Fans Reference Guide123

4th edition, 2001
Fans
Reference Guide
ONTARIOrQwER
GENERATION
First Edition, September 1993 Second Edition, October 1997 Third
Edition, August 1999 Fourth Edition, January 2001
Coordinated by:
Scott Rouse, P.Eng., MBA. Ontario Hydro 1997
Revised by:
Richard Okrasa, P. Eng., MBA. Ontario Hydro
Written by:
Ralph G. Culham, P. Eng.
Consulting Engineer
for Technology Services Department, Ontario Hydro, 1993
Neither Ontario Hydro, nor any person acting on its behalf, assumes any liabilities
with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of, any information,
equipment, product, method or process disclosed in this guide.
Making Energy Savings Good Business
Printed in Canada
Copyright 1993, 1997, 1999, 2001 Ontario Power Generation
FANS
Reference Guide
3rd Edition, 1999

TA B L E OF CO N T E N T S
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1
...................................................................................................................21
Bifurcated Fans ....................................................................................21
Centrifugal Inline Fans ........................................................................21
Centrifugal Roof Exhausters ................................................................25
Utility Fans ..........................................................................................25
Fan Designation and Arrangements ....................................................25
Class Limits for Fans ..............................................................................31
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION .................................................................... 33
Centrifugal Fans......................................................................................34
Axial Fans ................................................................................................36
FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES.................................................................. 39
FAN LAWS ................................................................................................ 43
Limitations ...............................................................................................43
Compressibility Factor ...........................................................................44
FAN FORMULAE ....................................................................................... 47
Density .....................................................................................................47
Fan Flow Rate..........................................................................................48
Head and Pressure .................................................................................49
Velocity Pressure ....................................................................................49
Total Pressure ..........................................................................................50
Fan-System-Effect Factor .......................................................................50
Fan Power and Efficiency ......................................................................50
Fan Motor Power ....................................................................................52
Example 1 ................................................................................................53
AIR SYSTEMS ........................................................................................... 59
Example 2 ................................................................................................60
FAN AND SYSTEM INTERFACE ................................................................ 65
i
System Effect Factors .............................................................................65

Fan Outlet Conditions ............................................................................66
Fan Inlet Conditions .............................................................................. 68
FAN SELECTION..................................................................................................................... 69
Pressure Definitions .............................................................................. 70
Parallel Fan Selection ............................................................................ 72
Series Vs Parallel Operation ................................................................. 74
FAN NOISE ........................................................................................................................... 77
Fan Sound Power................................................................................... 78
Example 3 ............................................................................................... 81
FAN DUTY CONTROL............................................................................................................ 85
VIBRATION ISOLATION .......................................................................................................... 89
ELECTRIC MOTOR FAN DRIVE ............................................................................................ 91
Flywheel Effect....................................................................................... 91
AC Motors .............................................................................................. 92
DC Motors .............................................................................................. 93
ENERGY CONSUMPTION ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 95
Constant-Volume Fans.......................................................................... 96
Variable-Volume Fans........................................................................... 97
Example 4 ............................................................................................. 102
APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................... 109
Appendix A - Density Calculations .................................................. 109
Appendix B - Drive Loss Calculations .............................................. 115
Appendix C - Fan Outlet Loss Coefficients ...................................... 119
CONVERSION TABLES ......................................................................................................... 127
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ........................................................................................... 131
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 135
2
GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................... 139
3
LI S T OF FI G U R E S
1. Operating Point ................................................................................... 6

2. General Configuration and Component Terms
for Centrifugal Fans ............................................................................ 8
3. Airfoil ..................................................................................................... 9
4. Typical Characteristics of Airfoil Fans ............................................. 10
5. Typical Characteristics of Backward-inclined Fans ....................... 13
6. Typical Characteristics of Radial Fans ............................................. 14
7. General Configuration and Component
Terms for Axial Fans ......................................................................... 15
8. Typical Characteristics of Propeller Fans ........................................ 17
9. Typical Characteristics of Tubeaxial Fans ....................................... 18
10. Typical Characteristics of Vaneaxial Fans ..................................... 19
11. Configuration of Bifurcated Fans .................................................. 22
12. Typical Characteristics of Centrifugal Inline Fans ....................... 23
13. Typical Characteristics of Centrifugal Roof Exhausters .............. 24
14. Typical Characteristics of Forward-curved Utility Fans ............. 26
15. Typical Characteristics of
Backward-inclined Utility Fans ....................................................... 27
16. Drive Arrangements for Axial Fans
with or without Diffuser and Outlet Box ....................................... 28
17. Drive Arrangements for Centrifugal Fans .................................... 29
18. Drive Arrangements for Centrifugal Fans .................................... 30
19. Outlet Velocity Vector Diagram for
Backward-inclined Blades ................................................................ 35
20. Outlet Velocity Vector Diagram for Radial Blades ...................... 35
21. Outlet Velocity Vector Diagram for
Forward-curved Blades .................................................................... 35
iv
22. Velocity Vector Diagram for an Axial Fan without

Inlet Guide or Diffusion Vanes near the Impeller Hub................. 36
23. Velocity Vector Diagram for an Axial Fan without
Inlet Guide or Diffusion Vanes at the Blade Tip ............................ 36
24. Fan Test-rig Setup ............................................................................. 41
25. Compressibility Factor ..................................................................... 45
26. Operating Point and System Curve ................................................ 53
27. Fan Static-pressure Design Curve at 1,475 rpm
Intersecting Design Point A and Fan Static-pressure
Curve at 983 rpm Intersecting Point B ............................................ 56
28. Fan Static Pressure Curve Intersecting the Design Point A
and the Maximum Design Point D .................................................. 63
29. Deficient Fan and System Performance.......................................... 66
30. Fan-outlet Velocity Profiles .............................................................. 67
31. Design Operating Point Selection Range on a Typical
Centrifugal Fan Performance Curve ............................................... 72
32. Pressure Flow Curves ....................................................................... 73
33. Series Fan Operation ......................................................................... 75
34. Outlet Damper Fan Control ............................................................. 86
35. Throttle Control of a Fan with a Two-speed Motor ...................... 87
36. Inlet Vane Control of a Fan .............................................................. 88
V
C1. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet

Without Ductwork .......................................................................... 119
C2. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet Without Ductwork .................. 120
C3. Plane Symmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork ............. 121
C4. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork...122 C5.
Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork...123 C6. Plane
Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork...124 C7. Pyramidal
Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork .................................................. 125
vi
LI S T OF TA B L E S
1. Fan Laws ............................................................................................ 46

2. Typical Manufacturer's Performance Data for a
24-in. AFSW Centrifugal Fan at 70F and
Standard Atmospheric Pressure ..................................................... 54
3. Typical Number of Fan Blades ......................................................... 79
4. Specific Sound Power Levels and Blade
Frequency Increments ...................................................................... 80
5. Sound Correction Factors .................................................................. 81
6. Summary for Example 3 .................................................................... 83
7. Typical VAV-fan Constants ............................................................ 104
8. Motor Load Efficiencies ................................................................... 105
9. The Solution to Example 4 .............................................................. 105
10. Summary of Example 4 ................................................................. 107
7
LI S T OF TA B L E S
A1. Standard Atmospheric Data for

Altitudes to 3,000 m ......................................................................... 114
A2. Density Calculations ........................................................................... 114
C1. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan
Outlet Without Ductwork ................................................................ 119
C2. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet
Without Ductwork ............................................................................ 120
C3. Plane Symmetric Diffuser at Fan
Outlet With Ductwork ..................................................................... 121
C7. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork .......................... 125
8
CH A P T E R 1
INTRODUCTION
Fans and blowers are the largest single type of user of electricity in
industry. Applications in all industries include: boiler combustion
air supply, dust and exhaust removal (pneumatic conveying), bag
house, sewage aeration, drying, cooling industrial processes, and
ventilation. Issues such as indoor air quality and pollution control
create a continuous demand for well-designed, efficient and
cost-effective ventilation and blower systems.
Selecting the right size and type of fan and blower is fundamental to
an energy-efficient system.
The first step in any fan application is defining the needs of the
system being supplied.
Enhancing the performance of an existing air system with a new,
energy-efficient electronic control system offers significant potential
for energy savings. In some cases, retrofitting with a more efficient
fan or blower and interconnecting ductwork will be the most
appropriate way to reduce energy consumption.
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
This guide contains the information required to select an industrial
or commercial fan and blower system. Supporting handbooks and
reference material are identified in the Bibliography.
Chapter 7 provides the formulae necessary to determine the energy
consumption of a heating and ventilating fan system, particularly
variable-volume fans.
Because the personal computer is a popular design tool, the formulae
in this guide were designed to be used in a spreadsheet program.
Hourly analysis programs determine energy use more accurately,
and some of these programs can be used for system design and
selection.
This guide demonstrates how to use the American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
Modified Bin Method on a spread-sheet program to determine
annual energy consumption when fan power is a function of
outdoor air temperature. This procedure is reasonably accurate
relative to the time required to perform the analysis.
Once the annual energy consumption is determined, a life-cycle
costing analysis of a proposed system can be done. This guide
excludes life-cycle costing techniques as they are well documented
in texts such as the ASHRAE Handbook, 1991 HVAC Applications
Volume.
2 Fans Reference Guide

CH A P T E R 2
DEFINITIONS
Device that causes flow of a gaseous fluid by creating a pressure

difference by exchanging momentum from the fan blades to air/gas
particles.
The fan impeller converts rotational mechanical energy into both

static and kinetic energy within the gaseous fluid.
The proportion of static versus kinetic energy created and the

inherent energy conversion efficiency depends on the type of fan
(blade design).
The gaseous fluid transported by a fan is most often air and/or toxic
fumes, whereas blowers may transport a mixture of particulate and
air.
BLOWER
Similar to a fan, except it can produce a much higher static pressure.
Sometimes higher pressure is achieved by a multistage impeller
arrangement.
Engineering practice distinguishes fans and blowers for low pressure

and centrifugal compressors for high pressure.
Chapter 2: Definitions 3
e flow rate and fan outlet area.

FAN STATIC PRESSURE
The fan total pressure rise diminished by the fan velocity pressure.
FAN DUTY
The range of operating points, giving the fan inlet volume flow at a
rated fan pressure.
FAN OUTPUT POWER

The fan output power or the useful power, delivered by a fan to an
incompressible fluid, is equal to the product of the fan flow rate and
the fan total pressure divided by a constant depending on the units.
FAN EFFICIENCY
The fan total or mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of fan air
power to fan-shaft input power.
SYSTEM CURVE
The set of operating points defined by the duct friction, bends, and
other pressure losses that make up the connected system the fan
must serve.
PERFORMANCE CURVE
The set of operating points defined by a particular fan design, size,
and speed. Where the system and performance curves meet is the
fan's operating point.
FAN STATIC EFFICIENCY

This is not a true efficiency but has been used traditionally in the fan
industry. It is equal to the fan total efficiency times the ratio of fan
static to fan total pressures
Chapter 2: Definitions 5
Fan Total
Pressure Fan
or Performance
Fan Static Curve
System Curve
Pressure
P Operating Point
Volume Flow
V
Figure 1: Operating Point

CH A P T E R 3
FAN TYPES
The two general classifications of fans - centrifugal and axial - are

established according to the direction of flow through the impeller.
- Axial fans have high volume capability for large duct size
ventilation applications.
- Centrifugal fans have high pressure capability for applications

such as boilers, baghouses, conveyors, and sewage aerators.
These general classifications are subdivided into groups with

inherent performance characteristics to suit a specific application.
All other fans fall under a special design classification, including

mixed-flow fans.
CENTRIFUGAL FANS
Centrifugal fans are divided into four main subclassifcations
according to impeller type: airfoil, backward-inclined, radial and
forward-curved.
Chapter 3: Fan Types 7

Figure 2: General Configuration and Component Terms for
Centrifugal Fans
Reprinted with permission from the Air Movement

and Control Association from Publication 201-90

Airfoil
The most efficient centrifugal fan design, but the most expensive.
Airfoil (AF) have an impeller with typically 10 to 16 blades of airfoil
contour (see Figure 2), curved away from the direction of rotation.
Air leaves the impeller wheel at a velocity of less than its tip speed,
and relatively deep blades allow for efficient air expansion within
the blade passages.
For a given duty, these fans rotate at the highest speed.
The fan is in a scroll-type housing designed to efficiently convert
velocity pressure to static pressure.
To achieve high static-pressure efficiency, a close tolerance between
the wheel and the housing inlet cone must be maintained.
Due to the high operating speed, the airfoil blades and the close
tolerances, an AF fan is the most expensive to construct and repair.
It is the most efficient centrifugal fan design at approximately 90%.
Figure 3: Airfoil

24 in. AFSW Centrifugal
1,170 rpm
static pressure (sp) / horsepower (hp)
Figure 4: Typical Characteristics of Airfoil Fans

APPLICATION
Usually commercial heating, ventilating and air-conditioning
(HVAC) systems and clean-air industrial applications where the
power savings can be significant.
Best suited to applications that require low-to-medium static

pressure and a large flow volume.
Backward-inclined
Backward-inclined (BI) or backward curved fans have an impeller
with typically 10 to 16 blades of uniform thickness incllined or
curved away from the direction of rotation.
The fan is in the same scroll-type housing as an AF fan.

BI fans are slightly less efficient than AF fans at approximately 80%.
APPLICATION
In systems that require low-to-high static pressure, specifically in
commercial HVAC systems with moderate flow volume.
Also used in industrial systems that require some tolerance to a
corrosive or erosive environment. They are being used increasingly
in industrial process ventilation with wear liners.
Radial Fans
Radial (R) fans have an impeller wheel of high mechanical strength
with typically six to 10 blades of heavy gauge material radiating out
from the hub.
The blades can be either straight radial or modified radial with a

slight curve. They are often equipped with removeable wear plates
to extend the useful life of the fan impeller.
For a given duty, R fans operate at medium speed.

They are the least efficient fan at 50% to 60%, but they do not clog
and are easily repaired.
APPLICATION
Primarily in industrial systems in a corrosive or erosive
environment, such as material handling of airborne particulate or
where high static pressure is required.
Forward-curved
Forward-curved (FC) fans have an impeller wheel made of light
gauge material, with typically 24 to 64 shallow blades with both the
heel and the tip curved forward.
Air leaves the blade at a velocity greater than the tip speed, and
primarily kinetic energy is transferred to the air.
These fans are the smallest of the centrifugal type and, for a given
duty, rotate at the slowest speed.
The fan housing is a scroll design similar to the other centrifugal fan
housings, except the tolerance between the inlet cone and the wheel
is not as critical allowing lighter gauge material to be used.
FC fans are less efficient than AF and BI fans at approximately 70%.

APPLICATION
Generally in packaged and built-up, commercial and residential
HVAC systems with low-to-medium static pressures and low air
volumes. (See Figure 14, p. 26.)
AXIAL FANS
Divided into three subclassifications according to impeller type:
propeller, tubeaxial and vaneaxial.

24 in. BISW Centrifugal
1,170 rpm
static efficiency (se)
Figure 5: Typical Characteristics of Backward-inclined Fans

22 in. Radial
1,170 rpm
/
hp
o r o - t ^ o o D *
o
8-
o
/
CD ^ Cfl

1
o
1
\
1
-
o
4
4
o
( A se
< J i - CD
2
o
C T s u
5 - rge
1
" 5
-
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
cfm x 1,000
Figure 6: Typical Characteristics of Radial Fans

Figure 7: General Configuration and Component Terms for Axial
Fans
Reprinted with permission from the Air Movement and Control Association from Publication 201-90.

Propeller
Have an impeller with two or more BI blades that are usually made
from single, light-gauge material attached to a small diameter hub.
Because primarily kinetic energy is transferred to the air with little

static energy, these fans are limited to low-pressure applications.
The efficiency of these fans is low.

The fan housing can be a simple ring or circular guard, an orifice
plate, or an inlet cone with close tolerance to the blade tips to create
a venturi for optimum performance.
APPLICATION
Low static-pressure, high volume, commercial and industrial

systems.
Tubeaxial
Have an impeller with typically four to eight blades attached to a
hub that is usually less than half the diameter of the wheel.
The blades can be AF construction or single thickness.

Because the greatest portion of the work transferred to the air is static
energy, these fans can be used in applications where there is
resistance to flow, e.g., ductwork systems.
Tubeaxial fans are more efficient than propeller fans.

The housing is a cylindrical tube with a close tolerance to the
impeller blade tips; this results in higher performance than propeller
fans.

24 in.
Propeller 870 rpm
Direct Drive
Figure 8: Typical Characteristics of Propeller Fans

24 in. Tubeaxial
1,770 rpm
static pressure (sp) / horsepower (hp)

23 in. Axial Flow
870 rptn
Fan OV fpm x 100 6 0 1 0 12 14 16 1B 20 Fan Area = 2 95
i l l j I 1 1 > 1 1 i 1 1 1 11 I i 1 1 i 11 ] 111 1
v T F f I II I 1 l l | T I T 1 I T T 1
Cone OV tom x 100 4 6 8 10 12 14 Cone Area =4.28
total pressure (in. water gage at 0.75
horsepower
Ib/cu.ft.)
Figure 10: Typical Characteristics of Vaneaxial Fans

APPLICATION
Low and medium static-pressure, commercial, ducted systems
where the axial arrangement saves space and the downstream flow
pattern is not critical.
Industrial systems where airborne contaminants collect on the

impeller blades and require periodic cleaning.
Vaneaxial
Usually have short AF blades radiating from a hub greater than half
the diameter of the impeller.
The blades are either fixed, adjustable or controllable (variable

pitch-in-motion).
The discharge from the impeller has a rotative component, unless

inlet guide vanes are used.
Because stationary diffusion vanes downstream of the impeller

convert rotary energy produced by the blades into static pressure (as
in an axial blower or compressor), primarily static energy is
transferred to the air.
Vaneaxial fans are the most efficient axial fan.

The housing is a cylindrical tube with a close tolerance to the
impeller blade tips.
The housing may include a set of inlet guide vanes and/or

downstream diffusion vanes equal in number to the impeller blades
and preferably of the AF type.
APPLICATION
Low to high static-pressure, commercial HVAC systems, and
industrial ventilation systems where the axial arrangement saves
space, and the downstream flow patterns and efficiency are
important.

SPECIAL DESIGNS
Bifurcated Fans
Air flows around the motor mounted directly on the fan shaft (see
fig 11).
Essentially axial fans with a special casing that allow the driving
motor to be removed from the airstream while maintaining a
direct-drive arrangement.
In corrosive environments, the casing may be plastic or coated.

The mating flanges at each end of the casing are identical, but the
casing diameter is increased in barrel fashion to allow passage of a
similar cross section of air, concentric with the motor enclosure.
APPLICATION
Generally used to extract sticky, corrosive or volatile fumes in
industrial applications where it is critical to protect the motor
from the airstream.
Centrifugal Inline Fans

Have a direct-drive or a belt-driven AF or BI impeller mounted
perpendicular to a rectangular or tubular casing with ample
clearance around the blade tips.
The air discharged radially from the blade tips must turn through 90
degrees to pass through the fan exit, which is in line with the
impeller inlet.
APPLICATION
Commercial applications where high efficiency, low sound levels
and space are prime considerations.

Figure 12: Typical Characteristics of Centrifugal Inline Fans

24 in. Centrifugal Roof Exhauster 870 rpm
t
Airflow
Belt Drive
Down Discharge Direct Drive
Up Blast
Figure 13: Typical Characteristics of Centrifugal Roof Exhausters

Centrifugal Roof Exhausters
Have a direct-drive or a belt-driven AF or BI impeller mounted in a
multicomponent housing comprising of a curb cap with an integral
inlet venturi, a fan shroud with drive-mounting support, and a
weatherproof motor hood.
The impeller has an inlet cone that allows mixed flow through the
impeller-blade passages, and air exits radially from the blade tips
through a concentric discharge passage.
The fan shroud redirects the air - either discharging it down or

blasting it up.
APPLICATION
The down-discharge configuration is used for exhausting relatively

clean air, while the up-blast configuration is used for hot and/or
contaminated air.
Utility Fans
Utility fans are self-contained units consisting of either an FC or BI
irnpeller, a motor, and a direct (or belt-driven) drive.
APPLICATION
Commercial and industrial ventilation applications requiring
low-to-medium air volumes and pressures.
FAN DESIGNATION AND ARRANGEMENTS

The Air Moving and Conditioning Association, Inc (AMCA) has
devised standard designations for fan rotation, discharge
orientation, motor position for belt or chain drive, inlet box position,
and drive arrangements for both centrifugal and axial fans.

22 in. FCSW Utility 500
rpm
100
80
60
CD
40 O
TO
20 V)
Figure 14: Typical Characteristics of Forward-curved Utility Fans

22 in. BISW Utility 1,170
rpm
Figure 15: Typical Characteristics of

Backward-inclined Utility Fans

Optional on all
Arr. 1 Arr. 1 two-stage

For belt drive or direct connection. Impeller overhung. Two bearings located either upstream or downstream of impeller
O
J
oja Id
Arr. 9 motor on casing Arr. 9 motor on inte
Arr. 3 Arr. 4 Arr. 4 two-stage
Arr. 7 Arr. 8 one-or two-stage

For belt drive or direct connection. Arr. 3 plus common base for prime For belt drive or direct connection. Arr. 1 plus common base for prime mover.
mover.
h Of
fa
|J
For belt drive. Impeller overhung. Two bearings on internal supports. Motor on casing or on integral base. Drive through belt fairing.
Note: all fan orientations may be horizontal or vertical
Figure 16: Drive Arrangements for Axial Fans with or without

Diffuser and Outlet Box
and Control Association from Publication 201-90.

SW- Single Width SI- Single
Inlet DW- Double Width DI-
Double Inlet
Arrangements 1,3,7 and 8 are
also available with bearings
mounted on pedestals or base
set independant of the fan
housing Arr. 2 SWSI For belt drive or direct connection.
Arr. 1 SWSI For belt drive or direct impeller overhung. Bearings in bracket supported
connection impeller overhung. Two by fan housing
Figure 17:
Arr. 3 SWSI Drive
For belt Arrangements
drive or direct for
Arr. 3 DWDI For belt drive or direct Arr. 4 SWSI For direct drive. Impeller
connection. One bearing
Centrifugal Fans on each side connection. One bearing on each side overhung on prime mover shaft. No
and supported by fan housing. and supported by fan housing. bearings on fan. Prime mover base
mounted or integrally directly connected.
Arr. 7 SWSI For belt drive or direct Arr. 7 DWDI For belt drive or direct
'1
Arr. 8 SWSI For belt drive or direct

connection. Arrangement 3 plus base connection. Arrangement 3 plus base
11
connection. Arrangement 1 plus

for prime mover. for prime mover. extended base for prime mover.
bearings on base.
Arr. 10 SWSI For belt drive. Impeller
overhung, two bearings, with prime mover inside base.

Arr. 1 SWSI with Inlet Box For belt drive or direct Arr. 3 SWSI with Independent Pedestal
connection. Impeller overhung, two bearings on base. For belt drive or direct, connection fan. Housing is
Inlet box may be self-supporting self-supporting. One bearing on each side supported
by independant pedestals.
Arr. 3 SWSI with Inlet Box and Independent Arr. 3 DWDI with Independent Pedestal
Pedestals For belt drive or direct connection fan. For belt drive or direct connection fan. Housing is
Housing is self-supporting. One bearing on each side self-supporting. One bearing on each side supported by
supported by independent pedestals with shaft independant pedestals.
extending through inlet box.
Arr. 3 DWDI with Inlet Box and Independent Pedestals Arr. 3 SWSI with Inlet Box For belt drive or direct
For belt drive or direct connection fan. Housing is connection. Impeller overhung, two bearings on base plus
self-supporting. One bearing on each side supported by exended base for prime mover. Inlet box may be
independent pedestals with shaft extending through inlet self-supporting.
box.
Figure 18: Drive Arrangements for Centrifugal Fans


Fan rotation is determined to be clockwise or counterclockwise by
viewing the fan from the drive side.
The choice of fan arrangement depends on the application - the
environment of the airstream being handled and the size of the fans
are primary considerations.
The discharge position and the drive arrangement must be
determined to fit the fan system properly.
Manufacturers identify the arrangements available for the fans in
their product line.
CLASS LIMITS FOR FANS
AMCA has adopted a standard that defines the operating limits for
various classes of centrifugal fans used in general ventilation
applications.
The standard uses limits based on mean brake horsepower per square foot
of outlet area, expressed in terms of outlet velocity and static
pressure.
There are three class limits for centrifugal fans - Class I is the lightest
duty and Class III is the heaviest duty.
When selecting a fan, it is important to ensure the duty point does
not exceed the performance range for the fan class.

CH A P T E R 4
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
All fans produce total pressure, which represents the static and
kinetic energy imparted to the air by the impeller.
The rotating blades of the fan impeller convert mechanical energy
into static and kinetic energy by changing the velocity vector of the
incoming air.
Centrifugal fans produce total pressure from the centrifugal force of
the air radiating out between the blade passages and by the kinetic
energy imparted to the air by virtue of its velocity leaving the
impeller.
The absolute velocity vector in the case of centrifugal fans is the sum
of the tangential and radial velocity components.
Axial fans produce total pressure from the change in velocity passing
through the impeller, with none being produced by centrifugal
force.
The absolute velocity vector in the case of axial fans is the sum of the
axial and tangential velocity components.
Chapter 4: Principles of Operation 33

CENTRIFUGAL FANS
The operation of centrifugal fans can best be described by velocity
vector diagrams.
The height of the diagram - indicated by the relative radial velocity
vector V - is based on the volume of air flowing through the fan.
The air velocity relative to the blade - indicated by Vb is nearly
tangential to the blade as some slip occurs due to boundary layer
effects.
The tip speed component wr is perpendicular to the wheel radius,
where w is the rotational speed of the impeller in radians per second
and r is the radius of the impeller at the blade tip.
Because the speed of the wheel is the same for each case, the vector
wr is constant.
The absolute velocity indicated by V is the resultant of Vb and wr.
The relative tangential velocity vector indicated by V is projected
from V in the direction of wr.
If volume decreases, the vector Vr decreases and as the vector Vb does
not change for a given blade, Vt increases with BI blades, remains
constant with R blades and decreases with FC blades.
As the pressure of the fan depends on the product of Vt and wr, the
pressure characteristic rises as volume decreases for the BI blade, is
constant for the R blade and decreases for the FC blade.
These vector diagrams illustrate that, at a given speed, the smallest

fan selection will be a forward curved fan. Conversely, the largest
will be an airfoil.

Figure 19: Outlet Velocity Vector
Diagram for Backward-inclined
Blades
Figure 20: Outlet Velocity Vector

Diagram for Radial Blades
Figure 21: Outlet Velocity Vector Diagram

for Forward-curved
Blades

AXIAL FANS
The principle of operation can be described by the use of a velocity
vector diagram.
Velocity diagrams for axial fans are drawn for a uniform axial
velocity indicated by Va. The axial velocity remains nearly constant
from blade root to tip.
The tip speed component wr is perpendicular to the axis and is
shown as the blade section under consideration.
Figure 22: Velocity Vector

Diagram for an Axial Fan
without Inlet Guide or Diffusion
Vanes near the Impeller Hub

Figure 23: Velocity Vector Diagram for an
Axial Fan without Inlet Guide or Diffusion
Vanes at the Blade Tip
The air velocity relative to the blade indicated by Vb is nearly
tangential to the blade as some slip occurs due to boundary layer
effects.
The relative tangential velocity vector indicated by Vt is projected
from Va in the opposite direction of wr.
The mean relative velocity drawn to bisect Vt is shown as Vm. This
is used in aerodynamic theory to calculate the circulation around
the airfoil.

CH A P T E R 5
FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES
The manufacturer guarantees fan performance according to

standard air conditions. When selecting a fan, it is necessary to know
the actual air inlet conditions (temperature, pressure, density), and
use the Fan Laws to correct the published performance to actual
conditions.
Fan performance curves are developed from data obtained from tests
executed in accordance with AMCA and ASHRAE standards.
The most common procedure to develop a performance curve is to
test the fan from shut-off conditions to nearly-free delivery
conditions.
A fan is generally tested in a set-up that closely simulates how it will
be installed in an air-moving system.
Propeller fans are normally tested in the wall of a chamber, and
power roof exhausters are tested mounted on a curb to exhaust
vertically from a chamber.
Centrifugal, tubeaxial, and vaneaxial fans are usually tested with an
outlet duct with provision for restricting the flow at the discharge.
Chapter 5: Fan Performance Curves 39

A static- and velocity-pressure measuring station is located within
the duct downstream of flow straighteners.
At shut-off the duct is completely blanked off, and at free- delivery
the duct outlet is wide open; test data is recorded while maintaining
constant fan speed and air density.
Under these conditions and at the same fan speed, the flow is
graduated to obtain sufficient data to define a corresponding
performance curve.
For each test point, the pressures are measured and the
corresponding flow rate is determined. The measured pressures are
corrected back to fan inlet conditions.
Fan performance curves are plotted with the inlet flow rate (in cubic
foot per minute or litres per second) on the abscissa. Total pressure,
static pressure, fan horsepower and fan efficiency are plotted on the
ordinate axis.
It is not practical to test a fan at every speed at which it can operate
or at every inlet density it may encounter.
By using a series of equations referred to as the Fan Laws, it is
possible to accurately predict the fan's performance at other speeds
and densities.
Manufacturers usually publish fan performance curves at a density
of 0.075 Ib/ft3 and an inlet temperature of 70F.

Reprinted with permission from the Air Movement and
Control Association from Publication 201-90.
Chapter 5: Fan Performance Curves 41

CH A P T E R 6
FAN LAWS
The Fan Laws relate the performance variables for any dynamically
similar series of fans at the same point of rating on the performance
curve.
The variables are fan size, D; rotational speed, N; gas density, p;

volume flow rate, Q; pressure, p;total efficiency Ntjand power
(shaft), P.
Fan Law No. 1 governs the effect of changing size, speed or density
on volume flow, pressure and power level.
Fan Law No. 2 governs the effect of changing size, pressure or

density on volume flow rate, speed and power.
Fan Law No. 3 governs the effect of changing size, volume flow or
density on speed, pressure and power.
LIMITATIONS
The Fan Laws may be applied to a particular fan to determine the
effect of speed change. However, caution should be exercised since
the Laws apply only when all flow conditions are similar.
Chapter 6: Fan Laws 43

These Fan Laws do not include correction for
compressible flow.
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
As air travels through a fan, it is compressed and the outlet volume
will be less than at the inlet. The fan laws as presented in this
chapter do not account for this effect.
A fan selected without using compressibility will be larger in size

than required and the fan input power will be understated.
The compressibility effect is quite small when fan pressure rise is

below 10 Wg., and is customarily ignored below this threshold.
For applications where the fan pressure rise is more than 10i Wg., the
chart on the following page may be used as follows:
1. Estimate the total efficiency of the fan that will be selected.

2. Obtain the compressibility factor, Kp from the chart for the
required fan static pressure rise.
3. For fan selection only, multiply the required pressure and flow
by the compressibility factor, Kp. The fan input power obtained
using the fan laws for selection must be divided by Kp.
4. If the actual efficiency is more than 5% different than what was

estimated in step #1, return to step #1 using the new efficiency.
5. When using equations 7 and 9 in chapter 7, multiply the resulting

power by Kp.

Approximate Kp 1%
1.000
.990
.980
Kp
.970
.960
.950
.940
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Fan Static Pressure Rise - inches W.G.
Figure 25: Compressibility Factor
Fans Reference Guide 45

Table 1: Fan Laws
Law No. Formulae

1a Qi = Q2X (D1/D2)3 x (N1/N2)
1b pi = P2X (D1/D2) X (N1/N2) X P1/P2
2 2
1c P1 = P2X (D1/D2) X (N1/N2) X P1/P2

5 3
2a Q1 = Q2X (D1/D2) X (P1/P2) X (P2/P1)

2 1/2 1/2
2b N1 = N2X (D2/D1) X (P1/P2) X (P2/P1)

1/2 1/2
2c P1 = P2X (D1/D2) X (P1/P2) X (P2/P1)

2 3/2 1/2
SELDOM USED
3a N1 = N2X (D2/D1) X (Q1/Q2)

3
3b P1 = P2 X (D2/D1)4 X (Q1/Q2)2 X P1/P2

3c P1 = P2 X (D2/D1) X (Q1/Q2) X P1/P2
4 3
4 P = QP / (6362 ht)
Source: ASHRAE Handbook, 1988 Equipment Volume.

CH A P T E R 7
FAN FORMULAE
The following fan formulae require certain constants and parameters

specific to each application. The constants are given in this guide or
in the referenced material.
The formulae in this section are valid for incompressible flow
DENSITY
Fan performance data, unless otherwise identified, is based on dry
air at the standard atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi., 29.921 in.Hg
(101.325 kPa) and a temperature of 68F (20C). The air density at
standard AMCA test conditions is 0.075 lbm/ft.3
(or 1.2 kg/m3 when SI units are used).
In most applications, fans process moist air at temperatures and
pressures other than standard conditions. Therefore, the air density
must be corrected to obtain the actual fan performance.
For fans processing moist air, the moisture content of an airstream is
determined by measuring the wet-bulb temperature, the dew-point
temperature, or relative humidity.
Chapter 7: Fan Formulae 47

Wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures are most often determined at
fan inlet conditions, using a sling thermometer.When the airstream
exceeds 180F (82C), the dew-point temperature is more reliable to
determine moisture content.
Density, when the dry-bulb temperature falls between 42F and

l00F (5C and 38C), may be determined by using the
psychrometric density chart in AMCA Publication 203-90, Field
Performance Measurement of Fan Systems, Appendix N. The
numerical method in Chapter 16, Appendix A of this guide may be
used with a scientific calculator or PC spread-sheet program.
EQUATION 1: When the gas density (P) at one plane is determined,

the density at any point in the fan system may be determined.
Boyle's Law: P = constant or px = pi
Tp Tx px Ti pi
where
Px = density at plane x, lb./ft.3 (kg/m3) pi = density at
plane 1, lb./ft.3 (kg/m3)
Tx = absolute temperature at plane x, Fabs (K)
TI = absolute temperature at plane 1, Fabs (K) px
= absolute pressure at plane x, in.Hg (kPa) p1 =
absolute pressure at plane l, in.Hg (kPa)
FAN FLOW RATE

EQUATION 2: The flow rate at a reference plane. The fan flow rate is
the primary performance parameter.
Q = VA where
Q = flow rate, ft.3/min. (L/s)
V = average velocity at reference plane, ft./min.(m/s)
A = area of reference plane, ft.2 (m2)
HEAD AND PRESSURE
The common unit is inches of water, water gauge.
Head is the height of a fluid column of water supported by gas flow,
while pressure is the normal force per unit area. With gas or air, it is

convention to measure pressure on a column of liquid, as pressure
measured in terms of unit area is not practical.
The term (V2/2g) refers to velocity head, and the term (pV2/2gc) refers
to velocity pressure.
Velocity head is independent of fluid density.
VELOCITY PRESSURE
EQUATION 3: Velocity pressure is not
independent of density.
pv = p(V/cf)2
where
pv = velocity pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
p = density, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
V = mean fluid velocity, ft./min. (m/s)
cf = conversion factor, 1097 ( 1.414)
EQUATION 4: For a standard air density of 0.075 lbm/ft. 3 (1.20 kg/m3)1

Equation 3 becomes the following:
Pv = (V/cf)2
where
V = mean fluid velocity, ft./min. (m/s) cf =
conversion factor, 4005 ( 1.29)
TOTAL PRESSURE
EQUATION 5: The sum of the static pressure and the velocity
pressure is total pressure.
Pt = Ps + Pv
where
pt = total pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
ps = static pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
pv = velocity pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
1 The SI standard density of 1.20 kg/m3 is not an exact equivalent of the imperial standard density.
Source: Jorgensen, R. (ed.) Fan Engineering 8th ed. Buffalo: NY, Buffalo Forge Company, 1983.
(Ref. A). The SI density derived directly from the imperial equivalent would be a value of
1.2014 kg/m3. Source: Metric Conversion Handbook for Mechanical Engineers in the Building
Industry 2nd ed. Public Works Canada, 1983. (Ref. B)

FAN-SYSTEM-EFFECT FACTOR (AT INLET)
EQUATlON 6: The fan-system-effect pressure drop.
SEF = Co p (Vo /cf)2
where
SEF = fan-system-effect pressure loss, in.Wg (Pa)
Co = fan-system-effect loss coefficient, dimensionless p
= density, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
cf = conversion factor, 1097 (1.414) and
where
for centrifugal fans:
Vo = inlet velocity based on area at the inlet collar, or outlet
velocity based on outlet area, fpm (m/s)
for axial fans:

Vo = inlet or outlet velocity based on area calculated
from fan diameter, fpm (m/s)
FAN POWER AND EFFICIENCY

EQUATION 7: The air horsepower, or fan output power, PFo, is
determined from product of the flow and total pressure rise.
PFO = Qpt
cf
where:
PFo = output power, hp (W)
Q = flow, ft.3/min. (L/s)
pt = total pressure rise, in.Wg (Pa) cf =
conversion factor, 6349.6 (1,000)2
The fan input power, PFi, is the measured power delivered to the fan
shaft.
2 The conversion factor 6349.6 was derived from converting the metric form of the equation to the
imperial equivalent utilizing the conversion factor in Ref. B (see p.47). When the formula is
applied directly to imperial units, the conversion factor to use is 6354 from Ref. A (see p.47). In
strict SI terms, flow would be in m3/s and the conversion factor would be 1.0.
EQUATION 8: The fan mechanical or total efficiency is the ratio of

the output power to the input power.

ht = P Fo/P Fi where
ht = mechanical (total) efficiency, dimensionless
PFo = output power, hp (W)
PFi = input power, hp (W)
EQUATION 9: The fan input power.
PFi = Q pt
ht cf
where
Q = flow, ft3/min. (L/s) pt = total pressure
rise, in.Wg (pa) ht = total efficiency,
dimensionless ratio cf = conversion factor,
6349.6 ( 1,000)
EQUATION 10: The fan static efficiency is the product of mechanical
efficiency and the ratio of static pressure to total efficiency.
hs = (ps/pt) ht
where
hs = static effciency, dimensionless ratio
ht = total efficiency, dimensionless ratio Ps = static
pressure, in.Wg (pa) pt = total pressure, in. Wg
(pa)
EQUATION 11: By substitution, the fan input power is also:

PFi = Q ps
hs cf
where
Q = flow, ft.3/min. (L/S)
hs = static efficiency, dimensionless ratio
ps = static pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
cf = conversion factor, 6349.6 ( 1,000)
FAN MOTOR POWER

EQUATION 12 AND EQUATION 13: The fan motor output power.

PMO = Q pt
ht hD cf
or
PMO = PFi
hD
where
PMo = motor output power, hp (W)
Q = flow, ft.3/min. (L/s) ht = fan total efficiency,
dimensionless ratio hD = fan drive efficiency,
dimensionless ratio cf = conversion factor, 6349.6
(1,000)
EQUATION 14: The fan motor input power.
PMi = PMo
hM cf
where
PMi = motor input power, kW PMo = motor
output power, hp (W) hM = motor efficiency,
dimensionless ratio cf = conversion factor,
1.3410 ( 1,000)
EXAMPLE 1
A large cafeteria at a manufacturing plant requires an exhaust fan to
ensure proper indoor air quality for the patrons. Positive exhaust is
provided by a belt-driven, 24-in., airfoil, single-width (AFSW)
centrifugal fan with an inlet and outlet area of 4.11 sq.ft. The fan is to
be equipped with a two-speed 1,800/1,200- rpm motor and, on the
high-speed setting, is required to deliver 10,000 cfm of air at 70F at a
static pressure of 2.5 in.Wg. This is identified as operating point A
(see Figure 25). Standard atmospheric conditions are assumed for
this example.

Example 1.1
Using formulae and manufacturers' catalogue data, determine speed,
the high-speed fan horsepower, and the corresponding fan total and
static efficiencies. Assuming drive losses of 5.6%, calculate the
motor size required.
Table 2. Typical Manufacturers Performance Data for a 24-in.,
AFSW Centrifugal Fan at 70F and Standard Atmospheric
Pressure
Fan Static Pressure
co
to 1 - 1/4 2 - 1/2 3
velocit
1 3 - 1/2 rpm 4 - 1/2 rpm

outlet
E"
bhp rpm bhp rpm bhp rpm bhp

t5
bhp bhp
y
rpm
6600 1605 963 1.8 1003 2.1 1191 3.5 1260 4.2 1329 4.2 1465 6.3
7000 1703 1000 2.0 1040 2.3 1222 3.8 1288 4.4 1353 5.1 1482 6.6
9000 2189 1188 3.2 1223 3.6 1387 5.4 1446 6.2 1503 7.0 1610 8.6
9400 2287 1226 3.5 1260 3.9 1420 5.8 1479 6.6 1534 7.5 1640 9.1
9800 2384 1267 3.8 1301 4.2 1456 62 1512 7.1 1567 8.0 1671 9.6
10200 2481 1310 4.2 1339 4.6 1494 6.7 1546 7.5 1601 8.4 1703 10.2
The velocity pressure of the fan must be established to

determine the fan static pressure and the total efficiency of
the fan.
EQUATION 15: Outlet velocity (rearrange Equation 2, p. 46).
V = Q/A
= 10,000/4.11 =
2,433 fpm
Velocity pressure at the inlet & outlet (Equation 4, p. 47).
pv = (V/4,005)2 =
0.369 in.Wg
Fan static pressure is
ps = (p2 - pt)- pv1
= 2.5 - .369 = 2.131
By interpolation, the fan power is 5.83 hp and from catalogue data
the corresponding impeller speed is 1,429 rpm.
Total pressure (Equation 5, p. 47)
pt = ps + pv
= 2.131 + .369
= 2.5 in.Wg
EQUATION 16: Fan total efficiency
(rearrange Equation 9, p. 49)
ht = (Q pt)/(cf PFi)
= (10,000 x 2.5)/(6,349.6 x 5.83) x 100 =
67.53%
Fan static efficiency (Equation 10, p. 49).
hs = (2.131/2.5) x 67.53 =
57.56%
Motor output power including drive losses
(Equation 13, p. 50).
PMo = PFi/hD
= 5.83/(1 - 0.056)
= 6.176 hp
Therefore a 7.5-hp motor is required.

Figure 27: Fan Static-pressure Design Curve at 1,475 rpm
Intersecting Design Point A and Fan Static-pressure Curve at
983 rpm Intersecting Point B
Example 1.2
Using fan laws and assuming constant density, determine the
low-speed flow and total pressure to give operating point B (see
Figure 26). Using formulae and the manufacturers' data in Table 2,
p. 52, determine the corresponding fan power speed, and total and
static efficiencies.
EQUATION 17: Air volume delivered by the fan on the low speed
setting (rearrange Fan Law No. la).
Q2 = Q1 (N2/N2)
=10,000 x (1,200/1,800)
= 6,666 cfm
EQUATION 18: The corresponding impeller speed.
N2 = N1 (rpm2/rpml)
= 1,429 x 1,200/1,800 =
953 rpm
EQUATION 19: The corresponding static pressure delivered by the
fan (rearrange Fan Law No. 3 b).

ps2 = psl (Q2/Q1)2
= 2.131 x (6,666/10,000)2 =
0.947 in.Wg
By interpolation, the fan power at point B is 1.73 hp from Table 2,
and the corresponding impeller speed is 953 rpm.
Alternately, using the fan laws,
Pfi = 5.83hp x (1,200/1,800)3 =
1.73hp
Outlet velocity (Equation 14, p. 50).

V = Q/A = 6,666/4.11 = 1,622
fpm
Velocity pressure (Equation 4, p. 47).

pv = (1,622/4,005)2 = 0.164
in.Wg
Total pressure (Equation 5, p. 47).

pt = 0.947 + 0.16
= 1.11 in.Wg
Fan total efficiency (Equation 12, p. 50).

ht = (Q pt)/cf Pfi)
= (6,666 x 1.11)/(6,349.6 x 1.73) x 100 =
67.35%
hs = (0.947/1.11) x 67.35 =
57.46%

C HAPTER 8
AIR SYSTEMS
A fan provides the energy to overcome the resistance to flow

through air-system components. A fan's performance is
interdependent with the system elements.
Components that contribute to system resistance include straight
ductwork, elbows, fittings, filters, humidifier distributors,
heat-transfer coils, dampers, acoustic silencers, bird screens,
registers, grilles and diffusers.
Most air systems operate in the turbulent-flow regime rather than
laminar-flow conditions.
Pressure losses in system elements are therefore mainly related to
turbulence and flow separation, the kinetic energy being dissipated
by viscous shear in the air.
The pressure loss of each of the air system's elements may be
calculated with manufacturers' data and the procedures in the
ASHRAE Handbook, 1989 Fundamentals Volume.
A given rate of airflow through a system requires a specific total
pressure generated by the system fan.
Chapter 8: Air Systems 59

EQUATION 20: If the flow rate is changed, the resulting total
pressure required for turbulent-flow systems.
(Ap2/Ap1) = (Q2/Q1)2
Figure 25 (p.51) shows the characteristic system curve plotted in a
parabolic fashion according to the relationship established in
Equation 20.
Example 2 shows the effect of the relationship in Equation 20.

EXAMPLE 2
The exhaust system in Example 1 has a filter bank to protect the
heat-recovery coil. The duct-system and coil static losses are 2.0
in.Wg and clean-filter losses are 0.5 in.Wg at the design flow rate of
10,000 cfm.
The required static pressure of the fan is 2.5 in.Wg at the design flow
rate. This identifies the design operating point A from which the
design curve A is plotted. It is assumed that the fan is plenum
mounted and hence the inlet velocity pressure is
~ 0 Wg, and fan static pressure = pressure rise of 2.5 Wg.
When the fan is set at low speed, from the Fan Laws shown in
Example 1, the flow rate is 6,666 cfm.
This second design point is point B on curve in Figure 27.

The filter specifies a maximum dirty pressure loss of 1.5 in.Wg at the
design flow rate, which means in the dirty condition, the total
system static losses are 3.5 in.Wg.
This gives a new design point C, from which the dirty maximum
design operating system curve C is plotted (see Figure 27).

Example 2.1
Using formulae and manufacturers' catalogue data (table 2, p. 52),
determine for operating point C, the speed, the highspeed fan
power, and the corresponding fan total and static efficiencies.
Assuming the same drive losses of 5.6%, calculate the motor service
factor .
By interpolation, the fan power at point C is 8.2 hp from Table 2, and

the corresponding impeller speed is 1,584 rpm.
Total pressure required (Equation 5, p. 47).

Pt = 3.5 + 0.37
= 3.87 in.Wg
Fan total efficiency (Equation 16, p. 53),

ht = (10,000 x 3.87)/(6,349.6 x 8.20) x 100
= 74.3%
hs = (3.50/3.87) x 74.3
= 67.2%
EQUATION 21: Motor service factor.
SF = PFi/(hDx PMO)
= 8.20/(0.944 x 7.5)
=1.16
Fan power exceeds standard motor service factor of 1.15.
Example 2.2
Using Fan Laws, determine the actual air volume, fan power, and fan
total and static efficiency on the high-speed setting under dirty filter
conditions identified as point D on the system curve (see Figure 27).
EQUATION 22: Actual air volume delivered by the fan at a constant
speed of 1,475 rpm (rearrange Fan Law la).
Q2 = Q1/N1/N2)
= 10,000/(1,584/1,475)

= 9,312 cfm
EQUATION 23: Static pressure.
ps2 = ps1/Q1/Q2)2
= 3.5/ ( 10,000/9,312)2 =
3.03 in.Wg
By interpolation, the fan power at point D is 6.56 hp from catalogue
data.
Outlet velocity (Equation 15, p. 53).
V = 9,312/4.11
= 2,266 fpm
Velocity pressure (Equation 4, p.47).
pv = ( 8,266/4,005)2
= 0.32 in H20
Total pressure (Equation 5, p.47).
pt = 3.03+0.32
= 3.35 in H20
Fan total efficiency (Equation 16, p. 53).
ht = ( 9,312 x 3.35)/( 6,349.6 x 6.56) x 100 = 74.9%
Fan static efficiency (Equation 10, p.49)
hs = ( 3.03/3.35) x 74.9
= 67.7%

AFSW 24 Centrifugal Fan
Static pressure (sp) / horsepower (hp)
Figure 28: Fan Static Pressure Curve Intersecting the Design

Point A and the Maximum Design Point D

C HAPTER 9
FAN AND SYSTEM INTERFACE
SYSTEM EFFECT FACTORS

A fan is normally tested with open inlets and straight duct attached
to the outlet. This results in uniform airflow into the fan and efficient
static-pressure recovery at the fan outlet.
If these conditions are not matched in the actual installation, the
performance of the fan degrades. This must be allowed for when
selecting the fan.
Figure 28 illustrates deficient fan and system performance with the
calculated system-design pressure and flow shown as Point 1.
Since no allowance was made for system effect, the actual operating
condition is Point 4 - at the intersection of the fan pressure-volume
curve and the actual system curve.
The difference between Point 1 and Point 4 projected on the abscissa
is the deficiency in flow.
To compensate for the deficiency, a system effect factor equal to the
pressure difference between Points 1 and 2 must be added to the
calculated system-pressure losses, with the fan selected to operate at
Point 2.
Chapter 9: Fan and System Interface 65

The fan system-effect factor is the product of Co times the velocity
pressure and is calculated using Equation 6, p. 48.
For centrifugal fans, velocity is based on the area of the inlet collar
and the outlet area; for axial fans, it is based on the fan diameter.
Appendix C explains how to determine Co (the system effect factors
For SWSI centrifugal fans). Other system-effect factors are beyond
the scope of this guide, but are covered in AMCA Publication 201-90.
Figure 29: Deficient Fan and System Performance
FAN OUTLET CONDITIONS

System-effect factors must be calculated and added
to the system resistance losses whenever 100%
recovery at the outlet of a fan cannot be achieved.
Complete recovery can be achieved if the outlet effective duct length is
2.5 diameters or more for a velocity of 2,500 fpm (13 m/s) or less. Add
one duct diameter for each additional 1,000 fpm (5 m/s).

Figure 30. Fan-outlet Velocity Profiles
Reprinted with permission from the Air Movement and Control Association from Publication
201-90
In some cases, fan outlets are connected directly to a larger duct or

plenum without a transition. This causes a pressure loss of up to one
velocity head (V2/2g), based on the highest velocity of the fan outlet.
Chapter 9: Fan and System Interface 67

The highest velocity is in the blast area of a centrifugal fan (the area
between the cutoff and the scroll), and in the swept area of an axial
fan.
FAN INLET CONDITIONS
To achieve rated fan performance, air must enter a fan uniformly
over the inlet area in an axial direction without prerotation.
The ideal inlet condition allows air to enter axially and uniformly
without spin.
A spin, in the same direction as the impeller rotation, reduces fan
flow and pressure, whereas a counter-rotating vortex at the inlet
slightly increases fan flow and pressure and substantially increases
fan power.
The most common cause of reduced fan performance is nonuniform
flow into the inlet of a fan.
Turbulence and uneven flow into the fan impeller is typically caused
by an elbow at the inlet of a fan.
System-effect Co factors for inlet conditions that cause spin are not
available because of the multitude of variations.
The system-effect factor can be eliminated by including an
appropriate length of straight duct between the elbow and the fan
inlet.
For fans installed in cabinets or adjacent to walls, adequate distance
must be maintained in front of the inlet to allow for unobstructed
flow.

C HAPTER 1 0
FAN SELECTION
Fan selection involves consideration of the following:

volume flow rate and variation
fan total or static pressure and system effects
air density
air temperature
environment (corrosion, erosion, flammability)
permissible noise levels
attitude of fan and space available
type of fan required
type of drive and accessories
speed capability of motor driver.
The fan can be selected once the system-pressure-loss curve is
known.
The system-pressure-loss curve is defined by accounting for the
system flow, resistances, and system-effect factors (according to
ASHRAE methods).
The fan size, speed power, and noise spectrum is determined using
one of the many methods available from fan manufacturers, e.g.,
tables or PC-based computer programs.
Chapter 10: Fan Selection 69

Computer selection programs allow a designer to evaluate the
various fan options for optimizing system efficiency and
performance, obtain noise-level data, and plot the fan performance
curve quickly.
The performance data in fan tables is based on arbitrary increments
of flow rate and static pressure, and shading may be used to indicate
an AMCA fan-class demarcation.
Fan Laws cannot be used to obtain adjacent data points because each
data point represents a different point of operation on the fan
performance curve.
Intermediate points of operation can be determined by interpolation,
as the listed data points are close enough for reasonable accuracy for
fan selection.
Using a performance curve in conjunction with a computer program
or tables is very important, particularly in VAV systems which have
more than one point of operation.
Using the performance curve optimizes fan selection to avoid
operation close to, or in, the stall region and maximize efficiency
throughout the operating range.
PRESSURE DEFINITIONS
When using performance tables or charts, it is important to
understand what definition of pressure has been used by the fan
manufacturer. There are three possible ways to state the fan's
pressure requirement: Fan Total Pressure, Fan Static Pressure and Fan
Static Pressure Rise.

These definitions arise from Bernoulli's equation which is used to
calculate system friction losses. The relationship between any two
points (1 and 2) in a system is given below:
r ~\ r
V1 2 2
Ps1 + P1 = Ps2 + V2 P2 + Friction Loss
1096
e J 1 0 96
vJ
The Friction Losses in this equation must be overcome by the fan. Fan
Total Pressure is defined as

r 2 r 2
Fanpt V2 V1
Ps2 + P2 Ps1 + P1
1 096 109 6
^J ^J
Fan Static Pressure is defined
as
r
V1 2
Ps1 + P1
Fanps = Ps2 1 096
J
Fan Static Pressure Rise is defined as

Dps = Ps2 - Ps1
The inlet and outlet velocities (V1 and V2) in these equations are taken
to be at the terminals of the fan manufacture's supply, which may
include silencers, inlet boxes, outlet diffusers, etc. The velocities
may not be identical to those in the adjacent ducts.
The most common definition in North America is Fan Static Pressure for
centrifugal fan and Fan Total Pressure for axial flow fans. The Europeans
use Fan Total Pressure almost exclusively for all fans.
Chapter 10: Fan Selection 71

PARALLEL FAN SELECTION
Selecting parallel fans with a characteristic pressure reduction left of
the peak pressure point typical of FC fans requires careful
consideration.
When these fans are operated in parallel, a fluctuating load condition
may result if one of the fans operates to the left of the peak static
point on its performance curve.
Figure 31 shows the pressure flow curves of a single fan (curve A-A)
and the same fan operating in parallel with an identical fan (curve
B-B).
Figure 31: Design Operating Point Selection Range on a

Typical Centrifugal Fan Performance Curve

The figure-eight curve plots possible combinations of volume flow at
each pressure value for the individual fans.
Points to the right of B-C are the result of the fan operating to the
right of its peak rating point; for all systems stable operation occurs
with a system resistance curve below C-C.
For points of operation to the left of B-C it is possible to satisfy system
requirements with one fan operating at one point of rating while the
other fan operates at another.
Figure 31 shows point BD1 - 4,700 cfm at a static pressure of 2.1 in.Wg
- can be satisfied with each fan operating at 2,350 cfm at 2.1 in static
pressure.
The system curve can also be satisfied at point BD2 by one fan
operating at 1,350 cfm at a static pressure of 1.9 in.Wg and the
second fan operating at 3,150 cfm at the same static pressure.

This is because the system curve D-D passes through the combined
performance curve at two points, but operation can be unstable
under such conditions.
With fan selection at point BD2, one fan is under loaded while the
other fan is heavily loaded, and surge can occur in the system.
SERIES VS PARALLEL OPERATION

In any 2 stage arrangement, the same mass flow per unit time must
be handled by each stage (if there is no leakage). The density of the
gas passing through each stage will be different, so it follows that the
volume handled by each stage will be different.
Figure 33 shows the static pressure and horsepower curves for a

single fan. Also shown, are the static pressure curves for two of these
fans (a) connected in series, and for comparison (b) connected in
parallel. Strictly speaking, the static pressure curve for the two fans
in series will be slightly higher than that shown since there is only
one velocity head to be deducted from the combined total pressure
from 2 stages in order to compute the combined static pressure
available. For simplicity of discussion, the static pressure is doubled
for any given volume for two identical fans in series.
In Figure 33, system B passes through P, the intersection of the

combined series and combined parallel curves, i.e. either
combination will give the same volume on this system. However, in
series, each fan will consume the horsepower at point D, whereas in
parallel each fan will take the power shown at point E.

Static Pressure
Figure 33: Series Fan Operation
On any system to the left of point P. The two fans in series combination
will always produce more volume than the parallel configuration.
On any system to the right of point P. Two fans in parallel will
always produce more volume than they will connected in series.
Whenever a second fan is to be added to one existing on a given
system to increase flow, it is advisable to plot pressure volume
curves for both series and parallel connection if maximum possible
flow is desired. The power absorbed by each fan should also be
carefully noted.

C HAPTER 11
FAN NOISE
Fan noise is an important criteria for the proper selection of fan type
and size for an application.
The noise from a fan is predominantly from aerodynamic sources
and includes factors such as lift, rotation, vortex shedding, and
wake.
The noise generated by a fan depends on the fan design, the
volume flow rate, total pressure, and efficiency. This noise is
proportional to the product of the pressure squared and the
flow.
Low outlet velocity does not necessarily relate to lower sound
power, and fan selection should not be based solely on fan tip
speed.
The only valid basis for comparison is the actual sound power
levels generated by the different fan types when they are operating
at the required system flow and pressure.
For constant-volume systems, the recommended practice for a
selected fan type is that the fan size and speed be selected so
operation falls at or near the peak efficiency point of the fan
performance curve.
Chapter 11: Fan Noise 77

A fan is normally quietest when selected within the most efficient
operating range, which is also advantageous for energy
conservation.
Fan selection criteria for VAV systems include two other factors: the
efficiency and stability of the fan through the entire range of
modulation, and the acoustic impact of the modulation system.
Fan selection for VAV systems is a compromise between fan surge
and fan inefficiency, and the narrower the range of modulation the
more acceptable the compromise will be.
Variable inlet vanes may generate significant low frequency noise as
the vanes modulate to the close position and require additional
attenuation with a corresponding increase in system pressure drop.
Maximum sound levels occur at approximately 75% open VIVs.
The other modulation systems - variable-speed motors and drives,
and variable-pitch fan blades - generate less noise as the fan
modulates to the no-flow operating point.
The sound power generation of a specific fan at its operating point
should be obtained from manufacturers' AMCA test data or from
manufacturers' computer fan-selection programs.
The data is presented as sound power levels in eight octave bands
and as weighted overall sound level.
If test data is not available, the octave-band sound power levels can
be estimated using the following procedure.
FAN SOUND POWER
Fans generate a tone at the blade passage frequency, and the number
of decimals to be added is the blade frequency increment (BFI). The
octave band to which the BFI is added depends on the type of fan
and the impeller speed.
EQUATION 24 : Blade frequency

Bf = N x no. of blades cf
where
Bf = blade frequency, Hz
N = impeller speed, rpm (r/s)
cf = conversion factor 60 ( 1 )
Table 3: Typical Number of Fan Blades
Impeller
Fan Type Size/Drive No. of Blades
CENTRIFUGAL
Airfoil and Backward-inclined 24 in. and over 10
Under 24 in. 12
Forward-curved 52
Radial 6
AXIAL
Vaneaxial 12
Tubeaxial Belt drive 6
Direct drive 4
Propeller 6
Blade frequency can be estimated using data from Table 3.

EQUATION 25 : Estimating sound power levels at actual operating
conditions.
Lw = Kw + 10 log Q/cf1 + 20 log p/cf2 + C
where
Lw = estimated sound power level (dB re 1 pW)
Kw = specific sound power level
Q = flow rate, cfm (L/s)
p = fan pressure rise, in.Wg (Pa)
C = correction factor for point of operation, dB cfi =
conversion factor, 1 (0.472)
cp2 = conversion factor, 1 (249)

Estimated sound power level is calculated for all seven bands with KW
selected from Table 4. The BFI is added to the octave band in which
the blade passage frequency falls. Sound correction factor is selected
from Table 5.
Table 4: Specific Sound Power Levels and Blade Frequency
Increments
Sound Power Level, KW (dB re 1 pW)
Octave-band Centre Frequency, Hz
Fan Type Impeller Size 63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 BFI
CENTRIFUGAL
Airfoil and 36 in. and over 32 32 31 29 28 23 15 3

backward-inclined Under 36 in. 36 38 36 34 33 28 20
Forward-inclined All 47 43 39 33 28 25 23 2
Radial blade and 40 in. and over 45 39 42 39 37 32 30 8

Pressure blower 20 in. to 40 in. 55 48 48 45 45 40 38
Under 20 in. 63 57 58 50 44 39 39
Axial
Vanaxial 40 in. and over 39 36 38 39 37 34 32

Under 40 in. 37 39 43 43 43 41 28 6
Tubeaxial 40 in. and over 41 39 43 41 39 37 34
Under 40 in. 40 41 47 46 44 43 37 5
Propeller Cooling
tower All 48 51 58 56 55 52 46 5
Note: These values are the specific power levels radiated from either the inlet or the outlet of
the fan. If the total sound power level being radiated is desired, add 3 db to each of the
above values.

Table 5: Sound Correction Factors
Correction Factor, C, for Off-peak Operation

Static Efficiency % of peak Correction Factor dB
90 to 100 0
85 to 89 3
75 to 84 6
65 to 74 9
55 to 64 12
50 to 54 15
EXAMPLE 3
The fan in Example 1, p. 51, is operating at its design condition of

10,000 cfm, at static pressure of 2.5 in.Wg, static efficiency of 60.9%
and impeller speed of 1,475 rpm.
Determine the sound power level in seven octave bands by assuming
the number of impeller blades to be 10 and by estimating the
off-peak, static-efficiency correction factor.
A simple method to calculate the off-peak, static-efficiency correction
factor with reasonable accuracy, is to determine the static efficiency
of the fan operating at the same impeller speed, but at a static
pressure and flow of about 55% WOcfm.
From manufacturers' data, the operating point close to the
55%-WOcfm line is 7,000 cfm at 4.5 in.Wg static pressure and
6.6-bhp power.

EQUATION 26 : Peak static efficiency given by rearranging
Equation 11, p. 49.
h2 = QPs
cf PFi
= 7,000 x 4.5
6,349 x 6.6
= 0.752
Static efficiency as a percentage of peak is as follows:
60.9/75.2 x 100 = 81%
From Table 6, the off-peak correction factor C is 6 dB.
The additional sound power levels due to the volume flow rate and
pressure are given by Equation 25, p. 73.
Lw = Kw + 10 log 10,000 + 20 log 2.5 + C = Kw +
40 + 6 = Kw + 54 dB
The specific sound power levels (KW) for Table 6 are obtained from
the second line of Table 4.
BFI is given by Equation 24, p. 73.
Bf =1,475 x 10/60
= 246
The closest octave band is 250 Hz.
The magnitude of the off-peak, efficiency correction factor
suggests that a more efficient fan should be selected for the
given duty.
A larger fan would allow for operation closer to the surge line at a
slower impeller speed, lower power and lower noise levels, but with
less ability to cope with higher system static pressures at the design
flow.

Table 6. Summary for Example 3
Sound Power Level, KW (dB re 1 pW)
Octave-band Centre Frequency, Hz
63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000
KW 36 38 36 34 33 28 20
Equation 11 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
BFI 3
Total dB 90 93 93 89 86 82 74

C H APTER12
FAN DUTY CONTROL
Fans are required to perform over a range of flows and pressures

called, The Duty Cycle. How the fan is controlled to achieve the
required range, can have a significant energy cost.
The type of fan control should be selected on the basis of cost, the
precision of control required and the frequency and magnitude of
system flow changes.
For HVAC systems with infrequent changes in flow rate and/or
where control is a secondary consideration, a two- or three- speed
motor is a low-cost solution.
Where a system requires continuously varying flow rates over
speed ranges of 2.6:1 and input power of less than 15 kW, an
adjustable-speed pulley drive is satisfactory and can improve
system efficiency.
Magnetic or hydraulic slip couplings can be used in systems with
power greater than 15 kW. However these couplings have an
inherent power loss since the torque from the motor is transmitted
unchanged to the impeller, in spite of the difference in rotational
speed.
Chapter 12: Fan Duty Control 85

The most efficient method of speed control, with the potential for
precise control, is the electronic adjustable speed drive (see figure
32).
Mechanical methods of volume control are often used in
commercial and industrial HVAC systems.
The simplest, most inefficient method of control, is a fan discharge
damper; the damper artificially increases system resistance and the
fan works along its system curve.
Figure 34: Outlet Damper Fan Control
Single fan performance curve

Multiple system resistance curves

To provide a broader range of flow control at lower energy
penalties, the discharge damper can be used with multi-speed
motors, or with adjustable speed drives.
Figure 33 shows discharge-damper control sequenced with
motor-speed control.
There is no advantage other than initial cost to using an outlet
damper. Its use should be avoided.
Figure 35: Throttle Control of a Fan with a

Two-speed Motor
Inlet-vane control can provide precise flow control, down to about

40% of the full flow rate.
This control device rotates the inlet airflow the same as the impeller
and so reduces the work done by the impeller.
Another inlet-control device is a cone that varies the effective
fan-inlet area as a Function of the axial distance the cone is
Chapter 12: Fan Duty Control 87

positioned from the fan inlet. Used in HVAC only.
Figure 31 shows the effect of inlet-vane control on BI,
centrifugal-fan performance.
The flow rate from variable pitch-in-motion vaneaxial fans can be
dynamically regulated by varying the attack angle of the impeller
blades; this maintains high efficiencies over a wide blade-pitch
range.
Figure 36: Inlet Vane Control of a Fan

C HAPTER 13
VIBRATION ISOLATION/
FAN BALANCING
All rotating machinery have critical speeds called resonant
frequencies where excessive vibration can cause damage. It is
necessary to have each fan and foundation installation checked to
avoid these speeds, or correct the fan balance.
Most fans are shipped statically and dynamically balanced but
corrosion, erosion, dust and airborne contaminants collecting on the
impeller may cause imbalance over time.
Therefore, consider fan isolation when designing the installation.
The transmission of vibration to a building structure involves
vibratory force, frequency of vibratory force (disturbing frequency),
natural frequency of isolator and floor, and stiffness of isolator and
floor.
It is important to select vibration isolators to compensate for floor
deflection; and to avoid resonance, the natural frequency of the
isolator should be different to the disturbing frequency.
The degree of fan isolation and balancing depends on the floor span,
and the fan type, size, speed and power.
Chapter 13: Vibration Isolation /Fan Balancing 89

Use the "Vibration Isolator Selection Guide" in the ASHRAE HVAC
Applications Volume Handbook to determine the base and isolator
type and minimum deflection.
Install flexible duct connectors at the inlet and at the discharge to
reduce transmission to the duct work.
Consider resilient, structural steel or concrete, inertial bases for fans
in critical areas or in long buildings of light construction.
Note: The best vibration isolation design will not compensate for a
resonant frequency problem. Isolation will only reduce the
transmission of forces due to imbalance.

C HAPTER 14
ELECTRIC MOTOR
FAN DRIVE
The AC electric motor is the main type of prime mover used to drive
fans and there are many types.
The selection of a high-efficiency motor is important, but the starting

motor current and torque are more important.
Excessive starting time raises the temperature of the motor windings

beyond acceptable levels.
FLYWHEEL EFFECT
The time to accelerate a fan to operating speed depends on the
fan/impeller inertia (flywheel effect) and the starting characteristics
of the electric motor.
The fan/impeller inertia is given as WR2 in the industry. This

must be corrected to represent the apparent inertia as seen by the
motor when the fan operates at a different speed from the motor.
R is called the radius of gyration.
Additional resistance to starting will be air power consumed by the

fan. Therefore it is advisable to start centrifugal fans with dampers
closed. (Axial fans should have dampers open.)
Chapter 14: Electric Motor Fan Drive 91

The characteristic starting-torque curves of the fan motor and the
maximum allowable time for acceleration (usually about 10
seconds) are available from manufacturers.
The available acceleration torque is the difference between the motor
torque and the fan torque.
AC MOTORS
Polyphase (usually three-phase) AC motors are almost always used
in fan applications that require more than 2 hp.
The AC induction motor, usually with a squirrel-cage rotor and no
external connections, is the most suitable for three- phase- power
fan drive as it is inexpensive and reliable.
It is a constant-speed motor with a flat torque characteristic in
relation to motor speed.
However, its starting current is high - as much as seven or eight
times higher than the running current.
The extra starting current for fans with low inertia and large motors
can cause problems with electrical supply and demand. Special
consideration must be given to reducing the starting current.
It is usual to reduce the starting voltage at start-up and step up the
voltage until the fan reaches running speed.
Another solution is to use a wound-rotor induction motor in which
the polyphase windings of the motor are connected to an external
resistor via slip rings.
Starting torque and starting current can be controlled by adjusting
the external resistance.
Small fans requiring less than 2 hp usually use single-phase power
supply.
Single-phase induction motors are non-self starting; to start the
motor, a second starting phase is created by connecting an extra
stator winding through a capacitor.

The starting capacitor displaces the phase of the current and is
disconnected after running speed is obtained, and a different size
capacitor is used for running.
Shaded pole motors are generally unsuitable for fan drive, because
of their inherent poor starting torque.
DC MOTORS
Sometimes DC motors are preferable for fan drive, particularly in
applications requiring speed modulation.
The series motor is most suitable, because it has moderate starting

current and self-regulating, stable operating characteristics.
Chapter 14: Electric Motor Fan Drive 93

C HAPTER 1 5
ENERGY CONSUMPTION
ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE: Building Ventilation
Note: This procedure involves many calculations that are easily done
using a spreadsheet computer program.
It is often necessary to estimate the energy consumption of a fan,
particularly for life-cycle costing. The energy costs are usually
determined for a period of a year.
EQUATION 27: Estimating the energy consumption of a fan
involves integrating the fan shaft input power divided by system
efficiencies over time.
n PFi t(n)
E=I ' x t(n)
1 hDt(n) x hMt(n) x ^Vt(n) x cf where:
E = energy consumption, kWh PFI t(n) =
fan shaft input power for time period, hp (W)
hDt(n) = drive efficiency for time period,
dimensionless ratio
hMt(n) = motor efficiency for time period,
dimensionless ratio
hVt(n) = variable-speed drive efficiency for time period,
dimensionless ratio
Chapter 15: Energy Consumption Analysis 95

t(n) = time at fan motor power, hours
The fan shaft input power is calculated by Equation 11 (p. 49).
Appendix B outlines the procedures for estimating drive
efficiencies. Motor efficiencies are obtained from manufacturers'
data. The procedure for using Equation 27 depends on the fan being
analyzed.
CONSTANT-VOLUME FANS
For a constant-volume fan processing a gas at a constant temperature
rise, the procedure is straight forward as the energy consumption is
integrated over one time period.
For a constant-volume fan processing outdoor-air, the fan power
varies as a function of the outdoor-air temperature.
When energy use is a function of outdoor-air temperature, the
annual energy consumption can be determined using a
computerized, hourly analysis program.
In the absence of such a program, a reasonable assessment can be
made by using ASHRAE bin weather data. When time-of- use
energy rates apply, then the weather data can be separated into
on-peak and off-peak periods.
EQUATION 28: al energy consumption:
PFi b(n) X t b(n)

n
E=X
1 hDb (n) x hMb (n) x cf
J
where:
E = energy consumption, kWh PFi b(n) = fan shaft input power at
bin temperature, kW hDb (n) = drive efficiency at bin
temperature, dimensionless ratio

hMb (n) = motor efficiency at bin temperature,
dimensionless ratio
t b(n) = time at temperature bin, hours cf =
conversion factor, 1.3410 ( 1,000)
EQUATION 29: The fan shaft input power at each temperature bin
when a constant-volume fan processes air of varying temperature:
PFI b(n) = PFI s x pb
ps"
where:
PFI b(n) = fan-shaft input power at bin
temperature, hp (W)
PFI s = fan-shaft input power at standard
conditions, hp (W)
Pb = actual bin density, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
Ps = standard air density, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
VARIABLE-VOLUME FANS
For an AF or BI centrifugal fan with variable-inlet vanes (VIVs), the
load profile of the fan system and the design point of the fan (with
the VIVs completely open) must be determined or estimated.
From the full-load design point, the fan flow as a percentage of

wide-open cubic feet per minute (WOcfm) must be determined from
the fan curve or a computer program. This is necessary to determine
which constants are used in the following equations, which estimate
the part-load conditions when the system curve originates at the
apex of zero flow and zero static pressure.
EQUATION 30: Load profile expressed in terms of WOcfm.
%Q(n) = %Qdx Lf(n)
100
where:
%Q(n) = percentage fan load for load point, %WOcfm
%Qd = percentage design fan load, %WOcfm
Lf(n) = load factor for load point, %
EQUATION 31: Percentage design fan load.
%Qd = Qd x 100
QWOcfm
where
%Qd = percentage design fan load, %WOcfm
Qd = flow at design, cfm (L/s)
QWOcfm = flow at WOcfm, cfm (L/s)
EQUATION 32: Percentage fan-shaft input power at each load point,
including the design point.
%hp(n) = c + a x exp (%Q(n) x b)

where:
%hp(n) = percentage fan power for load point, %hp %Q(n)
= percentage fan load for load point, %WOcfm
a,b,c = constants determined from table closest to design
WOcfm
EQUATION 33: The fan-shaft input power in horsepower at the

design point is determined from manufacturers' data and
corrected for VIV losses.
PFI c = PFI dx fP
where:
PFI c = corrected fan-shaft input power at design, hp
PFI d = fan input power at design, hp
fP = fan power correction factor
EQUATION 34: Typical fan power correction factor.
fp = 1 + 1.933 994 x exp (0.026 075 x %Qd)
100
where
fp = fan power correction factor, dimensionless ratio %Qd
= %WOcfm at design
EQUATION 35: The fan input power at each load point.

PFI (n) = PFI c x %hp(n) x pn x cf %hpd pd
where:
Ppi (n) = fan shaft input power for time period, hp (W)
PFI c = corrected fan input power at design, hp
%hp(n) = percentage fan power for time period, %hp
%hpd = percentage fan power at design, %hp
Pn = actual density at load point, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
pd = design air density used to determine hpd,
lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
cf = conversion factor, 1.0 (745.70)
EQUATION 36: To determine the fan motor input power, the

motor efficiency at each load point must be determined as a
function of the load factor.
Lf M = pMo(n)
PM
where
LfM = motor load factor, dimensionless ratio
PMo(n) = fan motor output power at load point, hp
PM = nominal nameplate rating of motor, hp
EQUATION 37: Fan motor output power (derivative of Equation 13,

p.50).
PMo(n) = P
Fi(n) hD(n)
where:
PMo(n) = fan motor output power, hp P Fi(n) =
fan-shaft input power at load point, hp hD(n) = drive
efficiency, dimensionless ratio
EQUATION 38: The fan motor input power at each load point
considering the part load efficiencies by combining Equation 13 (p.
50) and Equation 14 (p. 50).

PMi(n) = P Fi(n)
hD(n) x hM(n) x cf
where:
PMi(n) P = fan motor input power at load point, kW =
Fi(n) hD(n) fan-shaft input power at load point, hp (W) =
drive efficiency at load point, dimensionless
ratio
hM(n) = motor efficiency at load point, dimensionless
ratio
cf = conversion factor,1.3410 (1,000)
The total energy consumption in kilowatt-hours is then determined

by adding the product of the time in hours and the fan motor input
power in kilowatts at each load point.
EQUATION 39: Total energy consumption.
n
E=X (PMi(n) x t(n))
1
where:
E = energy consumption, kWh
P Mi(n) = fan motor input power for load point, kW
t(n) = time at load point, hours
EQUATION 40: Percentage static pressure at each load point
including the design point.
%sp(n) = a x %Q (n)b
where
%sp(n) = percentage fan static pressure at load point, %sp %Q
(n) = percentage fan flow at load point, %WOcfm a,b =
constants determined from table closest to design WOcfm
EQUATION 41: The fan static pressure at each load point.
Ps(n) = Psd x %sp(n) x pn x cf
%spd ps
where:

Ps(n) = static pressure at load point, in.Wg (Pa)
Psd = static pressure at design, in.Wg (Pa)
%sp(n) = percentage static pressure at load point, %sp
%spd = percentage static pressure at design, %sp
Pn = actual density at load point, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
Ps = standard density used to determine psd, lbm/ft. 3
(kg/m3 )
cf = conversion factor, 1.0 (248.84)
EQUATION 42: The fan static efficiency at each load point (rearrange
Equation 11, p. 49).
hs(n) = Q(n) x Ps(n)
PFi (n) x cf
where:
hs(n) = static efficiency at load point,
dimensionless ratio
Q(n) = flow at load point, ft.3/min. (L/s)
P s(n) = static pressure at load point, in.Wg (Pa)
PFI (n) = fan-shaft input power at load point, hp (W)
EQUATION 43: Fan speed at the design point determined from
manufacturers' data and corrected for VIV losses.
NFC = NFd x Nf
where:
NFc = corrected fan speed with VIVs, rpm
NFd = fan speed at design without VIVs, rpm
Nf = fan speed correction factor
EQUATION 44: Typical fan speed correction.

Nf = 1 + -41.329 73 + 11.168 903 x ln %Qd
100
where:
Nf = fan-speed correction factor, dimensionless ratio %Qd
= %WOcfm at design

EXAMPLE 4
Uses the energy-analysis formulae in this chapter and the
density-calculation formulae in Appendix A.
A ventilation system is required for a new welding shop at a
manufacturing plant. The shop is located in Toronto, Ontario, at
176m above sea level, and is to operate three shifts a day year round.
Analysis has determined the welding booth requires a minimum of
40,000 cfm of exhaust air for contaminate control. To remove excess
heat in warm weather, doubling the exhaust volume to 80,000 cfm
has been considered.
One proposed system is two exhaust fans of 40,000 cfm each and a
roof-mounted, VAV, makeup-air system with a blow- through,
54-in.-diameter, DWDI centrifugal fan with VIVs and a glycol
heating coil. The makeup-air unit fan delivers a maximum of 80,000
cfm at a static pressure of 4.5 in.Wg, at 0.075 lb/ft3.
Also included is a roof-mounted gravity relief damper to prevent
overpressurization of the zone. Whenever the system must operate,
the control sequence would be as follows:
One exhaust fan and the makeup-air unit start and run
continuously. The VIVs in the unit modulate and provide makeup
airflow as determined by a calibrated velocity pressure sensor in
the supply duct. The supply air should be reset from the minimum
volume of 40,000 cfm at an outdoor temperature of l3C to the
maximum volume of 80,000 cfm at an outdoor temperature of
l9C. When the VIVs are fully open, the second exhaust fan starts
and runs continuously. A normally-open control valve on the
heating coil is modulated to maintain a minimum supply-air
temperature of 12.8C.
To determine the annual energy consumption of the make-up- air
fan, considering density flow variation, use ASHRAE Metric Bin
Weather Data and a PC spreadsheet program using the modified bin
method to simplify calculations.
The fan requires a 100-hp motor, and motor-efficiency data is in

Table 8.

Table 7: Typical VAV-fan Constants
%WOcfm
Dependent Independent
50 55 60 65
Variable Variable Constant
%hp %Q a 1.015668 1.251667 1.847918 1.915869
b 0.078326 0.068488 0.055539 0.052399
c 42.50 42.25 41.50 41.50
%sp %Q a 0.036628 0.028756 0.022564 0.017582
b 2.000501 2.000751 2.000808 1.999086
%WOcfm
Dependent Independent
Variable Variable
70 75 80 85
Constant
%hp %Q a 2.012019 2.462608 3.751074 2.274535
b 0.048141 0.042180 0.033279 0.037477
c 41.50 41.00 39.50 41.50
%sp %Q a 0.013297 0.009782 0.007228 0.004959
b 2.000341 2.001993 1.997487 1.996321

Table 8: Motor Load Efficiencies
Motor
Size Load Factor Percentage
25 50 75 100 115 125

100 hp 89.05 91.86 93.50 93.05 92.83 92.70
Table 9: The Solution to Example 4

GIVEN PARAMETERS VALUE REMARKS
Elevation, m 176
Standard Density (p), Ib/ft3 0.075
Flow (Q), cfm

80000
Static Pressure (ps), in.Wg 4.5
FAN SELECTION PARAMETERS
Power (PFi d) at Std Cond, bhp 74
Speed (NFd) at Std Cond, rpm 693

130300
Max Flow (Qmax) at zero pressure, cfm From performance curve at 693 rpm
%WOcfm (%Q), % 61.40 Q/Qmax
5.5
Maximum Static Pressure (Ps max) in.Wg From performance curve at 693 rpm
Motor Power (PM), bhp 100 Nominal motor size

Motor Efficiency (hM). % 93.5
Peak efficiency at 75% load
contd

Table 9: The Solution to Example 4 (contd)
VAV FAN CONSTANTS

%WOcfm 60 Value nearest Q/Qmax
Variables Constants
%hp %Q a 1.847918 Data from Table 7
b 0.055539
c 41.50000
%sp %Q a 0.022564
b 2.000808
CALCULATED PARAMETERS
99.261 Interpolated
Station pressure (Pb), kPa
Drive efficiency (^D). % 4.00 Equation B1, p. 109
Percent power at design using (%hpd) 93.249 Equation 32, p. 92 60%WOcfm
Percent pressure at design using (%spd) 81.500 Equation 40, p. 95 60%WOcfm
VIV correction factor (fp) 1.09245 Equation 34. p. 93

VIV correction factor (Ni) 1.04400 Equation 44, p. 96
Corrected power (PFI C) bhp 80.841 Equation 33. p. 92
Corrected speed (NFC), rpm 723 Equation 44, p. 96
Summary
In reviewing the output from the spreadsheet program, it is apparent
that the fan operates at a static efficiency of only 16% for over 6,000
hours a year. Therefore, the proposed control scheme and system
arrangement is not very efficient and another scheme should be
considered. Also, the ductwork would have to be doubled in size for
this arrangement, which would add to the installation cost.

Table 10. Summary of Example 4
Tdb Twb Hr PWS Ws W Rho Lfn %Qn %spn psn %hpn PFin Seff PMon Lf M eff PMin En
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
34 25 8 3169.211 0.02051 0.01672 0.0684 100.00 60 81.50 4.11 93.25 73.78 70.13 76.85 0.768 0.935 61.31 491
31 23 42 2810.437 0.01812 0.01477 0.0693 100.00 60 81.50 4.16 93.25 74.73 70.13 77.84 0.778 0.934 62.12 2609
28 21 186 2487.663 0.01599 0.01307 0.0702 100.00 60 81.50 4.21 93.25 75.68 70.13 78.83 0.788 0.934 62.92 11704
25 19 352 2197.793 0.01408 0.01159 0.0711 100.00 60 81.50 4.26 93.25 76.62 70.13 79.81 0.798 0.934 63.72 22428
22 18 742 2064.288 0.01321 0.01155 0.0718 100.00 60 81.50 4.31 93.25 77.40 70.13 80.63 0.806 0.934 64.38 47770
19 15 630 1705.445 0.01087 0.00922 0.0728 100.00 60 81.50 4.37 93.25 78.48 70.13 81.75 0.818 0.934 65.30 41136
16 13 644 1497.808 0.00953 0.00830 0.0737 75.00 45 45.83 2.49 64.00 54.50 43.10 56.77 0.568 0.924 45.83 29515
13 11 969 1312.737 0.00834 0.00752 0.0745 50.00 30 20.36 1.12 51.28 44.18 15.93 46.b2 0.460 0.915 37.50 36337
10 8 588 1072.839 0.00680 0.00598 0.0755 50.00 30 20.36 1.13 51.28 44.76 15.93 46.63 0.466 0.916 37.97 22325
7 5 811 872.485 0.00552 0.00471 0.0765 50.00 30 20.36 1.15 51.28 45.33 15.93 47.22 0.472 0.916 38.43 31167
4 3 621 758.030 0.00479 0.00438 0.0773 50.00 30 20.36 1.16 51.28 45.85 15.93 47.76 0.478 0.917 38.85 24124
1 0 1731 611.212 0.00385 0.00345 0.0783 50.00 30 20.36 1.17 51.28 46.42 15.93 48.35 0.484 0.917 39.31 68045
-2 -5 488 401.763 0.00253 0.00133 0.0794 50.00 30 20.36 1.19 51.28 47.09 15.93 49.05 0.491 0.918 39.85 19449
-5 -7 461 338.193 0.00213 0.00133 0.0803 50.00 30 20.36 1.20 51.28 47.62 15.93 49.60 0.496 0.918 40.28 18569
-8 -10 274 259.902 0.00163 0.00084 0.0813 50.00 30 20.36 1.22 51.28 48.19 15.93 50.20 0.502 0.919 40.75 11165
-11 -13 138 198.518 0.00125 0.00046 0.0823 50.00 30 20.36 1.23 51.28 48.78 15.93 50.81 0.508 0.919 41.22 5688
-14 -16 56 150.676 0.00095 0.00016 0.0833 50.00 30 20.36 1.25 51.28 49.36 15.93 51.42 0.514 0.920 41.69 2335
-17 -19 13 113.618 0.00071 -0.00007 0.0843 50.00 30 20.36 1.26 51.28 49.96 15.93 52.04 0.520 0.920 42.17 548
-20 -22 5 85.096 0.00053 -0.00025 0.0853 50.00 30 20.36 1.28 51.28 50.57 15.93 52.67 0.527 0.921 42.66 213
TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION (kWh) 395619
Column Description Column Description
1 Bin dry-bulb temperature, "C. 11 Fan static pressure, in.Wg; Equation 41.
2 Bin mean coincident wet-bulb temperature, "C. 12 Percent fan power; Equation 32.
3 Bin hours of occurrence, h. 13 Fan-shaft input power, bhp; Equation 35.
4 Saturation pressure, Pa.; Equation A6 and Equation A7, "C. 14 Fan static efficiency, %o; Equation 42.
5 Saturation humidity ratio, dimensionless; Equation A9. 15 Fan motor output power, bhp; Equation 37.
6 Humidity ratio, dimensionless; Equation A11. 16 Motor load factor; dimensionless ratio; Equation 36.
7 Density, Ib/ft.3; Equation A14 and Equation A15 converted to IP units. 17 Motor efficiency; Equation derived from a regression analysis of
8 Load factor derived from example control sequence. Table 8 data (alternatively linear interpolation can be used).
9 Percent fan load; Equation 30. 18 Fan motor input power, kW; Equation 38.
10 Percent fan static pressure; Equation 40. 19 Fan energy consumption, kWh; Equation 27 (product of columns 3 and 18).

C HAPTER 16
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A - DENSITY CALCULATIONS

Moist Air Parameters for Density Determination
Moist air is defined as a binary mixture of dry air and water vapour.
The maximum amount of water vapour at saturation in moist air
depends on the temperature and pressure.
EQUATION A1: Moist air obeys the perfect gas equation.
p V= n R T
where:
total pressure (p) is the sum of the partial pressure of dry air
(pa) and the partial pressure of water vapour (pw), V is the
total mixture volume, the total moles (n) is the sum of the
number of moles of dry air (na) and the number of moles of
water vapour (nw), T is the absolute temperature and R is the
universal gas constant [1545.32 ft-lbf /lb-mol-F(abs) or 8.31441
J/(g-mol)-K].
EQUATION A2: The density (p) of moist air is the ratio of the total
mass to the total volume.
p = (ma + mw)/V
Chapter 16: Appendices 109

where:
ma = mass of dry air mw = mass of
water vapour
EQUATION A3: The humidity ratio (W) of a given moist air sample
is defmed as the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry
air.
W = mw/ma
The saturation humidity ratio (Ws) is the humidity ratio of moist air
saturated with water (or ice) at the same temperature and pressure.
EQUATION A4: Relative humidity (f) is the ratio of the mole fraction
of water vapour in a given moist air sample to the mole fraction in a
saturated air sample at the same temperature and pressure.
f = xw/xws | t,p
EQUATION A5: The dew point temperature (td) is the temperature
of moist air saturated at the same pressure (p) and with the same
humidity ratio (W) as that of the given sample of air. It is defined as
the solution td(p, W) to:
Ws(p,td) = W
The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature (twb) is the temperature
at which water (liquid or solid), by evaporating into moist air at a
given dry-bulb temperature (t) and humidity ratio (W), can bring air
into saturation adiabatically at the same temperature (twb), while
the pressure (p) is constant.
Density Calculations
The numerical method for calculating the density of moist air is a
multistep process and initially involves determining the water-
vapour saturation pressure. The saturation pressure in SI units
at the wet-bulb temperature is calculated by the following
Hyland and Wexler formulae published in the ASHRAE
Handbook, 1989 Fundamentals Volume.

EQUATION A6: The saturation pressure over ice for the
temperature range of -l00C to OC.
In(pws) = Ci/T + C2 + C3T + C4T2 + C5T3 + CeT4 + CzIn(T)

where:
C1 = -5.674 535 9 E-3
C2 = 6.392 524 7
C3 = -9.677 843 E-3
C4 = 6.221 157 Ol E-7
C5 = 2.074 782 5 E-9
C6 = -9.484 024 E-13
C7 = 4.163 501 9
EQUATION A7: The saturation pressure over water for the

temperature range of OC to 200C.
In(pws) = CB/T + C9 + Cl0T + C11T2 + C12T3 + CieIn(T) where:

CB = -5.800 220 6 E-3
C9 = 1.391 499 3
C10 = -4.864 023 9 E-2
C11 = 4.176 476 8 E-5
C12 = -1.445 209 3 E-8
C13 = 6.545 967 3
and where for both equations:
pws = saturation pressure, Pa
T = absolute temperature, K
EQUATION A8: Saturation pressure in IP units:

pws(IP) = 0.020855 pws(SI)
where:
Pws(IP) = saturation pressure, lb/ft2
Pws(SI) = saturation pressure, Pa
EQUATION A9: Saturation humidity ratio.
Ws = 0.62198 pws/(p - pws)

where:

Ws = saturation humidity ratio, dimensionless
p = absolute pressure, lbf/ft2 (Pa)
pws = saturation pressure, lbf/ft2 (Pa)
EQUATION A10: The humidity ratio using the wet-bulb
temperature.
W = ( 1,093 - 0.556 twb) Ws(wb) -0.240 (tdb - twb)
1,093 + 0.444 (tdb - twb)
EQUATION A11: or in SI units:
W = : (2,501- 2.381 twb) Ws(wb) - (tdb - twb)
2,501 + 1.805tdb- 4.186twb
where for both Equation A10 and Equation All:

W = humidity ratio, dimensionless
Ws = saturation humidity ratio, dimensionless
tdb = dry-bulb temperature, F (C)
twb = wet-bulb temperature, F (C)
EQUATION A12: The humidity ratio.

W = 0.62198 pw/(p - pw)
where:
p = total pressure, lbf/ft.2 (Pa)
p w = partial pressure of water vapour, lbf/ft.2 (Pa)
EQUATION A13: Relative humidity using the perfect gas

relationships:
f = Pw/Pws | t,p
where:
f = relative humidity, dimensionless pw = partial pressure
of water vapour, lbf/ft.2 (Pa)
pws = saturation pressure, lbf/ft.2 (Pa)
EQUATION A14: Volume.

v = RaT ( 1 + 1 .6078 W) p

where:
v = volume, ft.3/lbm, (m3/kg)
Ra = gas constant for air, 53.352 ft.lbf/lbm.F(abs)
(287.055 J/kg.K)
T = absolute temperature, F(abs) (K)
p = total pressure, lbf/ft2 (Pa)
EQUATION A15: Density is determined by the inverse of the volume.
p = 1/v
where:
p = density, lbm/ft.3 (kg/m3)
The equation to use to determine density depends on the measured
parameters. Table A2 outlines which equations must be used with
the appropriate parameters.

Table A1. Standard Atmospheric Data for Altitudes to 3,000 m
Altitude Temperature Pressure

m ft. "C "F kPa in.Hg
0 0 15.0 59.0 101.325 29.921
500 1,640 11.8 53.2 95.461 28.19
3,281 8.5 47.3 89.874 26.54
1,000
2,000 6,562 2.0 35.6 79.495 23.47
3,000 6,562 -4.5 23.9 70.108 20.70
Source: ASHRAE Handbook, 1989 Fundamentals Volume

Table A2. Density Calculations
Given
Parameters To Obtain Use Comments
WWp
pws1twb Equation A6 or Using twb
Equation A7
Ws 1 twb Equation A9 Using pws 1 twb
W Equation A10 or Using ps 1 twb

Equation A11
v Equation A14 Using W
P Equation A15 Using v
tdb, td, p
pw = pws 1 td Equation A6 or Using td
Equation A7
W Equation A12 Using Pws 1 td for Pw

tdb, f, p
P ws 1 tdb Equation A6 or Using tdb
Equation A7
Pw Equation A13 Using pws

W Equation A12 Using pw
Power transmission losses must be considered in energy consumption

APPENDIX B - DRIVE LOSS CALCULATIONS
analysis whenever a direct-drive system is not used. The types of
drive systems with losses include hydraulic and gear drives, belt
drives (including V-belts and rubber chain), and variable-speed
drives including eddy current clutches and electronic and
mechanical variable-speed devices.
Determining precise drive losses involves laboratory testing

procedures. However, using the methods in this appendix, losses for
the common drive systems can be estimated with suitable accuracy.
V-belt Drives
Expressed as a percentage of motor output, these losses diminish
logarithmically as the motor size increases. In addition, there is a
range for each motor size where typically the losses increase as speed
increases. The value of the drive- belt loss can be determined by the
graph in AMCA Publication 203-90, or the mean drive loss can be
determined by the following equations:
EQUATION Bl: Fractional horsepower motors:

LD =9.4-4.651 27 In PM
EQUATION B2: Motors from 1 to 10 horsepower:
LD = 9.4 -1.867 47 In PM
EQUATION B3: Motors from 10 to 100 horsepower:
LD = 6.2 - 0.477 724 In PM
EQUATION B4: Motors over 100 horsepower:
LD = 4.0
where for all applicable equations:
LD = drive loss in percent of motor output, %
PM = nominal rated motor output power, hp

EQUATION B5: Actual motor output power: PMO
= PFi/cf(1.0 - LD/100)
where:
PMO = motor output power, bhp (kW)
PFI = fan shaft input power, bhp
LD = drive loss in percent of rated motor output
power, %
cf = conversion factor, 1.0 (0.745 70)
Rubber Chain Drives

Relatively new drive method that is more efficient than V-belt drive
systems. The drive pulleys are ribbed and the belt is toothed to
prevent slippage. Drive losses occur due to the bending forces as the
belt rotates around the pulleys. Ask the manufacturer for the drive
losses, or assume that LD = 2.0.
Fan motor output power is determined using Equation B5.

Electronic Variable-speed Drives
Manufacturers publish the part-load efficiencies and power factor of
their electronic variable-speed drives as a function of output speed
at constant load and, in the case of fan systems, as a function of
output speed with load reducing with the cube of the speed change.
If the manufacturer does not supply this data, the part-load drive
efficiency can be determined by multiplying the full-load design
drive efficiency by the part-load correction factor.
EQUATION B6:
cfv =1.0 + (0.203 176 x 1n Nfv)
where:
cfv = variable-torque drive correction factor, dimensionless
ratio

Nfv = speed fraction of variable-speed drive, dimensionless
ratio
EQUATION B7: Variable-speed drive efficiency.
h V = hvd x cfv
100
where:
hV = part-load drive efficiency, dimensionless ratio hvd = drive
efficiency at full-load design, %

The part-load efficiency of the motor must be considered to
determine the input power to the variable-speed drive. Data on
motor part-load efficiency at reduced speed may be difficult to
obtain. In the absence of this data use the part-load efficiency at full
rated speed.
EQUATION B8: Variable-speed drive input power.
PVi = PFi /hV hD hM
where:
Pvi = variable-speed drive input power, hp (kW)
PFi = fan-shaft input power, hp (kW)
h V = variable-speed drive efficiency,
dimensionless ratio
h D = drive efficiency, dimensionless ratio
h M = motor efficiency, dimensionless ratio
For installed systems where the input load and power factor can be
measured, the output of the variable-speed drive can be determined
by;
EQUATION B9: For single - phase power:
PVo = (E I pf hD)/cf
EQUATION B10: For three - phase power:
Pvo = (V3 E I pf hD)/cf

where for both equations:
PVO = variable-speed drive output power, hp (kW)
E = average of the measured phase volts
I = average of the measured phase amps
= conversion factor, 745.70 ( 1,000) pf
= power factor, dimensionless ratio hD = drive
efficiency, dimensionless ratio
Other Drive Systems

For systems such as eddy current clutches and hydraulic couplings, ask
the manufacturer for the drive efficiencies. If this data is not
available, then the actual fan input power must be determined by
laboratory tests.

APPENDIX C - FAN OUTLET LOSS COEFFICIENTS (REF.ASHR)
Table C1. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet Without
Ductwork
C0
e A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.51 0.34 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.17
15 0.54 0.36 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20
20 0.55 0.38 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.24

25 0.59 0.43 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.33
30 0.63 0.50 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.42
35 0.65 0.56 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.50
Figure C1. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet Without

Ductwork

Table C2. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet Without Ductwork
C0
e A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.54 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.31
15 0.67 0.58 0.53 0.51 0.50 0.51
20 0.75 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.65
25 0.80 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.70 0.72
30 0.85 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.76
Figure C2. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet Without Ductwork

Table C3. Plane Symmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork
C0
e A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.11
15 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.14
20 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.16

25 0.08 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.21 0.23
30 0.16 0.24 0.29 0.32 0.34 0.35

35 0.24 0.34 0.39 0.44 0.48 0.50
Figure C3. Plane Symmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork

Table C4. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork
C0
e A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.11
15 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15
20 0.12 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18

25 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.23 0.23 0.26
30 0.18 0.25 0.30 0.33 0.35 0.35
35 0.21 0.31 0.38 0.41 0.43 0.44
Figure C4. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork

C0
e A1/ A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.14
15 0.06 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.15 0.15
20 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.16

25 0.09 0.14 0.18 0.20 0.21 0.22
30 0.13 0.18 0.23 0.26 0.28 0.29
35 0.15 0.23 0.28 0.33 0.35 0.36

C0
e A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
15 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.18
20 0.19 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30
25 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.37 0.39 0.40

30 0.36 0.34 0.46 0.49 0.51 0.51
35 0.44 0.54 0.64
0.61 0.66 0.66

Table C7. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork
C0
e A1 / A2
degree 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
10 0.10 0.18 0.21 0.23 0.24 0.25
15 0.23 0.33 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44

20 0.31 0.43 0.48 0.53 0.56 0.58
25 0.36 0.49 0.55 0.58 0.62 0.64
30 0.42 0.53 0.59 0.64 0.67 0.69
Figure C7. Pyramidal Diffuser at Fan Outlet With Ductwork

CHAPTER 17
CONVERSION TABLES
From To Multiply by
F C T-C = (tF- 32)/1.8
F R F(abs) T(-R) = t-F + 459.67

F K T(K) = (t-F + 459.67) /1.8
R F(abs) K T(K) = T-R /1.8

C K T(K) = t-C + 273.15
K C t (-C) = TK- 273.15
Chapter 17: Conversion Tables 127

Inch/Pound (IP) to Metric (SI) SI to IP
lenc th
1 in. 25.400 mm 1 mm 0.039 37 in.

1 ft. 0.304 80 m 1m 3.2808 ft.
area
1 in. 2
645.16 mm 2
1 mm 2
0.00155 in. 2
1 ft.2
0.092 903 m 2
1m 2
10.764 ft. 2
mass
1 Ibm 0.453 59 kg 1 kg 2.2046 Ibm
volume
1 ft.3
0.028 317 m 3
1m 3
35.315 ft. 3
1 ft.3
28.317 I 1 0.035 315 ft. 2
1 gal. Imp. 4.546 1 I 1I 0.219 97 gal. Imp.

1 gal. US 3.785 4 I 1I 0.264 17 gal. US
density
1 Ibm/ft. 3
16.018 kg/m 3
1 kg/m 3
0.062 430 Ibm/ft. 3
specific v
ft /Ibm
3
0.062 43 m /kg
3
1 m /kg
3
16.018 ft /Ib.
3
velocity
1 fps 0.304 80 m/s 1 m/s 3.280 8 fps

1 fpm 0.005 0800 m/s 1 m/s 196.85 fpm
force
1 Ibf 4.448 2 N 1N 0.224 81 Ibf

torque
1 Ibf.ft. 1.355 8 N.m 1 N.m 0.737 56 Ib .ft. f

Inch/Pound (IP) to Metric (SI) SI to IP
flow rate
1 cfs 28.317 m /s 3
1 m /s
3
35.315 cfs
1 cfm 0.471 95 m /s 3
1 m /s
3
2.118 9 cfm
1 gpm (Imp.) 0.075 77 L/s 1 L/s 13.198 gpm (Imp.)

1 gpm (US) 0.063 09 L/s 1 L/s 15.850 gpm (US)
pressure / head
1 psi 6.894 8 kPa 1 kPa 0.145 03 psi

1 psf 0.047 88 kPa 1 kPa 20.885 psf
1 ft.Wg (1)
2.986 1 kPa 1 kPa 0.334 88 ft.WgUP
1 in.Wg (1)
248.84 Pa = 0.036 psi 1 kPa 4.018 6 in.Wg (1)
1 in.Hg (1)
3.376 9 kPa 1 kPa 0.296 12 in.Hg (1)
1 psi = 27.8 in Wg
energy, work
1 Btu 1.055 1 kJ 1 kJ 0.947 85 Btu
1 kWh 3600.0 kJ 1 MJ 0.277 78 kWh
1 ft.lbf 1.355 8 J 1J 0.737 56 ft.lbf
power
1 Btu/h 0.293 07 W 1 kW 3.412 2 MBh (2)
1 hp 746.00 W 1 kW 1.340 5 hp (electric)

1 hp = 550 ft-lb/sec
Note: 1 Water and mercury at 20C (68F)

2 M = 103 in Mbh
Chapter 17: Conversion Tables 129

Atmospheric pressure (standard)
14.7 psia, 101 kPa
psia = pounds/sq.in. absolute
i.e., includes atmospheric pressure
p sig. pounds/sq.in. gauge
pressure measured above local atmospheric pressure, (
i.e., not including atmospheric pressure )

C HAPTER 1 8
ABBREVIATIONS AND
SYMBOLS
ABBREVIATIONS
A
fan outlet area, ft.2 (m2) blade frequency constant
Bf
system effect coefficient, dimensionless
C
conversion factor
Co
cubic feet Per minute
cf
cubic feet Per second
cfm
fan size or impeller diameter
cfs
energy consumption, kWh
D
fan power correction factor, dimensionless ratio
E
amperage
fP
natural logarithm
I
value for calculating system effect factors specific
In sound power level, dB re 1 pW drive loss, % load
K factor
Kw
LD
lf
Chapter 18: Abbreviations and Symbols 131

Lw
m sound power level, dB re lpW mass, lbm (g)
N rotational speed, rpm (r/s)
Nf fan speed correction factor, dimensionless ratio
P power, hp (kW)
P pressure, in.Wg (Pa) or psi (kPa)
pB
Pf barometric pressure, in.Hg (kPa)
PFI power factor, dimensionless ratio
PFO shaft power input to the fan, hp (kW)
PMI air power output of the fan, hp (kW)

motor input power, kW
psia pounds per square inch, atmospheric

psig pounds per square inch, gauge
fan total pressure rise, in.Wg (Pa)
Pt
variable-speed input power, hp (kW)
Pv
i motor power output to the fan drive, hp (kW)
PM
O fan static pressure rise, in.Wg (Pa)
Ps
Pv fan velocity pressure, in.Wg (Pa)
Pvo variable-speed output power, hp (kW)
P ws saturation pressure, lb/ft.2, Pa
Q volume flow rate at inlet conditions, cfm (L/s)
R universal gas constant, Ft-lbf/lb-mol.F(abs)(J/g-mol.K)
radius, ft., in. (m, cm)
r
revolutions per minute
rpm
service factor
SF
system effect factor
SEF

T= thermodynamic temperature, R (K)
t= customary temperature, F (C)
tb = time at temperature bin, hours
td = temperature differential
tdb = dry-bulb temperature, F (C)
twb = wet-bulb temperature, F (C)
V= velocity, ft./min. (m/s)
Va = axial velocity component

Vb = velocity relative to blade
Vm = mean velocity component
Vr = radial velocity component
Vs = absolute velocity
Vt = tangential velocity component
W= humidity ratio, dimensionless
Wg = water gauge
Ws = saturation humidity ratio
WOcfm = wide open cubic feet per minute, %

%hp = percent fan power for load point
%sp = percent static pressure for load point
SYMBOLS
C = degree Celsius
dB = decibel
F = degree Fahrenheit
g= gram
hp = horsepower
Chapter 18: Abbreviations and Symbols 133

in.Hg = inch of mercury
K = kelvin
kPa = kilopascal (103 x pascal)
L/s = litre per second

m/s = metre per second
Pa = pascal
pW = picowatt
R = degree Rankine
rad/s = radian per second
W = watt
At = temperature difference
hM = motor efficiency, dimensionless ratio
hD = drive efficiency, dimensionless ratio
hV = variable-speed drive efficiency, dimensionless ratio
hs = static efficiency of fan, dimensionless ratio
ht = total efficiency of fan, dimensionless ratio
0 = plane angle
v = volume, ft.3/lbm (m3/kg)

P = density, lbm/ft3 (kg/m3)
I = summation of
f = relative humidity
w = rotational speed, rad/s

C HAPTER 19
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA). Fans and Systems.

Publication 201-90. 30 West University Drive,
Arlington Heights, Ill. 60004-1893, (708)394-0150, 1990.
AMCA. Field Performance Measurement of Fan Systems. Publication
203-90. Arlington Heights, Ill., 1990.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE). Handbook, l988 Equipment Volume. Atlanta,
1988.
ASHRAE. Handbook, 1989 Fundamentals Volume. Atlanta, 1989.
ASHRAE. Handbook, 1991 HVAC Applications Volume. Atlanta, 1991.
ASHRAE. Metric Bin Weather Data, Toronto International Airport.
Atlanta, n.d.
ASHRAE. Simplified Energy Analysis using the Modified Bin Method.
Report TC 4. I . Atlanta, 1983.
E.A. Avallone and T. Baumeister. MARKS' Standard Handbook for
Mechanical Engineers. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987.
Chapter 19: Bibliography 135

Buffalo. High Pressure Type HL Industrial Exhausters. Bulletin FI-
115A. Kitchener, Ont.: Canada Blower/Canada Pumps, 1987.
Buffalo. Type BL Centrifugal Fans. Bulletin F107-B, Kitchener, Ont.:
Canada Blower/Canada Pumps, 1987.
Greenheck Fan Corp. CAPS- Computer Selection Program. Schofield,
Wis., 1986.
Greenheck Fan Corp. Centrifugal Fans - Backward Inclined and Airfoil
Single and Double Width. Catalogue Cent. Fab (BI/AF)
R. Schofield, Wis., 1990.
Greenheck Fan Corp. Centrifugal Roof Exhausters - Models G and GB.
Catalogue G/GB R. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
Greenheck Fan Corp. Industrial Fans - Open Radial & Radial Tip.
Catalogue IF 1-86 M. Schofield, Wis., 1986.
Greenheck Fan Corp. Inline Fans - Models SQ and BSQ. Catalogue
DSQ/BSQ R. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
Greenheck Fan Corp. Sidewall Propeller Fans - Belt Drive. Catalogue
SPF-M. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
Greenheck Fan Corp. Sidewall Propeller Fans - Direct Drive. Catalogue
SD-APR. 89-M. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
Greenheck Fan Corp. Tubeaxial Fans - Direct and Belt Drive. Catalogue
TAB/TAD 2 R. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
Greenheck Fan Corp. Utility Fans - Forward Curved and Backward
Inclined. Catalogue SFD/SFB 3-86 M. Schofield, Wis., 1986.
Greenheck Fan Corp. Vane Axial - Response Control and Preset Pitch
Fans. Catalogue VR, VP R M. Schofield, Wis., 1989.
Jorgensen, R. (ed.) Fan Engineering. 8th ed. Buffalo, NY, Buffalo
Forge Company, 1983.
Public Works Canada. Metric Conversion Handbook for Mechanical
Engineers in the Building Industry. 2nd ed. 1983.
The Trane Company. CDS - Customer Direct Service Computer

Selection Program. Vol 10.1. La Crosse, Wis., n.d.
The Trane Company. Centrifugal Fans - Sizes 12-89 Single and Double
Width. catalogue PL-AH-FAN-000-DS-6-1083. La Crosse, Wis., 1983.
Chapter 19: Bibliography 137

Chapter 20: Glossary 139
C HAPTER 2 0
GLOSSARY
abscissa
horizontal coordinate of a point in a plane Cartesian coordinate
system obtained by measuring parallel to the x-axis. (Compare
ordinate.)
absolute humidity
in a mixture of water vapour and dry air, the mass of water vapour in
a specific volume of the mixture. Compare relative humidity.
absolute (thermodynamic) temperature
temperature as measured above absolute zero.
absolute (dynamic) viscosity
force per unit area required to produce unit relative velocity between
two parallel areas of fluid unit distance apart, also called coefficient
of viscosity.
absolute zero temperature
zero point on an absolute temperature scale.

adiabatic exponent
exponent k in the equation pvk = constant, representing an adiabatic
change (k is the ratio of the specific heat at a constant pressure to the
specific heat at constant volume).
adiabatic process
thermodynamic process during which no heat is extracted from or
added to the system.
aerodynamic excitation
time varying loads acting on the blades of a fan due to
nonconformities of the air flow. Note: Spatial nonuniformities of
airflow that are steady in time give rise to harmonic excitation at
frequencies that are integer multiples of the rotation rate of the fan.
TIme excitations of the airflow give rise to random excitation.
air
ambient local atmospherical air supply at fan intake.
air change
introduction of new, cleansed, or recirculated air to a space.
air-conditioning system
assembly of equipment for air treatment to control simultaneously its
temperature, humidity, cleanliness and distribution to meet the
requirements of a conditioned space.
airflow resistance
deterrent (due to friction, change of direction, etc.) to the passage of
air within a system of airways or an apparatus.
air power (operational)
power required to move air at a given rate of flow against a given
resistance. The ratio of air power to input power of a fan or blower is
termed efficiency.
air power (theoretical)
power required to drive a fan or blower as though there were no
losses in the fan or blower (100% efficiency).
algorithm
prescribed set of well defined rules, or process, for the solution of a

problem in a finite number of steps, e.g., a full statement of an
arithmetical procedure for evaluating sine X to a stated precision.
ambient air
surrounding air (usually outdoor air or the air in an enclosure under
study).
ANSI
American National Standards Institute
apparent power
product of the volts and amperes of a circuit. This product generally
is divided by 1,000 and designated in kilovoltamperes (kVA). It
comprises both real and reactive power.
ARI
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute.
ASHRAE
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning
Engineers.
ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials.
baghouse fan
an exhaust fan for conveying smoke, dust, etc., into filters for
pollution control.
balance pressure
pressure in a system or container equal to that outside.
bin method
energy calculation method, usually used for prediction, in which the
annual (or monthly) energy use of a building is calculated as the
sum of the energy used for all the outdoor temperature bins. It
allows heat pump (or other heater or cooler) performance, which is
different for each bin, to be accounted for.
boundary layer
region of retarded fluid-flow near the surface of a body moving
through the fluid, or past which the fluid moves.

brake horsepower (BHP)
actual power delivered by or to a shaft (from the use of a brake to
measure power).
British thermal unit (Btu)
the mechanical equivalent energy of a Btu is approximately 778.169
262 ft. lb. The heat energy of a Btu is approximately that required to
raise the temperature of a pound of water from 59F to 60F.
capacity
maximum load for which a machine, apparatus, device or system is
designed or constructed.
cell (in a cooling tower)
smallest tower subdivision that can function as an independent heat
exchange unit. It is bounded by exterior walls or partitions. Each cell
may have one or more fans or stacks and one or more distribution
systems.
central fan system
mechanical indirect system of heating, ventilating or airconditioning,
in which the air is treated or handled by equipment located outside
the rooms served, usually at a control location, and is conveyed to
and from the rooms by means of a fan and a system of distributing
ducts.
cleansed air
air that has been treated to remove pollutants, particulates and
odours.
coil
cooling or heating element made of pipe or tube that may or may not
be finned, formed into helical or serpentine shape.
compressibility
ease with which a fluid may be reduced in volume by the application
of pressure.
compressor
device for mechanically increasing the pressure of a gas.

conditioned air
air treated to control its temperature, relative humidity, purity,
pressure and movement.
control/controller
manual or automatic device for regulating a system or component in
normal operation.
cooling tower
heat-transfer device in which atmospheric air cools warm water,
generally by direct contact (evaporation).
mechanical-draft, water-cooling tower; tower through which air
movement is effected by one or more fans.
counterflow
in heat exchange between two fluids, the opposite direction of flow;
i.e., the coldest portion of one fluid meeting the coldest portion of
the other.
critical speed
The speed at which a fan, duct, or other component will vibrate in
resonance.
damper
device used to vary the volume of air passing through an outlet, inlet
or duct, or generally through a confined cross section by varying the
cross-sectional area.
decibel
unit of air sound pressure and sound power.
design airflow
required airflow when the system is operating under assumed
maximum conditions, including diversity.
design conditions
specified environmental conditions, e.g., temperature and humidity,
required to be produced and maintained by a system.
design working pressure
in the U.S., the maximum working pressure for which an apparatus

has been designed. In some countries, the design pressure is greater
than the maximum working pressure.
dew point
temperature at which water vapour has reached saturation point
(100% relative humidity).
dry air (definition for HVAC applications)
1. air without entrained water vapour. 2. air unmixed with or
containing no water. Note: Composition of dry air is defined in ISO
2533-1975, without contaminants or pollution.
dry-bulb temperature
temperature of air indicated by an ordinary thermometer.
duct system
series of ducts, elbows and connectors to convey air or other gases
from one location to another.
dynamic pressure
additional pressure exerted by a fluid due to motion, if that motion
were converted to a static pressure, as in a fluid jet impinging on a
surface.
equivalent length
resistance of fittings or appurtenances in a conduit through which
the fluid flows, expressed in length of straight conduit of the same
diameter or shape that would have the same resistance; also
expressed in length/diameter units.
evase
a diffuser duct section on fan outlet to regain static pressure.
As the diffuser, in fact, adds a loss, the fan total efficiency
is reduced.
external vibration isolation
in an air-handling unit, isolation of its vibration by devices external
to the unit.
fan
device for moving air by two or more blades or vanes attached to a

rotating shaft.
fan air density
density of air corresponding to the absolute pressure and absolute
temperature at the fan inlet when the fan is operating.
fan appurtenances
accessories added to a fan for control, isolation, safety, static pressure
regain, wear, etc. (inlet boxes, inlet box dampers, variable inlet
vanes, outlet dampers, vibration isolation bases, inlet screens, belt
guards, diffusers, sound attenuators, wear protection, turning
gears).
fan blast area
fan scroll outlet area less the area of the cutoff.
fan boundary (inlet and outlet)
interface between the fan and the remainder of the system, at a plane
perpendicular to the airstream where it enters or leaves the fan.
fan casing (volute, scroll)
the part of the casing of a centrifugal fan or compressor that receives
fluid forced outward from the impeller or diffuser and leads it to the
discharge. (Compare fan shroud.)
fan coil (convector) unit
fan and a heat exchanger for heating and/or cooling assembled
within a common casing.
fan curve
diagram giving the pressure/volume characteristics of a fan, and the
power it requires.
fan free-discharge area
area where the fan chamber meets the discharge scroll. Used in fan
system-effect calculations, (the outlet boundary).
fan inlet (outlet) area
area of the fan or fan equipment for connection to attached
ductwork.
fan nodal line
The point of zero displacement on any component vibrating at its

natural frequency.
fan (constant speed) performance curve
graphical representation of static or total pressure and power input
over a range of air volume flow rate at a stated inlet density and fan
speed. It may include static and mechanical efficiency curves.
fan power
power input at the fan shaft, or the total of the power input to the fan
shaft and the power loss attributable to the power transmission
device.
fan pressurization test
test for determining the air leakage of a building using a fan- induced
pressure difference.
fan propeller
propeller or disc-type wheel within a mounting ring or plate, and
including driving mechanism supports for either belt-drive or direct
connection. (Compare impeller.)
fan shroud
protective housing that surrounds the fan and that may also direct
the flow of air. (Compare fan casing.)
fan sound power
sound power radiated into a duct, or through the housing.
fan static pressure
difference between fan total pressure and fan discharge velocity
pressure.
fan torsional excitation
type of excitation in which external force is applied to the fan shaft in
the form of torque pulsations.
fan total pressure
arithmetic difference between fan-outlet total pressure and fan- inlet
total pressure.
fan wheel
revolving part of a fan or blower.

fan wheel cone
inlet ring, impeller shroud, impeller rim annular plate, or conical ring
on the air inlet side of a centrifugal fan to which the impeller blades
are fixed.
filter mixing box
in air-handling units, a combination filter section outside-/ return-air
mixing plenum, including control dampers.
flow nozzle
tube specially shaped to increase the discharge velocity of the fluid,
to minimize contraction losses.
flow velocity
velocity (local or average) of a fluid in a pipe, duct or canal, or from
an orifice.
frequency response
normalized motion response of a fan to a known excitation,
expressed as a function of the frequency of the excitation. Is usually
given graphically by curves showing the relationship of the
response to the excitation (and, where applicable, phase shift or
phase angle) as a function of frequency.
full-load amperes
current that a rotating machine will draw from the power line when
the machine is operating at rated voltage, speed and torque.
gauge pressure
pressure above atmospheric pressure.
head
energy per unit mass of fluid divided by gravitational acceleration.
In fluid statics and dynamics, a vertical linear measure. Note: The
terms head and pressure are often mistakenly used interchangeably.
head pressure
operating pressure measured in the discharge line at a pump, fan or
compressor outlet; i.e., at the head.
horsepower
work done at the rate of 550 ft- lb/sec. (745.7 W). (See also brake

horsepower.)
HVAC systems
provide either collectively or individually the processes of comfort
heating, ventilating and/or air conditioning within, or associated
with, a building.
hydrostatic pressure
pressure exerted by a fluid at rest.
impeller (rotor; wheel)
rotating part of a device (fan, blower, compressor or pump) that
moves fluid. (See also fan.)
impeller reaction
ratio of the variation of the fluid pressure in the impeller to the total
variation of pressure in the device.
impeller running noise frequency
in a turbomachine, the noise frequency resulting from the rotational
speed of the impeller times the number of blades.
intermediate pressure (interstage pressure)
pressure between stages of multistage compression.
internal vibration isolation
in an air-handling unit, spring isolation of all moving parts within
the unit that support the fan sled.
IP units (inch-pound units)
units using inches, pound and other designations; as opposed to SI
units in the metric system. Examples are foot, Btu, horsepower,
gallon.
iterative procedure
process which repeatedly executes a series of operations until some
prescribed condition is satisfied.
joule (J)
1. (electric work) work done by one ampere flowing through a
resistance of one ohm for one second. J = W-sec. (watt second). 2.
(heat or mechanical work) work done by a force of one newton

acting over one metre. J = N-m.
kelvin temperature
SI absolute temperature scale (K), on which the triple point of water
is 273.16K and the boiling point is approximately 373.15K ( 1 K =
1C). Kelvin is 1/273.16 of the temperature of the thermodynamic
triple point of water.
kinematic viscosity
ratio of absolute viscosity to density of a fluid.
laminar flow (streamline)
fluid flow in which all the particles move in substantially parallel
paths, occurs at low Reynolds numbers.
mixing box
compartment in which two air supplies are mixed together before
being discharged.
modulate
1. adjust by small increments and decrements. 2. vary a voltage or
other variable with a signal.
noise (NC) criteria curves
curves that define the limits that the octave-band spectrum of a noise
source must not exceed if a certain level of occupant acceptance is to
be achieved.
noise reduction (NR)
difference between the average sound pressure levels, or sound
intensity levels of two spaces - usually two adjacent rooms called the
source room and the receiving room respectively.
operating load point
actual system operating capacity at the time of taking an instrument
reading.
ordinate
the Cartesian coordinate obtained by measuring parallel to the
y-axis. (Compare abscissa.)
outdoor air
air outside a building, or air taken from outdoors and not previously

circulated through the system.
outlet area
gross overall discharge area of a given component in an air
distribution system.
output
capacity, duty, performance, net refrigeration produced by a system.
phase
1. in thermodynamics, one of the three states of matter, solid, liquid,
or gas. 2. position in a cycle.
pitot tube
small bore tube inserted perpendicular to a flowing stream with its
orifice facing the stream to measure total pressure.
polytropic process
one in which heat is being exchanged with the surroundings,
represented by the equation pvn = constant (n is the polytropic
exponent). Describes the process in a fan.
pressure
thermodynamically, the normal force exerted by a homogeneous
liquid or gas, per unit of area, on the wall of the container.
prime mover
engine, turbine, water wheel or similar machine that drives an
electric generator.
psychrometer
instrument for measuring relative humidities with wet- and dry-
bulb thermometers.
pump
machine for imparting energy to a fluid causing it to do work,
drawing a fluid into itself through an entrance port, and forcing the
fluid out through an exhaust port. Main types are air lift, centrifugal,
diaphragm, positive displacement, reciprocating and rotary.
Rankine temperature
absolute temperature scale conventionally defined by the

temperature of the triple point of water equal to 491.68R, with 180
divisions between the melting point of ice and the boiling point of
water under standard atmospheric pressure (lR= 11F).
rating standard
standard that sets forth a method of interpreting the results of tests of
individual units, at specified conditions, in relation to a product
manufactured in quantity.
reactive power
portion of apparent power that does no work. It is measured
commercially in kilovars. Reactive power must be supplied to most
types of magnetic equipment, such as motors. It is supplied by
generators or by electrostatic equipment, such as capacitors.
real power
energy- or work-producing part of apparent power. It is measured
commercially in kilowatts. The product of real power and length of
time is energy, measured by watt-hour meters and expressed in
kilowatt-hours (kWh).
reheat
application of sensible heat to supply air that has been previously
cooled below the temperature desired for maintaining the
temperature of the conditioned space.
relative humidity
ratio of the partial pressure or density of water vapour to the
saturation pressure or density respectively, at the same dry-bulb
temperature, and barometric pressure of the ambient air.
saturation pressure
for a pure substance at a given temperature, the pressure at which
vapour and liquid, or vapour and solids, can exist in equilibrium.
sensor
device or instrument designed to detect and measure a variable.
specification
precise statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by a
material, product, system or service that indicates the procedures for

determining whether each of the requirements is satisfied.
stall region
performance zone where unstable operation occurs, characterized by
aerodynamic blockage or the breakaway of the flow from certain
passages between the blades.
standard air (IP)
dry air at 70F and 14.696 psia. Under these conditions, dry air has a
mass density oF 0.075 lb/ft3.
standard air (SI)
dry air at 20C and 101.325 kPa absolute. Under these conditions, dry
air has a mass density of 1.204 kg/m3.
stratified airflow
layers of air, usually at different temperatures or different velocities,
flowing through a duct or plenum.
stratified fluid flow
form of low velocity, two-phase flow in horizontal pipes, so that the
free surface of the liquid remains level between a gaseous and liquid
phase above and below it respectively.
system effects
usually conditions in a distribution system that affect fan and pump
performance and related testing, adjusting, and balancing work. Can
also affect the performance of other components (such as filters).
temperature profile
graph representing the distribution of temperatures in a plane
section of a body or a space, or over a period of time.
testing standard
standard that sets forth methods of measuring capacity, or other
aspects of operation, of a specific unit or system of a given class of
equipment, together with a specification of instrumentation,
procedure and calculations.
thermal transfer fluid
fluid circulated through closed circuits to transfer heat from one
location to another.

thermal watt
heat power expressed in watts.
throttling
1. of a fluid, an irreversible adiabatic process which consists of
lowering pressure by an expansion without work. 2. reduction in
fluid or current flow by adding resistance.
ton (of refrigeration)
time-rate of cooling equal to 12,000 Btu/h (approximately
3,517 W).
total pressure
in fluid flow, the sum of static pressure and velocity pressure.
turbine
fluid-energized acceleration machine for generating rotary
mechanical power from the energy in a fluid stream.
turbulent (eddy) flow
fluid flow in which the velocity varies in magnitude and direction in
an irregular manner throughout the mass.
turning vane (air splitter)
curved strip of short radius placed in a sharp bend or elbow in a duct
to direct air around the bend.
two-phase flow
simultaneous flow of two phases of a fluid, usually gas-liquid flows.
valve
device to regulate or stop the flow of fluid in a pipe or a duct by
throttling.
variable air volume (VAV)
use of varying airflow to control the condition of air, in contrast to
constant flow with varying temperature.
variable flow
throttling control of water during a cooling or heating process.
velocity head
height of fluid corresponding to the kinetic energy per unit

mass of fluid divided by gravitational acceleration.
velocity pressure
in a moving fluid, the pressure due to the velocity and density of the
fluid, expressed by the velocity squared times the fluid density,
divided by two (pv2/2).
velocity profile
graph that represents, in a plane section, the velocity distribution in a
flowing fluid.
vena contracta
smallest cross-sectional area of a fluid stream leaving an orifice.
venturi
contraction in a pipeline or duct that increases the fluid velocity to
lower its static pressure, followed by a gradual expansion to allow
recovery of static pressure. Used for metering and other purposes
that involve change in pressure.
viscosity
1. property of semifluids, fluids and gases by which they resist an
instantaneous change of shape or arrangements of parts. It causes
fluid friction whenever adjacent layers of fluid move in relation to
each other. 2. property of a fluid to resist flow or change of shape.
viscous flow
1. laminar flow or streamline flow. 2. type of gas flow in which the
average free path of gas molecules is much smaller than the smallest
cross-sectional dimension of the pipe conveying the substance.
voltampere (VA)
basic unit of apparent power. The practical unit of apparent power is
kilovolt-ampere (kVA), 1,000 voltamperes.
water column (wc)
tubular column located at the steam and water space of a boiler to
which protective devices, such as gauge cocks, water gauge and
level alarms are attached.
water gauge (Wg)
1. gauge glass with attached fittings that indicates water level within

a vessel. 2. designation that water is the fluid in a manometer.
watt (power) (W)
1. energy flow at the rate of one joule per second. 2. the work done or
energy generated by one ampere induced by an emf of one volt. P =
El = PR.
wet-bulb temperature
temperature indicated by a psychrometer when the bulb of one
thermometer is covered with a water-saturated wick over which air
is caused to flow to reach an equilibrium temperature of water
evaporating into air, when the heat of vaporization is supplied by
the air.
wet-bulb temperature is lower than dry-bulb temperature. This
difference indicates the amount of humidity in the air. If W.B. temp.
= D.B. temp., then you have 100% humidity.
tables of W.B. and D.B. difference are available to show % relative
humidity (% of maximum).

OTHER IN-HOUSE REFERENCE GUIDES:
Adjustable Speed Drives

Energy Monitoring & Control Systems
Lighting
Motors
Power Quality
Power Quality Mitigation
Pumps
COMMENTS:
For any changes, additions and/or comments call or
write to:
Scott Rouse
Project Manager Ontario Power
Generation 700 University
Avenue, H15-A6 Toronto,
Ontario M5G 1X6
Telephone (416) 592-8044
Fax (416) 592-4841
E-Mail srouse@ontariopowergeneration.com

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4th edition, 2001

Making Energy Savings Good Business

3rd Edition, 1999

System Effect Factors .............................................................................65

GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................... 139

1. Operating Point ................................................................................... 6

22. Velocity Vector Diagram for an Axial Fan without

C1. Plane Asymmetric Diffuser at Fan Outlet

1. Fan Laws ............................................................................................ 46

A1. Standard Atmospheric Data for

2 Fans Reference Guide

Device that causes flow of a gaseous fluid by creating a pressure

The fan impeller converts rotational mechanical energy into both

The proportion of static versus kinetic energy created and the

Engineering practice distinguishes fans and blowers for low pressure

4 Fans Reference Guide

FAN OUTPUT POWER

FAN STATIC EFFICIENCY

6 Fans Reference Guide

The two general classifications of fans - centrifugal and axial - are

- Centrifugal fans have high pressure capability for applications

These general classifications are subdivided into groups with

All other fans fall under a special design classification, including

Chapter 3: Fan Types 7

Reprinted with permission from the Air Movement

8 Fans Reference Guide

Chapter 3: Fan Types 9

Figure 4: Typical Characteristics of Airfoil Fans

10 Fans Reference Guide

Best suited to applications that require low-to-medium static

The fan is in the same scroll-type housing as an AF fan.

The blades can be either straight radial or modified radial with a

For a given duty, R fans operate at medium speed.

Chapter 3: Fan Types 11

FC fans are less efficient than AF and BI fans at approximately 70%.

12 Fans Reference Guide

static efficiency (se)

Figure 5: Typical Characteristics of Backward-inclined Fans

Chapter 3: Fan Types 13

static efficiency (se)

Figure 6: Typical Characteristics of Radial Fans

14 Fans Reference Guide

Chapter 3: Fan Types 15

Because primarily kinetic energy is transferred to the air with little

The efficiency of these fans is low.

Low static-pressure, high volume, commercial and industrial

The blades can be AF construction or single thickness.

Tubeaxial fans are more efficient than propeller fans.

16 Fans Reference Guide

Propeller 870 rpm

Figure 8: Typical Characteristics of Propeller Fans

Chapter 3: Fan Types 17

18 Fans Reference Guide

Figure 10: Typical Characteristics of Vaneaxial Fans

Chapter 3: Fan Types 19

Industrial systems where airborne contaminants collect on the

The blades are either fixed, adjustable or controllable (variable

The discharge from the impeller has a rotative component, unless

Because stationary diffusion vanes downstream of the impeller

Vaneaxial fans are the most efficient axial fan.

The housing may include a set of inlet guide vanes and/or

20 Fans Reference Guide

In corrosive environments, the casing may be plastic or coated.

Centrifugal Inline Fans