallest positive power of g lying in H.
Since gr H and r < m, this only happens if r = 0.
Therefore, n = qm, and h = g n = (g m )q hg m i.
This proves that gm generates H, so m is cyclic.
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2. Permutations and Symmetric Groups
Theorem 2.1. For any non-empty set X, let S (X) denote the set of all bijections on X. Then
(S (X) , ) is a group, where denotes composition of functions.
Note 2.2. It is important to understand that the elements of S (X) are functions that are bijections.
Proof. Closure: The composition of two bijections on X is also a bijection on X.
Identity: The identity function e
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Associativity: This follows since composition of functions (in general) is associative.
is a bijection on X, hence e S (X).

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Inverses: All bijections in S (X) have inverses in S (X).
Denition 2.3. The group S (X) (sometimes also denoted SX ) is called the symmetric group
on the set X.
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Example 2.4. Let X = {1, 2}. Then S (X) = {e, f }, where e is the identity function (i.e.
e (1) = 1 and e (2) = 2), and f is the function such that f (1) = 2 and f (2) = 1.
Exercise 2.5. Find the symmetric group on the set X = {1, 2, 3}.
When X is a nite non-empty set, the bijections on X are simply permutations (or arrange-
ments) of the elements of X. If X has n elements, then we denote the group of permutations
S (X) by Sn , and we call this group the symmetric group on n elements, or the symmetric
group of degree n.
Note that, for simplicity, we usually take X to be the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. However, the properties
discussed here apply to a set of any n elements.
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CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
Remark 2.6. The symmetric groups given in Example 2.4 and Exercise 2.5 are S2 and S3 ,
respectively.
Theorem 2.7. |Sn | = n!
Proof. The order of Sn is the number of bijections on X. The number of bijections is simply the
number of dierent ways there are to permute the n elements of X. Therefore, the number of
elements in Sn is equal to n!.
It is cumbersome to represent the elements of Sn as functions. These elements can be better
represented as permutations.
For example, an element
1 2 ... n

, where
es
: {1, 2, . . . , n} {1, 2, . . . , n}
(k) is the image of

can be represented by
k under the permutation .
not
(1) (2) . . . (n)
Denition 2.8. Let 1 and 2 be two elements of Sn . The product (composition) 1 2

(or simply 1 2 ) is the permutation obtained by applying 2 rst, then 1 (right to left).

1 2 3 1 2 3
Example 2.9. Consider S3 . Let 1 = and 2 = .
sG

3 1 2 1 3 2
Then 1 (1) = 3, 1 (2) = 1, 1 (3) = 2, and 2 (1) = 1, 2 (2) = 3, 2 (3) = 2.
Therefore,
1 2 (1) = 1 (1) = 3,
1 2 (2) = 1 (3) = 2,
1 2 (3) = 1 (2) = 1.

1 2 3
Thus, 1 2 = .
3 2 1

1 2 3
Similarly, 2 1 = .
2 1 3

CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
Remark 2.10. Note that in this case, 1 2 6= 2 1 . Therefore, S3 is not abelian (commutative).
In fact, S1 and S2 are the only abelian symmetric groups. All other symmetric groups are
non-abelian.
Exercise 2.11. Using the notation above, list all the elements of S3 .
Exercise 2.12. Consider S4 .

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Let 1 = , 2 = and 3 = .
1 2 4 3 4 3 2 1 1 2 4 1
1. Is 3 an element of S4 ? Explain.
2. Determine the following: 21 , 1 2 , 2 1 , and 21 2 21 .
Denition 2.13. The
. 1
es
inverse of a permutation (denoted by 1 ) is one that undoes the
not
changes made by We can nd by nding the inverse image of each element, which
can be done by reading the permutation in reverse order (upside down). This is equivalent to
switching the two rows of the permutation and rearranging the columns so that the numbers
in the rst row are in ascending order.

1 2 3 4
Example 2.14. Consider S4 . Let = .
sG
2 4 1 3

1 2 3 4
Reading the permutation in the reverse order gives 1 = .
3 1 4 2

2 4 1 3
Alternatively, switching the rows gives ,
1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4
and after moving around the columns, we get 1 = .
3 1 4 2
Exercise 2.15. For the permutations used in Exercise 2.12, nd 1

1
1 1 1 1
, , , (1 2 ) .
2 2 1
We can represent the elements of Sn even more concisely, as we will see below.

2.1. CYCLES CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
2.1. Cycles
Denition 2.16. Let A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , am } be a subset of {1, 2, . . . , n} . The permutation

dened by:

+ (a1 ) = a2 , (a2 ) = a3 , . . ., am1 = am , (am ) = a1 and
+ (x) = x for all x

/A
is called a cycle of length m or an mcycle. It is denoted by (a1 a2 am ).

1 2 3
Example 2.17. The permutation = (132) is a 3-cycle in S3 .
3 1 2

1 2 3 4
Example 2.18. The permutation
es
4 3 1 2
1 2 3 4 5
= (1423)

is a 4-cycle in S4 .
not
Example 2.19. The permutation = (132) is a 3-cycle in S5 .
3 1 2 4 5
Note. (132) and (321) represent the same cycle. The starting number in a cycle is not important;
only the order in which the numbers appear is important.

sG
Theorem 2.20. If is an mcycle in Sn , then m = e.
Proof. Let = (a1 a2 am ) .
For each x
/ {a1 , a2 , . . . , am }, we have (x) = x, and hence m (x) = x.
Now take x {a1 , a2 , . . . , am } , say x = ak , and let am+1 = a1 , am+2 = a2 , and so on (since
after am the cycle continues with a1 ).
(x) = (ak ) = ak+1 , 2 (x) = ak+2 , . . ., m (x) = ak+m = ak = x.
Therefore, m (x) = x for each x = 1, 2, . . . , n, so m = e, the identity permutation.
Note: This is equivalent to saying that the order of a cycle is equal to its length.

Theorem 2.21. Every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles.
The algorithm proving this theorem is best illustrated by the following example:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example 2.22. Consider the permutation = in S8 .
6 7 8 4 5 2 1 3
We start by writing '(1 '.
Since (1) = 6, we write '(16 '.
Since (6) = 2, we write '(162 '.
Since (2) = 7, we write '(1627 '.
Since (7) = 1, this cycle is complete (we have arrived back at the starting point).
Therefore, one cycle of is (1627).
es
Now, we move on to the smallest positive integer not included in the cycle above.
not
In this case, the number we are looking for is 3 (since both 1 and 2 appear in the cycle above).
Since (3) = 8, we write '(38 '.
Since (8) = 3, this cycle is complete (we have arrived back at the starting point).
Therefore, another cycle of is (38).

sG
Next, we move on to the smallest positive integer not included in either cycle above.
In this case, the number we are looking for is 4.
Since (4) = 4, 4 is xed, so we can ignore it in the cycle decomposition of .
Now, we move on to the smallest positive integer not already encountered. In this case, the
number we are looking for is 5.
Since (5) = 5, 5 is also xed, so we can ignore it in the cycle decomposition.
Since all the remaining elements of X (i.e. 6, 7, 8) have already been met, we stop.
Therefore, the cycle decomposition is given by = (1627) (38) .

Remark 2.23. Disjoint cycles are in fact commutative. Since elements of any particular cycle do
not appear in any other cycle, the order in which the cycles are considered does not matter.
Thus, in the example above, it would have also been correct to write = (38) (1627) .
Remark 2.24. Not all elements of X have to appear in the cycle decomposition of .
The elements that do not appear are xed, i.e. they are not aected by .

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Exercise 2.25. Give the cycle decomposition of = in S9 .
1 4 8 5 2 3 9 6 7
Exercise 2.26. Write = (124) (425) (64) as a product of disjoint cycles.
Exercise 2.27. Write = (124) (425)1 (64) as a product of disjoint cycles in S8 .
Exercise 2.28. Write
es
= (1236)1 (435) (14) as a product of disjoint cycles.
not
Theorem 2.29. The order of a permutation is the least common multiple (LCM) of the length
of its disjoint cycles.
Proof. Let the cycle decomposition of an arbitrary permutation be = 1 2 r , where 1 ,

2 , . . ., r are disjoint cycles. The order of is the smallest positive integer m such that
e = m = (1 2 r )m = m m m . But the smallest m satisfying this is the LCM of

sG
1 2 r
the orders of the i 's.
Exercise 2.30. Find the orders of the permutations given in Example 2.22 and Exercises 2.25
- 2.28.

2.2. TRANSPOSITIONS CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
2.2. Transpositions
A transposition is a 2-cycle, i.e. a cycle of length 2.
Theorem 2.31. Every permutation can be written as a product of transpositions.
Proof. First, note that the identity permutation e can be written as the product of any trans-
position with itself. For example, e = (12) (12) or e = (35) (35) .
Now, Theorem 2.21 states that every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles.
We are left to show that every cycle can be written as a product of transpositions.
Let = (a1 a2 am ) be an arbitrary mcycle. Then we can write as a product of transpo-
sitions by pairing up the rst term a1 with each of the other terms in reverse order, as follows:
es

= (a1 am ) a1 am1 (a1 a3 ) (a1 a2 ) .
(Verify for yourself that this is in fact true.)

not
Example 2.32. (1324) = (14) (12) (13)
Exercise 2.33. Express the permutations given in Example 2.22 and Exercises 2.25 - 2.28 as
products of transpositions.
sG
Corollary 2.34. An mcycle can be written as the product of m1 transpositions.
Denition 2.35. A permutation is even if it can be written as the product of an even number
of transpositions. Similarly, a permutation is odd if it can be written as the product of an
odd number of transpositions.
Theorem 2.36. An mcycle is even if m is odd, and odd if m is even.
Proof. By Corollary 2.34, we can write any mcycle as a product of m1 transpositions.
If m is odd then m1 is even, so the mcycle is even by denition.
On the other hand, if m is even then m1 is odd, so the mcycle is odd.

2.3. SYMMETRY CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
Example 2.37. (1324) = (14) (12) (13) is an odd permutation in S4 .
Exercise 2.38. Find the parities of the permutations given in Example 2.22 and Exercises 2.25
- 2.28.
Theorem 2.39. The set of all even permutations An forms a subgroup of Sn . It is called the
alternating group on n elements.
Exercise 2.40. Find the elements of S4 which leave invariant the expression x1 x2 + x3 x4 , where
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 R.
Exercise 2.41. Find their orders and parities.
Exercise 2.42. Do they form a subgroup of
es S4 ?
not
2.3. Symmetry
A symmetry of a geometrical gure is a rearrangement of the gure that preserves the ar-
rangement of its vertices and sides as well as its distances and angles. Each symmetry is a
sG
bijection, or permutation of the vertices.
Example 2.43. A scalene triangle has a unique symmetry - the identity mapping.
Example 2.44. An isosceles triangle has two symmetries.
Example 2.45. An equilateral triangle has six symmetries.
Example 2.46. A rectangle (with unequal sides) has four symmetries. These form a group
called the Klein 4-group.

3. Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem
3.1. Cosets
Denition 3.1. Let (G, ) be a group with subgroup (H, ). For a, b G, we say that a is
congruent to b modulo H and write a b (mod H), if and only if ab1 H.
Theorem 3.2. The relation (mod H)
es
is an equivalence relation on G.
not
Proof. For all a G , aa1 = e H. The relation is reexive.
If a b (mod H) then ab1 H . Since H is a subgroup then (ab1 )1 H.
ie. ba1 H or b a (mod H). Therefore, the relation is symmetric.
If a b (mod H) and bc then ab1 and bc1 belong to H.
This implies that ab1 bc1 = ac1 H.

sG
Therefore a c (mod H). Thefefore, the relation is transitive.
Hence (mod H) is an equivalence relation on G.
Denition 3.3. The equivalence class containing a is Ha = {ha : h H}, and is referred to
as a right coset of H in G. A left coset is analogously dened.
Theorem 3.4. If aH then aH = Ha = H
Proof. Let h H.
Then h = (ha1 )a = h1 a Ha, where h1 = ha1 .
31
3.1. COSETS CHAPTER 3. COSETS AND LAGRANGE'S THEOREM
H Ha.
Conversely, let ha Ha.
Since a H, ha H.
Therefore Ha H.
Hence Ha = H.
Similarly aH = H. Hence the result follows.
Lemma 3.5. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the left cosets of H in G have the
following properties:
(i)
(ii) if
x xH
x and
for all
y
x G;
are elements of G, and if
es y = xa for some a H, then xH = yH ;

not
(iii) if x and y are elements of G, and if xH yH is non-empty then xH = yH . [Remember a
coset is an equivalence, and equivalence classes are disjoint or equal]
Proof. Let x G. Then x = xe, where e is the identity element of G.
But e H. It follows that x xH . This proves (i).

sG
Let x and y be elements of G, where y = xa for some a H.
Then yh = x(ah) and xh = y(a1 h) for all h H.
Moreover ah H and a1 h H for all h H, since H is a subgroup of G.
It follows that yH xH and xH yH , and hence xH = yH. This proves (ii).
Finally, suppose that xH yH is non-empty for some elements x and y of G.
Let z be an element of xH yH .
Then z = xa for some a H, and z = yb for some b H.
It follows from (ii) that zH = xH and zH = yH .
Therefore xH = yH . This proves (iii).

3.2. LAGRANGE'S THEOREM (VERY
CHAPTER
VERY VERY
3. IMPORTANT!!! - VERY ) COSETS AND LAGRANGE'S THEOREM
Lemma 3.6. Let H be a nite subgroup of a group G. Then each left coset of H in G has the
same number of elements as H.
Proof. Let H = {h1 , h2 , ..., hm }, where h1 , h2 , ...,hm are distinct, and let x be an element of G.
Then the left coset xH consists of the elements xhi for i = 1, 2, ..., m.
Suppose that j and k are integers between 1 and m for which xhj = xhk .
Then
hj = x1 (xhj ) = x1 (xhk ) = hk ,
and thus j = k, since h1 , h2 , ..., hm are distinct.
It follows that the elements xh1 , xh2 , ..., xhm are distinct.
We conclude that the subgroup H
es
and the left coset xH both have m elements, as required.
not
3.2. Lagrange's Theorem (Very Very Very Important!!! - Very )
Theorem 3.7. (Lagrange's Theorem). If H is a subgroup of the nite group G, then the order
sG
of H is a divisor of the order of G.
Proof. The right cosets of H in G, form a partition of G.
Hence we can write
G = Ha1 Ha2 ... Ham ,
where m is the number of distinct right cosets of H in G.
Since the cosets are disjoint,
|G| = |Ha1 | + ... + |Ham | = m |H| .
= |G| = m |H|
The order of H therefore divides the order of G.

3.2. LAGRANGE'S THEOREM (VERY
CHAPTER
VERY VERY
3. IMPORTANT!!! - VERY ) COSETS AND LAGRANGE'S THEOREM
Denition 3.8. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. If the number of left cosets of H in G is
nite then the number of such cosets is referred to as the index of H in G, denoted by [G : H].

|G|
Note 3.9. [G : H] = = index of H in G
|H|
Corollary 3.10. Let G be a nite group of order n.
(a) For any a G, o(a) is a divisor of n.
(b) For any a G, an = e.
Proof. ( Left as exercise)
Theorem 3.11.
es
Every group of prime order is cyclic.
not
Proof. Let G be a group of prime order, and let x be some element of G that is not the identity
element.
Then the order of x is greater than one and divides the order of G.
But then the order of x must be equal to the order of G, since the latter is a prime number.
sG
Thus G is a cyclic group generated by x, as required.

4. Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms
4.1. Homomorphism
Denition 4.1. Let (G, ) and (H, ) be two groups. A function : GH is a homomorphism
from G to H if for all x, y G,
es
(x y) = (x) (y).
not
Example 4.2. Let n be a xed positive integer.
2ik
Let : (Z, +) (C {0} , ) such that (k) = e n . Then is a homomorphism.
Consider (k1 + k2 )
sG
2i(k1 +k2 )
= e( n )
2ik1 2ik2
= e( n + n )
2ik1
= e( n ) e( 2ikn2 )
= (k1 ) (k2 ).
Hence, (k1 + k2 ) = (k1 ) (k2 ) . Therefore, is a homomorphism.
Example 4.3. Let R+ be the set of positive real numbers.
Consider : (R+ , ) (R, +) dened by (x) = log x, x R+ .
35
4.1. HOMOMORPHISM CHAPTER 4. HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS
Then
(a b) = log(ab)
= = log a + log b
= = (a) + (b)
= (a b) = (a) + (b)
Hence is a homomorphism.
Example 4.4. Let f : G H be dened by f (x) = eH , x G, where eH is an identity
element in the group H.
Then, for any
es
a, b G,f (ab) = eH = eH eH = f (a)f (b)
Remark 4.5. This is called the trivial homomorphism or zero homomorphism.

and hence f is a homomorphism.
not
Example 4.6. (Self Study) Dene a map :GH where G=Z and H = Z2 = Z/2Z is the
standard group of order two, by the rule

0,

if x is even
f (x) = .

1, if x is odd
sG
We check that is a homomorphism.
Proof. Suppose that x and y are two integers.
There are four cases:
x and y are even;
x and y are both odd;
x is even, y is odd;
x is odd, y is even.
Now if x and y are both even or both odd, then x+y is even. In this case (x + y) = 0.
In the rst case (x) + (y) = 0 + 0 = 0 and in the second case (x) + (y) = 1 + 1 = 0.
Otherwise one is even and the other is odd and x+y is odd.

In this case (x + y) = 1 and (x) + (y) = 1 + 0 = 1.
Thus we get a homomorphism.
Proposition 4.7. (Properties of homomorphism) If :GH is a homomorphism of groups
and eH , eG are the identity elements in H and G respectively.
Then for all x, y G, (xy) = (x)(y) the following hold:
(i) (eG ) = eH
(ii) (x1 ) = (x)1
(iii) (xy 1 ) = (x)(y 1 )
(iv) (x) = (y) (xy 1 ) = eH
Proof. (i) a G,
.
es
not
aeG = a
= (aeG ) = (a)
(a) ? (eG ) = (a) , (a) H.

sG
Similarly, (eG ) ? (a) = (a) .

Therefore, (eG ) is the identity in H. i.e. (eG ) = eH
1
(ii) Let x G, then(x)(x ) = (xx1 ) = (eH ) = (eG ) ( from (i)).... next side...see notes
Lakhan
Hence (x1 ) = (x)1 .
(iii) and (iv) are straightforward.
Note 4.8. Since a homomorphism preserves the operations, it preserves the identity and inverse.

Denition 4.9. Let be a homomorphism of G into H the kernal of , denoted ker , is dened
by
ker = {x G | (x) = eH }, where eH is the identity of H.
Theorem 4.10. (Self Study) ker is a normal subgroup of G
Proof. We have to show that the kernel is non-empty and closed under multiplication and
contains inverses for every element in ker .
Note that ker is certainly non-empty, since it contains the identity.
Now suppose that x, y ker , so that (x) = (y) = e and so (xy) = (x)(y)= ee = e.
Thus xy ker
Finally suppose that
es
and so the kernel is closed under multiplication.
(x1 ) = (x)1 = e.
x ker , (x) = e.
not
Then
Thus x1 ker and the kernel is a subgroup.
Now to prove normality.
Suppose that k ker . We need to prove that gkg 1 ker .
For any g G, k K, gkg 1 K

sG
Consider (gkg 1 )
= (g)(k)(g 1 )
= (g)(g 1 ) = e
Lemma 4.11. (Self Study) Let :GH be a homomorphism.
Then f is injective i ker = {e} .
Proof. If f is injective, then at most one element can be sent to the identitye H.
Since (e) = e, it follows that ker = {e}.
Conversely, suppose that ker = {e} and that (x) = (y).

4.2. ISOMORPHISM CHAPTER 4. HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS
Let g = x1 y.
Then (g) = (x1 y)= (x)1 (y) = e.
Thus g is in the kernel of and so g = e. But then x1 y = e and so x = y.
Then is injective.
Theorem 4.12. (For Completeness) (Euler-Fermat Theorem). Let G be the multiplicative group
of congruence classes modulo n. Additionally if n and a are coprime positive integers, then
a(n) 1 (mod n)
,where (n) is Euler's totient function.
Note this is purely for completeness.
es
not
Proof. ( Left as exercise)
sG
4.2. Isomorphism
Denition 4.13. Let a function f : G H be a homomorphism. If f is also a one-one
correspondence, then f is called an isomorphism, from G to H.
Denition 4.14. If f is one-one and onto, then we say that G is isomorphic to H and write
G
= H.
(a) How to show that two groups are isomorphic?
If G and H are the groups in question, you need to construct an isomorphism f : G H.
This is usually done as follows:
+ Dene a function f : G H, which you think will be an isomorphism.

4.2. ISOMORPHISM CHAPTER 4. HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS
+ Prove that f is a homomorphism.
+ Prove that f is a one-to-one function.
+ Prove that f is onto.
(b) How to show that two groups are not isomorphic?
Note 4.15. If two groups are isomorphic, all their structural properties are the same.
Thus, if one of the groups has some structural property, while the other does not, then these
groups are not isomorphic. Let us give a couple of examples of this situation.
Example 4.16.
es
1. The group Z3 is not isomorphic to Z4 , because Z3 has 3 elements, and Z4 has 4 elements.
2. The group R under multiplication and the group C under multiplication are not isomorphic.
not
The equation x2 = a has solution x C for any a C , but the same equation does not have
a solution in R for some a R (namely, for negative a).
3. The group R under addition is not isomorphic to the group R under multiplication.
The equation x2 = 1 in R has two solutions (1 and 1), and the corresponding equation
sG
x+x=0 in R has only one solution 0.
Example 4.17. Consider the mapping : (R, +) (R+ , ) be dened by (x) = ex , x R.

Show that the groups are isomorphic.
Note: the importance of dening the function, if you cannot nd a proper homomorphism
that doesn't means one doesn't exists.

4.3. ORDERED PAIRS AND DIRECT
CHAPTER
PRODUCT.
4. HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS
4.3. Ordered pairs and Direct Product.
Denition 4.18. Let H and K be groups. The direct product of groups H and K denoted by
H K, is the group with elements of all ordered pairs (h, k) where hH and k K with
operation given by
(h1 , k1 ) (h2 , k2 ) = (h1 h2 , k1 k2 )
Exercise 4.19. Prove that H K is abelian if and only if both H and K are abelian.
Denition 4.20. If X is a subset of a group G, then the smallest subgroup of G containing X,

denoted by hXi is called the group generated by X.
Example 4.21.
es
The set of all non-identity elements of a group is a generating set for the group.
not
sG

5. Normal Subgroups & Quotient Gp.
5.1. Normal Subgroups
Denition 5.1. If H is a subgroup of a group G with operation and a G then the left coset
aH of G is the subset aH of G, where a H = {a h : h H}.
Denition 5.2.
group or normal divisor) of
A subgroup
G
H of a group
if
es G is called a normal subgroup (or invariant sub-

not
gH = Hg, g G.
If H is normal in G then we write H C G.
The following theorem is useful for proving that a subgroup H of a group G is a normal subgroup
sG
of G.
Theorem 5.3. If H is a subgroup of a group G, then H is normal in G if and only if g 1 hg

H, g G and h H .
Proof. Suppose that H is normal in G. Then, by denition, gH = Hg , g G.
Let h H. Then hg Hg .
Now, since
gH = Hg , g G = hg = gh0 for some h0 H
= g 1 hg = h0 , g 1 hg H.
Conversely, suppose that g 1 hg H, g G and h H . .
42
5.1. NORMAL SUBGROUPS CHAPTER 5. NORMAL SUBGROUPS & QUOTIENT GP.
Let hg Hg . Now
hg = gg 1 hg = gh gH
since g 1 hg H, g G and h H .
= Hg = gH .
Thus H C G.
Theorem 5.4. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
Proof. Proof. Let
Let gh gH .
H
es
be a subgroup of an abelian group G.
not
Then, since G is abelian, gh = hg Hg : = gH = Hg = H CG.
Example 5.5. Example. {e} and G are normal subgroups of G.

sG
Let G be the group of all integers under addition and H be the set of all integers divisible by
5, then H is a subgroup of G under addition, further, HCG and the decomposition of G into
distinct right cosets yields the following equivalence classes:
Example 5.6. H,
H1 = {x G : 5 | (x 1)} ,
H2 = {x G : 5 | (x 2)} ,
H3 = {x G : 5 | (x 3)} ,
H4 = {x G : 5 | (x 4)} .
Fact 5.7. A relation is well-dened if every object has a unique image. i.e. f is well-dened
a = b = f (a) = f (b).

5.1. NORMAL SUBGROUPS CHAPTER 5. NORMAL SUBGROUPS & QUOTIENT GP.
Theorem 5.8. If G.N then the set of cosets G/N = {gN : g G} is a group under the
operation dened by N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 .
Proof. We rst show that the operation is well-dened on the set G/N .
Suppose
N g1 = N h1 and N g2 = N h2 .
Then by denition of ,
N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 .
Now, g1 N g1 = N h1 .
g1 = n1 h1 for some n1 N
Similarly,
es
g2 = n2 h2 for some n2 N.
not
g1 g2 = n1 h1 n2 h2
Now,
g1 g2 (h1 h2 )1 = n1 h1 n2 h2 h1 1
2 h1
sG
= n1 h1 n2 h1
1
= n N, since N /G
g1 g2 (h1 h2 )1 N
= N g1 g 2 (h1 h2 )1 = N
= N g1 g2 = N h1 h2

5.2. QUOTIENT GROUP OR FACTOR
CHAPTER
GROUP
5. NORMAL SUBGROUPS & QUOTIENT GP.
Closure:
Let N g1 N g2 G/N .
Then N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 = N g G/N.
Assosciativity follows from the associtivity of the operation on G: If N g1 , N g2 , N g3 G/N
Then N g1 (N g2 N g3 ) = N g1 N g2 g3 = N g1 g2 g3 = (N g1 g2 )N g3 = (N g1 N g2 )N g3 .
It is clear that N is the identity element of G/N .
Inverses: N gN g 1 = N gg 1 = N = N g 1 g .
es
not
5.2. Quotient Group or Factor Group
Denition 5.9. The group G/N is called the quotient group or factor group of G by N.
Exercise 5.10. Prove that if H and K are two normal subgroups of a group G, then the group
sG
H K is normal in G.
Exercise 5.11. Prove that two right cosets, Ha and Hb of a group G are identical i ab1 G:

CHAPTER
GROUP
Theorem 5.12. (a) First Isomorphism Theorem (Homomorphism Theorem)
(This is a big big Theorem, major major Theorem. Huge!! - Get the point yet?)
Let f : G H be a homomorphism between groups, with kernal, K. Then K P G and
G/K
= G.
Note. K = ker f , G is the range of f. Thus, it could be stated as domain (of f) over kernel
(of f ), is isomorphic to the range (of f)
Proof. (To be discussed in class)
+ Construct a mapping,.
+
Show mapping
Show that

es
is 1-1, well-dened and onto
is a homomorphism
not
+ Show normality
Theorem 5.13. (b) Second Isomorphism Theorem: (here for completeness)
Let G be a group, let N and T be a subgroups of G, with N being normal.
Then N T PT and T /(N T )

= N T /N .
sG
Proof. (To be discussed in class)
+ Show HT is a subgroup of G.
+ Show NT B T
+ Show that is a homomorphism, 1-1. onto,well dened
+ Show Kernal =H K
Now that all these remarks have been done, it is not dicult to see that the 2nd
Isomorphism Theorem follows from the 1st Isomorphism Theorem, as does the 3rd
Isomorphism Theorem.

CHAPTER
GROUP
Theorem 5.14. (c) Third Isomorphism Theorem (here for completeness)
Let K, H be normal subgroups of a group G and suppose that K H.
Then H/K P G/K and (G/K)/(H/K)

= G/H.
Proof: (To be discussed in class)
+ Show H/K is a subgroup of G/K .
+ Show G/K B H/K
+ Show that is a homomorphism, 1-1. onto,well dened
+ Show Kernal = H/K
Theorem 5.15. Correspondence Theorem: (here for completeness - Big Theorem

also)
es
not
Let G be a group with K P G, and let : G G/K be the natural map.
Then S (S) = S/K is a bijection from the family of all these subgroups S of G which
contain K to the family of all the subgroups of G/K . Moreover , if one denotes S/K by S ,
then
(i) T S i T S and [S : T ] = [S : T ] and

sG
(ii) T ES i T E S and then S/T

= S /T .
Proof. Discussed in class, when you are enrolled in the course, or feel free to conduct personal
research - Rajesh :P

Part II.
es RINGS
not
sG
48
6. Rings
Denition 6.1. A ring R is a set with two binary operations, + and , satisfying:
1. (R, +) is an abelian group.
2. R is closed under multiplication, i.e. a, b R a b R.
3. Multiplication is associative, i.e. (ab)c = a(bc), f or all a, b, c R,
4. Multiplication distributes over addition.
i.e. a(b + c) = ab + ac and
es
(a + b)c = ac + bc, a, b, c R.
not
Note. The rst operation is called addition and the second operation is called multiplication.
Denition 6.2. Below are some essential denitions:
+ If multiplication is commutative then R is called a commutative ring.
+ The identity for addition is called the zero of the ring. i.e. If R contains an element such
sG
that a + z = z + a = a, a R then z is called the zero element.
+ The identity for multiplication is called the unit element. i.e. If R contains an element u
such that a u = u a = a, a R then u is called the unit element or unity.
Example 6.3. The following are some examples of rings:
+ (Z, +, ) , (Q, +, ) , (R, +, ) , (C, +, ).
+ 2Z even Integers and 3Z
+ M atn (R) = {n n matrices with real entries} . In general AB 6= BA.
49
6.1. SUBRINGS CHAPTER 6. RINGS
Exercise 6.4. Let Z be the set of integers and dene addition and multiplication in Z as
follows:
ab=a+b+1
a b = a + b + ab
1. Show that (Z, , ) is a commutative ring.
2. What is the zero of (Z, , )?
3. Does (Z, , ) have a unit element? If so, what is it?
6.1. Subrings
es
not
Denition 6.5. A subring of a ring R is a subset which is a ring under the same operations
addition and multiplication.
Example 6.6. The following are some examples of subrings:
1. Z is a subring of Q.
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2. Q is a subring of C.
3. {0} and R are subrings of R.
Denition 6.7. Let R be a ring. A subring S of R is called a proper subring i S is proper
subset of R.
Proposition 6.8. Let S be a non-empty subset of a ring R. Then S is a subring of R if and
only if, for any a, b S we have a + b S , ab S and (a) S.
Proof. (Self study) A subring has these properties.
Conversely, if S is closed under addition and taking the relevant inverse,
then (S, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) (from group theory).

6.2. RING HOMOMORPHISM CHAPTER 6. RINGS
S is closed under multiplication.
Associativity and distributivity hold for S because they hold for R.
Proof. Alternative theorem: Share out Handout.. with zero divisors included... non-unique elements...
Denition 6.9. An element a 6= 0 (the zero of the ring) of a ring R is called a zero divisor if
there exists b 6= 0 (the zero of the ring) R such that ab = 0
6.2. Ring Homomorphism
Denition 6.10. A mapping from
es
(R, +, ) into R , ,

is said to be a (ring) homomor-
not
phism from R into R i:
1. (a + b) = (a) (b) , a, b R.
2. (a) (b) = (a) (b), a, b R.
Denition 6.11. If is one-one and onto, then we say that R is isomorphic to R and write
sG
R
= R.
Question. Let (R, , ) be a ring and let (R, +, ) be a ring. We dened addition and
multiplication in R as follows:
ab=a+b+1
a b = a + b + ab
Show that both rings are isomorphic (homomorphism that is a bijection)
Proof. We dene a homomorphism (a) = (a + 1).
Please attempt now.
Thank you.

6.3. IDEALS AND RING HOMOMORPHISMS CHAPTER 6. RINGS
6.3. Ideals and Ring Homomorphisms
Denition 6.12. A subring I of a ring R is an ideal if whenever rR and a I, then ra I

and ar I .
[Think of the product ra or ar being absorbed into the ideal I , like a blackhole, it sucks
everything into it - scary not so :P]
Note 6.13. If R is commutative, we only need to worry about multiplication on one side. More
generally, one can speak of left ideals and right ideals and two-sided ideals.
Theorem 6.14. A nonempty subset I in a ring R is an ideal i it satises
1. If
2. If
a, b I , then
r R, a I ,
(a b) I ;
then ra I and
es
ar I .
not
Proof. (Left as exercise)
Example 6.15. The following are examples of Ideals:

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1. nZ = {kn|k Z} for any nZ is an ideal in Z. If n=0 we get the zero ideal, an ideal
of any ring R. If n = 1 we get Z, the whole ring. Again, for any ring, R the whole ring
is an ideal of R.
2. In Z6 , the set I = {[2k] Z6 |k Z} is an ideal.
3. p(x)R[x] = {p(x)f (x)|f (x) R[x]}is an ideal of R[x] for any commutative ring R with 1.
4. . In Z[x], the set I = {f (x) Z[x] | f (0) 0 (modn)} is an ideal for any n2 in Z.

6.4. SOME DEFINITIONS TO END WITH: CHAPTER 6. RINGS
6.4. Some Denitions to End with:
Denition 6.16. Field - A eld is a commutative ring in which the non-zero elements form a
group under multiplication. or a Field is a commutative division ring.
Denition 6.17. A division ring is a ring in which the non-zero elements form a group under
multiplication.
Denition 6.18. A ring R is called an integral domain if:
1. R is commutative, i.e. ab = ba for all a, b R,
2. R has no zero divisors.
3. ** R has an identity under multiplication (written as 1),
4. ** 0 6= 1.
es
**Unsure of these conditions, please verify with your lecturer. There are varying opinions about
not
the denition.
Note 6.19. If 0 = 1, then x1=x and so x= x 1 = x 0 = 0. Hence if 0=1 then R = {0}.
Denition 6.20. Euclidean Domain (D, +, , d) consists of an integral domain (D, +, ) together
with a function d : D Z+ , such that:
sG
+ d (x) = 0 x = z the zero of D .
+ d (xy) d (x) , where xy 6= z.
+ For every x, y (6= z) D, q, r D : x = qy + r, where 0 d (r) < d (y) .
End of Facilitation for sG.
Additional notes follow.
It was a pleasure spending these 2 weeks of our life with you all - The Facilitators and many
volunteers throught out (and to future) the years of all sG sessions.
Regards.

6.4. SOME DEFINITIONS TO END WITH: CHAPTER 6. RINGS
Proposition 6.21. Every integral domain R satises the cancellation property: if ax = ay and
a 6= 0 then x=y for all x, y, a R.
Proof. (Left as exercise)
Proposition 6.22. If R is an integral domain, then so is R[x] - where R[x] are polynomials over
the real numbers.
Proof. The only non-obvious thing to check is that there are no zero divisors.
For contradiction, assume that f (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + am xm , g(x) = b0 + ... + bn xn are elements
of R[x] such that f (x)g(x) is the zero polynomial.
Without loss of generality assume that
(i.e. m = deg f (x), n = deg g(x)).
es
am 6= 0, bn 6= 0
not
Then f (x)g(x) = a0 b0 + ... + am bn xm+n .
Since R is an integral domain am bn 6= 0.
Therefore we get a contradiction, hence f (x)g(x) can't be the zero polynomial.

sG

7. Euclidean Rings.
Denition 7.1. An integral domain R is said to be a Euclidean ring if for everyx 6= 0 in R there
is dened a nonnegative integer d(x) such that:
(i) For all x and y in R, both nonzero, d(x) < d(xy).
(ii) For any x and y in R, both nonzero, there exist z and w in R such that x = zy + w
where either
Example 7.2. Z
w=0 or d(w) < d(y).
es
not
is clearly a Euclidean Ring with ||n|| dened to be absolute value.
Denition 7.3. An integral domain R with unit element is a principal ideal ring if every ideal
in R
is a principal ideal;
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i.e., if every ideal A is of the form A = (x) for some x in R.
Note 7.4. If R is a commutative ring, a principal ideal is one of the form dR for some d R.
A principal ideal domain (PID) is an integral domain in which every ideal is principal.
Theorem 7.5. A Euclidean domain is a principal ideal domain.
Proof. (Class Discussion)
Note 7.6. Converse is not true.
Example 7.7. R- the set of real numbers
55
7.1. DIVISION ALGORITHM CHAPTER 7. EUCLIDEAN RINGS.
7.1. Division Algorithm
Theorem 7.8. 2 (Division Algorithm): If m, n are integers and n 6= 0
then there exists an integer q such that |m nq| < |n|.
Proof. Case I: n > 0.
Let S= m nq|q Z and let r be the least non-negative integer in S.
If rn then 0 < m n(q + 1) = r n < r, a contradiction.
Hencer < n.
Case II: n < 0. Then by case I,
there exists qZ such that |m n(q)| = |m (n)q| < |n|.
es
not
Example 7.9. : If m = 37 andn =6 we may write 37 = 6 (6) 1 in which case q = 6
and r = 1.
Alternatively 37 = 6 (7) + 5 in which case q = 7 and r=5
Denition 7.10. Let R be a commutative ring. The element 0 6= a R is said ti divide b R,

sG
written as a/b,
if there exist c such that b = ac.
Example 7.11. The following are examples:
1. If R = Z, this is the usual concept of divisibility.
2. If R = Z[i], then (2 + i)|(1 + 3i). Divide 1 +3i2 + i = (1 + 3i)(2 i)(2 + i)(2 i) =

2 + 3 + 6i i5 = 1 + i Z[i].
3. . If R is a eld, e.g. R=Q or R, then for any a, b R,a 6= 0, we can write b = ac for
some cR by
taking c = a 1 b, so that a|b.

4. . If F is a eld, and R is a ring of polynomials R = F [x], then f (x)|g(x) if g(x) = f (x)h(x)
for some h F [x].
This is the usual notion of divisibility of polynomials.
Denition 7.12. Element uR is a unit (or an invertible element) if uv = 1 for unit some
v R,
i.e. there exists u1 R.
Example 7.13. The following are examples of units
1. Z = {1}.
F = F 0.
es
2. . Clearly, an integral domain F is a eld i
3. . Z[i] = 1, 1, i, i :Suppose that a + bi Z[i] is a unit, so(a + bi)(c + di) =1 for some
not
c, d Z .
Then also (a bi)(c di) = 1.,so clearly a + bi 1, 1, i, i.
Denition 7.14. An element r of an integral domain R is called irreducible if
(1)r
/ R,
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(2) if r = ab, then a or b is a unit.
Note 7.15. An element rR is reducible if r = st for some s, t R where neither s nor t is a
unit.
Therefore rR is irreducible if it is not reducible and is not a unit.
Example. The irreducible elements in Z are p, where p is a prime number
Example. In R[x] the polynomial x2 + 1 is irreducible. But in C[x], x2 + 1 = (x + i)(x i), and
x + i, x i are not units, hence x2 + 1 is reducible in C[x].
An irreducible element of a polynomial ring F [x], where F is a eld, is the same as the irreducible
polynomial.

Proposition 7.16. Elements a and b are associates in an integral domain R i (the following
are equivalent)
(1) a = bu for some u R ,
(2) b = av for some v R ,
(3) a|b and b|a,
(4) aR = bR.
Proof. (1) is the denition. Since a = bu implies b = au1 with u1 R,
(1) implies (2) and (3).
For (3) implies (1), consider b = sa for some sR and a = tb for some t R.
Then by the cancellation property, if
If a=0 then b=0 and clearly a and b
es
a 6= 0 we have that
are associates.
ts = 1.
not
Otherwise t, s are units, hence again a and b are associates.
Denition 7.17. An integral domain R is called a unique factorization domain (UFD) if the
following hold:
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(1) Every non-zero element of R is either unit or a product of nitely many irreducibles.
(2) If a1 am = b 1 b n , where the ai , bj are irreducibles, then n=m and after reordering of
factors,
ai and bi are associates for 1 i n.
Proposition 7.18. Let R be a UFD. If p is irreducible and p|ab thenp|a or p|b.
Theorem 7.19. Element F is a root of f (x) F [x] if and only if (x ) divides f (x).

Proof. If (x ) divides f (x), then f (x) = (x )b(x), hence f () = ( )b() = 0.
Conversely, suppose f () = 0 and write f (x) = q(x)(x ) + r(x).
Clearly degr(x) < deg(x ) = 1 and hence degr(x) = 0,
i.e. r(x) = r F . This implies 0 = f () = q() 0 + r, that isr = 0.
Theorem 7.20. Let ,f (x) F [x] where F is a eld and degf (x) = n 1.
Then f (x) has at most n roots in F.
Proof. By induction on n If n = 1, then f (x) = ax + b, a 6= 0,
hence f (x) has only one root, namely
es
b
a
Now suppose that the statement is true for all degrees up to

.
n 1.
not
If f (x) has no roots in F, we are done.
Otherwise,f (x) has at least one root, say . Writef (x) = (x )g(x) by the induction assump-
tion,
g(x)has at most n1 roots.
Finally, if is a root of f (x), i.e.f () = 0, then0 = f () = ( )g().

sG
If 6= 0, theng() =0 since F has no zero divisors.
Thus f (x) has at most 1 + (n 1) = n roots.
Example. . The polynomial x6 1 Q[x] has only two roots in Q, namely 1 and 1.
2. The polynomial x6 1 C[x] has 6 roots in C.

Part III.
es
FIELDS
not
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60
8. Field Extensions
Denition 8.1. If F K are elds, then K is an extension of F.

Example 8.2. Fields R and Q( 2) are extensions of Q.
Proposition 8.3. If K is an extension of a eld F, then K is a vector space over F.
es
Proof. Recall that a vector space is an abelian group under addition where we can multiply
not
elements by the
elements of F.
The axioms of a vector eld are: for all , F , v1 , v2 K ,
(1) (v1 + v2 ) = v1 + v2 ,
(2) ( + )v1 = v1 + v1 ,
sG
(3) v1 = (v1 ),
(4) 1v1 = v1 .
All of these clearly hold.
Denition 8.4. Let K be an extension of F. The degree of K over F is dimF (K)degree.
Denote this by[K : F ]. If [K : F ] is nite, we call K a nite extension over F.
Example 8.5. Let F = R, K = C = x + iy|x, y R, so dimR(C) = 2 and 1, i is a basis of C.
So [C : R] = 2.
61
CHAPTER 8. FIELD EXTENSIONS

Example 8.6. Find [Q( 3 2) : Q].

3

3
2
We claim that 1, 2, 2 is a basis of Q( 3 2).

Indeed, since otherwise these three elements are linearly dependent (they clearly span Q( 3 2)),

i.e. we can nd b0 , b1 , b2 Q not all zero, such that b0 + b1 3 2 + b2 ( 3 2)2 = 0.

But the minimal polynomial of
3
2 is x3 2 because it is irreducible over Q (by the Eisenstein
Criterion).

Therefore [Q( 3 2) : Q] = 3.
Theorem 8.7. Let F K be a eld extension, K. The minimal polynomial of has degree
i [F () : F ] = n.
Proof. Suppose
es
the degree of minimal polynomial of is n. We know that
not
F() = a0 + a1 + + an1 n1 |ai F
. Hence 1, , ..., n1 span F ().
Let us show that 1, , ..., n1 are linearly independent:
If not, there are b0 , ..., bn1 F such that b1 + b1 + + bn1 n1 = 0 and not all bi = 0
sG
. But then is a root of the non-zero polynomial b0 + b1 x + + bn1 xn1 ;
this contradicts our assumption.
Suppose [F () : F ] = n.
The elements 1, , 2 , ..., n1 , n F () are n+1 vectors in a vector space of dimension n.
Hence there exist ai F, i = 0, ..., n (not all ai = 0), such that a0 + a1 + + an n = 0.
Therefore is algebraic over F. Thus has a minimal polynomial, say of degree m.
By the proof of , m = [F () : F ], so m = n.
Example 8.8. See the following :

1. x2 + 1is the minimal polynomial of i over R and [C : R] = 2.

2. . x2 2 is the minimal polynomial of 2 over Q and [Q( 2) : Q] = 2.

3. . x3 2 is the minimal polynomial of
3
2 over Q and [Q( 3 2) : Q] = 3.
4. . x2 + x + 1 is the minimal polynomial of over Z/2 and [Z/2() : Z/2] = 2.

Example 8.9. Let Q( 2, 3) be the smallest subeld of R containingQ, 2 and 3.

We have (Q( 2))( 3) = Q( 2, 3):

By previous results (Q( 2))( 3) = n + 3|, Q( 2) because

x2 3 is the minimal polynomial of 3 over Q( 2).
Also

es
(Q( 2))( 3) = na + b 2 + c 3 + d 6|a, b, c, d Q
not
Theorem 8.10. Let F KE be elds. Then [E : F ] = [E : K][K : F ].
Corollary 8.11. F KE [E : F ] < ,

sG
If are elds and then [K : F ] divides [E : F ] and
[E : K] divides [E : F ].
Denition 8.12. The smallest positive integer n such that
1 + 1 + + 1|{z} = 0
( n times ) is called the characteristic of the eld F. If there is no such n, then F has
characteristic 0.
Denote the characteristic of F by charF .
Note 8.13. For aF and n N, we denote by (n a) the sum (n a) = a + a + + a|{z}

(n times) .

Proposition 8.14. Let F be a eld. Then (with p a prime number)
(1) char(F ) = 0 or char(F ) = p,
(2) if char(F ) = 0, then if x F ,x 6= 0, then(k x) f or k N {0} is never zero,
(3) if char(F ) = p, then (p x) = 0 for any x F.
Proof. (1) Let ,n > 0, n Z be the characteristic of F. Then (n 1) = 0.
If n is not prime, then n = ab for a, b Z, 0 < a, b < n, and
so 0 = (a 1)(b 1). But then (a 1) = 0 or (b 1) = 0.
This is a contradiction since a, b < n.
(2) If char(F ) = 0 and (n x) = x(n 1) = 0
then x = 0or(n 1) = 0, so x = 0.
es
not
(3) If char(F ) = p, p prime, then for any x F, (p x) = (p 1)x = 0x = 0.
sG

9. Questions.
9.1. Groups
1. Let M be a subset of H. Given that (M, +) is a group, write the element(s) of M.
2. a) State a necessary and sucient condition for a subset H to be a subgroup of a group
(G, )
b) Let
under the same operation
H = {kn : n Z},
es .
where k is xed. Prove that (H, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +).

not
3. Let (G, ) be a group and H = {g 1 : g G}. Prove that
a) H is a subgroup of G.
b) H is a normal subgroup of G.
8,
sG
c) Find all subgroups of the dihedral group of order and calculate also all left and
right cosets of those subgroups. Which subgroups are normal subgroups?
4. Let G be a set with a binary operation , associating to each pair of elements x and
y of G a third element x y of G. Suppose that the following properties are satised:
(x y) z = x (y z) for all elements x, y , and z of G (the Associative Law); there
exists an element e of G such that ex = x for all elements x of G; for each element
x of G there exists an element x0 of G satisfying x0 x = e. Prove thatG is a group with
respect to this binary operation. [Thus you must show that xe = x and x x0 = e for
all x G.]
5. Prove that a non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and only if xy 1 H

for all xH and y H.
65
9.1. GROUPS CHAPTER 9. QUESTIONS.
6. Let G be a group. Prove that any subgroup N of index 2 in G is a normal subgroup of
G.
7. Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. Show that the function mapping G onto
itself that sends gG to g 1 induces a bijection from the set of left cosets of H in G to
the set of right cosets of H in G. Hence show that the number of left cosets of H is equal
to number of right cosets of H, if either of these numbers is nite.
8. Show that Inn(G)

= G/Z(G), where Z(G) denotes the center of G. (Hint: Use the First
Isomorphism Theorem.)
9. Find the elements of S4 which leave invariant the expression x1 x2 +x3 x4 , where x1 , x2 , x3 , x4
R.
es
not
sG

9.2. RINGS CHAPTER 9. QUESTIONS.
9.2. Rings
1. Find the GCD of the following
a) (51, 192)
b) (20, 500)
c) (x6 + 7x5 + 3x3 + 21x2 + 7x + 49, x3 + 3x2 27x + 7)
d) 26 13i and 17 + 7i
2. Give an example of each of the following.
(a) An irreducible polynomial of degree 3 in Z3 [x].

(b) A polynomial in Z[x] that is not irreducible in Z[x] but is irreducible in Q[x].
(d) A ring with exactly 6
es
(c) A non-commutative ring of characteristicp, p a prime.
invertible elements.
not
(e) An innite non-commutative ring with only nitely many ideals.
3. Show that a non-zero ring R in which x2 = x for all xR is of characteristic 2 and is
commutative.
4. Determine for which integers n the ring Z/nZ is a direct sum of elds. Prove your answer.
sG
5. Let R be a nite commutative ring with more than one element and no zero-divisors.
Show that R is a eld.
6. Show that if p is a prime such that p 1(mod4), then x2 + 1 is not irreducible in Zp [x].
7. Let R be a non-zero commutative ring with 1. Show that an ideal M of R is maximal if
and only if R/M is a eld.**
8. Let R be a non-zero ring with identity. Show that every proper ideal of R is contained in
a maximal ideal.

9.2. RINGS CHAPTER 9. QUESTIONS.
9. Is x2 + 1 irreducible over Q?
10. Is x2 1 irreducible over Q?
es
not
sG

Part IV.
es
Appendix
not
sG
69
FREQUENTLY USED NOTATION
Set theory notation:
Z the set of all integers.
N the set of natural numbers.
R the set of rational numbers.
R2 the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers, e.g. (4, 7)
R3 the set of all ordered triplets of real numbers, e.g. (1, 2, 3)
Rn the set of all ordered n-tuplets of real numbers. (n1 , n2 , . . . nn )
xS x is an element of the set S .
Formal logic notation:
es
not
for all
there exists
: or | such that
= implies
sG
is logically equivalent to
is proportional to
= is isomorphic to

YouTube Videos:
For First Session:
+ Binary Operations by Christina Carter. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OJPC9AVYJEg
+ Denition of a Group (Abstract Algebra 1) from learnifyable.
+ Abstract Algebra: The Denition of a Group from Socratica.
For Second Session:
+ Symmetric Groups (Abstract Algebra) from Socratica.
+ Symmetric groups by CBlissMath.
+ Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra) Made Easy - Part 6 - Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem by
es
scalenescott.
For Third Session:

not
+ Group Theory 40, Normal Subgroups and Factor groups, examples by LadislauFernandes.
+ Group Theory 41 Normal Subgroups (again) by LadislauFernandes.
+ Homomorphisms (Abstract Algebra) by Socratica.
+ Isomorphisms (Abstract Algebra) by Socratica.
For Fourth Session:

sG
+ Abstract Algebra: The denition of a Ring by Socratica.

9.3. MATHEMATICAL PROOFS
We will assume the following information below is known -

Translation please go through and familiarise yourself with it.
9.3. Mathematical Proofs
What is a proof ?
A proof is just a logical explanation of a theorem. A formal proof of a statement is a
logical argument that establishes the truth of the statement based upon other already proven
statements or axioms.
If P and Q are statements, then we have.
Statement Notation
not
es
or
P
Q
P
W
P Q
V
not
P and Q P Q
If P then Q P = Q
P if and only if Q P Q
The statement P Q is true if and only if both P and Q are true. The statement P Q is
true if and only if at least one of the statements P, Q is true. This is what we call the inclusive
sG
or as opposed to the exclusive or that we use in everyday's life.
For example, the statement: 'We will have class in the morning or in the afternoon' means
in real life that only one of the alternatives will take places (exclusive or). In mathematics
however, this includes the possibility that we will have class in the morning as well as in the
afternoon (inclusive or).
P Q is considered to be false only in the case that P is true and Q is false. Otherwise it is
true. This is also in contrast to the plain English. For example, a statement like: 'If it rains
now then 2 is a prime number' is mathematically true, despite the fact that there is no relation
between the two parts of the statement, and regardless of whether the rst part is true or not.
The statement P Q is true if and only if P and Q have the same truth values. We also
say that P and Q are equivalent.
Finally, P is true if and only if P is false.

We use these logic statements when constructing a proof.
es
not
sG

9.3.1. The if-then statement
Consider an if-then statement:
If (we assume that) A is true, then B follows.
For example: If an integer n is divisible by 6, then n must be even.
You may nd it useful at rst to separate such a statement into background assumptions, the
'if ' assumptions, and the 'then' conclusions.
Specically:
+ Background assumptions: n is an integer.
n 6
es
+ If: is divisible by
+ Then: n is even.
not
Note 9.1. The background assumptions are just as important as the 'if ' assumptions.
+ Carefully write out all assumptions (the 'if ' part) at the beginning of the proof. Usually
this involves expanding what's written in the assumptions using the denitions of the
terms that appear there.

sG
+ Write out the conclusion of the theorem (the 'then') at the end of the proof, and expand
it using denitions as well. This is what we want to show follows from our assumptions.
+ The point of the proof is now to show that, given the assumptions, logical deduction leads
to the conclusion.
+ One of the best ways to do this is to work forward logically from the assumptions (think:
what follows from the 'if ' ?) and backwards from the conclusion (think: what would imply
the 'then' ?) until you meet in the middle.

Example 9.2. The assumptions of the theorem are: n is an integer divisible by 6. By the
denition of divisibility of integers, this means that n = 6d for some integer d.
The conclusion of the theorem says: n is even. By the denition of even, that is the same
as saying that n is divisible by 2. By the denition of divisibility, this means that we want to
show thatn = 2r for some integer r.
So now, we want to assume that n = 6d for some integer d, and then somehow deduce that
n = 2r for some integer r. However, if we know that n = 6d, then after a while, we might see
that n = 2(3d), which means that n = 2r holds for r = 3d. We therefore obtain the following
proof:
Proof. Assume that n = 6d.

Therefore, n = 2(3d).
So, if we let
we see that
r = 3d,
n = 2r for an integer r,
es
not
which means that n is even.
9.3.2. If and only if statements
A if and only if B
sG
Note: This statement may also be written in dierent forms (See Notes on Logics).
Proof Structure:
Proof: Assume A
.
.
.
Hence B
Conversely, Assume B
.
.
.
Hence A

9.4. METHODS OF PROOF:
9.4. Methods of Proof:
In a direct proof , the rst thing that you do is explicitly assume that the hypothesis is true for
your selected variable, then use this assumption with denitions and previously proven results
to show that the conclusion must be true.
9.4.1. Direct Proof Walkthrough:
Theorem 9.3. If x, y are integers and x and y are both odd, then x+y is even.
Proof. Since x and y are both odd,
we have that x = 2a + 1 and y = 2b + 1 for some integers a, b.
es
Consider
x + y = (2a + 1) + (2b + 1) = 2a + 2b + 2 = 2(a + b + 1) = 2k
k a + b + 1.
not
where is the integer
By denition we have that x+y is even.
Theorem 9.4. Let A and B be two sets. If AB =AB then A B.

sG
T
Proof. Assume that AB =A B.
We shall prove that x A x B, which by denition is equivalent to the consequence of
the theorem.
Assume that x A. Since A A B, then x A B.
We assumed that A B = A B, so x A B.
Finally, A B B, so consequently, x B.
Notice this is a formal proof and not a proof using set theory and that we did not end
the proof with the consequence of the theorem, but rather with a statement that suces to imply
the theorem by our earlier understanding. Here also we used implicitly some denitions from
V
set theory, like (x D) (D C) (x C).

9.4.2. Proof by Contrapositive
In a proof by contrapositive , you explicitly assume that the conclusion is false for your variable,
then use this assumption, plus denitions and proven results, to show that the hypothesis must
be false for your chosen variable.
Remember that the contrapositive of an implication is logically equivalent to the original im-
plication, so this is an indirect method for showing that the original implication is true. This
method should be used when the negative of a denition in your implication is easier to work
with than what is given.
A good example is linear dependence, which only means that a set is not linearly independent.
If you use the contrapositive, you are working with linear independence, which is a set denition
with many theorems tied to it, making it much easier to work with.
Proof by Contrapositive Walkthrough:
es
not
Restate the original statement to be as follows:
If x+y is odd, then x and y are not both odd:
Consider x + y = 2n + 1 by denition of odd for some integer n.
Then we have that x = (2n + 1) y .

sG
We will now consider the possible cases for y.
Case 1. If y is odd then y = 2a + 1 for some integer a and the dierence of two odd numbers
is (2n + 1) (2m + 1) = 2(n + m) which makes x even.
Case 2. If y is even then y = 2a for some integer a and the dierence x = (2n + 1) 2a =
2(n + a) + 1 is odd.
Therefore we have proved the contrapositive statement is valid and so the original statement is
also true.

9.4.3. Proof by contradiction

In a proof by contradiction , the rst thing that you do is explicitly assume that the implication
is false; that is, you assume that the hypothesis is true but the conclusion is false for your
selected variable.
Then use both of these assumptions to arrive at a contradiction of some other proven result.
Because you know the other proven result must be true, you must conclude that your original
assumption that the conclusion was false was incorrect; in other words, you are indirectly
proving that the original implication is true by showing that it cannot possibly be false. Proofs
by contradiction are useful for showing that something is impossible and for proving the converse
of already proven results. Proofs by contradiction can be somewhat more complicated than
es
direct proofs, because the contradiction you will use to prove the result is not always apparent
from the proof statement itself.

not
Proof by Contradiction Walkthrough:
Restate the original to be that x and y are odd integers and x+y is also odd.
We have that x + y = 2n + 1 by denition of odd for some integer n.
Then we have that x = (2n + 1) y .

sG
Given that y is odd then y = 2a + 1 for some integer a and the dierence of the two odd
numbers is (2n + 1) (2m + 1) = 2(n + m) which makes x even.
But this contradicts that both x and y are odd.
Therefore the original statement must be true, and if x, y are integers and x and y are both
odd, then x+y is even.
Things to remember when writing a proof:
1. A proof must always begin with an initial statement of what it is you intend to
prove. It should be self-contained, in that it denes all variables that appear in it. After
you have written what it is you are proving, you should begin the proof itself with the
notation Proof: or Pf:.

2. Always introduce your variables. The rst time a variable appears, whether in the
initial statement of what you are proving or in the body of the proof, you must state what
kind of variable it is (for example, a scalar, an integer, a vector, a matrix), and whether
it is universally or existentially quantied. For example, "there exists some kZ such
that . . . " or "for any aA . Note that if you write "let aA ," you are implying that
what follows is true for anya A.
3. If asked to disprove a statement, then the method of counterexample may be used. Ho-
wever, please note that if asked to prove a statement involving for all integers, then the
counterexample method is not suitable, in general a counterexample would only apply to
a single integer n.
4. Your proof should follow logically.
es
5. Now that you have your universally quantied implication, there are three common stra-
tegies for proving the implication is true and only one for proving it is false; these are
not
outlined here. Note that direct proofs are preferred whenever possible, and that direct
proofs and proofs by contrapositive are far more common than proofs by contradiction.
6. At the end of your proof, one of the following must be placed to indicate the end of the
00
proof: 00 , or Q.E.D..
7. Prove that if a is an integer, then a is not evenly divisible by 3 if, and only if, a2 1 is
sG
evenly divisble by 3.
8. Prove if x and y are two integers for which x+y is even, then x and y have the same parity.
9. If a divides b and b divides c then a divides c.
10. The sum of any even integer and any odd integer is odd.
11. If a, b are integers, The product is odd if and only if a and b are both odd.

9.4.4. More on Rings:

This we shall see how it goes...
Let d be an integer which is not a square.

Dene Z[ m] = {a + b Z[m | a, b Z}.

Denition 9.5. Call Z[ 1] = a + b 1, a, b Z . Gaussian integers the ring of Gaussian
integers
Proposition 9.6. For any two elements r, s of a ring, we have
1. r0 = 0r = 0,
2. (r)s = r(s) = (rs).
Proof. (1): r0
Adding (r0)
= r(0 + 0) = r0 + r0.
to both sides,
es
not
we get: 0 = r0 (r0) = r0 + r0 r0 = r0.
(2): 0 = 0s by (1) and 0 = 0s = (r + r)s = (r)s + rs.
Add (rs) to both sides
to get (rs) = (r)s.

sG
Similarly,r(s) = (rs).
...
9.4.5. Principal ideals.

Let R be a ring. Every (left)(right) ideal I is generated by a subset of R, namely I itself,
however it is useful to ask if we can nd a smaller generating set. A (left)(right) ideal I is
called nitely generated if it is generated as a (left)(right) ideal by a set X with |X| < .
A (left)(right) ideal I is called principal if it is generated as a (left)(right) ideal by a single
element.

Note 9.7. for principal ideals generated by a single element x we have:
(x)L = {rx|r R}
(x)R = {xr|r R}and
(x) = {sxr|s, r R}.
The zero ideal (0) and the whole ring (1) = R are always examples of principal ideals in any
ring R.
Theorem 9.8. Let R be a commutative ring with identity. Let c R. The set I = rc | r R is
an ideal of R.
Proof. Given two elements r1 c and r2 c in I, we have r1 c r2 c = (r1 r2 )c I .
For any
Therefore
a R, a(r1 c) = (ar1 )c I .
I is an ideal.
es
not
(We have implicitly used the fact that R is commutative so that multiplication on the right
also works.)
sG
Example 9.9. LetR = Z. If n is an integer, let nZ be the set of all multiples of Z .That is,
nZ = {na : a Z} .
To see that this set is an ideal, rst consider addition. if x, y nZ , then there integers a and b
with x = na and y = nb.
Then x + y = na + nb = n(a + b).
Therefore, x + y nZ.
Second, for multiplication, let x = na nZ and let r Z.
Then rx = xr = r(na) = n(ra), a multiple of n.
Therefore, rx nZ .
This proves that nZ is an ideal.

9.5. IDEALS AND QUOTIENT RINGS
Theorem 9.10. Let R be a commutative ring with identity. Letc1 , c2 , ..., cn R.
Then the set I = r1 c1 + + rn cn | r1 , ..., rn R is an ideal of R.
Proof. (Left as exercise) Similar to proof of Theorem 6.5
...
9.5. Ideals and Quotient Rings
Theorem 9.11. Let I be an ideal in a ring R. If a+I =b+I and c+I =d+I in R/I ,
then (a + c) + I = (b + d) + I
Proof. (Disscussion)
and
es
ac + I = bd + I .
not
Therefore we can dene addition in the set R/I by (a + I) + (b + I) = (a + b) + I
and multiplication by (a + I)(b + I) = ab + I. So just as Zn and F [x]/(p(x)) were rings,
so is R/I . It is called the quotient ring or factor ring of R by I .It is easy to see that if R is
commutative, then so is R/I and if R has an identity, then so does R/I .

sG
Theorem 9.12. Let R be a ring and let I be an ideal of R.
I is prime if whenever ab I then either aI orb I.
Then R/I is a domain if and only if I is prime.
Proof. Suppose that I is prime. Let x and y be two elements of R/I .
Then there are elements a and b of R such that x=a+I and y = b + I.
Suppose that xy = 0, but that x = 0, that is, suppose that a

/ I.
xy = (a + I)(b + I) = ab + I = 0. But then ab I and as I is prime, b I.
But then y = b + I = I = 0. Thus R/I is an domain.

Now suppose that R/I is a domain.
Let a and b be two elements of R such that ab I and
suppose that a
/ I. Let x = a + I, y = b + I . Then xy = ab + I = 0.
As x = 0, and R/I is an domain, y = 0.
But then bI and so I is prime.
Example 9.13. Let R = Z. Then every ideal in R has the form (n) = nZ .
It is not hard to see that I is prime i n is prime.
Denition 9.14. Let
We say that a is prime, if

R
es
be an integral domain and let a be a non-zero element of R.
not
(a) is a prime ideal, not equal to the whole of R.
Note 9.15. the condition that (a) is not the whole of R is equivalent to requiring that a is not
a unit.
sG
....
Denition 9.16. Let R be a ring. Then there is a unique ring homomorphism : Z R.
We say that the characteristic of R is n if the order of the image of is nite, equal to n;
otherwise the characteristic is 0.
Theorem 9.17. Let R be a domain of nite characteristic. Then the characteristic is prime.
Proof. Let : ZR be a ring homomorphism.
Then (1) = 1. Note that Z is a cyclic group under addition.
Thus there is a unique map that sends 1 to 1 and is a group homomorphism.
Thus is certainly unique and it is not hard to check that in fact is a ring homomorphism.
Now suppose that R is an integral domain. Then the image of is an integral domain.

In particular the kernel I of is a prime ideal. Suppose that I = (p).
Then the image of is isomorphic to R/I and so the characteristic is equal to p.
Another, obviously equivalent, way to dene the characteristic n is to take the
minimum non-zero positive integer such that n1 = 0.
Example 9.18. The characteristic of Q is zero. Indeed the natural map Z Q is an inclusion.
Thus every eld that contains Q has characteristic zero.
On the other hand Zp is a eld of characteristic p.
Denition 9.19.
such that I J,
Let
either
I be an ideal. We say that
J =I or J = R.
es I is maximal if for every ideal J,

not
Theorem 9.20. Let M be an ideal in R. M is a maximal ideal i R/M is a eld.
Proof. .()Assume M is maximal.
Then R/M is a commutative ring with identity . We have R/M 6= 0 sinceM 6= R.

sG
Therefore0 6= 1 inR/M .
Finally we check for inverses. Leta +M be a nonzero element of R/M .
Thena
/M and we build a bigger ideal I = ra + m|r R, m M .
(Check that this is an ideal.) Since aI and M is maximal, we must have I = R.
But then 1 I , so 1 = ra + m for somer R and m M .This means 1 + M = (r + M )(a + M ).
SinceR/M is commutative, this gives an inverse for a+M and so R/M is a eld.
()Now assume that R/M is a eld. Since 1 6= 0 in R/M , we have M 6= R.
Assume there is an ideal I such that M I R.
If I 6= M , let a I, a
/ M.
Then a+M has an inverse u+M in R/M , so au + M = 1 + M .
In particular, au = 1 + m for some m

/ M.

Since m M I, we have 1 = au m I and so I = R.
Therefore M is maximal
Proposition 9.21. Let R be a commutative ring. Then R is a eld i the only ideals are {0}
and R.
Proof. We have already seen that if R is a eld, then R contains no non-trivial ideals.
Now suppose that R contains no non-trivial ideals and let a R.
Suppose that a = 0 and let I = (a). Then I = {0}. Thus I = R. But then 1I and so 1 = ba.
Thus a is a unit and as a was arbitrary, R is a eld.
es
not
Theorem 9.22. Let R be a commutative ring. Then R/M is a eld i M is a maximal ideal.
Proof. Note that there is an obvious correspondence between the ideals of R/M and ideals of
R that contain M. The result therefore follows immediately from (6.18).

sG
Corollary 9.23. . Let R be a commutative ring. Then every maximal ideal is prime.
Proof. Clear as every eld is an integral domain.
Example. Let R=Z and let p be a prime. Then I = (p) is not only prime, but it is in fact
maximal.
Indeed the quotient is Zp
End of sG notes 2017. Thank you for participating. All the best in your exams and academic career.
Regards,
The sG Team.

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Abstract Study Group (sG) Notes

0.1. General Set-Up for the smooth running of sG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Cyclic Groups (Self Study)

Permutations and Symmetric Groups

3. Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem 31

3.2. Lagrange's Theorem (Very Very Very Important!!! - Very ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4. Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms 35

4.3. Ordered pairs and Direct Product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5. Normal Subgroups & Quotient Gp. 42

5.1. Normal Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.2. Quotient Group or Factor Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6.2. Ring Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.3. Ideals and Ring Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

6.4. Some Denitions to End with: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

7.1. Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

9.3.1. The if-then statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

9.3.2. If and only if statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

9.4. Methods of Proof: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

9.4.1. Direct Proof Walkthrough: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

9.4.2. Proof by Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

9.4.3. Proof by contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

9.4.4. More on Rings: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

9.4.5. Principal ideals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

9.5. Ideals and Quotient Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3 (2017) Abstract Study Group (sG)

the facilitators, past and present, of the Abstract Study Group:

which I was a participant o - Thank you.

The mathematical sciences

particularly exhibit order,

symmetry, and limitation; and

these are the greatest forms of beauty.

4 (2017) Abstract Study Group (sG)

In modern algebra we study three basic algebraic structures, namely,

1. groups 2. rings 3. elds.

The study of groups is referred to as group theory.

Why learn group theory?

symmetric to anything which stays invariant under some transformations.

+ Ignite the ablity of its participants to think in an abstract manner.

+ Expose its participants to Group Theory and what is a Ring.

0.1. General Set-Up for the smooth running of sG

Things that must be done\have on rst day of sG:

with at the end of the sessions :) Nothing to be afraid of though.

 Register, to be left with the sG representative for all days

 Course Guide for sG

 Course Guide for formal course Abstract Algebra (Math 2272)

 Past Papers for Math 2272

+ Explain dierent days, dierent individuals,

+ Ice breaker session - House building :) Ask Rajesh this.

6 (2017) Abstract Study Group (sG)

Start with the proof that:

Question 0.1. Suppose f : A B, g : B C, and gf : A C are functions. Prove that:

1. If f and g are injective, then gf is injective

2. If f and g are surjective, then gf is surjective.

3. If f and g are bijective, then gf

1. Suppose f and g are injective.

Let x, y A such that (g f ) (x) = (g f ) (y),

g(f (x)) = g(f (y))

f (x) = f (y). ( injectivity of g )

2. Suppose f and g are surjective.

By surjectivity of g, there exist yB such that g(y) = z.

Again, by surjectivity of f, there exist some xA such that f (x) = y.

Thus, (g f ) (x) = g(f (x)) = g(y) = z.

We have proven that every zC has a pre-image in A via (g f ).

6.4. Some Denitions to End with: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

which I was a participant o - Thank you.

The mathematical sciences

these are the greatest forms of beauty.

1. groups 2. rings 3. elds.

+ Expose its participants to Group Theory and what is a Ring.

Things that must be done\have on rst day of sG:

Register, to be left with the sG representative for all days

Course Guide for sG

Course Guide for formal course Abstract Algebra (Math 2272)

Past Papers for Math 2272

+ Explain dierent days, dierent individuals,

Denition 1.2. A group G is said to be abelian or commutative i the binary operation is

5. (e, ) is a group, where is dened by e e = e.

If z is any element of G which satises xz = e (right inverse ) then

Similarly if w is any element of G which satises wx = e (left inverse ) then w = x1 .