Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Copyright
c 2011 by Nob Hill Publishing, LLC
This chapter is a review of the equilibrium state of a system that can undergo
chemical reaction
1
Thermodynamic system
T , P , nj
2
Specifying the temperature, pressure, and number of moles of each compo-
nent then completely specifies the equilibrium state of the system.
3
Gibbs Energy
X
dG = SdT + V dP + j dnj
j
4
Condition for Reaction Equilibrium
Consider a closed system. The nj can change only by the single chemical
reaction, X
-*- 3A3 + 4A4
1 A1 + 2 A2 ) j Aj = 0
j
Reaction extent.
dnj = j d
Gibbs energy. X
dG = SdT + V dP + j j d (1)
j
5
Partial derivatives
X
dG = SdT + V dP + j j d
j
G
S= (2)
T P ,
G
V = (3)
P T ,
G
X
j j = (4)
j
T ,P
6
G versus the reaction extent
G X
= j j = 0
j
7
A necessary condition for the Gibbs energy to be a minimum
X
j j = 0 (5)
j
8
Other forms: activity, fugacity
j = Gj + RT ln aj
aj = fj /fj
9
The Standard State
The standard state is: pure component j at 1.0 atm pressure and the system
temperature.
10
Gibbs energy change of reaction
j = Gj + RT ln aj
X X X
j j = j Gj + RT j ln aj (6)
j j j
The term j j Gj is known as the standard Gibbs energy change for the
P
reaction, G.
Y j
G + RT ln aj =0 (7)
j
11
Equilibrium constant
/RT
K = eG (8)
Y j
K= aj (9)
j
12
Ideal gas equilibrium
-*- 2, 2, 3trimethylpentane
isobutane + 1butene )
I + B -*-
) P
13
Solution
Pj
aj = (11)
1 atm
aP
K= (12)
aI aB
14
Solution (cont.)
/RT
K = eG
K = 108
PP yP
K= =
PI PB yI yBP
15
Ideal-gas equilibrium, revisited
nI = nI0
nB = nB0
nP = nP0 + (13)
nT = nT 0
16
in which nT is the total number of moles in the vessel.
17
Moles to mole fractions
The total number of moles decreases with reaction extent because more
moles are consumed than produced by the reaction. Dividing both sides of
Equations 13 by nT produces equations for the mole fractions in terms of the
reaction extent,
Dividing top and bottom of the right-hand side of the previous equations by
nT 0 yields,
yI0 0 yB0 0 yP0 + 0
yI = yB = yP =
1 0 1 0 1 0
in which 0 = /nT 0 is a dimensionless reaction extent that is scaled by the initial
total number of moles.
18
One equation and one unknown
(yP0 + 0)(1 0)
K=
(yB0 0)(yI0 0)P
(yB0 0)(yI0 0)KP (yP0 + 0)(1 0) = 0
Quadratic in 0. Using the initial composition, yP0 = 0, yB0 = yI0 = 1/2 gives
2
0 (1 + KP ) 0(1 + KP ) + (1/4)KP = 0
19
Choosing the solution
The equilibrium mole fractions are then computed from Equation giving
yI = 5.73 102
yB = 5.73 102
yP = 0.885
20
Second derivative of G.
21
Evaluation of G.
X
G= j nj (15)
j
h i
j = Gj + RT ln yj + ln P
X X h i
G= nj Gj + RT nj ln yj + ln P (16)
j j
22
X X
nj Gj = nj0Gj + G (17)
j j
23
Modified Gibbs energy
nj0Gj
P
G j
e , P , 0) =
G(T (18)
nT 0RT
24
Final expression for the modified Gibbs Energy
!
0 0
X
0 yj0 + j 0
e = ln K + (1 + ) ln P + (yj0 + j ) ln
G 0
(20)
j
1 +
The minimum with respect to 0 is at the same value of 0 for the two functions.
25
Minimum in G for an ideal gas
-*- P
I+B ) (21)
P
For this stoichiometry: j j = = 1.
Equimolar starting mixture: yP 0 = 0, yI0 = yB0 = 0.5
e , P , 0) = 0 ln K(T ) + (1 0) ln P +
G(T
0 ln(0) + 2(0.5 0) ln(0.5 0) (1 0) ln(1 0) (22)
26
A picture is worth 1000 words
-1.9
0.5
-1.91
-1.92
0
-1.93
-1.94
G
e -0.5
-1.95
0.45 0.46 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
0
27
A closer look
-1.88
-1.89
-1.9
-1.91
-1.92
-1.93
-1.94
-1.95
0.45 0.46 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.5
28
Effect of pressure
From Equation 20, for an ideal gas, the pressure enters directly in the Gibbs
energy with the ln P term.
29
Effect of temperature
The temperature effect on the Gibbs energy is contained in the ln K(T ) term.
30
Evaluation of the Gibbs Energy Change of Reaction
We usually calculate the standard Gibbs energy change for the reaction, G,
by using the Gibbs energy of formation of the species.
The standard state for the elements are usually the pure elements in their
common form at 25C and 1.0 atm.
1
GH 2 Of
= G H2 O G H2 GO2 (23)
2
This gives the Gibbs energy change for the reaction at 25C
X
Gi =
ij Gjf (24)
j
31
Thermochemical Data Where is it?
Design Institute for Physical Property Data (DIPPR) database. A web-based stu-
dent version of the database provides students with access to data for 100
common compounds at no charge: http://dippr.byu.edu/students/
32
chemsearch.asp. The list of included compounds is available at: http:
//dippr.byu.edu/Student100.txt.
33
Temperature Dependence of the Standard Gibbs Energy
The standard state temperature 25C is often not the system temperature.
Recall from Equation 2 that the change of the Gibbs energy with temperature
is the negative of the entropy,
Gj
!
G
= S, = Sj
T P ,nj T P ,nj
34
Summing with the stoichiometric coefficients gives
X (j Gj) X
= j Sj
j
T j
Defining the term on the right-hand side to be the standard entropy change of
reaction, S gives
G
= S (25)
T
Let H denote the enthalpy and recall its connection to the Gibbs energy,
G = H TS (26)
35
Partial molar properties.
Gj = Hj T Sj
G = H T S (27)
36
G G H
=
T T
37
van t Hoff equation
1 G G H
=
RT T RT 2 RT 2
ln K H
= (28)
T RT 2
38
One further approximation
Z T2 Z T2
ln K H
dT = dT
T1 T T1 RT 2
If H is approximately constant
K2 H 1 1
ln = (29)
K1 R T2 T1
39
Condition for Phase Equilibrium
40
T = T
P = P
j = j , j = 1, 2, . . . , ns (30)
j = j + RT ln fj (31)
If we express Equation 31 for two phases and and equate their chemical
potentials we deduce
fj = fj , j = 1, 2 . . . , ns (32)
One can therefore use either the equality of chemical potentials or fugacities as
the condition for equilibrium.
41
Gaseous Solutions
Let fjG denote the fugacity of pure component j in the gas phase at the
mixtures temperature and pressure.
An ideal gas obeys this mixing rule and the fugacity of pure j at the mixtures
T and P is the systems pressure, fjG = P .
42
Liquid (and Solid) Solutions
The simplest mixing rule for liquid (and solid) mixtures is that the fugacity of
component j in the mixture is the fugacity of pure j at the mixtures temperature
and pressure times the mole fraction of j in the mixture.
43
in which k2 is the Henrys law constant for the second component.
Is k2 = f2L?
44
Fugacity pressure dependence.
The Poynting correction may be neglected if the pressure does not vary by a
large amount.
45
Nonideal Mixtures
fjG = P yj j
The analogous correcting factor for the liquid phase is the activity coefficient,
j .
fjL = fjLxj j
46
Equilibrium Composition for Heterogeneous Reactions
-*- C(l)
A(l) + B(l) ) (37)
47
Phase II: pure liquid B.
Phase III: ideal-gas mixture of A, B and C.
48
Phase and reaction equilibrium
All three phases are in intimate contact and we have the following data:
AAC = 1.4
ACA = 2.0
PA = 0.65 atm
PB = 0.50 atm
PC = 0.50 atm
49
Phase and reaction equilibrium
1. Plot the partial pressures of A and C versus xA for a vapor phase that is in equi-
librium with only the AC liquid phase. Compute the Henrys law constants
for A and C from the Margules equation. Sketch the meaning of Henrys law
on the plot and verify your calculation from the plot.
2. Use Henrys law to calculate the composition of all three phases for K = 4.7.
What is the equilibrium pressure?
50
5. Repeat 4 with an ideal mixture assumption and compare the results.
51
Part 1.
Equate the chemical potential in gas and liquid-phases. Since the gas phase
is assumed an ideal-gas mixture:
The fugacity of pure liquid A at the system temperature and the vapor pres-
sure of A at the system temperature is known; it is simply the vapor pressure,
PA .
If we neglect Poynting
52
The analogous expression is valid for PC .
53
Part 1.
PT
0.8
PA
0.6
P (atm)
PC
0.4
PC
PA
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
xA
54
Part 1.
kA = PA eAAC
55
Part 1.
56
Part 2.
For K = 4.7, one expects a large value of the equilibrium constant to favor the
formation of the product, C. We therefore assume that xA is small and Henrys
law is valid for component A.
the mole fractions sum to one in the gas and AC liquid phases.
57
Part 2.
aC
K=
aAaB
fAL kAxA
aLA = =
fA fA
fA is the fugacity of pure liquid A at the system temperature and 1.0 atm.
Again, this value is unknown, but we do know that PA is the fugacity of pure liquid
A at the system temperature and the vapor pressure of A at this temperature.
The difference between 0.65 and 1.0 atm is not large, so we assume fA = PA .
58
xC is assumed near one, so
fCL fCLxC
aLC = =
fC fC
Now fCL and fC are the fugacities of pure liquid C at the system temperature
and the system pressure and 1.0 atm, respectively.
aLC = xC
fBL fBL
aLB = = =1
fB fB
59
Part 2.
xC
K= (40)
xAkA/PA 1
xA = 0.05, xC = 0.95
60
The assumption of Henrys law for component A is reasonable.
61
Part 2.
The vapor compositions now are computed from the phase equilibrium con-
ditions.
PA = k A xA
PB = PB
PC = PC xC
62
Finally, the vapor-phase concentrations can be computed from the ratios of
partial pressures to total pressure,
63
Part 3.
For K = 0.23 one expects the reactants to be favored so Henrys law is as-
sumed for component C. You are encouraged to work through the preceding
development again for this situation. The answers are
xA = 0.97, xC = 0.03
64
Part 4.
In this case we must solve the reaction equilibrium condition using the Mar-
gules equation for the activity coefficients,
xC C
K=
xAA
65
Part 4.
Pj = Pjxj j , j = A, C
The solution is
xA = 0.35, xC = 0.65
yA = 0.36, yB = 0.37, yC = 0.28
P = 1.37 atm
66
Part 5.
Finally, if one assumes that the AC mixture is ideal, the equilibrium condi-
tion becomes
xC
K=
xA
which can be solved to give xA = 1/(1 + K). For K = 1, the solution is
xA = 0.5, xC = 0.5
The ideal mixture assumption leads to significant error given the strong de-
viations from ideality shown in Figure .
67
Multiple Reactions
68
Multiple Reactions
P
Using dnj = i ij di , gives
X X
dG = SdT + V dP + j ij di
j i
X X
= SdT + V dP + ij j di (43)
i j
G
= 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , nr
i T ,P ,li
69
Multiple Reactions
G(i )
G X
= ij j = 0
1 i j
70
Evaluating the partial derivatives in Equation 43 gives
X
ij j = 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , nr (44)
j
71
Multiple Reactions
X X X
ij j = ij Gj + RT ij ln aj
j j j
Ki = eGi /RT (45)
72
allows one to express the reaction equilibrium condition as
Y ij
Ki = aj , i = 1, 2, . . . , nr (46)
j
73
Equilibrium composition for multiple reactions
-*- 2, 2, 4trimethylpentane
isobutane + 1butene ) (47)
K1 = 108, K2 = 284
74
Trimethyl pentane example
yP1 yP2
K1 = K2 =
yI yB P yI yB P
75
Trimethyl pentane example
Substituting in the mole fractions gives two equations for the two unknown
reaction extents,
76
Numerical solution
1 = 0.133, 2 = 0.351
It is clear that one cannot allow the system to reach equilibrium and still hope
to obtain a high yield of the desired product.
77
Optimization Approach
We start with X
G= j nj (48)
j
j = Gj + RT ln aj
We again use Equation 42 to track the change in mole numbers due to multiple
reactions, X
nj = nj0 + ij i
i
78
Expression for Gibbs energy
79
and 50, we obtain
0 Gi
X X X
G
e= i + yj0 + ij i0 ln aj
i
RT j i
80
Expression for G
e
X X X
G
e= i0 ln Ki + yj0 + ij i0 ln aj (51)
i j i
We minimize this modified Gibbs energy over the physically meaningful val-
ues of the nr extents.
The main restriction on these extents is, again, that they produce nonnega-
tive mole numbers, or, if we wish to use intensive variables, nonnegative mole
fractions. We can express these constraints as
X
yj0 ij i0 0, j = 1, . . . , ns (52)
i
81
Optimization problem
Our final statement, therefore, for finding the equilibrium composition for
multiple reactions is to solve the optimization problem
min G
e (53)
i0
82
Multiple reactions with optimization
P
aj = yj (ideal-gas mixture)
1 atm
Substituting this relation into Equation 51 and rearranging gives
X X
G
e = i0 ln Ki + 1 + ii0 ln P
i i
0
" P #
X X yj0 + i ij i
+ yj0 + ij i0 ln (54)
1 + i ii0
P
j i
83
Constraints
The constraints on the extents are found from Equation 52. For this problem
they are
10 + 20 0.5, 0 10 , 0 20
84
Solution
0.5
-2.557
0.45 -2.55
-2.53
0.4 -2.5
-2
0.35 -1
0.3 0
0
2 0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
1
85
Solution
10 = 0.133, 20 = 0.351, G
e = 2.569
The solution is in good agreement with the extents computed using the al-
gebraic approach, and the Gibbs energy contours depicted in Figure .
86
Summary
The Gibbs energy is the convenient function for solving reaction equilibrium
problems when the temperature and pressure are specified.
87
Summary
X
ij j = 0, i = 1, . . . , nr
j
Y ij
Ki = aj , i = 1, . . . , nr
j
Ki = eGi /RT
88
Summary
You should feel free to use whichever formulation is most convenient for the
problem.
K2 H 1 1
ln =
K1 R T2 T1
89
Summary
The evaluation of chemical potentials of mixtures was discussed, and the fol-
lowing methods and approximations were presented: ideal mixture, Henrys
law, and simple correlations for activity coefficients.
When more than one reaction is considered, which is the usual situation faced
in applications, we require numerical methods to find the equilibrium com-
position.
90
ject to constraints. If optimization software is available, the optimization
approach is more powerful and provides more insight.
91
Notation
aj activity of species j
ajl formula number for element l in species j
Aj j th species in the reaction network
CPj partial molar heat capacity of species j
El lth element constituting the species in the reaction network
fj fugacity of species j
G Gibbs energy
Gj partial molar Gibbs energy of species j
Gi standard Gibbs energy change for reaction i
H enthalpy
Hj partial molar enthalpy of species j
Hi standard enthalpy change for reaction i
i reaction index, i = 1, 2, . . . , nr
92
j species index, j = 1, 2, . . . , ns
k phase index, k = 1, 2, . . . , np
K equilibrium constant
Ki equilibrium constant for reaction i
l element index, l = 1, 2, . . . , ne
nj moles of species j
nr total number of reactions in reaction network
ns total number of species in reaction network
P pressure
Pj partial pressure of species j
R gas constant
S entropy
Sj partial molar entropy of species j
T temperature
V volume
Vj partial molar volume of species j
xj mole fraction of liquid-phase species j
93
yj mole fraction of gas-phase species j
z compressibility factor of the mixture
j activity coefficient of species j in a mixture
reaction extent
i reaction extent for reaction i
j chemical potential of species j
ij stoichiometric number for the j th species in the ith reaction
j stoichiometric number for the j th species in a single reaction
P
j j
P
i j ij
j fugacity coefficient of species j in a mixture
94
References
[4] S. I. Sandler, editor. Models for Thermodynamic and Phase Equilibria Calcu-
lations. Marcel Dekker, New York, 1994.
95
[6] J. W. Tester and M. Modell. Thermodynamics and its Applications. Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, third edition, 1997.
96